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font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, by William Smith</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: William Smith</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 24, 2021 [eBook #65909]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: John Campbell, Delphine Lettau, alternate illustrations from TIA and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES ***</div> - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Footnote anchors are denoted by <span class="fnanchor">[number]</span>, -and the footnotes have been placed at the end of the relevant entry. Footnotes for Tables I-XVI -have been kept at the bottom of each relevant Table.</p> - -<p>Basic fractions are displayed as ½ ⅓ ¼ etc; other fractions are mostly -shown in the form <sup>a</sup>/<sub>b</sub>, for example <sup>4</sup>/<sub>9</sub>. -The book also has some fractions in the form a-b, for example 1-40th or 7-100ths.</p> - -<p>Each entry in the dictionary is a Latin name and uses vowel breves -and macrons to indicate pronunciation. Greek words in the text use -polytonic Greek. Some other less common characters are found in this -book and these will display on this device as:<br /> -<span class="pad2">⛛ (0x26DB inverted Greek Δ)</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">M̄ (M with 0x0304 combining macron)</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">C̄ (C with 0x0304 combining macron)</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">⬤ (0x2B24 black circle)</span><br /> -</p> - -<p>Several of the <a href="#TABLES">Tables</a> at the back of the book are -very dense and wider than can be displayed on some devices. Use of a -small-size font may help.</p> - -<p>The original text was printed in two-column format; the indexes at -the back of the book reference the page and the column, a (left) or -b (right). This etext uses the normal single column format so that the -column reference does not apply; only the page reference is relevant.</p> - -<p class="customcover">The cover image was created by the transcriber -and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -<p>Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#TN">end of the book.</a></p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="cover-orig" style="max-width: 42em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/cover-orig.jpg" title="Original cover" alt="original cover" /> -Original cover. -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> - -<h1> -A<br /> -<span class="fs250">SMALLER DICTIONARY</span><br /> -<span class="fs80">OF</span><br /> -<span class="fs150 antiqua">Greek and Roman Antiquities.</span> -</h1> -</div> - - -<hr class="p4 chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="p2 pfs120">THE STUDENT’S MANUALS:</p> -</div> - -<p class="p1 pfs90"><em>A SERIES OF HISTORICAL CLASS BOOKS FOR -ADVANCED SCHOLARS.</em></p> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S HUME; a History of England from the Invasion of Julius -Cæsar By <span class="smcap">David Hume</span> continued to the Treaty of Berlin, 1878. By <span class="smcap">J S Brewer</span>. With -Coloured Maps and Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p class="center">⁂ Questions on the Student’s Hume. 12mo. <em>2s.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF FRANCE. From the Earliest Times to the -Establishment of the Second Empire 1852. By <span class="smcap">Rev W H Pearson</span>. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. -<em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF GREECE. From the Earliest Times to the -Roman Conquest. By Dr <span class="smcap">Wm. Smith</span>. With Coloured Maps and Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p class="center">⁂ Questions on the Student’s Greece. 12mo. 2<em>s.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF ROME. From the Earliest Times to the -Establishment of the Empire. By <span class="smcap">Dean Liddell</span>. With Coloured Map and Woodcuts. Post -8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S GIBBON. Being an Epitome of the History of the Decline -and Fall of the Roman Empire. By <span class="smcap">Dr Wm. Smith</span>. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF EUROPE DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. -By <span class="smcap">Henry Hallam, LL D</span>. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the -Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of George II. By <em>Henry Hallam LL D</em>. Post 8vo. -<em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST, from the <span class="smcap">Earliest -Times</span> to the <span class="smcap">Conquest</span> of <span class="smcap">Alexander the Great</span> including Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, -Media, Persia, Asia Minor, and Phœnicia. By <span class="smcap">Philip Smith, B A</span>. With Woodcuts Post -8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. By <span class="smcap">Rev -W L Bevan M A</span>. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, <span class="smcap">Mathematical, -Physical and Descriptive</span>. By <span class="smcap">Rev W L Bevan, M A</span>. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By <span class="smcap">George -P Marsh</span>. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. By <span class="smcap">T B Shaw, -M A</span>. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Selected -from the Chief Writers. By <span class="smcap">Thos B Shaw M A</span>. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. From the -Creation of the World to the return of the Jews from Captivity. With an Introduction to the -Books of the Old Testament. By <span class="smcap">Philip Smith B A</span>. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY. With an -Introduction containing the Connection of the Old and New Testaments. By <span class="smcap">Philip -Smith B A</span>. Maps and Woodcuts. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. By <span class="smcap">Philip -Smith B A</span>. Woodcuts. 2 vols. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em> each.</p> - -<div class="pad3"> -<p><span class="smcap">Part I</span>—From the Times of the Apostles to the full Establishment of the Holy Roman -Empire and the Papal Power. <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 30-1380.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Part II</span>—The Middle Ages and the Reformation. <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1381-1593.</p> -</div> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ENGLISH CHURCH HISTORY. By <span class="smcap">Canon -Perry M A</span>. 2 vols. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em> each.</p> - -<div class="pad3"> -<p><span class="smcap">First Period</span>—From the Planting of the Church in Britain to the Accession of Henry -VIII. 596-1509.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Second Period</span>—From the Accession of Henry VIII to the Silencing of Convocation in -the Eighteenth Century. 1509-1717.</p> -</div> - -<p>THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY, with Questions and -References. By <span class="smcap">William Fleming, D D</span>. Post 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> -</div> - - -<hr class="p4 chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p class="p2 pfs90">A</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs180">SMALLER DICTIONARY</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs80">OF</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs135 antiqua">Greek and Roman Antiquities.</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs120"><span class="smcap">By</span> WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.,</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs70">EDITOR OF THE ‘CLASSICAL AND LATIN DICTIONARIES,’ ETC.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowe7_5" id="ill-title"> - <img class="p2 w100" src="images/ill-title.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="p2 pfs70">ABRIDGED FROM THE LARGER DICTIONARY.</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs80"><em>TWELFTH EDITION.</em></p> - -<p class="p2 pfs70">ILLUSTRATED WITH TWO HUNDRED WOODCUTS.</p> - -<p class="p4 pfs90 lsp">LONDON:</p> -<p class="pfs100 lsp">JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.</p> -<p class="pfs100">1884.</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs70"><em>The right of Translation is reserved.</em></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="p2 pfs90">DR. WM. SMITH’S DICTIONARIES.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p>A DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE; <span class="smcap">Its Antiquities, Biography, -Geography, and Natural History</span>. With Illustrations. 3 vols. Medium 8vo. <em>5l. 5s.</em></p> - -<p>A CONCISE BIBLE DICTIONARY. Condensed from the above. -With Maps and 300 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. <em>21s.</em></p> - -<p>A SMALLER BIBLE DICTIONARY. Abridged from the above. -With Maps and 40 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>A DICTIONARY OF CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES. The History, Institutions, -and Antiquities of the Christian Church. With Illustrations. 2 vols. Medium 8vo. -<em>3l. 13s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>A DICTIONARY OF CHRISTIAN BIOGRAPHY, LITERATURE, -SECTS, AND DOCTRINES. Vols I. II. and III. Medium 8vo. <em>31s. 6d.</em> each.</p> - -<p>A DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Including -the Laws, Institutions, Domestic Usages, Painting, Sculpture, Music, the Drama, &c. -With 500 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. <em>28s.</em></p> - -<p>A DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN BIOGRAPHY AND -MYTHOLOGY. Containing a History of the Ancient World, civil, literary, and ecclesiastical. -With 564 Illustrations. 3 vols. Medium 8vo. <em>84s.</em></p> - -<p>A DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN GEOGRAPHY. Including -the political history of both countries and cities, as well as their geography. With 530 -Illustrations. 2 vols. Medium 8vo. <em>56s.</em></p> - -<p>A CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY, BIOGRAPHY, -AND GEOGRAPHY. With 750 Woodcuts. 8vo. <em>18s.</em></p> - -<p>A SMALLER CLASSICAL DICTIONARY. Abridged from the above. -With 200 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. -Abridged from the larger Work. With 200 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>A LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. Based on the Works of <span class="smcap">Forcellini</span> -and <span class="smcap">Freund</span>. With Tables of the Roman Calendar, Measures, Weights, and Monies. -Medium 8vo. <em>21s.</em></p> - -<p>A SMALLER LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY: with Dictionary of -Proper Names and Tables of Roman Calendar, etc. Abridged from the above. Square 12mo. -<em>7s. 6d.</em></p> - -<p>A COPIOUS AND CRITICAL ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY. -Medium 8vo. <em>21s.</em></p> - -<p>A SMALLER ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY. Abridged from the -above. Square 12mo. <em>7s. 6d.</em></p> -</div> - -<p class="p4 pfs70">LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SOWS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET -AND CHARING CROSS.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[Pg 1]</span></p> -</div> - -<p class="p4 pfs70">A</p> - -<p class="p1 pfs150">SMALLER DICTIONARY</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs70">OF</p> - -<p class="pfs135">GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.</p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="A_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">A</span></h2> - -<p id="Abacus" class="p2 drop-capy">ĂBĂCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄβαξ</span>), denoted primarily a square -tablet of any description, and was hence -employed in the following significations:—(1) -A table, or side-board, chiefly used for -the display of gold and silver cups, and other -kinds of valuable and ornamental utensils. -The use of abaci was first introduced at Rome -from Asia Minor after the victories of Cn. -Manlius Vulso, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 187, and their introduction -was regarded as one of the marks -of the growing luxury of the age.—(2) A -draught-board or chess-board.—(3) A board -used by mathematicians for drawing diagrams, -and by arithmeticians for the purposes -of calculation.—(4) A painted panel, -coffer, or square compartment in the wall -or ceiling of a chamber.—(5) In architecture, -the flat square stone which constituted -the highest member of a column, -being placed immediately under the architrave. -</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill001a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill001a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Abacus.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Abolla">ABOLLA, a cloak chiefly worn by soldiers, -and thus opposed to the toga, the -garb of peace. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Toga">Toga</a>.</span>] The abolla was -used by the lower classes at Rome, and consequently -by the philosophers who affected -severity of manners and life. Hence the expression -of Juvenal, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">facinus majoris abollae</i>,—“a -crime committed by a very deep philosopher.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp56" id="ill001b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill001b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Abolla. (Bellori, Arc. Triumph., pl. 11, 12.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Abrogatio">ABRŎGĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Absolutio">ABSŎLŪTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Acaena">ĂCAENA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκαίνη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκαινα</span>, or in later Greek -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκενα</span>, in one place <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκαινον</span>), a measuring rod -of the length of ten Greek feet. It was used -in measuring land, and thus resembles the -Roman decempeda.</p> - - -<p id="Acatium">ĂCATĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκάτιον</span>, a diminutive of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκατος</span>), -a small vessel or boat used by the Greeks, -which appears to have been the same as the -Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scapha</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acatia</i> were also sails -adapted for fast sailing.</p> - - -<p id="Accensus">ACCENSUS. (1) A public officer, who -attended on several of the Roman magistrates. -The Accensi summoned the people to -the assemblies, and those who had law-suits<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span> -to court; they preserved order in the courts, -and proclaimed the time of the day when it -was the third hour, the sixth hour, and the -ninth hour. An accensus anciently preceded -the consul who had not the fasces, which -custom, after being long disused, was restored -by Julius Cæsar in his first consulship. -Accensi also attended on the governors of -provinces.—(2) The accensi were also a class -of soldiers in the Roman army, who were -enlisted after the full number of the legion -had been completed, in order to supply any -vacancies that might occur in the legion. -They were taken, according to the census of -Servius Tullius, from the fifth class of citizens, -and were placed in battle in the rear of the -army, behind the triarii.</p> - - -<p id="Acclamatio">ACCLĀMĀTĬO, was the public expression -of approbation or disapprobation, pleasure or -displeasure, by loud acclamations. On many -occasions, there appear to have been certain -forms of acclamations always used by the Romans; -as, for instance, at marriages, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Io -Hymen</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hymenaee</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Talassio</i>; at triumphs, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Io Triumphe</i>; at the conclusion of plays, the -last actor called out <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Plaudite</i> to the spectators; -orators were usually praised by such expressions -as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bene et praeclare</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Belle et festive</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Non potest melius</i>, &c. Under the empire the -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acclamationes</i> was given to the praises -and flatteries bestowed by the senate upon the -reigning emperor and his family.</p> - - -<p id="Accubatio">ACCŬBĀTĬO, the act of reclining at meals. -The Greeks and Romans were accustomed, in -later times, to recline at their meals; but -this practice could not have been of great antiquity -in Greece, since Homer always describes -persons as sitting at their meals; and -Isidore of Seville, an ancient grammarian, -also attributes the same custom to the ancient -Romans. Even in the time of the early -Roman emperors, children in families of the -highest rank used to sit together, while their -fathers and elders reclined on couches at the -upper part of the room. Roman ladies continued -the practice of sitting at table, even -after the recumbent position had become -common with the other sex. It appears to -have been considered more decent, and more -agreeable to the severity and purity of ancient -manners, for women to sit, more especially if -many persons were present. But, on the -other hand, we find cases of women reclining, -where there was conceived to be nothing bold -or indelicate in their posture. Such is the -case in the preceding woodcut, which seems -intended to represent a scene of matrimonial -felicity. For an account of the disposition of -the couches, and of the place which each -guest occupied in a Greek and Roman entertainment, -see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinium</a></span>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill002a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill002a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Accubatio. Act of Reclining. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp., -Suppl., iii. 60.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Accusator">ACCŪSĀTOR, ACCŪSĀTIO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Acerra">ĂCERRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυμιατήριον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λιβανωτρίς</span>), the incense-box -or censer used in sacrifices. The -acerra was also a small moveable altar placed -before the dead, on which perfumes were -burnt. The use of acerrae at funerals was -forbidden by a law of the Twelve Tables as -an unnecessary expense.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp76" id="ill002b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill002b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Acerra. (From a Frieze in the Museum Capitolinum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Acetabulum">ĂCĒTABŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀξίς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀξύβαφον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀξυβάφιον</span>). -(1) A vinegar-cup, wide and open above, as -we see in the annexed cut. The name was -also given to all cups resembling it in size and -form, to whatever use they might be applied.—(2) -A Roman measure of capacity, fluid -and dry. It was one-fourth of the hemian, -and therefore one-eighth of the sextarius.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="ill002c" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill002c.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Acetabulum. (Dennis, Etruria, p. xcvi.)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span></p> - - -<p id="Achaicum">ĂCHĀĬCUM FOEDUS. The Achaean league -is divided into two periods. 1. <em>The earlier -period.</em>—When the Heracleidae took possession -of Peloponnesus, which had until then -been chiefly inhabited by Achaeans, a portion -of the latter, under Tisamenus, turned northwards -and occupied the north coast of Peloponnesus. -The country thus occupied derived -from them its name of Achaia, and -contained twelve confederate towns, which -were governed by the descendants of Tisamenus, -till at length they abolished the -kingly rule after the death of Ogyges, and -established a democracy. In the time of Herodotus -the twelve towns of which the league -consisted were: Pellene, Aegeira, Aegae, -Bura, Helice, Aegium, Rhypes (Rhypae), Patreis -(ae), Phareis (ae), Olenus, Dyme, and -Tritaeeis (Tritaea). After the time of Herodotus, -Rhypes and Aegae disappeared from -the number, and Ceryneia and Leontium -stepped into their place. The bond which -united the towns of the league was not so -much a political as a religious one, as is -shown by the common sacrifice offered at -Helice to Poseidon, and after the destruction -of that town, at Aegium to Zeus, surnamed -Homagyrius, and to Demeter Panachaea. -The confederation exercised no great influence -in the affairs of Greece down to the time -when it was broken up by the Macedonians. -2. <em>The later period.</em>—When Antigonus in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 281 made the unsuccessful attempt to -deprive Ptolemaeus Ceraunus of the Macedonian -throne, the Achaeans availed themselves -of the opportunity of shaking off the -Macedonian yoke, and renewing their ancient -confederation. The grand object however -now was no longer a common worship, but a -real political union among the confederates. -The fundamental laws were, that henceforth -the confederacy should form one inseparable -state, that each town, which should join it, -should have equal rights with the others, and -that all members, in regard to foreign countries, -should be considered as dependent, and -bound to obey in every respect the federal -government, and those officers who were entrusted -with the executive. Aegium was the -seat of the government, and it was there that -the citizens of the various towns met at regular -and stated times, to deliberate upon the -common affairs of the league, and if it was -thought necessary, upon those of separate -towns, and even of individuals, and to -elect the officers of the league. The league -acquired its great strength in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 251, when -Aratus united Sicyon, his native place, with -it, and some years later gained Corinth also -for it. Megara, Troezene, and Epidaurus -soon followed their example. Afterwards -Aratus persuaded all the more important -towns of Peloponnesus to join the confederacy, -and thus Megalopolis, Argos, Hermione, -Phlius, and others were added to it. In a -short period the league reached the height of -its power, for it embraced Athens, Megara, -Aegina, Salamis, and the whole of Peloponnesus, -with the exception of Sparta, Elis, -Tegea, Orchomenos, and Mantineia. The -common affairs of the confederate towns were -regulated at general meetings attended by the -citizens of all the towns, and held regularly -twice every year, in the spring and in the -autumn. These meetings, which lasted three -days, were held in a grove of Zeus Homagyrius -in the neighbourhood of Aegium, and near -a sanctuary of Demeter Panachaea. Every -citizen, both rich and poor, who had attained -the age of thirty, might attend the assemblies, -to which they were invited by a public herald, -and might speak and propose any measure. -The subjects which were to be brought before -the assembly were prepared by a council -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλή</span>), which seems to have been permanent. -The principal officers of the confederacy were: -1. At first two strategi (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατηγοί</span>), but -after the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 255 there was only one, -who in conjunction with an hipparchus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴππαρχος</span>) -or commander of the cavalry and an -under-strategus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποστρατηγός</span>) commanded -the army furnished by the confederacy, and -was entrusted with the whole conduct of war; -2. A public secretary (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεύς</span>); and, 3. -Ten demiurgi (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημιουργοί</span>). All the officers of -the league were elected in the assembly held -in the spring, at the rising of the Pleiades, -and legally they were invested with their -several offices only for one year, though it -frequently happened that men of great merit -and distinction were re-elected for several -successive years. If one of the officers died -during the period of his office, his place was -filled by his predecessor, until the time for -the new elections arrived. The perpetual -discord of the members of the league, the -hostility of Sparta, the intrigues of the Romans, -and the folly and rashness of the later -strategi, brought about not only the destruction -and dissolution of the confederacy, but -of the freedom of all Greece, which after the -fall of Corinth, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 146, became a Roman -province under the name of Achaia.</p> - - -<p id="Acies">ĂCĬES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Acinaces">ĂCĪNĂCĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκινάκης</span>), a Persian sword, -whence Horace speaks of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Medus acinaces</i>. -The acinaces was a short and straight weapon, -and thus differed from the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sica</i>, -which was curved. It was worn on the right -side of the body, whereas the Greeks and Romans -usually had their swords suspended on -the left side. The form of the acinaces, with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span> -the mode of wearing it, is illustrated by the -following Persepolitan figures.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp67" id="ill004" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill004.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Acinaces, Persian Sword. (From bas-reliefs at Persepolis.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Acisculus">ACISCŬLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ascia">Ascia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aclis">ĀCLIS, a kind of dart with a leathern -thong attached to it. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amentum">Amentum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Acroama">ACROĀMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρόαμα</span>), which properly -means any thing heard, was the name given -to a concert of players on different musical -instruments, and also to an interlude performed -during the exhibition of the public -games. The word is also applied to the -actors and musicians who were employed to -amuse guests during an entertainment, and -is sometimes used to designate the anagnostae. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Anagnostes">Anagnostes</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Acrolithi">ACRŎLĬTHI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρόλιθοι</span>), statues, of which -the extremities only were of marble, and the -remaining part of the body of wood either -gilt or covered with drapery.</p> - - -<p id="Acropolis">ACRŎPŎLIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρόπολις</span>). In almost all -Greek states, which were usually built upon -a hill, rock, or some natural elevation, there -was a castle or a citadel, erected upon the -highest part of the rock or hill, to which the -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acropolis</i>, higher or upper city, was -given. Thus we read of an acropolis at -Athens, Corinth, Argos, Messene, and many -other places. The Capitolium at Rome answered -the same purpose as the Acropolis in -the Greek cities; and of the same kind were -the tower of Agathocles at Utica, and that of -Antonia at Jerusalem.</p> - - -<p id="Acrostolium">ACROSTŎLĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Acroterium">ACRŎTĒRĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρωτήριον</span>), signifies the -extremity of any thing, and was applied by -the Greeks to the extremities of the prow of -a vessel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκροστόλιον</span>), which were usually -taken from a conquered vessel as a mark of -victory: the act of doing so was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρωτηριάζειν</span>. -In architecture it signifies, 1. -The sloping roof of a building. 2. The pediment. -3. The pedestals for statues placed -on the summit of a pediment. In sculpture -it signifies the extremities of a statue, as -wings, feet, hands, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Acta">ACTA. (1) The public acts and orders of -a Roman magistrate, which after the expiration -of his office were submitted to the senate -for approval or rejection. Under the empire, -all the magistrates when entering upon their -office on the 1st of January swore approval -of the acts of the reigning emperor.—(2) -<span class="smcap">Acta Forensia</span> were of two kinds: first, -those relating to the government, as leges, -plebiscita, edicta, the names of all the magistrates, -&c., which formed part of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae -publicae</i>; and secondly, those connected with -the courts of law.—(3) <span class="smcap">Acta Militaria</span>, -contained an account of the duties, numbers, -and expenses of each legion, and were probably -preserved in the military treasury -founded by Augustus.—(4) <span class="smcap">Acta Senatus</span>, -called also <span class="smcap">Commentarii Senatus</span> and <span class="smcap">Acta -Patrum</span>, contained an account of the various -matters brought before the senate, the opinions -of the chief speakers, and the decision -of the house. By command of Julius Caesar -they were published regularly every day as -part of the government gazette. Augustus -forbade the publication of the proceedings of -the senate, but they still continued to be preserved, -and one of the most distinguished -senators was chosen by the emperor to compile -the account.—(5) <span class="smcap">Acta Diurna</span>, a gazette -published daily at Rome by the authority -of the government, during the later times -of the republic and under the empire, corresponding -in some measure to our newspapers. -They were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta Publica</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta Urbana</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta Rerum Urbanarum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta -Populi</i>, and sometimes simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acta</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diurna</i>. -They contained, 1. A list of births and -deaths in the city, an account of the money -paid into the treasury from the provinces, -and every thing relating to the supply of -corn. 2. Extracts from the Acta Forensia. -3. Extracts from the Acta Senatus. 4. A -court circular, containing an account of -the births, deaths, festivals, and movements -of the imperial family. 5. An account of -such public affairs and foreign wars as the -government thought proper to publish. 6. -Curious and interesting occurrences, such as -prodigies and miracles, the erection of new -edifices, the conflagration of buildings, funerals, -sacrifices, a list of the various games, -and especially curious tales and adventures, -with the names of the parties.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span></p> - - -<p id="Actia">ACTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκτια</span>), a festival celebrated every -four years at Actium in Epirus, with wrestling, -horse-racing, and sea-fights, in honour -of Apollo. There was a celebrated temple of -Apollo at Actium. After the defeat of Antony -off Actium, Augustus enlarged the -temple, and instituted games to be celebrated -every five years in commemoration of his -victory.</p> - - -<p id="Actio">ACTĬO, is defined by a Roman jurist to be -the right of pursuing by judicial means what -is a man’s due. The old actions of the Roman -law were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legis actiones</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legitimae</i>, -either because they were expressly -provided for by the laws of the Twelve Tables, -or because they were strictly adapted to -the words of the laws, and therefore could -not be varied. But these forms of action -gradually fell into disuse, in consequence of -the excessive nicety required, and the failure -consequent on the slightest error in the pleadings, -and they were eventually abolished by -the Lex Aebutia, and two Leges Juliae, except -in a few cases. In the old Roman constitution, -the knowledge of the law was most -closely connected with the institutes and -ceremonial of religion, and was accordingly -in the hands of the patricians alone, whose -aid their clients were obliged to ask in all -their legal disputes. App. Claudius Caecus, -perhaps one of the earliest writers on law, -drew up the various forms of actions, probably -for his own use and that of his friends: -the manuscript was stolen or copied by his -scribe Cn. Flavius, who made it public; and -thus, according to the story, the plebeians -became acquainted with those legal forms -which hitherto had been the exclusive property -of the patricians. After the abolition -of the old legal actions, a suit was prosecuted -in the following manner:—An action was -commenced by the plaintiff summoning the -defendant to appear before the praetor or -other magistrate who had <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurisdictio</i>; this -process was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jus vocatio</i>; and, according -to the laws of the Twelve Tables, was -in effect a dragging of the defendant before -the praetor, if he refused to go quietly; and -although this rude proceeding was somewhat -modified in later times, we find in the time -of Horace that if the defendant would not go -quietly, the plaintiff called on any bystander -to witness, and dragged the defendant into -court. The parties might settle their dispute -on their way to the court, or the defendant -might be bailed by a vindex. The vindex -must not be confounded with the vades. This -settlement of disputes on the way was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">transactio in via</i>, and serves to explain a -passage in St. Matthew, v. 25. When before -the praetor, the parties were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jure agere</i>. -The plaintiff then prayed for an action, and -if the praetor allowed it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dabat actionem</i>), he -then declared what action he intended to -bring against the defendant, which he called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edere actionem</i>. This might be done in writing, -or orally, or by the plaintiff taking the -defendant to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">album</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Album">Album</a></span>], and showing -him which action he intended to rely on. -As the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">formulae</i> on the album comprehended, -or were supposed to comprehend, every possible -form of action that could be required by -a plaintiff, it was presumed that he could -find among all the formulae some one which -was adapted to his case; and he was, accordingly, -supposed to be without excuse if -he did not take pains to select the proper -formula. If he took the wrong one, or if -he claimed more than his due, he lost his -cause (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">causa cadebat</i>); but the praetor sometimes -gave him leave to amend his claim or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intentio</i>. It will be observed, that as the -formulae were so numerous and comprehensive, -the plaintiff had only to select the formula -which he supposed to be suitable to -his case, and it would require no further -variation than the insertion of the names of -the parties and of the thing claimed, or the -subject-matter of the suit, with the amount -of damages, &c., as the case might be. When -the praetor had granted an action, the plaintiff -required the defendant to give security -for his appearance before the praetor (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in -jure</i>) on a day named, commonly the day but -one after the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jus vocatio</i>, unless the matter -in dispute was settled at once. The defendant, -on finding a surety, was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vades dare</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vadimonium promittere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">facere</i>; the surety, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vas</i>, was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spondere</i>; the plaintiff, when -satisfied with the surety, was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vadari -reum</i>, to let him go on his sureties, or to -have sureties from him. When the defendant -promised to appear <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure</i> on the day -named, without giving any surety, this was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vadimonium purum</i>. In some cases, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">recuperatores</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>] were named, who, in -case of the defendant making default, condemned -him in the sum of money named in -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vadimonium</i>. If the defendant appeared -on the day appointed, he was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vadimonium -sistere</i>; if he did not appear, he was -said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vadimonium deseruisse</i>; and the praetor -gave to the plaintiff the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bonorum possessio</i>. -Both parties, on the day appointed, were -summoned by a crier (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeco</i>), when the -plaintiff made his claim or demand, which -was very briefly expressed, and may be considered -as corresponding to our declaration -at law. The defendant might either deny -the plaintiff’s claim, or he might reply to it -by a plea, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exceptio</i>. If he simply denied the -plaintiff’s claim, the cause was at issue, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span> -a judex might be demanded. The forms of -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exceptio</i>, also, were contained in the praetor’s -edict, or, upon hearing the facts, the -praetor adapted the plea to the case. The -plaintiff might reply to the defendant’s <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exceptio</i>. -The plaintiff’s answer was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">replicatio</i>. If the defendant answered the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">replicatio</i>, his answer was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duplicatio</i>; -and the parties might go on to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triplicatio</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadruplicatio</i>, and even further, if the -matters in question were such that they -could not otherwise be brought to an issue. -A person might maintain or defend an action -by his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognitor</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procurator</i>, or, as we should -say, by his attorney. The plaintiff and defendant -used a certain form of words in appointing -a cognitor, and it would appear that -the appointment was made in the presence of -both parties. The cognitor needed not to be -present, and his appointment was complete -when by his acts he had signified his assent. -When the cause was brought to an issue, a -judex or judices might be demanded of the -praetor, who named or appointed a judex, -and delivered to him the formula, which contained -his instructions. The judices were -said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dari</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">addici</i>. So far the proceedings -were said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure</i>: the prosecution of -the actio before the judex requires a separate -discussion. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Actor">ACTOR, signified generally a plaintiff. In -a civil or private action, the plaintiff was -often called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">petitor</i>; in a public action (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">causa -publica</i>), he was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accusator</i>. The defendant -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reus</i>, both in private and -public causes: this term, however, according -to Cicero, might signify either party, as indeed -we might conclude from the word itself. -In a private action the defendant was often -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adversarius</i>, but either party might be -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adversarius</i> with respect to the other. -Wards brought their actions by their guardian -or tutor. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Peregrini</i>, or aliens, originally -brought their action through their patronus; -but afterwards in their own name, by a fiction -of law, that they were Roman citizens. -A Roman citizen might also generally bring -his action by means of a cognitor or procurator. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a>.</span>] Actor has also the sense of -an agent or manager of another’s business -generally. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actor publicus</i> was an officer -who had the superintendence or care of -slaves and property belonging to the state.</p> - - -<p id="Actuariae">ACTŬĀRĬAE NĀVES, transport-vessels, -seem to have been built in a lighter style -than the ordinary ships of burden, from which -they also differed in being always furnished -with oars, whereas the others were chiefly -propelled by sails.</p> - - -<p id="Actuarii">ACTŬĀRĬI, short-hand writers, who took -down the speeches in the senate and the public -assemblies. In the debate in the Roman -senate upon the punishment of those who had -been concerned in the conspiracy of Catiline, -we find the first mention of short-hand -writers, who were employed by Cicero to -take down the speech of Cato.</p> - - -<p id="Actus">ACTUS, a Roman measure of length, also -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actus quadratus</i>, was equal to half a -jugerum, or 14,400 square Roman feet. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actus minimus</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">simplex</i>, was 120 feet long, -and four broad, and therefore equal to 480 -square Roman feet. Actus was also used to -signify a bridle-way.</p> - - -<p id="Acus">ĂCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βελόνη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βελονίς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαφίς</span>), a needle, a -pin. Pins were made not only of metal, but -also of wood, bone, and ivory. They were -used for the same purposes as with us, and -also in dressing the hair. The mode of platting -the hair, and then fastening it with a -pin or needle, is shown in the annexed figure -of a female head. This fashion has been -continued to our own times by the females of -Italy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp62" id="ill006" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill006.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Acus. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp., Suppl., iii. 8.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Addicti">ADDICTI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nexum">Nexi</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Adfines">ADFĪNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Affines">Affines</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Adlecti">ADLECTI, or ALLECTI, those persons -under the empire who were admitted to the -privileges and honours of the praetorship, -quaestorship, aedileship, and other public -offices, without having any duties to perform. -The senators called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adlecti</i> seem to have been -the same as the conscripti.</p> - - -<p id="Adlocutio">ADLŎCŪTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Allocutio">Allocutio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Admissionales">ADMISSĬŌNĀLES, chamberlains at the imperial -court, who introduced persons into the -presence of the emperor. They were divided -into four classes; the chief officer of each -class was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proximus admissionum</i>; and -the proximi were under the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister admissionum</i>. -Their duty was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">officium admissionis</i>. -They were usually freedmen.</p> - - -<p id="Adolescens">ĂDŎLESCENS, was applied in the Roman -law to a person from the end of his twelfth -or fourteenth to the end of his twenty-fifth -year, during which period a person was also -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adultus</i>. The word adolescens, however, -is frequently used in a less strict sense<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span> -in the Latin writers in referring to a person -much older than the above-mentioned age.</p> - - -<p id="Adonia">ĂDŌNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀδώνια</span>), a festival celebrated in -honour of Aphrodite and Adonis in most of -the Grecian cities. It lasted two days, and -was celebrated by women exclusively. On -the first day they brought into the streets -statues of Adonis, which were laid out as -corpses; and they observed all the rites customary -at funerals, beating themselves and -uttering lamentations. The second day was -spent in merriment and feasting; because -Adonis was allowed to return to life, and -spend half the year with Aphrodite.</p> - - -<p id="Adoptio">ĂDOPTĬO, adoption. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>—Adoption -was called by the Athenians <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσποίησις</span>, -or sometimes simply <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποίησις</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θέσις</span>. The -adoptive father was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποιεῖσθαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσποιεῖσθαι</span>, -or sometimes <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποιεῖν</span>: and the father or -mother (for a mother after the death of her -husband could consent to her son being -adopted) was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκποιεῖν</span>: the son was said -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκποιεῖσθαι</span> with reference to the family which -he left; and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσποιεῖσθαι</span> with reference to -the family into which he was received. The -son, when adopted, was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποιητός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσποιητός</span>, -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θετός</span>, in opposition to the legitimate -son born of the body of the father, who was -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γνήσιος</span>. A man might adopt a son -either in his lifetime or by his testament, -provided he had no male offspring, and was -of sound mind. He might also, by testament, -name a person to take his property, in -case his son or sons should die under age. -Only Athenian citizens could be adopted; -but females could be adopted (by testament -at least) as well as males. The adopted child -was transferred from his own family and -demus into those of the adoptive father; he -inherited his property, and maintained the -sacra of his adoptive father. It was not necessary -for him to take his new father’s name, -but he was registered as his son in the register -of his phratria (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φρατρικὸν γραμματεῖον</span>). -Subsequently to this, it was necessary to enter -him in the register of the adoptive father’s -demus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον</span>), without -which registration it appears that he did not -possess the full rights of citizenship as a -member of his new demus.—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>—The -Roman relation of parent and child arose -either from a lawful marriage or from adoption. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Adoptio</i> was the general name which -comprehended the two species, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adoptio</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adrogatio</i>; and as the adopted person passed -from his own familia into that of the person -adopting, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adoptio</i> caused a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capitis diminutio</i>, -and the lowest of the three kinds. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>] -Adoption, in its specific sense, was the ceremony -by which a person who was in the -power of his parent (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in potestate parentum</i>), -whether child or grandchild, male or female, -was transferred to the power of the person -adopting him. It was effected under the -authority of a magistrate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magistratus</i>), the -praetor, for instance, at Rome, or a governor -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeses</i>) in the provinces. The person to -be adopted was emancipated [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mancipatio">Mancipatio</a></span>] -by his natural father before the competent -authority, and surrendered to the adoptive -father by the legal form called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure cessio</i>. -When a person was not in the power of his -parent (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sui juris</i>), the ceremony of adoption -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adrogatio</i>. Originally, it could -only be effected at Rome, and only by a vote -of the populus (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">populi auctoritate</i>) in the -comitia curiata (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lege curiata</i>); the reason of -this being that the caput or status of a Roman -citizen could not, according to the laws -of the Twelve Tables, be effected except by a -vote of the populus in the comitia curiata. -Clodius, the enemy of Cicero, was adrogated -into a plebeian family, in order to qualify -himself to be elected a tribune of the plebs. -Females could not be adopted by adrogatio. -Under the emperors it became the practice to -effect the adrogatio by an imperial rescript. -The effect of adoption was to create the legal -relation of father and son, just as if the -adopted son were born of the blood of the -adoptive father in lawful marriage. The -adopted child was intitled to the name and -sacra privata of the adopting parent. A person, -on passing from one gens into another, -and taking the name of his new familia, generally -retained the name of his old gens also, -with the addition to it of the termination -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anus</i>. Thus Aemilius, the son of L. Aemilius -Paullus, upon being adopted by P. Cornelius -Scipio, assumed the name of P. Cornelius -Scipio Aemilianus, and C. Octavius, afterwards -the emperor Augustus, upon being -adopted by the testament of his great-uncle -the dictator, assumed the name of C. Julius -Caesar Octavianus.</p> - - -<p id="Adoratio">ĂDŌRĀTĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσκύνησις</span>), adoration, was -paid to the gods in the following manner:—The -individual stretched out his right hand -to the statue of the god whom he wished to -honour, then kissed his hand, and waved it -to the statue. The adoratio differed from the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oratio</i> or prayers, which were offered with -the hands folded together and stretched out to -the gods. The adoration paid to the Roman -emperors was borrowed from the Eastern mode, -and consisted in prostration on the ground, -and kissing the feet and knees of the emperor.</p> - - -<p id="Adrogatio">ADRŎGĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio</a></span>, (<span class="smcap">Roman</span>).]</p> - - -<p id="Adulterium">ĂDULTĔRĬUM, adultery. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>—Among -the Athenians, if a man caught another -man in the act of criminal intercourse -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μοιχεία</span>) with his wife, he might kill him<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span> -with impunity; and the law was also the -same with respect to a concubine (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλλακή</span>). -He might also inflict other punishment on -the offender. It appears that there was no -adultery, unless a married woman was concerned. -The husband might, if he pleased, -take a sum of money from the adulterer, by -way of compensation, and detain him till he -found sureties for the payment. The husband -might also prosecute the adulterer in the action -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μοιχείας γραφή</span>. If the act of adultery -was proved, the husband could no longer -cohabit with his wife, under pain of losing -his privileges of a citizen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>). The adulteress -was excluded even from those temples -which foreign women and slaves were allowed -to enter; and if she was seen there, any one -might treat her as he pleased, provided he did -not kill her or mutilate her.—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>—The -word adulterium properly signifies, in -the Roman law, the offence committed by a -man’s having sexual intercourse with another -man’s wife. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Stuprum</i> (called by the Greeks -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φθορά</span>) signifies the like offence with a widow -or virgin. In the time of Augustus a law was -enacted (probably about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 17), entitled -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis</i>, which -seems to have contained special penal provisions -against adultery; and it is also not improbable -that, by the old law or custom, if -the adulterer was caught in the fact, he was -at the mercy of the injured husband, and that -the husband might punish with death his -adulterous wife. By the Julian law, a woman -convicted of adultery was mulcted in half of -her dowry (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dos</i>) and the third part of her -property (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bona</i>), and banished (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegata</i>) to -some miserable island, such as Seriphos, for -instance. The adulterer was mulcted in half -his property, and banished in like manner. -This law did not inflict the punishment of -death on either party; and in those instances -under the emperors in which death was inflicted, -it must be considered as an extraordinary -punishment, and beyond the provisions -of the Julian law. The Julian law permitted -the father (both adoptive and natural) to kill -the adulterer and adulteress in certain cases, -as to which there were several nice distinctions -established by the law. If the wife was divorced -for adultery, the husband was entitled -to retain part of the dowry. By a constitution -of the Emperor Constantine, the offence -in the adulterer was made capital.</p> - - -<p id="Adversaria">ADVERSĀRĬA, a note-book, memorandum-book, -posting-book, in which the Romans entered -memoranda of any importance, especially -of money received and expended, which -were afterwards transcribed, usually every -month, into a kind of ledger. (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tabulae justae, -codex accepti et expensi.</i>)</p> - - -<p id="Adversarius">ADVERSĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actor">Actor</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Adunati">ĂDŬNĂTI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀδύνατοι</span>), were persons supported -by the Athenian state, who, on account -of infirmity or bodily defects, were unable to -obtain a livelihood. The sum which they -received from the state appears to have varied -at different times. In the time of Lysias and -Aristotle, one obolus a day was given; but it -appears to have been afterwards increased -to two oboli. The bounty was restricted to -persons whose property was under three -minae; and the examination of those who -were entitled to it belonged to the senate of -the Five Hundred. Peisistratus is said to -have been the first to introduce a law for the -maintenance of those persons who had been -mutilated in war.</p> - - -<p id="Advocatus">ADVOCATUS, seems originally to have -signified any person who gave another his -aid in any affair or business, as a witness for -instance; or for the purpose of aiding and -protecting him in taking possession of a piece -of property. It was also used to express a -person who in any way gave his advice and -aid to another in the management of a cause; -but, in the time of Cicero, the word did not -signify the orator or patronus who made the -speech. Under the emperors it signified a -person who in any way assisted in the conduct -of a cause, and was sometimes equivalent -to orator. The advocate’s fee was then -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Honorarium</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Adytum">ĂDỸTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aedes">AEDES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>; Templum.</span>]</p> - -<p id="Aediles">AEDĪLES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγορανόμοι</span>). The name of -these functionaries is said to be derived from -their having the care of the temple (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aedes</i>) of -Ceres. The aediles were originally two in -number: they were elected from the plebs, -and the institution of the office dates from -the same time as that of the tribunes of the -plebs, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 494. Their duties at first seem -to have been merely ministerial; they were -the assistants of the tribunes in such matters -as the tribunes entrusted to them, among -which are enumerated the hearing of causes -of smaller importance. At an early period -after their institution (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 446), we find -them appointed the keepers of the senatus-consulta, -which the consuls had hitherto -arbitrarily suppressed or altered. They were -also the keepers of the plebiscita. Other -functions were gradually entrusted to them, -and it is not always easy to distinguish their -duties from some of those which belong to -the censors. They had the general superintendence -of buildings, both sacred and private; -under this power they provided for -the support and repair of temples, curiae, -&c., and took care that private buildings -which were in a ruinous state were repaired<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span> -by the owners or pulled down. The care of -the supply and distribution of water, of the -streets and pavements, with the cleansing -and draining of the city, belonged to the -aediles; and, of course, the care of the cloacae. -They had the office of distributing -corn among the plebs, but this distribution -of corn at Rome must not be confounded with -the duty of purchasing or procuring it from -foreign parts, which was performed by the -consuls, quaestors, and praetors, and sometimes -by an extraordinary magistrate, as the -praefectus annonae. The aediles had to see -that the public lands were not improperly -used, and that the pasture grounds of the -state were not trespassed on; and they had -power to punish by fine any unlawful act in -this respect. They had a general superintendence -over buying and selling, and, as a -consequence, the supervision of the markets, -of things exposed to sale, such as slaves, and -of weights and measures; from this part of -their duty is derived the name under which -the aediles are mentioned by the Greek writers -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγορανόμοι</span>). It was their business to -see that no new deities or religious rites were -introduced into the city, to look after the -observance of religious ceremonies, and the -celebrations of the ancient feasts and festivals. -The general superintendence of police comprehended -the duty of preserving order, -regard to decency, and the inspection of the -baths and houses of entertainment. The -aediles had various officers under them, as -praecones, scribae, and viatores. The <span class="smcap">Aediles -Curules</span>, who were also two in number, were -originally chosen only from the patricians, -afterwards alternately from the patricians and -the plebs, and at last indifferently from both. -The office of curule aediles was instituted -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 365, and, according to Livy, on the -occasion of the plebeian aediles refusing to -consent to celebrate the Ludi Maximi for the -space of four days instead of three; upon -which a senatus-consultum was passed, by -which two aediles were to be chosen from the -patricians. From this time four aediles, two -plebeian and two curule, were annually elected. -The distinctive honours of the curule aediles -were, the sella curulis, from whence their -title is derived, the toga praetexta, precedence -in speaking in the senate, and the jus imaginum. -Only the curule aediles had the jus -edicendi, or the right of promulgating edicta; -but the rules comprised in their edicta served -for the guidance of all the aediles. The -edicta of the curule aediles were founded on -their authority as superintendents of the markets, -and of buying and selling in general. -Accordingly, their edicts had mainly, or perhaps -solely, reference to the rules as to buying -and selling, and contracts for bargain and -sale. The persons both of the plebeian and -curule aediles were sacrosancti. It seems -that after the appointment of the curule -aediles, the functions formerly exercised by -the plebeian aediles were exercised, with some -few exceptions, by all the aediles indifferently. -Within five days after being elected, or entering -on office, they were required to determine -by lot, or by agreement among themselves, -what parts of the city each should -take under his superintendence; and each -aedile alone had the care of looking after the -paving and cleansing of the streets, and other -matters, it may be presumed, of the same -local character within his district. The other -duties of the office seem to have been exercised -by them jointly. In the superintendence of -the public festivals or solemnities, there was -a further distinction between the two sets of -aediles. Many of these festivals, such as -those of Flora and Ceres, were superintended -by either set of aediles indifferently; but the -plebeian games were under the superintendence -of the plebeian aediles, who had an allowance -of money for that purpose; and the fines -levied on the pecuarii, and others, seem to -have been appropriated to these among other -public purposes. The celebration of the -Ludi Magni or Romani, of the Ludi Scenici, -or dramatic representations, and the Ludi -Megalesii, belonged specially to the curule -aediles, and it was on such occasions that -they often incurred a prodigious expense, -with a view of pleasing the people, and -securing their votes in future elections. This -extravagant expenditure of the aediles arose -after the close of the second Punic war, and -increased with the opportunities which individuals -had of enriching themselves after the -Roman arms were carried into Greece, Africa, -and Spain. Even the prodigality of the emperors -hardly surpassed that of individual -curule aediles under the republic; such as C. -Julius Caesar, the dictator, P. Cornelius Lentulus -Spinther, and, above all, M. Aemilius -Scaurus, whose expenditure was not limited -to bare show, but comprehended objects of -public utility, as the reparation of walls, -dock-yards, ports, and aquaeducts. In B.C. -45, Julius Caesar caused two curule aediles -and four plebeian aediles to be elected; and -thenceforward, at least so long as the office of -aedile was of any importance, six aediles were -annually elected. The two new plebeian -aediles were called Cereales, and their duty -was to look after the supply of corn. Though -their office may not have been of any great -importance after the institution of a praefectus -annonae by Augustus, there is no doubt that -it existed for several centuries, and at least as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span> -late as the time of the emperor Gordian. The -aediles belonged to the class of the minores -magistratus. The plebeian aediles were originally -chosen at the comitia centuriata, but -afterwards at the comitia tributa, in which -comitia the curule aediles also were chosen. -It appears that until the lex annalis was -passed (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 180) a Roman citizen might be -a candidate for any office after completing his -twenty-seventh year. This law fixed the age -at which each office might be enjoyed, and it -seems that the age fixed for the aedileship -was thirty-six. The aediles existed under -the emperors; but their powers were gradually -diminished, and their functions exercised -by new officers created by the emperors. -After the battle of Actium, Augustus appointed -a Praefectus urbi, who exercised the general -police, which had formerly been one of the -duties of the aediles. Augustus also took -from the aediles, or exercised himself, the -office of superintending the religious rites, -and the banishing from the city of all foreign -ceremonials; he also assumed the superintendence -of the temples, and thus may be -said to have destroyed the aedileship by depriving -it of its old and original function. -The last recorded instance of the splendours -of the aedileship is the administration of -Agrippa, who volunteered to take the office, -and repaired all the public buildings and all -the roads at his own expense, without drawing -anything from the treasury. The aedileship -had, however, lost its true character -before this time. Agrippa had already been -consul before he accepted the office of aedile, -and his munificent expenditure in this nominal -office was the close of the splendour of -the aedileship. Augustus appointed the -curule aediles specially to the office of putting -out fires, and placed a body of 600 slaves at -their command; but the praefecti vigilum -afterwards performed this duty. They retained, -under the early emperors, a kind of -police, for the purpose of repressing open -licentiousness and disorder. The coloniae, -and the municipia of the later period, had -also their aediles, whose numbers and functions -varied in different places. They seem, -however, as to their powers and duties, to -have resembled the aediles of Rome. They -were chosen annually.</p> - - -<p id="Aeditui">AEDĬTŬI, AEDĬTŬMI, AEDĬTĬMI (called -by the Greeks <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεωκόροι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζάκοροι</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποζάκοροι</span>), -were persons who took care of the temples, -attended to the cleaning of them, &c. They -appear to have lived in the temples, or near -them, and to have acted as ciceroni to those -persons who wished to see them. Subsequently -among the Greeks, the menial services -connected with this office were left to -slaves, and the persons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">neocori</i> became -priestly officers of high rank, who had the -chief superintendence of temples, their treasures, -and the sacred rites observed in them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="ill010" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill010.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Aegis worn by Athena.<br /> -From Torso at Dresden. From Ancient Statues.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Aegis">AEGIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰγίς</span>) signifies, literally, a goat-skin. -According to ancient mythology, the -aegis worn by Zeus was the hide of the goat -Amaltheia, which had suckled him in his -infancy. Homer always represents it as part -of the armour of Zeus, whom on this account -he distinguishes by the epithet <em>aegis-bearing</em> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰγίοχος</span>). He, however, asserts, that it was -borrowed on different occasions both by -Apollo and Athena. The aegis was connected -with the shield of Zeus, either serving as a -covering over it, or as a belt by which it was -suspended from the right shoulder. Homer -accordingly uses the word to denote not only -the goat-skin, which it properly signified, but -also the shield to which it belonged. The -aegis was adorned in a style corresponding to -the might and majesty of the father of the -gods. In the middle of it was fixed the -appalling Gorgon’s head, and its border was -surrounded with golden tassels (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύσανοι</span>), each -of which was worth a hecatomb. The aegis -is usually seen on the statues of Athena, in -which it is a sort of scarf falling obliquely -over the right shoulder, so as to pass round -the body under the left arm. The serpents -of the Gorgon’s head are transferred to the -border of the skin. (See the left-hand figure<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span> -in the cut.) The later poets and artists -represent the aegis as a breast-plate covered -with metal in the form of scales. (See the -right-hand figure.)</p> - - -<p id="Aeneatores">AENĔĀTŌRES, were those who blew upon -wind instruments in the Roman army; namely, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buccinatores</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornicines</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tubicines</i>. -They were also employed in the public games.</p> - - -<p id="Aenigma">AENIGMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἴνιγμα</span>), a riddle. It was an -ancient custom among the Greeks to amuse -themselves by proposing riddles at their symposia, -or drinking parties. Those who were -successful in solving them, received a prize, -which usually consisted of wreaths, cakes, -&c., while those who were unsuccessful were -condemned to drink in one breath a certain -quantity of wine, sometimes mixed with salt -water. Those riddles which have come down -to us are mostly in hexameter verse. The Romans -seem to have been too serious to find any -great amusement in riddles.</p> - - -<p id="Aenum">AENUM, or ĂHĒNUM (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vas</i>), a brazen -vessel, used for boiling. The word is also -frequently used in the sense of a dyer’s copper; -and, as purple was the most celebrated -dye of antiquity, we find the expressions -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sidonium aënum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tyrium aënum</i>, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Aeora">AEŌRA, or ĔŌRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰώρα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐώρα</span>), a festival -at Athens, accompanied with sacrifices and -banquets, whence it is sometimes called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὔδειπνος</span>. It was probably instituted in -honour of Icarius and his daughter Erigone.</p> - - -<p id="Aera">AERA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chronologia">Chronologia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aerarii">AERĀRĬI, a class of Roman citizens, who -were not included in the thirty tribes instituted -by Servius Tullius. Although citizens, -they did not possess the suffragium, or right -of voting in the comitia. They were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cives -sine suffragio</i>. They also paid the tribute in -a different manner from the other citizens. -The Aerarians were chiefly artisans and freedmen. -The Caerites, or inhabitants of the -Etruscan town of Caere, who obtained the -franchise in early times, but without the -suffragium, were probably the first body of -aerarians. Any Roman citizen guilty of a -crime punishable by the censors, might be -degraded to the rank of an aerarian; so that -his civic rights were suspended, at least for -the time that he was an aerarian. All citizens -so degraded were classed among the -Caerites; whence we find the expressions -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aerarium facere</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in tabulas Caeritum referre</i> -used as synonymous. Persons who were -made <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">infames</i> likewise became aerarians, for -they lost the jus honorum and the suffragium. -The aerarians had to pay a tributum pro -capite which was considerably higher than -that paid by the other citizens. They were -not allowed to serve in the legions.</p> - - -<p id="Aerarii_t">AERĀRĬI TRĬBŪNI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_e">Aes Equestre</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aerarium">AERĀRĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ δημόσιον</span>), the public treasury -at Rome, and hence the public money -itself. After the banishment of the kings the -temple of Saturn was employed as the place -for keeping the public money, and it continued -to be so used till the later times of the -empire. Besides the public money and the -accounts connected with it, various other -things were preserved in the treasury; of -these the most important were:—1. The -standards of the legions. 2. The various -laws passed from time to time, engraven on -brazen tables. 3. The decrees of the senate, -which were entered there in books kept -for the purpose, though the original documents -were preserved in the temple of Ceres -under the custody of the aediles. 4. Various -other public documents, the reports and -despatches of all generals and governors of -provinces, the names of all foreign ambassadors -that came to Rome, &c. Under the -republic the aerarium was divided into two -parts: the <em>common</em> treasury, in which were -deposited the regular taxes, and from which -were taken the sums of money needed for the -ordinary expenditure of the state; and the -<em>sacred</em> treasury (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aerarium sanctum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sanctius</i>), -which was never touched except in -cases of extreme peril. Both of these treasuries -were in the temple of Saturn, but in -distinct parts of the temple. The produce of -a tax of five per cent. (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vicesima</i>) upon the -value of every manumitted slave, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aurum vicesimarium</i>, was paid into the sacred -treasury, as well as a portion of the immense -wealth obtained by the Romans in their conquests -in the East. Under Augustus the -provinces and the administration of the -government were divided between the senate, -as the representative of the old Roman people, -and the Caesar: all the property of the former -continued to be called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aerarium</i>, and that of -the latter received the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fiscus</i>. Augustus -also established a third treasury, to -provide for the pay and support of the army, -and this received the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aerarium militare</i>. -He also imposed several new taxes to be paid -into this aerarium. In the time of the republic, -the entire management of the revenues of the -state belonged to the senate; and under the -superintendence and control of the senate the -quaestors had the charge of the aerarium. In -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 28, Augustus deprived the quaestors of -the charge of the treasury and gave it to two -praefects, whom he allowed the senate to -choose from among the praetors at the end of -their year of office. Various other changes -were made with respect to the charge of the -aerarium, but it was eventually entrusted, in -the reign of Trajan, to praefects, who appear -to have held their office for two years.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span></p> - - -<p id="Aes">AES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκός</span>), properly signifies a compound -of copper and tin, corresponding to what we -call <em>bronze</em>. It is incorrect to translate it -<em>brass</em>, which is a combination of copper and -zinc, since all the specimens of ancient objects, -formed of the material called aes, are found -upon analysis to contain no zinc. The employment -of aes was very general among the -ancients; money, vases, and utensils of all -sorts, being made of it. All the most ancient -coins in Rome and the old Italian states were -made of aes, and hence money in general was -called by this name. For the same reason -we have <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes alienum</i>, meaning debt, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aera</i> -in the plural, pay to the soldiers. The Romans -had no other coinage except bronze -or copper (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i>), till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 269, five years -before the first Punic war, when silver was -first coined; gold was not coined till sixty-two -years after silver. The first coinage of -aes is usually attributed to Servius Tullius, -who is said to have stamped the money with -the image of cattle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecus</i>), whence it is called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecunia</i>. According to some accounts, it was -coined from the commencement of the city, -and we know that the old Italian states possessed -a bronze or copper coinage from the -earliest times. The first coinage was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i> -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a></span>], which originally was a pound weight; -but as in course of time the weight of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i> -was reduced not only in Rome, but in the -other Italian states, and this reduction in -weight was not uniform in the different -states, it became usual in all bargains to pay -the asses according to their weight, and not -according to their nominal value. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes -grave</i> was not the old heavy coins as distinguished -from the lighter modern; but it signified -any number of copper coins reckoned -according to the old style, by weight. There -was, therefore, no occasion for the state to -suppress the circulation of the old copper -coins, since in all bargains the asses were not -reckoned by tale, but by weight.—Bronze or -copper (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκός</span>) was very little used by the -Greeks for money in early times. Silver was -originally the universal currency, and copper -appears to have been seldom coined till after -the time of Alexander the Great. The copper -coin was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chalcous</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκούς</span>). The -smallest silver coin at Athens was the quarter-obol, -and the chalcous was the half of that, -or the eighth of an obol. In later times, the -obol was coined of copper as well as silver.</p> - - -<p id="Aes_c">AES CIRCUMFORĀNĔUM, money borrowed -from the Roman bankers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">argentarii</i>), -who had shops in porticoes round the forum.</p> - - -<p id="Aes_e">AES ĔQUESTRE, AES HORDĔĀRĬUM, -and AES MĪLĬTĀRE, were the ancient terms -for the pay of the Roman soldiers, before the -regular <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendium</i> was introduced. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes -equestre</i> was the sum of money given for the -purchase of the horse of an eques; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes -hordearium</i>, the sum paid yearly for its keep, -in other words the pay of an eques; and the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes militare</i>, the pay of a foot soldier. None -of this money seems to have been taken from -the public treasury, but to have been paid by -certain private persons, to whom this duty -was assigned by the state. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes hordearium</i>, -which amounted to 2000 asses, had -to be paid by single women (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viduae</i>, i.e. -both maidens and widows) and orphans -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">orbi</i>), provided they possessed a certain -amount of property. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes equestre</i>, which -amounted to 10,000 asses, was probably also -paid by the same class of persons. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes -militare</i>, the amount of which is not expressly -mentioned, had to be paid by the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni aerarii</i>, and if not paid, the foot soldiers -had a right of distress against them. -It is generally assumed that these <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni -aerarii</i> were magistrates connected with the -treasury, and that they were the assistants -of the quaestors; but there are good reasons -for believing that the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni aerarii</i> were -private persons, who were liable to the payment -of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes militare</i>, and upon whose -property a distress might be levied, if the -money were not paid. They were probably -persons whose property was rated at a certain -sum in the census, and we may conjecture -that they obtained the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni aerarii</i> -because they levied the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tributum</i>, which was -imposed for the purpose of paying the army, -and then paid it to the soldiers. These <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni -aerarii</i> were no longer needed when the -state took into its own hands the payment of -the troops; but they were revived in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 70, -as a distinct class in the commonwealth, by -the Lex Aurelia, which gave the judicia to the -senators, equites and tribuni aerarii.</p> - - -<p id="Aes_u">AES UXŌRĬUM, was a tax paid by men -who reached old age without having married. -It was first imposed by the censors in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 403. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex_jpp">Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aesymnetes">AESYMNĒTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰσυμνήτης</span>), a person who -was sometimes invested with unlimited power -in the Greek states. His power partook in -some degree of the nature both of kingly and -tyrannical authority; since he was appointed -legally, and did not usurp the government, -but at the same time was not bound by any -laws in his public administration. The office -was not hereditary, nor was it held for life; -but it only continued for a limited time, or -till some object was accomplished. Thus we -read that the inhabitants of Mytilene appointed -Pittacus aesymnetes, in order to prevent -the return of Alcaeus and the other -exiles. Dionysius compares it with the dictatorship -of Rome. In some states, such as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span> -Cyme and Chalcedon, it was the title borne -by the regular magistrates.</p> - - -<p id="Aetas">AETAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Infans">Infans</a>; <a href="#Impubes">Impubes</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aetolicum">AETŌLĬCUM FOEDUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων</span>), -the Aetolian league, appears as a powerful -political body soon after the death of -Alexander the Great, viz. during the Lamian -war against Antipater. The characteristic -difference between the Aetolian and Achaean -leagues was that the former originally consisted -of a confederacy of nations or tribes, -while the latter was a confederacy of towns. -The sovereign power of the confederacy was -vested in the general assemblies of all the -confederates (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">concilium -Aetolorum</i>), and this assembly had the right -to discuss all questions respecting peace and -war, and to elect the great civil or military -officers of the league. The ordinary place of -meeting was Thermon, but on extraordinary -occasions assemblies were also held in other -towns belonging to the league, though they -were not situated in the country of Aetolia -Proper. The questions which were to be -brought before the assembly were sometimes -discussed previously by a committee, selected -from the great mass, and called Apocleti -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπόκλητοι</span>). The general assembly usually -met in the autumn, when the officers of the -league were elected. The highest among -them, as among those of the Achaean league, -bore the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Strategus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατηγός</span>), whose -office lasted only for one year. The strategus -had the right to convoke the assembly; -he presided in it, introduced the subjects for -deliberation, and levied the troops. The -officers next in rank to the strategus were -the hipparchus and the public scribe. The -political existence of the league was destroyed -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 189 by the treaty with Rome, and the -treachery of the Roman party among the -Aetolians themselves caused in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 167 five -hundred and fifty of the leading patriots to -be put to death, and those who survived the -massacre were carried to Rome as prisoners.</p> - - -<p id="Aetoma">ĀĔTŌMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀέτωμα</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fastigium">Fastigium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Affines">AFFĪNES, AFFĪNĬTAS, or ADFĪNES, -ADFĪNĬTAS. Affines are the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognati</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cognati">Cognati</a></span>] -of husband and wife, the cognati of -the husband becoming the affines of the wife, -and the cognati of the wife the affines of the -husband. The father of a husband is the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socer</i> of the husband’s wife, and the father of -a wife is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socer</i> of the wife’s husband. -The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socrus</i> expresses the same affinity -with respect to the husband’s and wife’s -mothers. A son’s wife is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nurus</i>, or daughter-in-law -to the son’s parents; a wife’s husband -is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gener</i>, or son-in-law to the wife’s parents. -Thus the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">avus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">avia</i>—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pater</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mater</i>—of the -wife became by the marriage respectively the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socer magnus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prosocrus</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socrus magna</i>—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socer</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socrus</i>—of the husband, who becomes -with respect to them severally <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">progener</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gener</i>. In like manner the corresponding -ancestors of the husband respectively assume -the same names with respect to the son’s -wife, who becomes with respect to them <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pronurus</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nurus</i>. The son and daughter of a -husband or wife born of a prior marriage are -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">privignus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">privigna</i>, with respect to -their step-father or step-mother; and with -respect to such children, the step-father and -step-mother are severally called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitricus</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">noverca</i>. The husband’s brother becomes -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">levir</i> with respect to the wife, and his sister -becomes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">glos</i> (the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γάλως</span>). Marriage -was unlawful among persons who had become -such affines as above mentioned.</p> - - -<p id="Agalma">ĂGALMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγαλμα</span>) is a general name for a -statue or image to represent a god.</p> - - -<p id="Agaso">ĂGĀSO, a groom, whose business it was to -take care of the horses. The word is also -used for a driver of beasts of burden, and is -sometimes applied to a slave who had to -perform the lowest menial duties.</p> - - -<p id="Agathoergi">ĂGĂTHŎERGI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγαθοεργοί</span>). In time of -war the kings of Sparta had a body-guard of -three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan -youths (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππεῖς</span>), of whom the five eldest retired -every year, and were employed for one -year under the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agathoergi</i>, in missions -to foreign states.</p> - - -<p id="Agela">ĂGĔLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγέλη</span>), an assembly of young -men in Crete, who lived together from their -eighteenth year till the time of their marriage. -An <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agela</i> always consisted of the sons -of the most noble citizens, and the members -of it were obliged to marry at the same time.</p> - - -<p id="Agema">ĂGĒMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγημα</span> from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγω</span>), the name of a -chosen body of troops in the Macedonian -army, usually consisting of horsemen.</p> - - -<p id="Ager">ĂGER PUBLĬCUS, the public land, was -the land belonging to the Roman state. It -was a recognised principle among the Italian -nations that the territory of a conquered -people belonged to the conquerors. Accordingly, -the Romans were constantly acquiring -fresh territory by the conquest of the surrounding -people. The land thus acquired -was usually disposed of in the following way. -1. The land which was under cultivation was -either distributed among colonists, who were -sent to occupy it, or it was sold, or it was let -out to farm. 2. The land which was then -out of cultivation, and which, owing to war, -was by far the greater part, might be occupied -by any of the Roman citizens on the -payment of a portion of the yearly produce; -a tenth of the produce of arable land, and a -fifth of the produce of the land planted with -the vine, the olive, and other valuable trees.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span> -3. The land which had previously served as -the common pasture land of the conquered -state, or was suitable for the purpose, -continued to be used as pasture land by -the Roman citizens, who had, however, to -pay a certain sum of money for the cattle -which they turned upon it. The occupation -of the public land spoken of above under the -second head was always expressed by the -words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possessio</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possidere</i>, and the occupier -of the land was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possessor</i>. The -land continued to be the property of the -state; and accordingly we must distinguish -between the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possessio</i>, which merely -indicated the use or enjoyment of the land, -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dominium</i>, which expressed ownership, -and was applied to private land, of which a -man had the absolute ownership. The right -of occupying the public land belonged only -to citizens, and consequently only to the patricians -originally, as they were the state. -The plebeians were only subjects, and consequently -had no right to the property of the -state; but it is probable that they were permitted -to feed their cattle on the public -pasture lands. Even when the plebeians -became a separate estate by the constitution -of Servius Tullius, they still obtained no -right to share in the possession of the public -land, which continued to be the exclusive -privilege of the patricians; but as a compensation, -each individual plebeian received an -assignment of a certain quantity of the public -land as his own property. Henceforth the -possession of the public land was the privilege -of the patricians, and an assignment of a -portion of it the privilege of the plebeians. -As the state acquired new lands by conquest, -the plebeians ought to have received assignments -of part of them, but since the patricians -were the governing body, they generally -refused to make any such assignment, and -continued to keep the whole as part of the -ager publicus, whereby the enjoyment of it -belonged to them alone. Hence, we constantly -read of the plebeians claiming, and -sometimes enforcing, a division of such land. -With the extension of the conquests of Rome, -the ager publicus constantly increased, and -thus a large portion of Italy fell into the -hands of the patricians, who frequently withheld -from the state the annual payments of a -tenth and a fifth, which they were bound to -pay for the possession of the land, and thus -deprived the state of a fund for the expenses -of the war. In addition to which they used -slaves as cultivators and shepherds, since -freemen were liable to be drawn off from -field-labour to military service, and slave-labour -was consequently far cheaper. In this -way the number of free labourers was diminished, -and that of slaves augmented. To -remedy this state of things several laws were -from time to time proposed and carried, -which were most violently opposed by the -patricians. All laws which related to the -<em>public</em> land are called by the general title of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges Agrariae</i>, and accordingly all the early -laws relating to the possession of the public -land by the patricians, and to the assignment -of portions of it to the plebeians, were -strictly agrarian laws; but the first law to -which this name is usually applied was proposed -soon after the establishment of the -republic by the consul, Sp. Cassius, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -486. Its object was to set apart the portion -of the public land which the patricians were -to possess, to divide the rest among the plebeians, -to levy the payment due for the possession, -and to apply it to paying the army. -The first law, however, which really deprived -the patricians of the advantages they had -previously enjoyed in the occupation of the -public land was the agrarian law of C. Licinius -Stolo (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 366), which limited each -individual’s possession of public land to 500 -jugera, and declared that no individual should -have above 100 large and 500 smaller cattle -on the public pastures: it further enacted -that the surplus land was to be divided -among the plebeians. As this law, however, -was soon disregarded, it was revived again -by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 133), with -some alterations and additions. The details -of the other agrarian laws mentioned in -Roman history are given under the name of -the lex by which they are called. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Agger">AGGER (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χῶμα</span>), from <em>ad</em> and <em>gero</em>, was -used in general for a heap or mound of any -kind. It was more particularly applied:—(1) -To a mound, usually composed of earth, -which was raised round a besieged town, and -which was gradually increased in breadth -and height, till it equalled or overtopped the -walls. The agger was sometimes made, not -only of earth, but of wood, hurdles, &c.; -whence we read of the agger being set on -fire.—(2) To the earthen wall surrounding a -Roman encampment, composed of the earth -dug from the ditch (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fossa</i>), which was usually -9 feet broad and 7 feet deep; but if any -attack was apprehended, the depth was increased -to 12 feet and the breadth to 13 feet. -Sharp stakes, &c., were usually fixed upon -the agger, which was then called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>. -When both words are used, the agger means -the mound of earth, and the vallum the -stakes, &c., which were fixed upon the agger.</p> - - -<p id="Agitatores">ĂGITĀTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Agmen">AGMEN. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Agnati">AGNĀTI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cognati">Cognati</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Agnomen">AGNŌMEN [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nomen">Nomen</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span></p> - - -<p id="Agonalia">ĂGŌNĀLĬA or ĂGŌNĬA, one of the most -ancient festivals at Rome, its institution -being attributed to Numa Pompilius. It was -celebrated on the 9th of January, the 21st of -May, and the 11th of December; to which -we should probably add the 17th of March, -the day on which the Liberalia was celebrated, -since this festival is also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonia</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonium Martiale</i>. The object of this -festival was a disputed point among the ancients -themselves. The victim which was -offered was a ram; the person who offered it -was the rex sacrificulus; and the place where -it was offered was the regia. Now the ram -was the usual victim presented to the guardian -gods of the state, and the rex sacrificulus -and the regia could be employed only -for such ceremonies as were connected with -the highest gods and affected the weal of the -whole state. Regarding the sacrifice in this -light, we see a reason for its being offered -several times in the year. The etymology of -the name was also a subject of much dispute -among the ancients; and the various etymologies -that were proposed are given at -length by Ovid (<cite>Fast.</cite> i. 319-332). None of -these, however, are at all satisfactory; and we -would therefore suggest that it may have received -its name from the sacrifice having been -offered on the Quirinal hill, which was originally -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonus</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Agones">ĂGŌNES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶνες</span>), the general term among -the Greeks for the contests at their great -national games. The word also signified law-suits, -and was especially employed in the -phrase <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶνες τιμητοί</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτίμητοι</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Timema">Timema</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Agonothetae">ĂGONŎTHĔTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγωνοθέται</span>), persons in -the Grecian games who decided disputes, and -adjudged the prizes to the victors. Originally, -the person who instituted the contest -and offered the prize was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonothetes</i>, -and this continued to be the practice in those -games which were instituted by kings or -private persons. But in the great public -games, such as the Isthmian, Pythian, &c., -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonothetae</i> were either the representatives -of different states, as the Amphictyons -at the Pythian games, or were chosen from -the people in whose country the games were -celebrated. During the flourishing times of -the Grecian republics the Eleans were the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonothetae</i> in the Olympic games, the Corinthians -in the Isthmian games, the Amphictyons -in the Pythian games, and the Corinthians, -Argives, and inhabitants of Cleonae -in the Nemaean games. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonothetae</i> -were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aesymnetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰσυμνῆται</span>), -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonarchae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγωνάρχαι</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agonodicae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγωνοδίκαι</span>), -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athlothetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀθλοθέται</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rhabduchi</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαβδοῦχοι</span>), or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rhabdonomi</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαβδονόμοι</span>, from -the staff which they carried as an emblem of -authority), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Brabeis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βραβεῖς</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Brabeutae</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βραβευταί</span>).</p> - - -<p id="Agora">ĂGŎRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγορά</span>) properly means an assembly -of any kind, and is usually employed -by Homer to designate the general assembly -of the people. The Agora seems to have been -considered an essential part of the constitution -of the early Grecian states. It was usually -convoked by the king, but occasionally by -some distinguished chieftain, as, for example, -by Achilles before Troy. The king occupied -the most important seat in these assemblies, -and near him sat the nobles, while the people -stood or sat in a circle around them. The -people appear to have had no right of speaking -or voting in these assemblies, but merely -to have been called together to hear what had -been already agreed upon in the council of -the nobles, and to express their feelings as a -body. The council of the nobles is called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Boulé</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλή</span>) and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thoöcus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θόωκος</span>), and sometimes -even <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agora</i>. Among the Athenians, -the proper name for the assembly of the -people was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ecclesia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκκλησία</span>), and among -the Dorians <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Halia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλία</span>). The term Agora -was confined at Athens to the assemblies of -the phylae and demi. The name Agora was -early transferred from the assembly itself to -the place in which it was held; and thus it -came to be used for the market-place, where -goods of all descriptions were bought and -sold. Hence it answers to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">forum</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Agoranomi">ĂGŎRĀNŎMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγορανόμοι</span>), public functionaries -in most of the Grecian states, whose -duties corresponded in many respects with -those of the Roman aediles. At Athens their -number was ten, five for the city, and five -for the Peiraeus, and they were chosen by -lot. The principal duty of the Agoranomi -was, as their name imports, to inspect the -market, and to see that all the laws respecting -its regulation were properly observed. -They had the inspection of all things that -were sold in the market, with the exception -of corn, which was subject to the jurisdiction -of special officers, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sitophylaces</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτοφύλακες</span>). -They regulated the price and quantity -of articles exposed for sale, and punished -all persons convicted of cheating, -especially by means of false weights and -measures. They had the power of fining all -citizens who infringed upon the rules of the -market, and of whipping all slaves and -foreigners guilty of a like offence. They also -collected the market dues, and had the care -of all the temples and fountains in the -market place.</p> - - -<p id="Agrariae_l">AGRĀRĬAE LĒGES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ager">Ager Publicus</a>; -<a href="#Lex">Lex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Agraulia">AGRAULĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγραύλια</span>) was a festival celebrated -by the Athenians in honour of Agraulos,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span> -the daughter of Cecrops. It was perhaps -connected with the solemn oath, which all -Athenians, when they arrived at manhood -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφηβοι</span>), were obliged to take in the temple -of Agraulos, that they would fight for their -country, and always observe its laws.</p> - - -<p id="Agrimensores">AGRĪMENSŌRES, or “land surveyors,” -a college established under the Roman emperors. -Like the jurisconsults, they had regular -schools, and were paid handsome salaries by -the state. Their business was to measure -unassigned lands for the state, and ordinary -lands for the proprietors, and to fix and -maintain boundaries. Their writings on the -subject of their art were very numerous; -and we have still scientific treatises on the -law of boundaries, such as those by Frontinus -and Hyginus.</p> - - -<p id="Agrionia">AGRIŌNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγριώνια</span>), a festival which -was celebrated at Orchomenus, in Boeotia, in -honour of Dionysus, surnamed Agrionius. A -human being used originally to be sacrificed -at this festival, but this sacrifice seems to have -been avoided in later times. One instance, -however, occurred in the days of Plutarch.</p> - - -<p id="Agronomi">AGRONŎMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγρονόμοι</span>), the country-police, -probably in Attica, whose duties corresponded -in most respects to those of the -astynomi in the city, and who appear to -have performed nearly the same duties as the -hylori (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑλωροί</span>).</p> - - -<p id="Agroteras">AGRŎTĔRAS THŬSIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγροτέρας θυσία</span>), -a festival celebrated every year at Athens in -honour of Artemis, surnamed Agrotera (from -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγρα</span>, the chase). It was solemnized on the -sixth of the month of Boëdromion, and consisted -of a sacrifice of 500 goats, which continued -to be offered in the time of Xenophon. -Its origin is thus related:—When the Persians -invaded Attica, the Athenians made a -vow to sacrifice to Artemis Agrotera as many -goats as there should be enemies slain at -Marathon. But as the number of enemies -slain was so great that an equal number of -goats could not be found at once, the Athenians -decreed that 500 should be sacrificed every year.</p> - - -<p id="Agyrtae">AGYRTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγύρται</span>), mendicant priests, -who were accustomed to travel through the -different towns of Greece, soliciting alms for -the gods whom they served, and whose -images they carried, either on their shoulders -or on beasts of burthen. They were, generally -speaking, persons of the lowest and -most abandoned character.</p> - - -<p id="Ahenum">ĂHĒNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aenum">Aenum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aikias">AIKIAS DĬKĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰκίας δίκη</span>), an action -brought at Athens, before the court of the -Forty (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ τετταράκοντα</span>), against any individual -who had struck a citizen. Any citizen -who had been thus insulted might proceed -against the offending party, either by -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰκίας δίκη</span>, which was a private action, -or by the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕβρεως γραφή</span>, which was looked -upon in the light of a public prosecution.</p> - - -<p id="Aithousa">AITHOUSA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἴθουσα</span>), a word only used -by Homer, is probably for <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἴθουσα στοά</span>, a -portico exposed to the sun. From the passages -in which it occurs, it seems to denote a -covered portico, opening on to the court of -the house, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλή</span>, in front of the vestibule, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόθυρον</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Ala">ĀLA, part of a Roman house. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ala_a">ĀLA, ĀLĀRES, ĀLĀRĬI. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ala</i>, which literally -means <em>a wing</em>, was from the earliest -epochs employed to denote the wing of an -army, but in process of time was frequently -used in a restricted sense.—(1) When a -Roman army was composed of Roman citizens -exclusively, the flanks of the infantry -when drawn up in battle array were covered -on the right and left by the cavalry; and -hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ala</i> denoted the body of horse which -was attached to and served along with the -foot-soldiers of the legion.—(2) When, at a -later date, the Roman armies were composed -partly of Roman citizens and partly of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii</i>, -either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latini</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Italici</i>, it became the practice -to marshal the Roman troops in the -centre of the battle line and the Socii upon -the wings. Hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ala</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alarii</i> denoted -the contingent furnished by the allies, both -horse and foot, and the two divisions were -distinguished as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dextera ala</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sinistra ala</i>.—(3) -When the whole of the inhabitants -of Italy had been admitted to the privileges -of Roman citizens the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cohortes -alariae</i> were transferred to the <em>foreign</em> troops -serving along with the Roman armies.—(4) -Lastly, under the empire, the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ala</i> -was applied to regiments of horse, raised it -would seem with very few exceptions in the -provinces, serving apart from the legions and -the cavalry of the legions.</p> - - -<p id="Alabarches">ĂLĂBARCHĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλαβάρχης</span>), the chief magistrate -of the Jews at Alexandria, whose -duties, as far as the government was concerned, -chiefly consisted in raising and paying -the taxes.</p> - - -<p id="Alabaster">ĂLĂBASTER or ĂLĂBASTRUM, a vessel -or pot used for containing perfumes, or rather -ointments, made of that species of marble -which mineralogists call <em>gypsum</em>, and which -is usually designated by the name of <em>alabaster</em>. -When varieties of colour occur in the -same stone, and are disposed in bands or -horizontal strata, it is often called onyx alabaster; -and when dispersed irregularly, as if -in clouds, it is distinguished as agate alabaster. -The term seems to have been employed -to denote vessels appropriated to these uses, -even when they were not made of the material -from which it is supposed they originally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span> -received their name. Thus Theocritus -speaks of golden alabastra. These vessels -were of a tapering shape, and very often had -a long narrow neck, which was sealed; so -that when Mary, the sister of Lazarus, is -said by St. Mark to break the alabaster box -of ointment for the purpose of anointing our -Saviour, it appears probable that she only -broke the extremity of the neck, which was -thus closed.</p> - - -<p id="Alarii">ĀLĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ala_a">Ala</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Alauda">ĂLAUDA, a Gaulish word, the prototype -of the modern French <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Alouette</i>, denoting a -small crested bird of the lark kind. The -name alauda was bestowed by Julius Caesar -on a legion of picked men, which he raised at -his own expense among the inhabitants of -Transalpine Gaul, about the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 55, -which he equipped and disciplined after the -Roman fashion, and on which he at a subsequent -period bestowed the freedom of the -state. The designation was, in all probability, -applied from a plume upon the helmet, -resembling the “apex” of the bird in question, -or from the general shape and appearance -of the head-piece.</p> - - -<p id="Albogalerus">ALBŎGĂLĒRUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apex">Apex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Album">ALBUM, a tablet of any material on which -the praetor’s edicts, and the rules relating to -actions and interdicts, were written. The -tablet was put up in a public place, in order -that all the world might have notice of its -contents. According to some authorities, the -album was so called because it was either a -white material or a material whitened, and -of course the writing would be of a different -colour. According to other authorities, it -was so called because the writing was in -white letters. Probably the word album -originally meant any tablet containing anything -of a public nature. We know that it -was, in course of time, used to signify a list -of any public body; thus we find <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">album judicum</i>, -or the body out of which judices were -to be chosen [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>], and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">album senatorium</i>, -or list of senators.</p> - - -<p id="Alea">ĀLĔA, gaming, or playing at a game of -chance of any kind: hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aleo</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aleator</i>, a -gamester, a gambler. Playing with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tali</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tesserae</i>, was generally understood, because -this was by far the most common game of -chance among the Romans. Gaming was -forbidden by the Roman laws, both during -the times of the republic and under the emperors, -but was tolerated in the month of -December at the Saturnalia, which was a -period of general relaxation; and old men -were allowed to amuse themselves in this -manner at all times.</p> - - -<p id="Alicula">ĂLĬCŬLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄλλιξ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄλληξ</span>), an upper dress, -in all probability identical with the chlamys.</p> - - -<p id="Alimentarii">ĂLIMENTĀRII PŬĔRI ET PŬELLAE. -In the Roman republic the poorer citizens -were assisted by public distributions of corn, -oil, and money, which were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congiaria</i>. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Congiarium">Congiarium</a>.</span>] The Emperor Nerva was the -first who extended them to children, and Trajan -appointed them to be made every month, -both to orphans and to the children of poor -parents. The children who received them were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pueri et puellae alimentarii</i>, and also -(from the emperor) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pueri puellaeque Ulpiani</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Alipilus">ĀLĬPĬLUS, a slave, who attended on -bathers to remove the superfluous hair from -their bodies.</p> - - -<p id="Aliptae">ĂLIPTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλείπται</span>), among the Greeks, -were persons who anointed the bodies of the -athletae preparatory to their entering the -palaestra. The chief object of this anointing -was to close the pores of the body, in order -to prevent much perspiration, and the weakness -consequent thereon. The athleta was -again anointed after the contest, in order to -restore the tone of the strained muscles. He -then bathed, and had the dust, sweat, and -oil scraped off his body, by means of an instrument -similar to the strigil of the Romans, -and called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stlengis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στλεγγίς</span>), and afterwards -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">xystra</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξύστρα</span>). The aliptae took advantage -of the knowledge they necessarily acquired -of the state of the muscles of the athletae, -and their general strength or weakness of -body, to advise them as to their exercises -and mode of life. They were thus a kind of -medical trainers. Among the Romans the -aliptae were slaves who scrubbed and anointed -their masters in the baths. They, too, like -the Greek aliptae, appear to have attended to -their masters’ constitution and mode of life. -They were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unctores</i>. They used -in their operations a kind of scraper called -strigil, towels (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lintea</i>), a cruise of oil (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">guttus</i>), -which was usually of horn, a bottle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ampulla</i>), -and a small vessel called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lenticula</i>.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp76" id="ill017" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill017.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Allocutio (Coin of Nero.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Allocutio">ALLŎCŪTĬO, an harangue made by a -Roman imperator to his soldiers, to encourage<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span> -them before battle, or on other occasions. -On coins we frequently find a figure -of an imperator standing on a platform and -addressing the soldiers below him. Such -coins bear the epigraph <span class="allsmcap">ADLOCUTIO</span>.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp76" id="ill018" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill018.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Allocutio. (Coin of Galba.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Aloa">ALŌA or HALŌA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλῶα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλῶα</span>), an Attic -festival, but celebrated principally at Eleusis, -in honour of Demeter and Dionysus, the inventors -of the plough and protectors of the -fruits of the earth.</p> - - -<p id="Altare">ALTĀRE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ara">Ara</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aluta">ĂLŪTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calceus">Calceus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Alytae">ĂLỸTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλύται</span>), persons whose business -it was to keep order in the public games. -They received their orders from an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alytarches</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλυτάρχης</span>), who was himself under the direction -of the agonothetae, or hellenodicae.</p> - - -<p id="Amanuensis">ĀMĂNŬENSIS, or AD MĂNUM SERVUS, -a slave, or freedman, whose office it was to -write letters and other things under his master’s -direction. The amanuenses must not -be confounded with another sort of slaves, -also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad manum servi</i>, who were always -kept ready to be employed in any business.</p> - - -<p id="Amarynthia">ĂMĂRYNTHĬA, or ĂMĂRYSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμαρύνθια</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμαρύσια</span>), a festival of Artemis Amarynthia -or Amarysia, celebrated, as it seems, -originally at Amarynthus in Euboea, with -extraordinary splendour, but also solemnised -in several places in Attica, such as Athmone.</p> - - -<p id="Ambarvalia">AMBARVĀLIĂ. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arvales">Arvales Fratres</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ambitus">AMBĬTUS, which literally signifies “a -going about,” cannot, perhaps, be more nearly -expressed than by our word <em>canvassing</em>. After -the plebs had formed a distinct class at Rome, -and when the whole body of the citizens had -become very greatly increased, we frequently -read, in the Roman writers, of the great -efforts which it was necessary for candidates -to make in order to secure the votes of the -citizens. At Rome, as in every community -into which the element of popular election -enters, solicitation of votes, and open or -secret influence and bribery, were among the -means by which a candidate secured his election -to the offices of state. The following -are the principal terms occurring in the -Roman writers in relation to the canvassing -for the public offices:—A candidate was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">petitor</i>; and his opponent with reference to -him <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">competitor</i>. A candidate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">candidatus</i>) -was so called from his appearing in the -public places, such as the fora and Campus -Martius, before his fellow-citizens, in a -whitened toga. On such occasions the candidate -was attended by his friends (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deductores</i>), -or followed by the poorer citizens -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sectatores</i>), who could in no other manner -show their good will or give their assistance. -The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">assiduitas</i> expressed both the continual -presence of the candidate at Rome and -his continual solicitations. The candidate, -in going his rounds or taking his walk, was -accompanied by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomenclator</i>, who gave him -the names of such persons as he might meet; -the candidate was thus enabled to address -them by their name, an indirect compliment, -which could not fail to be generally gratifying -to the electors. The candidate accompanied -his address with a shake of the hand (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prensatio</i>). -The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">benignitas</i> comprehended -generally any kind of treating, as shows, -feasts, &c. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambitus</i>, which was the -object of several penal enactments, taken as -a generic term, comprehended the two species—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambitus</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">largitiones</i> (bribery). <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liberalitas</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">benignitas</i> are opposed by Cicero, -as things allowable, to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambitus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">largitio</i>, -as things illegal. Money was paid for votes; -and, in order to insure secrecy and secure -the elector, persons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">interpretes</i> were -employed to make the bargain, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sequestres</i> to -hold the money till it was to be paid, and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divisores</i> to distribute it. The offence of -ambitus was a matter which belonged to the -judicia publica, and the enactments against -it were numerous. One of the earliest, -though not the earliest of all, the Lex Cornelia -Baebia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 181) was specially directed -against <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">largitiones</i>. Those convicted under -it were incapacitated from being candidates -for ten years. The Lex Cornelia Fulvia -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 159) punished the offence with exile. -The Lex Acilia Calpurnia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 67) imposed -a fine on the offending party, with exclusion -from the senate and all public offices. The -Lex Tullia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63), passed in the consulship -of Cicero, in addition to the penalty of the -Acilian law, inflicted ten years’ exsilium on -the offender; and, among other things, forbade -a person to exhibit gladiatorial shows -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gladiatores dare</i>) within any two years in -which he was a candidate, unless he was required -to do so, on a fixed day, by a testator’s -will. Two years afterwards the Lex Aufidia<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span> -was proposed, but not passed; by which, -among other things, it was provided that, if -a candidate promised (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pronuntiavit</i>) money -to a tribe, and did not pay it, he should be -unpunished; but, if he did pay the money, he -should further pay to each tribe (annually?) -3000 sesterces as long as he lived. This -absurd proposal occasioned the witticism of -Cicero, who said that Clodius observed the -law by anticipation; for he promised, but did -not pay. The Lex Licinia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 55) was specially -directed against the offence of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sodalitium</i>, -or the wholesale bribery of a tribe by -gifts and treating; and another lex, passed -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 52) when Pompey was sole consul, had -for its object the establishment of a speedier -course of proceeding on trials for ambitus. -All these enactments failed in completely accomplishing -their object. That which no -law could suppress, so long as the old popular -forms retained any of their pristine vigour, -was accomplished by the imperial usurpation. -Caesar, when dictator, nominated some of -the candidates for public offices: as to the -consulship, he managed the appointments to -that office just as he pleased. The popular -forms of election were observed during the -time of Augustus. Tiberius transferred the -elections from the comitia to the senate, by -which the offence of ambitus, in its proper -sense, entirely disappeared. The trials for -ambitus were numerous in the time of the -republic. The oration of Cicero in defence -of L. Murena, who was charged with ambitus, -and that in defence of Cn. Plancius, -who was charged with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sodalitium</i>, are both -extant.</p> - - -<p id="Ambrosia">AMBRŎSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμβροσία</span>), the food of the -gods, which conferred upon them eternal -youth and immortality, and was brought to -Jupiter by pigeons. It was also used by the -gods for anointing their body and hair; -whence we read of the ambrosial locks of -Jupiter.</p> - - -<p id="Ambubaiae">AMBŪBAIAE (probably from the Syriac -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">abub aubub</i>, a pipe), Eastern dancing girls, -who frequented chiefly the Circus at Rome, -and obtained their living by prostitution and -lascivious songs and dances.</p> - - -<p id="Amburbium">AMBURBĬUM, a sacrifice which was performed -at Rome for the purification of the city.</p> - - -<p id="Amentum">AMENTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Amictorium">ĂMICTŌRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Strophium">Strophium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Amictus">ĂMICTUS. The verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amicire</i> is commonly -opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">induere</i>, the former being applied -to the putting on of the outer garment, the -pallium, laena, or toga (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάτιον, φᾶρος</span>); the -latter, to the putting on of the inner garment, -the tunic (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιτών</span>). In consequence of this -distinction, the verbal nouns <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amictus</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">indutus</i>, even without any further denomination -of the dress being added, indicate respectively -the outer and inner clothing. In -Greek <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amicire</i> is expressed by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφιέννυσθαι</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμπέχεσθαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιβάλλεσθαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περιβάλλεσθαι</span>: and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">induere</i> by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνδύνειν</span>. Hence came <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμπεχόνη</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίβλημα</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιβόλαιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίβλημα</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περιβόλαιον</span>, -an outer garment, a cloak, a shawl; -and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνδυμα</span>, an inner garment, a tunic, a -shirt.</p> - - -<p id="Amphictyones">AMPHICTỸŎNES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφικτύονες</span>). Institutions -called amphictyonic appear to have -existed in Greece from time immemorial. -They seem to have been originally associations -of neighbouring tribes, formed for the regulation -of mutual intercourse and the protection -of a common temple or sanctuary, at -which the representatives of the different -members met, both to transact business and -to celebrate religious rites and games. One -of these associations was of much greater -importance than all the rest, and was called, -by way of eminence, the <em>Amphictyonic League</em> -or <em>Council</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφικτυονία</span>). It differed from -other similar associations in having two places -of meeting, the sanctuaries of two divinities; -which were the temple of Demeter, in the -village of Anthela, near Thermopylae, where -the deputies met in autumn; and that of -Apollo, at Delphi, where they assembled in -spring. Its connexion with the latter place -not only contributed to its dignity, but also to -its permanence. Its early history is involved -in obscurity. Most of the ancients suppose -it to have been founded by Amphictyon, the -son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, from whom -they imagined that it derived its name: but -this opinion is destitute of all foundation, and -arose from the ancients assigning the establishment -of their institutions to some mythical -hero. There can be little doubt as to -the true etymology of the word. It was originally -written <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφικτίονες</span>, and consequently -signified those that dwelt around some particular -locality. Its institution, however, is -clearly of remote antiquity. It was originally -composed of twelve <em>tribes</em> (not cities or states, -it must be observed), each of which tribes -contained various independent cities or states. -We learn from Aeschines, that in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 343, -eleven of these tribes were as follows:—The -Thessalians, Boeotians (not Thebans only), -Dorians, Ionians, Perrhaebians, Magnetes, -Locrians, Oetaeans or Oenianians, Phthiots -or Achaeans of Phthia, Malians, and Phocians; -other lists leave us in doubt whether the -remaining tribe were the Dolopes or Delphians; -but as the Delphians could hardly be -called a distinct tribe, their nobles appearing -to have been Dorians, it seems probable that -the Dolopes were originally members, and -afterwards supplanted by the Delphians. All<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span> -the states belonging to each of these tribes -were on a footing of perfect equality. Thus -Sparta enjoyed no advantages over Dorium -and Cytinium, two small towns in Doris: and -Athens, an Ionic city, was on a par with Eretria -in Euboea, and Priene in Asia Minor, -two other Ionic cities. The ordinary council -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pylaea</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυλαία</span>), from its meeting -in the neighbourhood of Pylae (Thermopylae), -but the name was given to the session at -Delphi as well as to that at Thermopylae. -The council was composed of two classes of -representatives, one called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pylagorae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυλαγόραι</span>), -and the other <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hieromnemones</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερομνήμονες</span>). -Athens sent three Pylagorae and -one Hieromnemon; of whom the former were -elected apparently for each session, and the -latter by lot, probably for a longer period. -Respecting the relative duties of the Pylagorae -and Hieromnemones we have little -information: the name of the latter implies -that they had a more immediate connection -with the temple. We are equally in the -dark respecting the numbers who sat in the -council and its mode of proceeding. It would -seem that all the deputies had seats in the -council, and took part in its deliberations; -but if it be true, as appears from Aeschines, -that each of the tribes had only two votes, it -is clear that all the deputies could not have -voted. In addition to the ordinary council, -there was an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ecclesia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκκλησία</span>), or general -assembly, including not only the classes -above mentioned, but also those who had -joined in the sacrifices, and were consulting -the god. It was convened on extraordinary -occasions by the chairman of the council. Of -the duties of the Amphictyons nothing will -give us a clearer view than the oath they -took, which was as follows:—“They would -destroy no city of the Amphictyons, nor cut -off their streams in war or peace; and if any -should do so, they would march against him, -and destroy his cities; and should any pillage -the property of the god, or be privy to or -plan anything against what was in his temple -(at Delphi), they would take vengeance on -him with hand and foot, and voice, and all -their might.” From this oath we see that -the main duty of the deputies was the preservation -of the rights and dignity of the temple -of Delphi. We know, too, that after it was -burnt down (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 548), they contracted with -the Alcmaeonidae for its rebuilding. History, -moreover, teaches that if the council produced -any palpable effects, it was from their interest -in Delphi; and though they kept up a standing -record of what ought to have been the international -law of Greece, they sometimes acquiesced -in, and at other times were parties to, the most -iniquitous acts. Of this the case of Crissa -is an instance. This town lay on the Gulf of -Corinth, near Delphi, and was much frequented -by pilgrims from the West. The Crissaeans -were charged by the Delphians with undue -exactions from these strangers. The council -declared war against them, as guilty of a -wrong against the god. The war lasted ten -years, till, at the suggestion of Solon, the -waters of the Pleistus were turned off, then -poisoned, and turned again into the city. The -besieged drank their fill, and Crissa was soon -razed to the ground; and thus, if it were an -Amphictyonic city, was a solemn oath doubly -violated. Its territory—the rich Cirrhaean -plain—was consecrated to the god, and curses -imprecated upon whomsoever should till or -dwell in it. Thus ended the First Sacred -War (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 585), in which the Athenians were -the instruments of Delphian vengeance. The -second or Phocian war (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 350) was the -most important in which the Amphictyons -were concerned; and in this the Thebans -availed themselves of the sanction of the -council to take vengeance on their enemies, -the Phocians. To do this, however, it was -necessary to call in Philip of Macedon, who -readily proclaimed himself the champion of -Apollo, as it opened a pathway to his own -ambition. The Phocians were subdued (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -346), and the council decreed that all their -cities, except Abae, should be razed, and the -inhabitants dispersed in villages not containing -more than fifty persons. Their two votes -were given to Philip, who thereby gained a -pretext for interfering with the affairs of -Greece; and also obtained the recognition of -his subjects as Hellenes. The Third Sacred -War arose from the Amphissians tilling the -devoted Cirrhaean plain. The Amphictyons -called in the assistance of Philip, who soon -reduced the Amphissians to subjection. Their -submission was immediately followed by the -battle of Chaeroneia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 338), and the -extinction of the independence of Greece. In -the following year, a congress of the Amphictyonic -states was held, in which war was -declared as if by united Greece against Persia, -and Philip elected commander-in-chief. On -this occasion the Amphictyons assumed the -character of national representatives as of old, -when they set a price upon the head of Ephialtes, -for his treason to Greece at Thermopylae. -It has been sufficiently shown that -the Amphictyons themselves did not observe -the oaths they took; and that they did not -much alleviate the horrors of war, or enforce -what they had sworn to do, is proved by -many instances. Thus, for instance, Mycenae -was destroyed by Argos (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 535), Thespiae -and Plataeae by Thebes, and Thebes herself -swept from the face of the earth by Alexander,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> -without the Amphictyons raising one word in -opposition. Indeed, a few years before the -Peloponnesian war, the council was a passive -spectator of what Thucydides calls the Sacred -War (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ ἱερὸς πόλεμος</span>), when the Lacedaemonians -made an expedition to Delphi, and put -the temple into the hands of the Delphians, -the Athenians, after their departure, restoring -it to the Phocians. The council is rarely -mentioned after the time of Philip. We are -told that Augustus wished his new city, -Nicopolis (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 31), to be enrolled among -the members. Pausanias, in the second -century of our era, mentions it as still existing, -but deprived of all power and influence.</p> - - -<p id="Amphidromia">AMPHĬDRŎMĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφιδρόμια</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρομιάμφιον -ἧμαρ</span>), a family festival of the Athenians, -at which the newly-born child was -introduced into the family, and received its -name. The friends and relations of the -parents were invited to the festival of the -amphidromia, which was held in the evening, -and they generally appeared with presents. -The house was decorated on the outside with -olive branches when the child was a boy, or -with garlands of wool when the child was a -girl; and a repast was prepared for the -guests. The child was carried round the -fire by the nurse, and thus, as it were, presented -to the gods of the house and to the -family, and at the same time received its -name, to which the guests were witnesses. -The carrying of the child round the hearth -was the principal part of the solemnity, from -which its name was derived.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill022a" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill022a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Longitudinal Section of the Flavian Amphitheatre.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp79" id="ill022b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill022b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Elevation of one side of the preceding Section.<br /> - -EXPLANATION.<br /> - -<div class="blockquotx"> - -<p><span class="allsmcap">A</span>, The arena.</p> - -<p><em>p</em>, The wall or podium inclosing it.</p> - -<p><span class="allsmcap">P</span>, The podium itself, on which were chairs, or seats, for -the senators, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="allsmcap">M′</span>, The first maenianum, or slope of benches, for the -equestrian order.</p> - -<p><span class="allsmcap">M″</span>, The second maenianum.</p> - -<p><span class="allsmcap">M‴</span>, The third maenianum, elevated considerably above -the preceding one, and appropriated to the pullati.</p> - -<p><span class="allsmcap">W</span>, The colonnade, or gallery, which contained seats for -women.</p> - -<p><span class="allsmcap">E</span>, The narrow gallery round the summit of the interior, -for the attendants who worked the velarium.</p> - -<p><em>pr</em>, <em>pr</em>, The præcinctiones, or landings, at the top of the -first and second maenianum; in the pavement of -which were grated apertures, at intervals, to admit -light into the vomitoria beneath them.</p> - -<p><span class="allsmcap">V V V V</span>, Vomitoria.</p> - -<p><span class="allsmcap">G G G</span>, The three external galleries through the circumference -of the building, open to the arcades of the -exterior.</p> - -<p><em>g g</em>, Inner gallery.</p> -</div> - -<p>The situation and arrangement of the staircases, &c., are -not expressed, as they could not be rendered intelligible -without plans at various levels of the building.</p></div> -</div> - - -<p id="Amphitheatrum">AMPHĬTHĔĀTRUM, an amphitheatre, -was a place for the exhibition of public shows -of combatants, wild beasts, and naval engagements, -and was entirely surrounded with -seats for the spectators; whereas, in those -for dramatic performances, the seats were -arranged in a semicircle facing the stage. -An amphitheatre is therefore frequently described -as a double theatre, consisting of two -such semicircles, or halves, joined together, -the spaces allotted to their orchestras becoming -the inner inclosure, or area, termed the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arena</i>. The form, however, of the ancient -amphitheatres was not a circle, but invariably -an ellipse. Gladiatorial shows and combats -of wild beasts (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">venationes</i>) were first exhibited -in the forum and the circus; and it -appears that the ancient custom was still -preserved till the time of Julius Caesar. The -first building in the form of an amphitheatre -is said to have been erected by C. Scribonius -Curio, one of Caesar’s partisans; but the -account which is given of this building sounds -rather fabulous. It is said to have consisted -of two wooden theatres, made to revolve on -pivots, in such a manner that they could, by -means of windlasses and machinery, be turned -round face to face, so as to form one building. -Soon after Caesar himself erected, in the -Campus Martius, a stationary amphitheatre, -made of wood; to which building the name -of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amphitheatrum</i> was for the first time given. -The first stone amphitheatre was built by -Statilius Taurus, in the Campus Martius, at -the desire of Augustus. This was the only -stone amphitheatre at Rome till the time of -Vespasian. One was commenced by Caligula, -but was not continued by Claudius. The one -erected by Nero in the Campus Martius was -only a temporary building, made of wood. -The amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus was -burnt in the fire of Rome in the time of Nero; -and hence, as a new one was needed, Vespasian -commenced the celebrated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Amphitheatrum -Flavium</i> in the middle of the city, in the -valley between the Caelian, the Esquiline, -and the Velia, on the spot originally occupied -by the lake or large pond attached to Nero’s -palace. Vespasian did not live to finish it. -It was dedicated by Titus in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 80, but was -not completely finished, till the reign of Domitian. -This immense edifice, which is even yet -comparatively entire, covered nearly six acres -of ground, and was capable of containing -about 87,000 spectators. It is called at the -present day the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Colosseum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Colisaeum</i>. The -interior of an amphitheatre was divided into -three parts, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arena</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">podium</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gradus</i>. -The clear open space in the centre of the -amphitheatre was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arena</i>, because -it was covered with sand, or sawdust, to -prevent the gladiators from slipping, and to -absorb the blood. The size of the arena was -not always the same in proportion to the size -of the amphitheatre, but its average proportion -was one-third of the shorter diameter of -the building. The arena was surrounded by -a wall distinguished by the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">podium</i>; -although such appellation, perhaps, rather -belongs to merely the upper part of it, forming -the parapet, or balcony, before the first -or lowermost seats, nearest to the arena. The -arena, therefore, was no more than an open -oval court, surrounded by a wall about fifteen -feet high; a height considered necessary, in -order to render the spectators perfectly secure -from the attacks of wild beasts. There were -four principal entrances leading into the arena; -two at the ends of each axis or diameter of it, -to which as many passages led directly from -the exterior of the building; besides secondary -ones, intervening between them, and communicating -with the corridors beneath the seats -on the podium. The wall or enclosure of the -arena is supposed to have been faced with -marble, more or less sumptuous; besides -which, there appears to have been, in some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span> -instances at least, a sort of net-work affixed -to the top of the podium, consisting of railing, -or rather open trellis-work of metal. As -a further defence, ditches, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">euripi</i>, sometimes -surrounded the arena. The term podium -was also applied to the terrace, or gallery -itself, immediately above the arena, which -was no wider than to be capable of containing -two, or at the most, three ranges of moveable -seats, or chairs. This, as being by far the -best situation for distinctly viewing the sports -in the arena, and also more commodiously -accessible than the seats higher up, was the -place set apart for senators and other persons -of distinction, such as foreign ambassadors; -and it was here, also, that the emperor himself -used to sit, in an elevated place, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suggestus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cubiculum</i>, and likewise the -person who exhibited the games on a place -elevated like a pulpit or tribunal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">editoris -tribunal</i>). Above the podium were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gradus</i>, -or seats of the other spectators, which -were divided into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maeniana</i>, or stories. The -first <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maenianum</i>, consisting of fourteen rows -of stone or marble seats, was appropriated -to the equestrian order. The seats appropriated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span> -to the senators and equites were -covered with cushions, which were first used -in the time of Caligula. Then, after an interval -or space, termed a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecinctio</i>, and -forming a continued landing-place from the -several staircases in it, succeeded the second -maenianum, where were the seats called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popularia</i>, for the third class of spectators, or -the populus. Behind this was the second praecinctio, -bounded by a rather high wall; above -which was the third maenianum, where there -were only wooden benches for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pullati</i>, or -common people. The next and last division, -namely, that in the highest part of the -building, consisted of a colonnade, or gallery, -where females were allowed to witness the -spectacles of the amphitheatre, but some parts -of it were also occupied by the pullati. -Each maenianum was not only divided from -the other by the praecinctio, but was intersected -at intervals by spaces for passages left -between the seats, <span id="Scalae_a">called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scalae</i></span>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scalaria</i>; -and the portion between two such passages -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cuneus</i>, because the space gradually -widened like a wedge, from the podium to -the top of the building. The entrances to -the seats from the outer porticoes were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vomitoria</i>. At the very summit was the -narrow platform for the men who had to -attend to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velarium</i>, or awning, by which -the building was covered as a defence against -the sun and rain. The velarium appears -usually to have been made of wool, but more -costly materials were sometimes employed. -The first of the preceding cuts represents a -longitudinal section of the Flavian amphitheatre, -and the second, which is on a larger -scale, a part of the above section, including -the exterior wall, and the seats included -between that and the arena. It will serve to -convey an idea of the leading form and general -disposition of the interior. For an account of -the gladiatorial contests, and the shows of -wild beasts, exhibited in the amphitheatre, -see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Naumachia">Naumachia</a></span>, and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Venatio">Venatio</a></span>.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="ill023a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill023a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Amphorae. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Amphora">AMPHŎRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφορεύς</span>), a vessel used for -holding wine, oil, honey, &c. The following -cut represents amphorae in the British Museum. -They are of various forms and sizes; -in general they are tall and narrow, with a -small neck, and a handle on each side of the -neck (whence the name, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφί</span>, <em>on both -sides</em>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φέρω</span>, to carry), and terminating at -the bottom in a point, which was let into a -stand or stuck in the ground, so that the -vessel stood upright: several amphorae have -been found in this position in the cellars at -Pompeii. Amphorae were commonly made -of earthenware. Homer mentions amphorae -of gold and stone, and the Egyptians had -them of brass; glass vessels of this form -have been found at Pompeii. The most common -use of the amphora, both among the -Greeks and the Romans, was for keeping -wine. The cork was covered with pitch or -gypsum, and (among the Romans) on the -outside the title of the wine was painted, the -date of the vintage being marked by the -names of the consuls then in office; or, when -the jars were of glass, little tickets (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pittoria</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tesserae</i>) were suspended from them, indicating -these particulars.—The Greek amphoreus and -the Roman amphora were also names of fixed -measures. The amphoreus, which was also -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metretes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετρητής</span>) and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cadus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάδος</span>), -was equal to three Roman urnae = 8 gallons, -7·365 pints, imperial measure. The Roman -amphora was two-thirds of the amphoreus, -and was equal to 2 urnae = 8 congii = to 5 -gallons, 7·577 pints; its solid content was -exactly a Roman cubic foot.</p> - - -<p id="Ampliatio">AMPLĬĀTĬO, an adjournment of a trial, -which took place when the judices after hearing -the evidence of the advocates were unable -to come to a satisfactory conclusion. This -they expressed by giving in the tablets, on -which were the letters N. L. (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">non liquet</i>), and -the praetor, by pronouncing the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amplius</i>, -thereupon adjourned the trial to any -day he chose. The defendant and the cause -were then said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ampliari</i>.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill023b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill023b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ampulla. (Sketched by G. Scharf from a relief at -Athens, discovered in 1840.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Ampulla">AMPULLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λήκυθος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βομβύλιος</span>), a bottle, -usually made among the Romans either of -glass or earthenware, rarely of more valuable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> -materials. Ampullae were more or less globular. -From their round and swollen shape, -the word was used by Horace to indicate grand -and turgid but empty language. (“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Projicit -ampullas et sesquipedalia verba</span>,” <cite>Ar. Poet.</cite> 97.) -Ampullae are frequently mentioned in connection -with the bath, since every Roman took -with him to the bath a bottle of oil for anointing -the body after bathing. The dealer in -bottles was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ampullarius</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp35" id="ill024a" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill024a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ampulla. (From a tomb at Myra in Lycia.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Ampyx">AMPYX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄμπυξ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-24" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'ἀμπυκτῆρ'"> -ἀμπυκτήρ</ins></span>, Lat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">frontale</i>), -a frontal, a broad band or plate of metal, -which ladies of rank wore above the forehead -as part of the head-dress. The frontal of a -horse was called by the same name. The -annexed cut exhibits the frontal on the head -of Pegasus, in contrast with the corresponding -ornament as shown on the heads of two -females.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="ill024b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill024b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ampyces, Frontlets. (From Paintings on Vases.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Amuletum">ĂMŬLĒTUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίαπτον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίαμμα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλακτήριον</span>), -an amulet. This word in Arabic -(hamalet) means <em>that which is suspended</em>. It -was probably brought into Europe by Arabian -merchants, together with the articles to -which it was applied. An amulet was any -object,—a stone, a plant, an artificial production, -or a piece of writing,—which was -suspended from the neck, or tied to any part -of the body, for the purpose of warding off -calamities and securing advantages of any -kind. Faith in the virtues of amulets was -almost universal in the ancient world, so -that the art of medicine consisted in a very -considerable degree of directions for their -application.</p> - - -<p id="Amussis">ĂMUSSIS or ĂMUSSĬUM, a carpenter’s -and mason’s instrument, the use of which -was to obtain a true plane surface.</p> - - -<p id="Anaceia">ĂNĂCEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκεια</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκειον</span>), a festival -of the Dioscuri or Anactes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄνακτες</span>), as -they were called at Athens. These heroes, -however, received the most distinguished honours -in the Dorian and Achaean states, -where it may be supposed that every town -celebrated a festival in their honour, though -not under the name of Anaceia.</p> - - -<p id="Anacrisis">ĂNACRĬSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκρισις</span>), an examination, -was used to signify the pleadings preparatory -to a trial at Athens, the object of which was -to determine, generally, if the action would -lie. The magistrates were said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνακρίνειν -τὴν δίκην</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοὺς ἀντιδίκους</span>, and the parties -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνακρίνεσθαι</span>. The process consisted in the -production of proofs, of which there were -five kinds:—1. The laws; 2. Written documents; -3. Testimonies of witnesses present -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαρτυρίαι</span>), or affidavits of absent witnesses -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκμαρτυρίαι</span>); 4. Depositions of slaves extorted -by the rack; 5. The oath of the parties. -All these proofs were committed to -writing, and placed in a box secured by a -seal (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐχῖνος</span>) till they were produced at the -trial. If the evidence produced at the anacrisis -was so clear and convincing that there -could not remain any doubt, the magistrate -could decide the question without sending the -cause to be tried before the dicasts: this was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diamartyria</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαμαρτυρία</span>). The archons -were the proper officers for holding -the anacrisis; they are represented by Athena -(Minerva), in the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Eumenides</cite> of Aeschylus, -where there is a poetical sketch of the process -in the law courts. For an account of the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anacrisis</i> or examination, which each archon -underwent previously to entering on office, -see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Archon">Archon</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Anaglypha">ĂNĂGLỸPHA or ĂNĂGLYPTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάγλυφα</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάγλυπτα</span>), chased or embossed vessels made -of bronze or of the precious metals, which -derived their name from the work on them -being in relief, and not engraved.</p> - - -<p id="Anagnostes">ĂNĂGNOSTĒS, a slave, whose duty it was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span> -to read or repeat passages from books during -an entertainment, and also at other times.</p> - - -<p id="Anagogia">ĂNĂGŌGĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναγώγια</span>), a festival celebrated -at Eryx, in Sicily, in honour of Aphrodite. -The inhabitants of the place believed -that, during this festival, the goddess went -over into Africa.</p> - - -<p id="Anatocismus">ĂNĂTŎCISMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ancile">ANCĪLE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Salii">Salii</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ancora">ANCŎRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Andabata">ANDĂBĂTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiator</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Androgeonia">ANDRŎGĔŌNIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδρογεώνια</span>), a festival -with games, held every year in the Cerameicus -at Athens, in honour of the hero Androgeus, -son of Minos, who had overcome all -his adversaries in the festive games of the -Panathenaea, and was afterwards killed by -his jealous rivals.</p> - - -<p id="Androlepsia">ANDRŎLEPSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδροληψία</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδρολήψιον</span>), -a legal means by which the Athenians -were enabled to take vengeance upon a community -in which an Athenian citizen had -been murdered, by seizing three individuals -of that state or city, as hostages, until satisfaction -was given.</p> - - -<p id="Andronitis">ANDRŌNĪTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>, Greek.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Angaria">ANGĂRĪA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγγαρεία</span>, Hdt. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγγαρήϊον</span>), a -word borrowed from the Persians, signifying -a system of posting by relays of horses, which -was used among that people, and which, according -to Xenophon, was established by -Cyrus. The term was adopted by the Romans -under the empire to signify compulsory -service in forwarding the messages of the -state. The Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">angaria</i>, also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">angariarum -exhibitio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praestatio</i>, included the -maintenance and supply, not only of horses, -but of ships and messengers, in forwarding -both letters and burdens; it is defined as a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">personale munus</i>; and there was no ground -of exemption from it allowed, except by the -favour of the emperor.</p> - - -<p id="Angiportus">ANGĬPORTUS, or ANGĬPORTUM, a narrow -lane between two rows of houses, which -might either be what the French call a <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">cul-de-sac</i>, -or it might terminate at both ends in -some public street.</p> - - -<p id="Angusticlavii">ANGUSTICLĀVĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus_l">Clavus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Annales">ANNĀLES MAXĬMI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pontifex">Pontifex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Annona">ANNŌNA (from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annus</i>, like <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pomona</i> from -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pomum</i>).—(1) The produce of the year in -corn, fruit, wine, &c., and hence,—(2) provisions -in general, especially the corn, which, -in the later years of the republic, was collected -in the storehouses of the state, and -sold to the poor at a cheap rate in times of -scarcity; and which, under the emperors, -was distributed to the people gratuitously, or -given as pay and rewards;—(3) the price of -provisions;—(4) a soldier’s allowance of provisions -for a certain time. The word is used -also in the plural for yearly or monthly distributions -of pay in corn, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Annulus">ANNŬLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δακτύλιος</span>), a ring. It is probable -that the custom of wearing rings was -very early introduced into Greece from Asia, -where it appears to have been almost universal. -They were worn not merely as ornaments, -but as articles for use, as the ring -always served as a seal. A seal was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sphragis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφραγίς</span>), and hence this name was -given to the ring itself, and also to the gem -or stone for a ring in which figures were engraved. -Rings in Greece were mostly worn -on the fourth finger (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράμεσος</span>). At Rome, -the custom of wearing rings was believed to -have been introduced by the Sabines, who -were described in the early legends as wearing -golden rings with precious stones of great -beauty. But, whenever introduced at Rome, -it is certain that they were at first always of -iron; that they were destined for the same -purpose as in Greece, namely, to be used as -seals; and that every free Roman had a right -to use such a ring. This iron ring was worn -down to the last period of the republic by -such men as loved the simplicity of the good -old times. In the course of time, however, -it became customary for all the senators, -chief magistrates, and at last for the equites -also, to wear a golden seal-ring. The right -of wearing a gold ring, which was subsequently -called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus annuli aurei</i>, or the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus annulorum</i>, remained for several centuries -at Rome the exclusive privilege of senators, -magistrates, and equites, while all other -persons continued to wear iron ones. During -the empire the right of granting the annulus -aureus belonged to the emperors, and some -of them were not very scrupulous in conferring -this privilege. Augustus gave it to -Mena, a freedman, and to Antonius Musa, -a physician. The emperors Severus and -Aurelian conferred the right of wearing -golden rings upon all Roman soldiers; and -Justinian at length allowed all the citizens of -the empire, whether ingenui or libertini, to -wear such rings. The ring of a Roman emperor -was a kind of state seal, and the emperor -sometimes allowed the use of it to such -persons as he wished to be regarded as his -representatives. During the republic and -the early times of the empire the jus annuli -seems to have made a person ingenuus (if he -was a libertus), and to have raised him to -the rank of eques, provided he had the requisite -equestrian census, and it was probably -never granted to any one who did not possess -this census. Those who lost their property, -or were found guilty of a criminal offence, -lost the jus annuli. The principal value of -a ring consisted in the gem set in it, or rather<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span> -in the workmanship of the engraver. The -stone most frequently used was the onyx -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαρδῶνος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαρδόνυξ</span>), on account of its various -colours, of which the artist made the most -skilful use. In the art of engraving upon -gems the ancients far surpassed anything -that modern times can boast of. The devices -engraved upon rings were very various: -they were portraits of ancestors or of friends, -subjects connected with mythology; and in -many cases a person had engraved upon his -seal some symbolical allusion to the real or -mythical history of his family. The bezel or -part of the ring which contained the gem -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pala</i>. With the increasing love of -luxury and show, the Romans, as well as the -Greeks, covered their fingers with rings. -Some persons also wore rings of immoderate -size, and others used different rings for summer -and winter. Much superstition appears -to have been connected with rings, especially -in the East and in Greece. Some persons -made it a lucrative trade to sell rings which -were believed to possess magic powers, -and to preserve the wearers from external -danger.</p> - - -<p id="Annus">ANNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Anquisitio">ANQUĪSĪTĬO, signified, in criminal trials -at Rome, the investigation of the facts of the -case with reference to the penalty that was -to be imposed: accordingly the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecunia -capitis</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capitis anquirere</i> are used. -Under the emperors the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anquisitio</i> lost -its original meaning, and was employed to -indicate an accusation in general; in which -sense it also occurs even in the times of the -republic.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill026" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill026.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Temple in Antis. (Temple of Artemis at Eleusia.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Antae">ANTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραστάδες</span>), square pillars, which -were commonly joined to the side-walls of a -building, being placed on each side of the -door, so as to assist in forming the portico. -These terms are seldom found except in the -plural; because the purpose served by antae -required that they should be erected corresponding -to each other and supporting the -extremities of the same roof. The temple <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in -antis</i> was one of the simplest kind. It had -in front antae attached to the walls which -inclosed the cella; and in the middle, between -the antae, two columns supporting the -architrave.</p> - - -<p id="Anteambulones">ANTĔAMBŬLŌNES, slaves who were accustomed -to go before their masters, in order -to make way for them through the crowd. -The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anteambulones</i> was also given to -the clients, who were accustomed to walk -before their patroni, when the latter appeared -in public.</p> - - -<p id="Antecessores">ANTĔCESSŌRES, called also ANTĔCURSŌRES, -horse-soldiers, who were accustomed -to precede an army on march, in order to -choose a suitable place for the camp, and to -make the necessary provisions for the army. -They do not appear to have been merely -scouts, like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">speculatores</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Antecoena">ANTĔCOENA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Antefixa">ANTĔFIXA, terra-cottas, which exhibited -various ornamental designs, and were used -in architecture to cover the frieze (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">zophorus</i>) -of the entablature. These terra-cottas do not -appear to have been used among the Greeks, -but were probably Etruscan in their origin, -and were thence taken for the decoration of -Roman buildings. The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">antefixa</i> is -evidently derived from the circumstance that -they were <em>fixed before</em> the buildings which -they adorned. Cato, the censor, complained -that the Romans of his time began to despise -ornaments of this description, and to prefer -the marble friezes of Athens and Corinth. -The rising taste which Cato deplored may -account for the superior beauty of the antefixa -preserved in the British Museum, which -were discovered at Rome.</p> - - -<p id="Antenna">ANTENNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Antepilani">ANTĔPĪLĀNI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Antesignani">ANTĔSIGNĀNI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Anthesphoria">ANTHESPHŎRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνθεσφόρια</span>), a flower-festival, -principally celebrated in Sicily, in -honour of Demeter and Persephone, in commemoration -of the return of Persephone to -her mother in the beginning of spring.</p> - - -<p id="Anthesteria">ANTHESTĒRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Antidosis">ANTĬDŎSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντίδοσις</span>), in its literal and -general meaning, “an exchange,” was, in -the language of the Attic courts, peculiarly -applied to proceedings under a law which is -said to have originated with Solon. By this, -a citizen nominated to perform a leiturgia, -such as a trierarchy or choregia, or to rank -among the property-tax payers, in a class -disproportioned to his means, was empowered<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span> -to call upon any qualified person not so -charged to take the office in his stead, or -submit to a complete exchange of property, -the charge in question of course attaching to -the first party, if the exchange were finally -effected. For the proceedings the courts were -opened at a stated time every year by the -magistrates that had official cognisance of the -particular subject; such as the strategi in -cases of trierarchy and rating to the property-taxes, -and the archon in those of choregia.</p> - - -<p id="Antigraphe">ANTĬGRĂPHE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιγραφή</span>) originally signified -the writing put in by the defendant, -his “plea” in all causes whether public or -private, in answer to the indictment or bill -of the prosecutor. It is, however, also applied -to the bill or indictment of the plaintiff -or accuser.</p> - - -<p id="Antlia">ĀNTLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄντλια</span>), any machine for raising -water, a pump. The most important of these -machines were:—(1) The tympanum; a -tread-wheel, worked by men treading on it.—(2) -A wheel having wooden boxes or buckets, -so arranged as to form steps for those who -trod the wheel.—(3) The chain pump.—(4) -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cochlea</i>, or Archimedes’s screw.—(5) The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ctesibica machina</i>, or forcing-pump.—Criminals -were condemned to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">antlia</i> or -tread-mill. The antlia with which Martial -(ix. 19) watered his garden, was probably the -pole and bucket universally employed in -Italy, Greece, and Egypt. The pole is curved, -as shown in the annexed figure; because -it is the stem of a fir or some other tapering -tree.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill027a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill027a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Antlia.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Antyx">ANTYX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄντυξ</span>), the rim or border of any -thing, especially of a shield or chariot. The -rim of the large round shield of the ancient -Greeks was thinner than the part which it -enclosed; but on the other hand, the antyx -of a chariot must have been thicker than the -body to which it gave both form and strength. -In front of the chariot the antyx was often -raised above the body, into the form of a -curvature, which served the purpose of a -hook to hang the reins upon.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill027b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill027b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Antyx. (From an Etruscan tomb.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Apagoge">ĂPĂGŌGĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπαγωγή</span>), a summary process, -allowed in certain cases by the Athenian law. -The term denotes not merely the act of apprehending -a culprit caught <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in ipso facto</i>, but -also the written information delivered to the -magistrate, urging his apprehension. The -cases in which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apagoge</i> was most generally -allowed were those of theft, murder, -ill-usage of parents, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Apaturia">ĂPĂTŪRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπατούρια</span>) was a political -festival, which the Athenians had in common -with all the Greeks of the Ionian name, with -the exception of those of Colophon and -Ephesus. It was celebrated in the month of -Pyanepsion, and lasted for three days. The -name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπατούρια</span> is not derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπατᾶν</span>, -to deceive, but is composed of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀ = ἅμα</span> and -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πατύρια</span>, which is perfectly consistent with -what Xenophon says of the festival, that -when it is celebrated the fathers and relations -assemble together. According to this -derivation, it is the festival at which the -phratriae met to discuss and settle their own -affairs. But, as every citizen was a member -of a phratria, the festival extended over the -whole nation, who assembled <em>according to -phratriae</em>. The festival lasted three days. -The third day was the most important; for -on that day, children born in that year, in -the families of the phratriae, or such as were -not yet registered, were taken by their fathers, -or in their absence by their representatives -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύριοι</span>), before the assembled -members of the phratria. For every child a -sheep or a goat was sacrificed. The father, -or he who supplied his place, was obliged to -establish by oath that the child was the offspring -of free-born parents, and citizens of -Athens. After the victim was sacrificed, the -phratores gave their votes, which they took -from the altar of Zeus Phratrius. When the -majority voted against the reception, the -cause might be tried before one of the courts -of Athens; and if the claims of the child -were found unobjectionable, its name, as well<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span> -as that of the father, was entered into the -register of the phratria, and those who had -wished to effect the exclusion of the child -were liable to be punished.</p> - - -<p id="Aperta">ĂPERTA NĀVIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Apex">ĂPEX, a cap worn by the flamines and -salii at Rome. The essential part of the -apex, to which alone the name properly belonged, -was a pointed piece of olive-wood, -the base of which was surrounded with a -lock of wool. This was worn on the top of -the head, and was held there either by fillets -only, or, as was more commonly the case, by -the aid of a cap which fitted the head, and -was also fastened by means of two strings or -bands. The albogalerus, a white cap made -of the skin of a white victim sacrificed to -Jupiter, and worn by the flamen dialis, had the -apex fastened to it by means of an olive twig.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill028" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill028.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Apices, caps worn by the Salii. (From bas-reliefs and -coins.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Aphlaston">APHLASTON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄφλαστον</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aphractus">ĂPHRACTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aphrodisia">ĂPHRŎDĪSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀφροδίσια</span>) were festivals -celebrated in honour of Aphrodité, in a great -number of towns in Greece, but particularly -in the island of Cyprus. Her most ancient -temple was at Paphos. No bloody sacrifices -were allowed to be offered to her, but only -pure fire, flowers, and incense.</p> - - -<p id="Aplustre">APLUSTRE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Apocleti">ĂPŎCLĒTI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποκλητοὶ</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aetolicum">Aetolicum Foedus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Apodectae">ĂPODECTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποδέκται</span>), public officers -at Athens, who were introduced by Cleisthenes -in the place of the ancient colacretae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωλακρέται</span>). -They were ten in number, one for -each tribe, and their duty was to collect all -the ordinary taxes, and distribute them -among the separate branches of the administration -which were entitled to them.</p> - - -<p id="Apographe">ĂPŎGRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπογραφή</span>), literally, “a -list, or register;” signified also, (1) An accusation -in public matters, more particularly -when there were several defendants. It -differed but little, if at all, from the ordinary -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">graphe</i>.—(2) A solemn protest or assertion -in writing before a magistrate, to the intent -that it might be preserved by him till it was -required to be given in evidence.—(3) A -specification of property, said to belong to -the state, but actually in the possession of a -private person; which specification was made -with a view to the confiscation of such property -to the state.</p> - - -<p id="Apollinares">ĂPOLLĬNĀRES LŪDI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ludi">Ludi Apollinares</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Apollonia">ĂPOLLŌNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπολλώνια</span>), the name of a -propitiatory festival solemnized at Sicyon, in -honour of Apollo and Artemis.</p> - - -<p id="Apophoreta">ĂPŎPHŎRĒTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποφόρητα</span>) were presents, -which were given to friends at the end of an -entertainment to take home with them. -These presents appear to have been usually -given on festival days, especially during the -Saturnalia.</p> - - -<p id="Aporrheta">ĂPORRHĒTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπόῤῥητα</span>), literally “things -forbidden,” has two peculiar, but widely different, -acceptations in the Attic dialect. In -one of these it implies contraband goods; in -the other, it denotes certain contumelious -epithets, from the application of which both -the living and the dead were protected by -special laws.</p> - - -<p id="Apostoleus">ĂPŎSTŎLEUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποστολεύς</span>), the name of a -public officer at Athens. There were ten -magistrates of this name, and their duty was -to see that the ships were properly equipped -and provided by those who were bound to -discharge the trierarchy. They had the -power, in certain cases, of imprisoning the -trierarchs who neglected to furnish the ships -properly.</p> - - -<p id="Apotheca">ĂPŎTHĒCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποθήκη</span>), a place in the -upper part of the house, in which the Romans -frequently placed the earthen amphorae -in which their wines were deposited. This -place, which was quite different from the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella vinaria</i>, was above the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fumarium</i>; since -it was thought that the passage of the smoke -through the room tended greatly to increase -the flavour of the wine. The position of the -apotheca explains the expression in Horace -(<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carm.</cite> ii. 21, 7), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Descende</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testa</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Apotheosis">ĂPŎTHĔŌSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποθέωσις</span>), the enrolment -of a mortal among the gods. The mythology -of Greece contains numerous instances of the -deification of mortals; but in the republican -times of Greece we find few examples of such -deification. The inhabitants of Amphipolis, -however, offered sacrifices to Brasidas after -his death. In the Greek kingdoms, which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span> -arose in the East on the dismemberment of -the empire of Alexander, it appears to have -been not uncommon for the successor to the -throne to offer divine honours to the former -sovereign. Such an apotheosis of Ptolemy, -king of Egypt, is described by Theocritus in -his 17th Idyl. The term apotheosis, among -the Romans, properly signified the elevation -of a deceased emperor to divine honours. -This practice, which was common upon the -death of almost all the emperors, appears to -have arisen from the opinion which was -generally entertained among the Romans, -that the souls or manes of their ancestors -became deities; and as it was common for -children to worship the manes of their -fathers, so it was natural for divine honours -to be publicly paid to a deceased emperor, -who was regarded as the parent of his -country. This apotheosis of an emperor was -usually called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consecratio</i>; and the emperor -who received the honour of an apotheosis -was usually said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in deorum numerum referri</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consecrari</i>, and whenever he is spoken of -after his death, the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divus</i> is prefixed -to his name. The funeral pile on which the -body of the deceased emperor was burnt, was -constructed of several stories in the form of -chambers rising one above another, and in -the highest an eagle was placed, which was -let loose as the fire began to burn, and which -was supposed to carry the soul of the emperor -from earth to heaven.</p> - - -<p id="Apparitor">APPĀRĬTOR, the general name for a -public servant of the magistrates at Rome, -namely, the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Accensus">Accensus</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Carnifex">Carnifex</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Coactor">Coactor</a></span>, -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Interpres">Interpres</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lictor">Lictor</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Praecones">Praeco</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Scribae">Scriba</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Stator">Stator</a></span>, -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Viator">Viator</a></span>, of whom an account is given in -separate articles. They were called apparitores -because they were at hand to execute -the commands of the magistrates (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quod iis -apparebant</i>). Their service or attendance -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apparitio</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Appellatio">APPELLĀTĬO, appeal.—(1) <span class="smcap">Greek</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφεσις</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναδικία</span>.) Owing to the constitution of -the Athenian tribunals, each of which was -generally appropriated to its peculiar subjects -of cognisance, and therefore could not -be considered as homogeneous with or subordinate -to any other, there was little opportunity -for bringing appeals properly so called. -It is to be observed also, that in general a -cause was finally and irrevocably decided by -the verdict of the dicasts (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη αὐτοτελής</span>). -There were only a few exceptions in which -appeals and new trials might be resorted to.—(2) -<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">appellatio</i>, and the -corresponding verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">appellare</i>, are used in the -early Roman writers to express the application -of an individual to a magistrate, and -particularly to a tribune, in order to protect -himself from some wrong inflicted, or threatened -to be inflicted. It is distinguished from -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>, which in the early writers is used -to signify an appeal to the populus in a -matter affecting life. It would seem that the -provocatio was an ancient right of the Roman -citizens. The surviving Horatius, who murdered -his sister, appealed from the duumviri -to the populus. The decemviri took away -the provocatio; but it was restored by the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Valeria et Horatia</i>, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449, in the year -after the decemvirate, and it was at the same -time enacted, that in future no magistrate -should be made from whom there should be -no appeal. On this Livy remarks, that the -plebs were now protected by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i> -and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribunicium auxilium</i>; this latter -term has reference to the appellatio properly -so called. The complete phrase to express -the provocatio is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocare ad populum</i>; and -the phrase which expresses the appellatio is -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">appellare ad</i>, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Apsis">APSIS or ABSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁψίς</span>), in architecture, -signified first, any building or portion of a -building of a circular form or vaulted, and -more especially the circular and vaulted end -of a Basilica.</p> - - -<p id="Aquae">ĂQUAE DUCTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδραγωγία</span>), literally, a -water-conduit, but the word is used especially -for the magnificent structures by means of -which Rome and other cities of the Roman -empire were supplied with water. A Roman -aqueduct, often called simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aqua</i>, may be -described in general terms as a channel, constructed -as nearly as possible with a regular -declivity from the source whence the water -was derived to the place where it was delivered, -carried through hills by means of -tunnels, and over valleys upon a substruction -of solid masonry or arches. The aqueduct is -mentioned by Strabo as among the structures -which were neglected by the Greeks, and -first brought into use by the Romans. -Springs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρῆναι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρουνοί</span>) were sufficiently -abundant in Greece to supply the great cities -with water; and they were frequently converted -into public fountains by the formation -of a head for their waters, and the erection -of an ornamental superstructure. Of this -we have an example in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Enneacrunos</i> at -Athens, which was constructed by Peisistratus -and his sons. The Romans were in a very -different position, with respect to the supply -of water, from most of the Greek cities. -They, at first, had recourse to the Tiber, and -to wells sunk in the city; but the water -obtained from those sources was very unwholesome, -and must soon have proved insufficient, -from the growth of the population. -It was this necessity that led to the invention -of aqueducts, in order to bring pure water<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span> -from the hills which surround the Campagna. -The number of aqueducts was gradually increased, -partly at the public expense, and -partly by the munificence of individuals, till, -in the fourth century of the Christian era, -they amounted to fourteen. Of these only -four belong to the time of the republic, while -five were built in the reigns of Augustus and -Claudius.—1. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Appia</i>, begun by the -censor Appius Claudius Caecus in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 313. -Its sources were near the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Praenestina</i>, -between the seventh and eighth mile-stones.—2. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anio Vetus</i> was commenced forty years -later, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 273, by the censor M. Curius Dentatus, -and was finished by M. Fulvius Flaccus. -The water was derived from the river Anio, -above Tibur, at a distance of 20 Roman miles -from the city; but, on account of its windings, -its actual length was 43 miles.—3. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Marcia</i>, one of the most important of -the whole, was built by the praetor Q. Marcius -Rex, by command of the senate, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -144. It commenced at the side of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via -Valeria</i>, 36 miles from Rome.—4. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua -Tepula</i>, built by the censors Cn. Servilius -Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 127, -began at a spot in the Lucullan or Tusculan -land, two miles to the right of the tenth -milestone on the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Latina</i>. It was afterwards -connected with.—5. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Julia</i>, -built by Agrippa in his aedileship, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 33. -It was conducted from a source two miles to -the right of the twelfth milestone on the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via -Latina</i>, first to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Tepula</i>, in which -it was merged as far as the reservoir (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">piscina</i>) -on the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Latina</i>, seven miles from -Rome. From this reservoir the water was -carried along two distinct channels, on the -same substructions; the lower channel being -called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Tepula</i>, and the upper the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Julia</i>; and this double aqueduct again -was united with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Marcia</i>, over the -watercourse of which the other two were -carried.—6. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Virgo</i>, built by Agrippa, -to supply his baths. From a source in a -marshy spot by the 8th milestone on the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Collatina</i>, it was conducted by a very -circuitous route.—7. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Alsietina</i> -(sometimes called also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Augusta</i>), on the -other side of the Tiber, was constructed by -Augustus from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lacus Alsietinus</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lago di -Martignano</i>), which lay 6500 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">passus</i> to the -right of the 14th milestone on the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via -Claudia</i>.—8, 9. The two most magnificent -aqueducts were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Claudia</i> and the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anio Novus</i> (or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Aniena Nova</i>), both -commenced by Caligula in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 36, and -finished by Claudius in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 50. The water -of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Claudia</i> was derived from two -copious and excellent springs, near the 38th -milestone on the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Sublacensis</i>. Its length -was nearly 46½ miles. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anio Novus</i> began -at the 42nd milestone. It was the longest -and the highest of all the aqueducts, its -length being nearly 59 miles, and some of its -arches 109 feet high. In the neighbourhood -of the city these two aqueducts were united, -forming two channels on the same arches, the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Claudia</i> below and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anio Novus</i> above. -These nine aqueducts were all that existed in -the time of Frontinus, who was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curator</i> -of the aqueducts in the reigns of Nerva and -Trajan. There was also another aqueduct, -not reckoned with the nine, because its waters -were no longer brought all the way to Rome, -viz.: 10. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Crabra</i>.—The following -were of later construction. 11. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua -Trajana</i>, brought by Trajan from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lacus -Sabatinus</i> (now <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bracciano</i>).—12. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua -Alexandrina</i>, constructed by Alexander Severus; -its source was in the lands of Tusculum, -about 14 miles from Rome.—13. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Septimiana</i>, built by Septimius Severus, -was perhaps only a branch of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Julia</i>.—14. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Algentia</i> had its source at -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">M. Algidus</i> by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Tusculana</i>. Its builder -is unknown.—Great pains were taken by -successive emperors to preserve and repair -the aqueducts. From the Gothic wars downwards, -they have for the most part shared -the fate of the other great Roman works of -architecture; their situation and purpose -rendering them peculiarly exposed to injury -in war; but still their remains form the most -striking features of the Campagna, over which -their lines of ruined arches, clothed with ivy -and the wild fig-tree, radiate in various directions.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp22" id="ill030" style="max-width: 6.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill030.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Triple Aqueduct.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Canalis">Three of them still serve for their -ancient use. They are—(1.) The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acqua -Vergine</i>, the ancient <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua -Virgo</i>. (2.) The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acqua Felice</i>, -named after the conventual -name of its restorer Sixtus V. -(Fra Felice), is, probably, a -part of the ancient <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua -Claudia</i>, though some take it -for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alexandrina</i>. (3.) The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acqua Paola</i>, the ancient -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alsietina</i>.—The following -woodcut represents a restored -section of the triple aqueduct -of Agrippa:—<em>a.</em> the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua -Marcia</i>; <em>b.</em> the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Tepula</i>; -<em>c.</em> the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aqua Julia</i>. The two -latter are of brick and vaulted -over. The air-vents are also -shown.—The channel of an -aqueduct (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">specus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">canalis</i>) -was a trough of brick or -stone, lined with cement, and -covered with a coping, which -was almost always arched;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span> -and the water either ran directly through this -trough, or it was carried through pipes laid -along the trough. These pipes were of lead, -or terra-cotta (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fictiles</i>), and sometimes, for the -sake of economy, of leather. At convenient -points on the course of the aqueduct, and -especially near the middle and end, there was -generally a reservoir (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">piscina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">piscina limosa</i>) -in which the water might deposit any sediment -that it contained. The water was received, -when it reached the walls of the city, -in a vast reservoir called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castellum</i>, which -formed the <em>head of water</em> and also served the -purpose of a <em>meter</em>. From this principal -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castellum</i> the water flowed into other <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castella</i>, -whence it was distributed for public and -private use. The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castellum</i> is sometimes -also applied to the intermediate reservoirs -already mentioned. During the republic, -the censors and aediles had the superintendence -of the aqueducts. Augustus first -established <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores</i> (or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefecti</i>) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquarum</i>, -who were invested with considerable authority. -They were attended outside the city -by two lictors, three public slaves, a secretary, -and other attendants. In the time of Nerva -and Trajan, 460 slaves were constantly employed -under the orders of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores -aquarum</i> in attending to the aqueducts. They -consisted of:—1. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">villici</i>, whose duty it -was to attend to the pipes and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calices</i>. 2. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castellarii</i>, who had the superintendence of -all the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castella</i>, both within and without the -city. 3. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">circuitores</i>, so called because -they had to go from post to post, to examine -into the state of the works, and also to keep -watch over the labourers employed upon -them. 4. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silicarii</i>, or paviours. 5. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tectores</i>, or masons. These and other workmen -appear to have been included under the -general term of <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aquarii">Aquarii</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Aquae_i">ĂQUAE ET IGNIS INTERDICTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aquarii">ĂQUĀRĬI, slaves who carried water for -bathing, &c., into the female apartments. -The aquarii were also public officers who -attended to the aqueducts. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aquae">Aquae Ductus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aquila">ĂQUĬLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Signa">Signa Militaria</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill031a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill031a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Arae, Altars.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Ara">ĀRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βωμός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυτήριον</span>), an altar. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ara</i> was -a general term denoting any structure elevated -above the ground, and used to receive -upon it offerings made to the gods. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Altare</i>, -probably contracted from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alta ara</i>, was properly -restricted to the larger, higher, and -more expensive structures. Four specimens -of ancient altars are given below; the two in -the former woodcut are square, and those in -the latter round, which is the less common -form. At the top of three of the above altars -we see the hole intended to receive the fire -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐσχαρίς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐσχάρα</span>): the fourth was probably -intended for the offering of fruits or other -gifts, which were presented to the gods without -fire. When the altars were prepared for -sacrifice, they were commonly decorated with -garlands or festoons. These were composed -of certain kinds of leaves and flowers, which -were considered consecrated to such uses, -and were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verbenae</i>. The altars constructed -with most labour and skill belonged -to temples; and they were erected either -before the temple or within the cella of the -temple, and principally before the statue of -the divinity to whom it was dedicated. The -altars in the area before the temple were -altars of burnt-offerings, at which animal -sacrifices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">victimae</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφάγια</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερεῖα</span>) were presented: -only incense was burnt, or cakes and -bloodless sacrifices offered on the altars within -the building.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill031b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill031b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Arae, Altars.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Aratrum">ĂRĀTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄροτρον</span>), a plough. Among -the Greeks and Romans the three most essential -parts of the plough were,—the plough-tail -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γύης</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buris</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bura</i>), the share-beam -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔλυμα</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dens</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dentale</i>), that is, the piece of -wood to which the share is fixed, and the pole -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥυμός</span>], <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστοβοεύς</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">temo</i>). In the time and -country of Virgil it was the custom to force a -tree into the crooked form of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buris</i>, or -plough-tail. The upper end of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buris</i> being -held by the ploughman, the lower part,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span> -below its junction with the pole, was used to -hold the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dentale</i> or share-beam, which was -either sheathed with metal, or driven bare -into the ground, according to circumstances. -The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vomer</i> was sometimes applied to the -end of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dentale</i>. To these three parts, the -two following are added in the description of -the plough by Virgil:—1. The <em>earth-boards</em>, -or <em>mould-boards</em> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aures</i>), rising on each side, -bending outwardly in such a manner as to -throw on either hand the soil which had been -previously loosened and raised by the share, -and adjusted to the share-beam (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dentale</i>), -which was made double for the purpose of -receiving them. 2. The <em>handle</em> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stiva</i>). Virgil -describes this part as used to turn the -plough at the end of the furrow; and it is -defined by an ancient commentator on Virgil -as the “handle by which the plough is directed.” -It is probable that as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dentalia</i>, -the two share-beams, were in the form of -the Greek letter Λ, which Virgil describes by -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duplici dorso</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buris</i> was fastened to the -left share-beam and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stiva</i> to the right, so -that the plough of Virgil was more like the -modern Lancashire plough, which is commonly -held behind with both hands. Sometimes, -however, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stiva</i> was used alone and -instead of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buris</i> or tail. In place of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stiva</i> -the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capulus</i> is sometimes employed. The -only other part of the plough requiring notice -is the coulter (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">culter</i>), which was used by the -Romans as it is with us. It was inserted -into the pole so as to depend vertically before -the share, cutting through the roots which -came in its way, and thus preparing for the -more complete overturning of the soil by the -share. Two small wheels were also added -to some ploughs. The plough, as described -by Virgil, corresponds in all essential particulars -with the plough now used about Mantua -and Venice. The Greeks and Romans -usually ploughed their land three times for -each crop. The first ploughing was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proscindere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novare</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεοῦσθαι, νεάζεσθαι</span>); -the second <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">offringere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">iterare</i>; and the -third, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lirare</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tertiare</i>. The field which -underwent the “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">proscissio</span>” was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vervactum</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novale</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεός</span>), and in this process -the coulter was employed, because the fresh -surface was entangled with numberless roots -which required to be divided before the soil -could be turned up by the share. The term -“<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">offringere</i>” from <em>ob</em> and <em>frangere</em>, was applied -to the second ploughing; because the -long parallel clods already turned up were -broken and cut across, by drawing the plough -through them at right angles to its former -direction. The field which underwent this -process was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ager iteratus</i>. After the -second ploughing the sower cast his seed. -Also the clods were often, though not always, -broken still further by a wooden mallet, or -by harrowing (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">occatio</i>). The Roman ploughman -then, for the first time, attached the earth-boards -to his share. The effect of this adjustment -was to divide the level surface of -the “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ager <em>iteratus</em></span>” into ridges. These were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porcae</i>, and also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lirae</i>, whence came -the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lirare</i>, to make ridges, and also -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">delirare</i>, to decline from the straight line. -The earth-boards, by throwing the earth to -each side in the manner already explained, -both covered the newly-scattered seed, and -formed between the ridges furrows (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλακες</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sulci</i>) for carrying off the water. In this -state the field was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">seges</i> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίπολος</span>. -When the ancients ploughed three times only, -it was done in the spring, summer, and autumn -of the same year. But in order to obtain -a still heavier crop, both the Greeks and -the Romans ploughed four times, the proscissio -being performed in the latter part of the -preceding year, so that between one crop and -another two whole years intervened.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill032" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill032.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Aratrum, Plough (now used at Mantua).<br /> -<p>1. Buris. -<span class="pad3">2. Temo. </span> -<span class="pad3">3. Dentale.</span></p> -<p>4. Culter. -<span class="pad3">5. Vomer.</span> -<span class="pad3">6 6. Aures.</span><br /> -</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Arbiter">ARBĬTER. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p id="Arca">ARCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κιβωτός</span>). (1) A chest, in which -the Romans were accustomed to place their -money; and the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex arca solvere</i> had the -meaning of paying in ready money. The -term arcae was usually applied to the chests -in which the rich kept their money, and was -opposed to the smaller <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">loculi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacculus</i>, and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crumena</i>.—(2) The coffin in which persons<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span> -were buried, or the bier on which the corpse -was placed previously to burial.—(3) A strong -cell made of oak, in which criminals and -slaves were confined.</p> - - -<p id="Arcera">ARCĔRA, a covered carriage or litter, -spread with cloths, which was used in ancient -times in Rome, to carry the aged and infirm. -It is said to have obtained the name of arcera -on account of its resemblance to an arca, or -chest.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill033" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill033.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Arcera. (Ginzrot, Wagen, Tav. 19, fig. 2.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Archeion">ARCHEION (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχεῖον</span>) properly means any -public place belonging to the magistrates, but -is more particularly applied to the archive -office, where the decrees of the people and -other state documents were preserved. This -office is sometimes merely called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ δημοσίον</span>. -At Athens the archives were kept in the temple -of the mother of the gods (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μήτρῳον</span>), and the -charge of it was entrusted to the president -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστάτης</span>) of the senate of the Five-hundred.</p> - - -<p id="Archiater">ARCHĬĀTER (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχίατρος</span>), a medical title -under the Roman emperors, the exact signification -of which has been the subject of much -discussion, but which most probably means -“the chief of the physicians.” The first -person whom we find bearing this title is -Andromachus, physician to Nero. In after -times the order appears to have been divided, -and we find two distinct classes of archiatri, -viz., those of the palace and those of the -people.</p> - - -<p id="Archimimus">ARCHĬMĪMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mimus">Mimus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Architectura">ARCHĬTECTŪRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-33" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'ἀρχιτεκτονια'"> -ἀρχιτεκτονία</ins></span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχιτεκτονική</span>), -architecture. The necessity for a -habitation, and the attempt to adorn those -habitations which were intended for the gods, -are the two causes from which the art derives -its existence. In early times little -attention was paid to domestic architecture. -The resources of the art were lavished upon -the temples of the gods; and hence the -greater part of the history of Grecian architecture -is inseparably connected with that of -the temple, and has its proper place under -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a></span>, and the subordinate headings, -such as <span class="smcap"><a href="#Columna">Columna</a></span>, &c. But, though the first -rise of architecture, as a fine art, is connected -with the temple, yet, viewed as the science -of construction, it must have been employed, -even earlier, for other purposes, such as the -erection of fortifications, palaces, treasuries, -and other works of utility. Accordingly, it -is the general opinion of antiquaries, that the -very earliest edifices, of which we have any -remains, are the so-called Cyclopean works, -in which we see huge unsquared blocks of -stone built together in the best way that -their shapes would allow. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Murus">Murus</a>.</span>] In addition -to these, however, there are other -purposes for which architecture, still using -the term in its lower sense, would be required -in a very early stage of political society; -such as the general arrangement of cities, -the provision of a place for the transaction of -public business, with the necessary edifices -appertaining to it [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Agora">Agora</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Forum">Forum</a></span>], and the -whole class of works which we embrace under -the head of civil engineering, such as those -for drainage [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cloaca">Cloaca</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Emissarium">Emissarius</a></span>], for communication -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Via">Via</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pons">Pons</a></span>], and for the supply -of water [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aquae">Aquae ductus</a></span>]. Almost equally -necessary are places devoted to public exercise, -health, and amusement, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Gymnasium">Gymnasium</a></span>, -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stadium">Stadium</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Hippodromus">Hippodromus</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a></span>, -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a></span>. Lastly, the -skill of the architect has been from the -earliest times employed to preserve the memory -of departed men and past events; and -hence we have the various works of monumental -and triumphal architecture, which are -described under the heads <span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus</a></span>, -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Columna">Columna</a></span>. The history of architecture may -be divided into five periods. The first, which -is chiefly mythical, comes down to the time -of Cypselus, Ol. 30, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 660: the second -period comes down to the termination of the -Persian war, Ol. 75. 2, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 478: the third is -the brilliant period from the end of the Persian -war to the death of Alexander the Great, -Ol. 114, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 323: the fourth period extends -to the battle of Actium, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 31: the fifth -period embraces the architecture of the Roman -empire till it became mingled with the -Gothic. Strongly fortified cities, palaces, and -treasuries are the chief works of the earlier -part of the first period; and to it may be -referred most of the so-called Cyclopean remains; -while the era of the Dorian invasion -marks, in all probability, the commencement -of the Dorian style of temple architecture. -In the second period the art made rapid advances -under the powerful patronage of the -aristocracies in some cities, as at Sparta, and -of the tyrants in others, as Cypselus at -Corinth, Theagnes at Megara, Cleisthenes at -Sicyon, the Peisistratids at Athens, and Polycrates -at Samos. Architecture now assumed -decidedly the character of a fine art, and -became associated with the sister arts of -sculpture and painting, which are essential<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> -to its development. Magnificent temples -sprung up in all the principal Greek cities; -and while the Doric order was brought almost, -if not quite, to perfection, in Greece -Proper, in the Doric colonies of Asia Minor, -and in Central Italy and Sicily, the Ionic -order appeared, already perfect at its first -invention, in the great temple of Artemis at -Ephesus. The ruins still existing at Paestum, -Syracuse, Agrigentum, Selinus, Aegina, and -other places, are imperishable monuments of -this period. To it also belong the great works -of the Roman kings. The commencement of -the third and most brilliant period of the art -was signalized by the rebuilding of Athens, -the establishment of regular principles for -the laying out of cities by Hippodamus of -Miletus, and the great works of the age of -Pericles, by the contemporaries of Phidias, at -Athens, Eleusis, and Olympia. The first part -of the fourth period saw the extension of the -Greek architecture over the countries conquered -by Alexander, and, in the West, the -commencement of the new style, which arose -from the imitation, with some alterations, of -the Greek forms by Roman architects, to -which the conquest of Greece gave, of course, -a new impulse. By the time of Augustus, -Rome was adorned with every kind of public -and private edifice, surrounded by villas, and -furnished with roads and aqueducts; and -these various erections were adorned by the -forms of Grecian art; but already Vitruvius -begins to complain that the purity of that art -is corrupted by the intermixture of heterogeneous -forms. This process of deterioration -went on rapidly during the fifth period, -though combined at first with increasing -magnificence in the scale and number of the -buildings erected. The early part of this -period is made illustrious by the numerous -works of Augustus and his successors, especially -the Flavii, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, -and the Antonines, at Rome and in the provinces; -but from the time of the Antonines -the decline of the art was rapid and decided. -In one department a new impulse was given -to architecture by the rise of Christian -churches, which were generally built on the -model of the Roman Basilica. One of the -most splendid specimens of Christian architecture -is the church of S. Sophia at Constantinople, -built in the reign of Justinian, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> -537, and restored, after its partial destruction -by an earthquake, in 554. But, long before -this time, the Greco-Roman style had become -thoroughly corrupted, and that new style, -which is called the Byzantine, had arisen out -of the mixture of Roman architecture with -ideas derived from the Northern nations.</p> - - -<p id="Architheorus">ARCHITHĔŌRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχιθέωρος</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Delia">Delia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Archon">ARCHON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων</span>). The government of -Athens began with monarchy, and, after passing -through a dynasty<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and aristocracy, ended -in democracy. Of the kings of Athens, considered -as the capital of Attica, Theseus may -be said to have been the first; for to him, -whether as a real individual or a representative -of a certain period, is attributed the -union of the different and independent states -of Attica under one head. The last was -Codrus; in acknowledgment of whose patriotism -in meeting death for his country, -the Athenians are said to have determined -that no one should succeed him with the -title of king (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλεύς</span>). It seems, however, -equally probable that it was the nobles who -availed themselves of the opportunity to -serve their own interests, by abolishing the -kingly power for another, the possessors of -which they called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Archontes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχοντες</span>) or -rulers. These for some time continued to be -like the kings of the house of Codrus, appointed -for life: still an important point was -gained by the nobles, the office being made -accountable (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπεύθυνος</span>), which of course implies -that the nobility had some control over -it. This state of things lasted for twelve -reigns of archons. The next step was to -limit the continuance of the office to ten -years, still confining it to the Medontidae, or -house of Codrus, so as to establish what the -Greeks called a dynasty, till the archonship -of Eryxias, the last archon of that family -elected as such. At the end of his ten years -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 684), a much greater change took place: -the archonship was made annual, and its -various duties divided among a college of -nine, chosen by suffrage (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>) from the -Eupatridae, or Patricians, and no longer -elected from the Medontidae exclusively. This -arrangement lasted till the time of Solon, who -still continued the election by suffrage, but -made the qualification for office depend, not -on birth, but property. The election by lot -is believed to have been introduced by Cleisthenes -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 508). The last change is supposed -to have been made by Aristides, who -after the battle of Plataeae (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 479) abolished -the property qualification, throwing -open the archonship and other magistracies -to all the citizens; that is, to the Thetes, as -well as the other classes, the former of whom -were not allowed by Solon’s laws to hold any -magistracy at all. Still, after the removal of -the old restrictions, some security was left to -insure respectability; for, previously to an -archon entering on office, he underwent an -examination, called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anacrisis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκρισις</span>), -as to his being a legitimate and a good citizen,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span> -a good son, and qualified in point of property, -but the latter limitation was either done away -with by Aristides, or soon became obsolete. -Yet, even after passing a satisfactory <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anacrisis</i>, -each of the archons, in common with -other magistrates, was liable to be deposed on -complaint of misconduct made before the -people, at the first regular assembly in each -prytany. On such an occasion the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epicheirotonia</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιχειροτονία</span>), as it was called, took -place: and we read that in one case the whole -college of archons was deprived of office -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποχειροτονεῖσθαι</span>). In consequence of the -democratical tendency of the assembly and -courts of justice established by Solon, the -archons lost the great political power which -they at one time possessed. They became, in -fact, not as of old directors of the government, -but merely municipal magistrates, exercising -functions and bearing titles described below. -It has been already stated, that the duties of -the single archon were shared by a college of -nine. The first, or president of this body, -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Archon</i>, by way of pre-eminence, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Archon Eponymus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος</span>), from -the year being distinguished by and registered -in his name. The second was styled -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Archon Basileus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων βασιλεύς</span>), or the -King Archon; the third <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Polemarchus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολέμαρχος</span>), -or commander-in-chief; the remaining -six, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thesmothetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεσμοθέται</span>), or legislators. -As regards the duties of the archons, -it is sometimes difficult to distinguish what -belonged to them individually, and what collectively. -It seems that a considerable portion -of the judicial functions of the ancient -kings devolved upon the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Archon Eponymus</i>, -who was also constituted a sort of state protector -of those who were unable to defend -themselves. Thus he was to superintend -orphans, heiresses, families losing their representatives, -widows left pregnant, and to see -that they were not wronged in any way. -This archon had also the superintendence -of the greater Dionysia, and the Thargelia. -The functions of the <em>King Archon</em> were almost -all connected with religion; his distinguishing -title shows that he was considered a representative -of the old kings in their capacity of -high priest, as the Rex Sacrificulus was at -Rome. Thus he presided at the Lenaea, or -older Dionysia; superintended the mysteries -and the games called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lampadephoriae</i>, and -had to offer up sacrifices and prayers in the -Eleusinium, both at Athens and Eleusis. -Moreover, indictments for impiety, and controversies -about the priesthood, were laid before -him; and, in cases of murder, he brought -the trial into the court of the areiopagus, and -voted with its members. His wife, also, who -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Basilissa</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασίλισσα</span>), had to offer -certain sacrifices, and therefore it was required -that she should be a citizen of pure -blood, without stain or blemish. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Polemarch</i> -was originally, as his name denotes, -the commander-in-chief, and we find him -discharging military duties as late as the -battle of Marathon, in conjunction with the -ten <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Strategi</i>; he there took, like the kings of -old, the command of the right wing of the -army. This, however, seems to be the last -occasion on record of this magistrate appointed -by lot being invested with such important -functions; and in after ages we find -that his duties ceased to be military, having -been, in a great measure, transferred to the -protection and superintendence of the resident -aliens, so that he resembled in many respects -the praetor peregrinus at Rome. Thus, all -actions affecting aliens, the isoteles and -proxeni were brought before him previously -to trial. Moreover, it was the polemarch’s -duty to offer the yearly sacrifice to Artemis, -in commemoration of the vow made by Callimachus, -at Marathon, and to arrange the -funeral games in honour of those who fell in -war. The six <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thesmothetae</i> were extensively -connected with the administration of justice, -and appear to have been called legislators, -because, in the absence of a written code, -they might be said to make laws, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thesmi</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεσμοί</span>), in the ancient language of Athens, -though in reality they only explained them. -They were required to review, every year, -the whole body of laws, that they might -detect any inconsistencies or superfluities, -and discover whether any laws which were -abrogated were in the public records amongst -the rest. Their report was submitted to the -people, who referred the necessary alterations -to a legislative committee chosen for the purpose, -and called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nomothetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νομοθέται</span>). The -chief part of the duties of the thesmothetae -consisted in receiving informations, and bringing -cases to trial in the courts of law, of the -days of sitting in which they gave public -notice. They did not try them themselves, -but seem to have constituted a sort of grand -jury, or inquest. The trial itself took place -before the Dicastae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dicastes">Dicastae</a>.</span>] It is necessary -to be cautious in our interpretation of -the words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχή</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχοντες</span>, since they have -a double meaning in the Attic orators, sometimes -referring to the archons peculiarly so -called, and sometimes to any other magistracy. -The archons had various privileges and honours. -The greatest of the former was the -exemption from the trierarchies—a boon not -allowed even to the successors of Harmodius -and Aristogeiton. As a mark of their office, -they wore a chaplet or crown of myrtle; and -if any one struck or abused one of the archons,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span> -when wearing this badge of office, he became -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄτιμος</span>), or infamous in the fullest -extent, thereby losing his civic rights. The -archons, at the close of their year of service, -were admitted among the members of the -areiopagus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Areiopagus">Areiopagus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> By this is meant that the supreme power, though not -monarchical, was confined to one family.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill036a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill036a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Arch of Tiryns. (Gell’s Itinerary, pl. 16.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Arcus">ARCUS (also fornix), an arch. A true -arch is formed of a series of wedge-like -stones, or of bricks, supporting each other, -and all bound firmly together by their mutual -pressure. It would seem that the arch, as -thus defined, and as used by the Romans, -was not known to the Greeks in the early -periods of their history. But they made use -of a contrivance, even in the heroic age, by -which they were enabled to gain all the -advantages of our archway in making corridors, -or hollow galleries, and which in appearance -resembled the pointed arch, such as -is now termed Gothic. This was effected by -cutting away the superincumbent stones in -the manner already described, at an angle of -about 45° with the horizon. The mode of -construction and appearance of such arches -is represented in the annexed drawing of the -walls of Tiryns. The gate of Signia (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Segni</i>) -in Latium exhibits a similar example. The -principle of the true arch seems to have been -known to the Romans from the earliest period; -it is used in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cloaca Maxima</i>. It is most -probably an Etruscan invention. The use of -it constitutes one leading distinction between -Greek and Roman architecture, for by its -application the Romans were enabled to execute -works of far bolder construction than -those of the Greeks. The Romans, however, -never used any other form of arch than the -semicircle. <span id="Arcu_t">The arcus triumphalis</span>, triumphal -arch, was a structure peculiar to the Romans, -erected in honour of an individual, or in -commemoration of a conquest. Triumphal -arches were built across the principal streets -of Rome, and, according to the space of their -respective localities, consisted of a single -archway, or a central one for carriages, and -two smaller ones on each side for foot-passengers.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span> -Those actually made use of on the -occasion of a triumphal entry and procession -were merely temporary and hastily erected; -and, having served their purpose, were taken -down again, and sometimes replaced by others -of more durable materials. Stertinius is the -first upon record who erected anything of the -kind. He built an arch in the Forum Boarium, -about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 196, and another in the -Circus Maximus, each of which was surmounted -by gilt statues. There are twenty-one -arches recorded by different writers, as -having been erected in the city of Rome, five -of which now remain:—1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arcus Drusi</i>, -which was erected to the honour of Claudius -Drusus on the Appian way. 2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arcus Titi</i>, -at the foot of the Palatine, which was erected -to the honour of Titus, after his conquest of -Judaea; the bas-reliefs of this arch represent -the spoils from the temple of Jerusalem -carried in triumphal procession. 3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arcus -Septimii Severi</i>, which was erected by the -senate (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 207) at the end of the Via -Sacra, in honour of that emperor and his two -sons, Caracalla and Geta, on account of his -conquest of the Parthians and Arabians. 4. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arcus Gallieni</i>, erected to the honour of Gallienus -by a private individual, M. Aurelius -Victor. 5. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arcus Constantini</i>, which was -larger than the arch of Titus. As a specimen -of the triumphal arches, a drawing of the arch -of Drusus is given in the preceding page.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill036b" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill036b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Arch of Drusus at Rome</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Arcus_b">ARCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόξον</span>), the bow used for -shooting arrows, is one of the most ancient -of all weapons, but is characteristic of Asia -rather than of Europe. In the Roman armies -it was scarcely ever employed except by auxiliaries; -and these auxiliaries, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sagittarii</i>, -were chiefly Cretes and Arabians. -The upper of the two figures below shows -the Scythian or Parthian bow unstrung; the -lower one represents the usual form of the -Grecian bow, which had a double curvature, -consisting of two circular portions united by -the handle. When not used, the bow was -put into a case (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοξοθήκη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γωρυτός</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la"><ins class="corr" id="tn-37" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text was not italicized"> -corytus</ins></i>), -which was made of leather, and sometimes -ornamented. It frequently held the arrows -as well as the bow, and on this account is -often confounded with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pharetra</i> or quiver.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill037" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill037.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Arcus, Bow. (From paintings on vases.)</p> -<p class="right">Corytus, Bow-case. (From a Relief in the<br /> -Vatican, Visconti, iv. tav. 43.)</p></div> -</div> - - -<p id="Area">ĀRĔA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅλως</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλωά</span>), the threshing-floor, -was a raised place in the field, open on all -sides to the wind. Great pains were taken -to make this floor hard; it was sometimes -paved with flint stones, but more usually -covered with clay and smoothed with a roller.</p> - - -<p id="Areiopagus">ĂREIOPĂGUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ Ἄρειος πάγος</span>, or hill of -Ares) was a rocky eminence, lying to the -west of, and not far from the Acropolis at -Athens. It was the place of meeting of the -council (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡ ἐν Ἀρείῳ πάγῳ βουλή</span>), which was -sometimes called <em>The Upper Council</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡ ἄνω -βουλή</span>), to distinguish it from the senate of -Five-hundred, which sat in the Cerameicus -within the city. It was a body of very -remote antiquity, acting as a criminal tribunal, -and existed long before the time of -Solon, but he so far modified its constitution -and sphere of duty, that he may almost be -called its founder. What that original constitution -was, must in some degree be left to -conjecture, though there is every reason to -suppose that it was aristocratical, the members -being taken, like the ephetae, from the -noble patrician families. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ephetae">Ephetae</a>.</span>] By -the legislation of Solon the Areiopagus was -composed of the ex-archons, who, after an -unexceptionable discharge of their duties, -“went up” to the Areiopagus, and became -members of it for life, unless expelled for -misconduct. As Solon made the qualification -for the office of archon to depend not on birth -but on property, the council after his time -ceased to be aristocratic in constitution; but,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span> -as we learn from Attic writers, continued so -in spirit. In fact, Solon is said to have -formed the two councils, the senate and the -Areiopagus, to be a check upon the democracy; -that, as he himself expressed it, “the -state riding upon them as anchors might be -less tossed by storms.” Nay, even after the -archons were no longer elected by suffrage, -but by lot, and the office was thrown open by -Aristides to all the Athenian citizens, the -“upper council” still retained its former tone -of feeling. Moreover, besides these changes -in its constitution, Solon altered and extended -its functions. Before his time it was only a -criminal court, trying cases of “wilful murder -and wounding, of arson and poisoning,” -whereas he gave it extensive powers of a -censorial and political nature. Thus we learn -that he made the council an “overseer of -everything, and the guardian of the laws,” -empowering it to inquire how any one got -his living and to punish the idle; and we are -also told that the Areiopagites were “superintendents -of good order and decency,” terms -as unlimited and undefined as Solon not -improbably wished to leave their authority. -When heinous crimes had notoriously been -committed, but the guilty parties were not -known, or no accuser appeared, the Areiopagus -inquired into the subject, and reported -to the demus. <span id="Apophasis">The</span> report or information -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apophasis</i>. This was a -duty which they sometimes undertook on -their own responsibility, and in the exercise -of an old established right, and sometimes on -the order of the demus. Nay, to such an -extent did they carry their power, that on -one occasion they apprehended an individual -(Antiphon), who had been acquitted by the -general assembly, and again brought him to -a trial, which ended in his condemnation and -death. Again, we find them revoking an -appointment whereby Aeschines was made -the advocate of Athens before the Amphictyonic -council, and substituting Hyperides in -his room. They also had duties connected -with religion, one of which was to superintend -the sacred olives growing about Athens, -and try those who were charged with destroying -them; and in general it was their office -to punish the impious and irreligious. Independent, -then, of its jurisdiction as a criminal -court in cases of wilful murder, which Solon -continued to the Areiopagus, its influence -must have been sufficiently great to have been -a considerable obstacle to the aggrandisement -of the democracy at the expense of the other -parties in the state. Accordingly, we find -that Pericles, who was opposed to the aristocracy, -resolved to diminish its power and -circumscribe its sphere of action. His coadjutor -in this work was Ephialtes, a statesman -of inflexible integrity, and also a military -commander. They experienced much opposition -in their attempts, not only in the assembly, -but also on the stage, where Aeschylus -produced his tragedy of the Eumenides, the -object of which was to impress upon the -Athenians the dignity, sacredness, and constitutional -worth of the institution which -Pericles and Ephialtes wished to reform. -Still the opposition failed: a decree was -carried by which, as Aristotle says, the Areiopagus -was “mutilated,” and many of its -hereditary rights abolished, though it is -difficult to ascertain the precise nature of the -alterations which Pericles effected. The jurisdiction -of the Areiopagus in cases of murder -was still left to them. In such cases the -process was as follows:—The king archon -brought the case into court, and sat as one of -the judges, who were assembled in the open -air, probably to guard against any contamination -from the criminal. The accuser first -came forwards to make a solemn oath that his -accusation was true, standing over the slaughtered -victims, and imprecating extirpation -upon himself and his whole family were it -not so. The accused then denied the charge -with the same solemnity and form of oath. -Each party then stated his case with all -possible plainness, keeping strictly to the -subject, and not being allowed to appeal in -any way to the feelings or passions of the -judges. After the first speech, a criminal -accused of murder might remove from Athens, -and thus avoid the capital punishment fixed -by Draco’s <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thesmi</i>, which on this point were -still in force. Except in cases of parricide, -neither the accuser nor the court had power -to prevent this; but the party who thus -evaded the extreme punishment was not -allowed to return home, and when any decree -was passed at Athens to legalize the return -of exiles, an exception was always made -against those who had thus left their country. -The Areiopagus continued to exist, in name -at least, till a very late period. Thus we find -Cicero mentioning the council in his letters; -and an individual is spoken of as an Areiopagite -under the emperors Gratian and Theodosius -(<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 380). The case of St. Paul is -generally quoted as an instance of the authority -of the Areiopagus in religious matters; -but the words of the sacred historian do not -necessarily imply that he was brought before -the council. It may, however, be remarked, -that the Areiopagites certainly took cognizance -of the introduction of new and unauthorised -forms of religious worship, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίθετα ἱερά</span>, -in contradistinction to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάτρια</span> or older -rites of the state.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span></p> - - -<p id="Arena">ĂRĒNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aretalogi">ĂRĔTĀLŎGI, persons who amused the -company at the Roman dinner tables.</p> - - -<p id="Argei">ARGĒI, the name given by the pontifices -to the places consecrated by Numa for the -celebration of religious services. Varro calls -them the chapels of the argei, and says they -were twenty-seven in number, distributed in -the different districts of the city. There was -a tradition that these argei were named from -the chieftains who came with Hercules, the -Argive, to Rome, and occupied the Capitoline, -or, as it was anciently called, Saturnian hill. -It is impossible to say what is the historical -value or meaning of this legend; we may, -however, notice its conformity with the statement -that Rome was founded by the Pelasgians, -with whom the name of Argos was -connected. The name argei was also given -to certain figures thrown into the Tiber from -the Sublician bridge, on the Ides of May in -every year. This was done by the pontifices, -the vestals, the praetors, and other citizens, -after the performance of the customary sacrifices. -The images were thirty in number, -made of bulrushes, and in the form of men. -Ovid makes various suppositions to account -for the origin of this rite; we can only conjecture -that it was a symbolical offering, to -propitiate the gods, and that the number was -a representative either of the thirty patrician -curiae at Rome, or perhaps of the thirty Latin -townships.</p> - - -<p id="Argentarii">ARGENTĀRĬI, bankers or money changers. -(1) <span class="smcap">Greek</span>. The bankers at Athens were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Trapezitae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τραπεζίται</span>), from their -tables (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τραπεζαι</span>) at which they sat, while -carrying on their business, and which were in -the market place. Their principal occupation -was that of changing money; but they frequently -took money, at a moderate premium, -from persons who did not like to occupy -themselves with the management of their -own affairs, and placed it out at interest. -Their usual interest was 36 per cent.; a -rate that at present scarcely occurs except -in cases of money lent on bottomry. The -only instance of a bank recognized and -conducted on behalf of the state occurs at -Byzantium, where at one time it was let by -the republic to capitalists to farm. Yet the -state probably exercised some kind of superintendence -over the private bankers, since it -is hardly possible otherwise to account for -the unlimited confidence which they enjoyed.—(2) -<span id="Depositum" class="smcap">Roman.</span> The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Argentarii</i> at Rome must -be distinguished from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensarii</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummularii</i>, -or public bankers. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mensarii">Mensarii</a>.</span>] -The argentarii were private persons, who -carried on business on their own responsibility, -and were not in the service of the -republic; but the shops or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabernae</i> about the -forum, which they occupied, and in which -they transacted their business, were state -property. The business of the argentarii may -be divided into the following branches. 1. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Permutatio</i>, or the exchange of foreign coin -for Roman, and in later times the giving of -bills of exchange payable in foreign towns. -2. The keeping of sums of money for other -persons. Such money might be deposited by -the owner merely to save himself the trouble -of keeping it and making payments, and in -this case it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">depositum</i>; the argentarius -then paid no interest, and the money -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vacua pecunia</i>. Or the money was -deposited on condition of the argentarius paying -interest; in this case the money was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">creditum</i>. A payment made through a -banker was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per mensam</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de mensa</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per mensae scripturam</i>, while a payment made -by the debtor in person was a payment <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex arca</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de domo</i>. An argentarius never paid away -any person’s money without being either authorised -by him in person or receiving a -cheque which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perscriptio</i>. The -argentarii kept accurate accounts in books -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">codices</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rationes</i>, and there -is every reason for believing that they were -acquainted with what is called in book-keeping -double entry. When a party found to be -in debt paid what he owed, he had his name -effaced (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen expedire</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">expungere</i>) from -the banker’s books. 3. Their connection -with commerce and public auctions. In private -sales and purchases, they sometimes -acted as agents for either party (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">interpretes</i>), -and sometimes they undertook to sell the -whole estate of a person, as an inheritance. -At public auctions they were almost invariably -present, registering the articles sold, -their prices, and purchasers, and receiving -the payment from the purchasers. 4. The -testing of the genuineness of coins (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probatio -nummorum</i>). This, however, seems originally -to have been a part of the duty of public -officers, the mensarii or nummularii, until in -the course of time the opinion of an argentarius -also came to be looked upon as decisive. -5. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solidorum venditio</i>, that is, the obligation -of purchasing from the mint the newly -coined money, and circulating it among the -people. This branch of their functions occurs -only under the empire. The argentarii -formed a collegium, divided into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">societates</i> or -corporations, which alone had the right to -admit new members of their guild. None -but freemen could become members of such -a corporation. It has already been observed -that the argentarii had their shops round the -forum: hence to become bankrupt was expressed -by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foro cedere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">abire</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foro mergi</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span></p> - - -<p id="Argentum">ARGENTUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄργυρος</span>), silver. The relative -value of gold and silver differed considerably -at different periods in Greek and -Roman history. Herodotus mentions it as -13 to 1; Plato, as 12 to 1; Menander, as -10 to 1; and Livy as 10 to 1, about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -189. According to Suetonius, Julius Caesar, -on one occasion, exchanged silver for gold in -the proportion of 9 to 1; but the most usual -proportion under the early Roman emperors -was about 12 to 1. The proportion in modern -times, since the discovery of the American -mines, has varied between 17 to 1 and 14 -to 1. In the earliest times the Greeks obtained -their silver chiefly as an article of -commerce from the Phocaeans and the Samians; -but they soon began to work the rich -mines of their own country and its islands. -The chief mines were in Siphnos, Thessaly, -and Attica. In the last-named country, the -silver mines of Laurion furnished a most -abundant supply, and were generally regarded -as the chief source of the wealth of Athens. -The Romans obtained most of their silver -from the very rich mines of Spain, which -had been previously worked by the Phoenicians -and Carthaginians, and which, though -abandoned for those of Mexico, are still not -exhausted. By far the most important use of -silver among the Greeks was for money. -There are sufficient reasons for believing -that, until some time after the end of the -Peloponnesian war, the Athenians had no -gold currency. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum</a>.</span>] It may be remarked -that all the words connected with money are -derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄργυρος</span>, and not from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρυσός</span>, as -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταργυρόω</span>, “to bribe with money;” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀργυραμοιβός</span>, -“a money changer,” &c.; and -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄργυρος</span> is itself not unfrequently used to -signify money in general, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i> is in Latin. -At Rome, on the contrary, silver was not -coined till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 269, before which period -Greek silver was in circulation at Rome; and -the principal silver coin of the Romans, the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">denarius</i>, was borrowed from the Greek -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">drachma</i>. For further details respecting -silver money, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Drachma">Drachma</a></span>. -From a very early period, silver was used -also in works of art; and the use of it for -mere purposes of luxury and ostentation, as -in plate, was very general both in Greece and -Rome.</p> - - -<p id="Argyraspides">ARGỸRASPĬDES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀργυράσπιδες</span>), a division -of the Macedonian army, who were so called -because they carried shields covered with -silver plates.</p> - - -<p id="Argyrocopeion">ARGỸROCŎPEION (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀργυροκοπεῖον</span>), the -place where money was coined, the mint, at -Athens.</p> - - -<p id="Aries">ĂRĬES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κριός</span>), the battering-ram, was used -to batter down the walls of besieged cities. -It consisted of a large beam, made of the -trunk of a tree, especially of a fir or an ash. -To one end was fastened a mass of bronze -or iron (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεφαλή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβολή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προτομή</span>), which -resembled in its form the head of a ram. -The aries in its simplest state was borne -and impelled by human hands, without other -assistance. In an improved form, the ram -was surrounded with iron bands, to which -rings were attached for the purpose of suspending -it by ropes or chains from a beam fixed -transversely over it. By this contrivance -the soldiers were relieved from the necessity -of supporting the weight of the ram, and -could with ease give it a rapid and forcible -motion backwards and forwards. The use of -this machine was further aided by placing -the frame in which it was suspended upon -wheels, and also by constructing over it a -wooden roof, so as to form a “testudo,” -which protected the besieging party from -the defensive assaults of the besieged.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp56" id="ill040" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill040.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Aries, Battering Ram. (From Column of Trajan.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Aristocratia">ĀRISTOCRĂTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀριστοκρατία</span>), signifies -literally “the government of the best men,” -and as used by Plato, Aristotle, Polybius, &c., -it meant the government of a class whose -supremacy was founded not on wealth merely, -but on personal distinction. That there should -be an aristocracy, moreover, it was essential -that the administration of affairs should be -conducted with a view to the promotion of -the general interests, not for the exclusive or -predominant advantage of the privileged class<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> -As soon as the government ceased to be thus -conducted, or whenever the only title to political -power in the dominant class was the -possession of superior wealth, the constitution -was termed an oligarchy (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀλιγαρχία</span>), which, -in the technical use of the term, was always -looked upon as a corruption (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρέκβασις</span>) of -an aristocracy. In the practical application -of the term aristocracy, however, the personal -excellence which was held to be a necessary -element was not of a higher kind than what, -according to the deeply-seated ideas of the -Greeks, was commonly hereditary in families -of noble birth, and in early times would be -the ordinary accompaniments of noble rank, -namely, wealth, military skill, and superior -education and intelligence. It is to be noted -that the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀριστοκρατία</span> is never, like -the English term <em>aristocracy</em>, the name of -a class, but only of a particular political -constitution.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill041" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill041.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Greek Soldier. (From an ancient vase.)</p> - <p class="right">Roman Soldiers. (From Column of Trajan.)</p></div> -</div> - -<p id="Arma">ARMA, ARMĀTŪRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔντεα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τεύχεα</span>, Hom.; -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅπλα</span>), arms, armour. Homer describes in -various passages an entire suit of armour, -and we observe that it consisted of the same -portions which were used by the Greek soldiers -ever after. Moreover, the order of putting -them on is always the same. The heavy-armed -warrior, having already a tunic around -his body, and preparing for combat, puts on—1. -his greaves (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνημῖδες</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ocreae</i>); 2. his -cuirass (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θώραξ</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lorica</i>), to which belonged -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρη</span> underneath, and the zone (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζώνη</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζωστῆρ</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cingulum</i>), above; 3. his sword -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξίφος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ensis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gladius</i>), hung on the left side -of his body by means of a belt which passed -over the right shoulder; 4. the large round -shield (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσπίς</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clipeus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutum</i>), supported -in the same manner; 5. his helmet -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρυς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυνέη</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cassis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">galea</i>); 6. he took his -spear (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγχος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόρυ</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>), or in many cases, -two spears. The form and use of these portions -are described in separate articles, under -their Latin names. The annexed cut exhibits -them all. Those who were defended in the -manner which has now been represented are -called by Homer <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aspistae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσπισταί</span>), from -their great shield (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσπίς</span>); also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">angemachi</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγχεμάχοι</span>), because they fought hand to -hand with their adversaries; but much more -commonly <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promachi</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόμαχοι</span>), because they -occupied the front of the army. In later -times, the heavy-armed soldiers were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hoplitae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁπλίται</span>), because the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hopla</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄπλα</span>) more especially denoted the defensive -armour, the shield and thorax. By wearing -these they were distinguished from the light-armed -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψιλοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄνοπλοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνῆται</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνῆτες</span>), -who, instead of being defended by the -shield and thorax, had a much slighter covering, -sometimes consisting of skins, and sometimes -of leather or cloth; and instead of the -sword or lance, they commonly fought with -darts, stones, bows and arrows, or slings. -Besides the heavy and light-armed soldiers, -another description of men, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peltastae</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πελτασταί</span>), also formed a part of the Greek -army, though we do not hear of them in -early times. Instead of the large round -shield, they carried a smaller one called the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pelté</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέλτη</span>), and in other respects their armour, -though heavier and more effective than -that of the psili, was much lighter than that -of the hoplites. The weapon on which they -principally depended was the spear. The -Roman legions consisted, as the Greek infantry -for the most part did, of heavy and -light-armed troops (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gravis et levis armatura</i>). -The preceding figure represents two heavy-armed -Roman soldiers. All the essential parts -of the Roman heavy armour (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lorica</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ensis</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clipeus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">galea</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>) are mentioned together, -except the spear, in a well-known passage of -St. Paul (<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Eph.</cite> vi. 17).</p> - - -<p id="Armarium">ARMĀRĬUM, originally a place for keeping -arms, afterwards a cupboard, in which -were kept not only arms, but also clothes, -books, money, and other articles of value. -The armarium was generally placed in the -atrium of the house.</p> - - -<p id="Armilla">ARMILLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψάλιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψέλιον</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψέλλιον</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χλιδών</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-42" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'ἀμφιδεᾶ'"> -ἀμφιδέα</ins></span>), a bracelet or armlet, worn -both by men and women. It was a favourite -ornament of the Medes and Persians. -Bracelets do not appear to have been worn -among the Greeks by the male sex, but Greek -ladies had bracelets of various materials, -shapes, and styles of ornament. They frequently -exhibited the form of snakes, and -were in such cases called snakes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄφεις</span>) by -the Athenians. According to their length, -they went once, twice, or thrice round the -arm, or even a greater number of times. -The Roman generals frequently bestowed armillae -upon soldiers for deeds of extraordinary -merit.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill042" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill042.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Armillae, Bracelets. (Museo Borbonico, vol. ii. tav. 14<br /> - vol. vii. tav. 46.)</p> - <p class="right">Armilla, Bracelet. (On Statue of Sleeping<br /> - Ariadne in Vatican.)</p></div> -</div> - - -<p id="Armilustrium">ARMĬLUSTRĬUM, a Roman festival for -the purification of arms. It was celebrated -every year on the 19th of October, when the -citizens assembled in arms, and offered sacrifices -in the place called Armilustrum, or -Vicus Armilustri.</p> - - -<p id="Arra">ARRA, ARRĂBO, or ARRHA, ARRHABO, -was the thing which purchasers and vendors -gave to one another, whether it was a sum -of money or anything else, as an evidence of -the contract being made: it was no essential -part of the contract of buying and selling, -but only evidence of agreement as to price. -The term arrha, in its general sense of an -evidence of agreement, was also used on -other occasions, as in the case of betrothment -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponsalia</i>). Sometimes the word arrha is -used as synonymous with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pignus</i>, but this is -not the legal meaning of the term.</p> - - -<p id="Arrhephoria">ARRHĒPHŎRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀῤῥηφόρια</span>), a festival -celebrated at Athens in honour of Athena -(Minerva). Four girls, of between seven -and eleven years (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀῤῥηφόροι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρσηφόροι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐῤῥηφόροι</span>), -were selected every year by the king -archon from the most distinguished families, -two of whom superintended the weaving of -the sacred peplus of Athena; the two others -had to carry the mysterious and sacred vessels -of the goddess. These latter remained a -whole year on the Acropolis; and when the -festival commenced, the priestess of the goddess -placed vessels upon their heads, the contents -of which were neither known to them -nor to the priestess. With these they descended -to a natural grotto within the district -of Aphrodite in the gardens. Here they deposited -the sacred vessels, and carried back -something else, which was covered and likewise<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span> -unknown to them. After this the girls -were dismissed and others were chosen to supply -their place in the acropolis.</p> - - -<p id="Arrogatio">ARRŎGĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Artaba">ARTĂBA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτάβη</span>), a Persian measure of -capacity = 1 medimnus and 3 choenices (Attic) = 102 -Roman sextarii = 12 gallons, 5·092 -pints.</p> - - -<p id="Artemisia">ARTĔMĪSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτεμίσια</span>), a festival celebrated -at Syracuse in honour of Artemis -Potamia and Soteira. It lasted three days, -which were principally spent in feasting and -amusements, Festivals of the same name, -and in honour of the same goddess, were held -in many places in Greece, but principally at -Delphi.</p> - - -<p id="Artopta">ARTOPTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pistor">Pistor</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Arura">ĂRŪRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρουρα</span>), a Greek measure of surface, -mentioned by Herodotus, who says that -it is a hundred Egyptian cubits in every direction. -Now the Egyptian cubit contained -nearly 17¾ inches; therefore the square of -100 by 17¾ inches, <em>i.e.</em> nearly 148 feet, gives -the number of square feet (English) in the -arura, viz. 21,904.</p> - - -<p id="Aruspex">ĂRUSPEX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Haruspices">Haruspex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Arvales">ARVĀLES FRĀTRES, formed a college or -company of twelve priests, and were so called -from offering public sacrifices for the fertility -of the fields. That they were of extreme antiquity -is proved by the legend which refers -their institution to Romulus, of whom it is -said, that when his nurse Acca Laurentia lost -one of her twelve sons, he allowed himself -to be adopted by her in his place, and called -himself and the remaining eleven “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fratres -Arvales</span>.” We also find a college called the -Sodales Titii, and as the latter were confessedly -of Sabine origin, and instituted for -the purpose of keeping up the Sabine religious -rites, it is probable that these colleges -corresponded one to the other—the Fratres -Arvales being connected with the Latin, and -the Sodales Titii with the Sabine element of -the Roman state. The office of the fratres -arvales was for life, and was not taken away -even from an exile or captive. One of their -annual duties was to celebrate a three days’ -festival in honour of Dea Dia, supposed to be -Ceres, sometimes held on the 17th, 19th, and -20th, sometimes on the 27th, 29th, and 30th -of May. But besides this festival of the Dea -Dia, the fratres arvales were required on various -occasions, under the emperors, to make -vows and offer up thanksgivings. Under Tiberius, -the Fratres Arvales performed sacrifices -called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ambarvalia</i>, at various places -on the borders of the ager Romanus, or original -territory of Rome; and it is probable -that this was a custom handed down from -time immemorial, and, moreover, that it was -a duty of the priesthood to invoke a blessing -on the whole territory of Rome. There were -also the private <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambarvalia</i>, which were so -called from the victim (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostia ambarvalis</i>) -that was slain on the occasion being led three -times round the corn-fields, before the sickle -was put to the corn. This victim was accompanied -by a crowd of merry-makers, the -reapers and farm-servants dancing and singing, -as they marched, the praises of Ceres, -and praying for her favour and presence, -while they offered her the libations of milk, -honey, and wine. This ceremony was also -called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lustratio</i>, or purification.</p> - - -<p id="Arx">ARX signifies a height within the walls of -a city, upon which a citadel was built, and -thus came to be applied to the citadel itself. -Thus one of the summits of the Capitoline -hill at Rome is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arx</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arx</i> was the -regular place at Rome for taking the auspices, -and was hence likewise called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auguraculum</i>; -or, more probably, the auguraculum was a -place in the Arx.</p> - - -<p id="As">AS, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libra</i>, a pound, the unit of weight -among the Romans. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra_a">Libra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="As_c">AS, the unit of value in the Roman and -old Italian coinages, was made of copper, or -of the mixed metal called <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes">Aes</a></span>. It was originally -of the weight of a pound of twelve -ounces, whence it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as libralis</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes grave</i>. The oldest form of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i> is that -which bears the figure of an animal (a bull, -ram, boar, or sow). The next and most common -form is that which has the two-faced -head of Janus on one side, and the prow of a -ship on the other (whence the expression -used by Roman boys in tossing up, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capita aut -navim</i>.) Pliny informs us, that in the time -of the first Punic war (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 264-241), in order -to meet the expenses of the state, this -weight of a pound was diminished, and asses -were struck of the same weight as the sextans -(that is, two ounces, or one-sixth of the -ancient weight); and that thus the republic -paid off its debts, gaining five parts in six; -that afterwards, in the second Punic war, in -the dictatorship of Q. Fabius Maximus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -217), asses of one ounce were made, and the -denarius was decreed to be equal to sixteen -asses, the republic thus gaining one half; but -that in military pay the denarius was always -given for ten asses; and that soon after, by -the Papirian law (about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 191), asses of -half an ounce were made. The value of the -as, of course, varied with its weight. Before -the reduction to two ounces, ten asses were -equal to the denarius = about 8½ pence English -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a></span>]. Therefore the as = 3·4 -farthings. By the reduction the denarius -was made equal to sixteen asses; therefore -the as = 2⅛ farthings. The as was divided<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span> -into parts, which were named according to -the number of ounces they contained. They -were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deunx</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dextans</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dodrans</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">septunx</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">semis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quincunx</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triens</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrans</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">teruncius</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sextans</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sescunx</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sescuncia</i>, and -uncia, consisting respectively of 11, 10, 9, 8, -7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1½, and 1 ounces. Of these -divisions the following were represented by -coins; namely, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">semis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quincunx</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triens</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrans</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sextans</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uncia</i>. After the reduction -in the weight of the as, coins were -struck of the value of 2, 3, 4, and even 10 -asses, which were called respectively <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dussis</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dupondius</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tressis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrussis</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decussis</i>. -Other multiples of the as were denoted by -words of similar formation, up to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centussis</i>, -100 asses; but most of them do not exist as -coins. In certain forms of expression, in -which <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i> is used for money without specifying -the denomination, we must understand the -as. Thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deni aeris</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mille aeris</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decies aeris</i>, -mean respectively 10, 1000, 1,000,000 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">asses</i>. -The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i> was used also for any whole -which was to be divided into equal parts; -and those parts were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unciae</i>. Thus -these words were applied not only to weight -and money, but to measures of length, surface, -and capacity, to inheritances, interest, -houses, farms, and many other things. Hence -the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">haeres ex asse</i>, the heir to a whole -estate; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">haeres ex dodrante</i>, the heir to three-fourths. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i> was also called in ancient -times <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">assarius</i> (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummus</i>), and in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ -ἀσσάριον</span>. According to Polybius, the assarius -was equal to half the obolus.</p> - - -<p id="Ascia">ASCĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκέπαρνον</span>), an adze. The annexed -cut shows two varieties of the adze. -The instrument at the bottom was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acisculus</i>, and was chiefly used by masons.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp54" id="ill044a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill044a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Asciae, adzes. (From ancient monuments and a coin.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Asclepieia">ASCLĒPIEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσκληπίεια</span>), the name of -festivals which were probably celebrated in -all places where temples of Asclepius (Aesculapius) -existed. The most celebrated, however, -was that of Epidaurus, which took place -every five years, and was solemnized with -contests of rhapsodists and musicians, and -with solemn processions and games.</p> - - -<p id="Ascoliasmus">ASCŌLĬASMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσκωλιασμός</span>, the leaping -upon the leathern bag, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσκός</span>) was one of the -many kinds of amusements in which the -Athenians indulged during the Anthesteria -and other festivals in honour of Dionysus. -Having sacrificed a he-goat to the god, they -made a bag out of the skin, smeared it with -oil, and then tried to dance upon it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill044b" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill044b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ascoliasmus. (From an ancient gem.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Asebeias">ĂSĔBEIAS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσεβείας γραφή</span>), one -of the many forms prescribed by the Attic -laws for the impeachment of impiety. Any -citizen not incapacitated by disfranchisement -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>) seems to have been a competent accuser; -and citizens, resident aliens, and -strangers, were equally liable to the accusation. -Whether the causes were brought into -the areiopagus, or the common heliastic -court, seems to have been determined by the -form of action adopted by the prosecutor, or -the degree of competency to which the areiopagus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span> -rose or fell at the different periods of -Athenian history.</p> - - -<p id="Asiarchae">ĂSĬARCHAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσιάρχαι</span>) were, in the Roman -province of Asia, the chief presidents of -the religious rites, whose office it was to exhibit -games and theatrical amusements every -year, in honour of the gods and the Roman -emperor, at their own expense, like the Roman -aediles. They were ten in number, -selected annually by the different towns of -Asia, and approved of by the Roman proconsul; -of these, one was the chief asiarch, and -frequently, but not always, resided at Ephesus.</p> - - -<p id="Assarius">ASSĀRĬUS NUMMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Assertor">ASSERTOR, or ADSERTOR, contains the -same root as the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adserere</i>, which, when -coupled with the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manu</i>, signifies to lay -hold of a thing, to draw it towards one. Hence -the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adserere in libertatem</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberali -adserere manu</i>, applies to him who lays his -hand on a person reputed to be a slave, and -<em>asserts</em>, or maintains his freedom. The person -who thus maintained the freedom of a reputed -slave was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adsertor</i>. The person whose -freedom was thus claimed was said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adsertus</i>. -The expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberalis causa</i>, and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberalis manus</i>, which occur in connection -with the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adserere</i>, will easily be understood -from what has been said. Sometimes -the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adserere</i> alone was used as equivalent -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adserere in libertatem</i>. The expression -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">asserere in servitutem</i>, to claim a person -as a slave, occurs in Livy.</p> - - -<p id="Assessor">ASSESSOR, or ADSESSOR, literally one -who sits by the side of another. Since the -consuls, praetors, governors of provinces, -and the judices, were often imperfectly acquainted -with the law and forms of procedure, -it was necessary that they should -have the aid of those who had made the law -their study. The assessors sat on the tribunal -with the magistrate. Their advice or aid -was given during the proceedings as well as -at other times, but they never pronounced a -judicial sentence.</p> - - -<p id="Assidui">ASSĬDUI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Locupletes">Locupletes</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Astragalus">ASTRĂGĂLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστράγαλος</span>), literally, that -particular bone in the ankles of certain quadrupeds, -which the Greeks, as well as the Romans, -used for dice and other purposes. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Talus">Talus</a>.</span>] In architecture it signifies a certain -moulding (the astragal) which seems to have -derived its name from its resemblance to a -string or chain of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tali</i>, and it is in fact always -used in positions where it seems intended to -bind together the parts to which it is applied. -It belongs properly to the more highly decorated -forms of the Ionic order, in which it -appears as a lower edging to the larger mouldings, -especially the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">echinus</i> (ovolo), particularly -in the capital, as shown in the following -woodcut.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill045" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill045.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Astragalus. (Capital of an Ionic Column. Dilettanti -Society, Ionian Antiquities.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Astrateias">ASTRĂTEIAS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστρατείας -γραφή</span>), the accusation instituted at Athens -against persons who failed to appear among -the troops after they had been enrolled for a -campaign by the generals. The defendant, if -convicted, incurred disfranchisement (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>) -both in his own person and that of his descendants.</p> - - -<p id="Astrologia">ASTRŎLŎGĬA, astrology. A belief very -early arose, which still prevails unshaken in -the East, that a close connection subsisted -between the position and movements of the -heavenly bodies and the fate of man. Few -doubted that the destiny of a child might be -predicted with certainty by those who were -skilled to interpret the position of the stars -at the moment of his birth, and that the result -of any undertaking might be foretold from -the aspect of the firmament when it was -commenced. Hence a numerous and powerful -class of men arose who were distinguished -by various designations. From the country -where their science was first developed, they -were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chaldaei</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Babylonii</i>; from observing -the stars, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">astronomi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">astrologi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">planetarii</i>; -from employing diagrams such as -were used by geometricians, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mathematici</i>; -from determining the lot of man at his natal -hour, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">genethliaci</i>; from prophesying the -consummation of his struggles, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποτελεσματικοί</span>; -while their art was known as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστρολογία</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετεωρολογία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γενεθλιαλογία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποτελεσματική</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ars Chaldaeorum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mathesis</i>, or, from -the tables they consulted, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πινακική</span>. Their -calculations were termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Babylonii numeri</i>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλδαίων μέθοδοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλδαίων ψηφίδες</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rationes -Chaldaicae</i>; their responses when consulted -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chaldaeorum monita</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chaldaeorum natalicia -praedicta</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Astrologorum praedicta</i>. The stars -and constellations to which attention was -chiefly directed were the planets and the -signs of the zodiac, some of which were supposed -to exert uniformly a benign influence -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγαθοποιοὶ ἀστέρες</span>), such as Venus, Jupiter, -Luna, Virgo, Libra, Taurus; others to be -uniformly malign (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κακοποιοὶ ἀστέρες</span>), such as -Saturnus, Mars, Scorpio, Capricornus; others<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> -to be doubtful (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίκοινοι ἀστέρες</span>), such as -Mercurius. The exact period of birth (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hora -genitalis</i>) being the critical moment, the computations -founded upon it were styled <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένεσις</span> -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">genitura</i>), <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὡροσκόπος</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horoscopus</i>), or simply -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θέμα</span>, and the star or stars in the ascendant -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sidus natalitium</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sidera natalitia</i>. Astrologers -seem to have found their way very early -into Italy. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 139 an edict was promulgated -by C. Cornelius Hispallus, at that time -praetor, by which the Chaldaeans were ordered -to quit Italy within ten days, and they -were again banished from the city in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 33, -by M. Agrippa, who was then aedile. Another -severe ordinance was levelled by Augustus -against this class, but the frequent occurrence -of such phrases as “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">expulit et -mathematicos</span>,” “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulsis Italia mathematicis</span>,” -in the historians of the empire prove how -firm a hold these pretenders must have obtained -over the public mind, and how profitable -the occupation must have been which -could induce them to brave disgrace, and -sometimes a cruel death.</p> - - -<p id="Astynomi">ASTỸNŎMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστυνόμοι</span>), or street-police -of Athens, were ten in number, five for the -city, and as many for the Peiraeeus. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">astynomi</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agoranomi</i> divided between -them most of the functions of the Roman -aediles. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Agoranomi">Agoranomi</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Asylum">ĂSῩLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄσυλον</span>). In the Greek states -the temples, altars, sacred groves, and statues -of the gods, generally possessed the privilege -of protecting slaves, debtors, and criminals, -who fled to them for refuge. The -laws, however, do not appear to have recognised -the right of all such sacred places to -afford the protection which was claimed, but -to have confined it to a certain number of -temples, or altars, which were considered in -a more especial manner to have the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσυλία</span>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus asyli</i>. There were several places in -Athens which possessed this privilege; of -which the best known was the Theseium, or -temple of Theseus, in the city, near the gymnasium, -which was chiefly intended for the -protection of ill-treated slaves, who could -take refuge in this place, and compel their -masters to sell them to some other person. -In the time of Tiberius, the number of places -possessing the jus asyli in the Greek cities in -Greece and Asia Minor became so numerous, -as seriously to impede the administration of -justice; and, consequently, the senate, by the -command of the emperor, limited the jus -asyli to a few cities. The asylum, which -Romulus is said to have opened at Rome to -increase the population of the city, was a -place of refuge for the inhabitants of other -states, rather than a sanctuary for those who -had violated the laws of the city. In the -republican and early imperial times, a right -of asylum, such as existed in the Greek states, -does not appear to have been recognised by -the Roman law; but it existed under the -empire, and a slave could fly to the temples of -the gods, or the statues of the emperors, to -avoid the ill-usage of his master.</p> - - -<p id="Ateleia">ĂTĔLEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτέλεια</span>), immunity from public -burthens, was enjoyed at Athens by the -archons for the time being; by the descendants -of certain persons, on whom it had been -conferred as a reward for great services, as -in the case of Harmodius and Aristogeiton; -and by the inhabitants of certain foreign states. -It was of several kinds: it might be a general -immunity (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτέλεια ἁπάντων</span>); or a more special -exemption, as from custom-duties, from -the liturgies, or from providing sacrifices.</p> - - -<p id="Atellanae">ĀTELLĀNAE FĂBŬLAE were a species -of farce or comedy, so called from Atella, a -town of the Osci, in Campania. From this -circumstance, and from being written in the -Oscan dialect, they were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ludi -Osci</i>. These Atellane plays were not <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetextatae</i>, -<em>i.e.</em> comedies in which magistrates and -persons of rank were introduced, nor <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabernariae</i>, -the characters in which were taken -from low life; they rather seem to have been -a union of high comedy and its parody. -They were also distinguished from the mimes -by the absence of low buffoonery and ribaldry, -being remarkable for a refined humour, -such as could be understood and appreciated -by educated people. They were not -performed by regular actors (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">histriones</i>), but -by Roman citizens of noble birth, who were -not on that account subjected to any degradation, -but retained their rights as citizens, -and might serve in the army. The Oscan or -Opican language, in which these plays were -written, was spread over the whole of the -south of Italy, and from its resemblance to -the Latin could easily be understood by the -more educated Romans.</p> - - -<p id="Athenaeum">ĂTHĒNAEUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀθήναιον</span>), a school (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludus</i>) -founded <ins class="corr" id="tn-46" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'by the Emperior'"> -by the Emperor</ins> Hadrian at Rome, -for the promotion of literary and scientific -studies (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ingenuarum artium</i>), and called -Athenaeum from the town of Athens, which -was still regarded as the seat of intellectual -refinement. The Athenaeum was situated on -the Capitoline hill. It was a kind of university, -with a staff of professors, for the -various branches of study. Besides the instruction -given by these magistri, poets, orators, -and critics were accustomed to recite -their compositions there, and these prelections -were sometimes honoured with the presence -of the emperors themselves. The Athenaeum -seems to have continued in high repute till -the fifth century.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span></p> - - -<p id="Athletae">ATHLĒTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀθληταί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀθλητῆρες</span>), persons -who contended in the public games of the -Greeks and Romans for prizes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἆθλα</span>, whence -the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀθληταί</span>), which were given to -those who conquered in contests of agility -and strength. The name was in the later -period of Grecian history, and among the -Romans, properly confined to those persons -who entirely devoted themselves to a course -of training which might fit them to excel in -such contests, and who, in fact, made athletic -exercises their profession. The athletae -differed, therefore, from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agonistae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγωνισταί</span>), -who only pursued gymnastic exercises -for the sake of improving their health -and bodily strength, and who, though they -sometimes contended for the prizes in the -public games, did not devote their whole -lives, like the athletae, to preparing for these -contests. Athletae were first introduced at -Rome, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 186, in the games exhibited by -M. Fulvius, on the conclusion of the Aetolian -war. Aemilius Paullus, after the conquest of -Perseus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 167, is said to have exhibited -games at Amphipolis, in which athletae contended. -Under the Roman emperors, and -especially under Nero, who was passionately -fond of the Grecian games, the number of -athletae increased greatly in Italy, Greece, -and Asia Minor. Those athletae who conquered -in any of the great national festivals -of the Greeks were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hieronicae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερονῖκαι</span>), -and received the greatest honours and -rewards. Such a conqueror was considered -to confer honour upon the state to which he -belonged; he entered his native city through -a breach made in the walls for his reception, -in a chariot drawn by four white horses, and -went along the principal street of the city to -the temple of the guardian deity of the state. -Those games, which gave the conquerors the -right of such an entrance into the city, were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Iselastici</i> (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσελαύνειν</span>). This -term was originally confined to the four great -Grecian festivals, the Olympian, Isthmian, -Nemean, and Pythian, but was afterwards -applied to other public games. In the Greek -states, the victors in these games not only -obtained the greatest glory and respect, but -also substantial rewards. They were generally -relieved from the payment of taxes, and -also enjoyed the first seat (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προεδρία</span>) in all -public games and spectacles. Their statues -were frequently erected at the cost of the -state, in the most frequented part of the city, -as the market-place, the gymnasia, and the -neighbourhood of the temples. At Athens, -according to a law of Solon, the conquerors in -the Olympic games were rewarded with a -prize of 500 drachmae; and the conquerors -in the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, with -one of 100 drachmae; and at Sparta they had -the privilege of fighting near the person of -the king. The privileges of the athletae were -secured, and in some respects increased, by -the Roman emperors. The term athletae, -though sometimes applied metaphorically to -other combatants, was properly limited to -those who contended for the prize in the five -following contests:—1. <em>Running</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρόμος</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cursus</i>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stadium">Stadium</a>.</span>] 2. <em>Wrestling</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lucta</i>). 3. <em>Boxing</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμή</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pugilatus</i>). 4. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pentathlum</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πένταθλον</span>), or, as the Romans -called it, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quinquertium</i>. 5. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pancratium</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παγκράτιον</span>). Of all these an account is given -in separate articles. Great attention was -paid to the training of the athletae. They -were generally trained in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palaestrae</i>, -which, in the Grecian states, were distinct -places from the gymnasia. Their exercises -were superintended by the gymnasiarch, and -their diet was regulated by the aliptes. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aliptae">Aliptae</a>.</span>]—The athletae were accustomed -to contend naked. In the descriptions of the -games given in the Iliad, the combatants are -represented with a girdle about their loins; -and the same practice, as we learn from -Thucydides, anciently prevailed at the -Olympic games, but was discontinued afterwards.</p> - - -<p id="Atimia">ĂTĪMĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>), the forfeiture of a man’s -civil rights at Athens. It was either total or -partial. A man was totally deprived of his -rights, both for himself and for his descendants -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καθάπαξ ἄτιμος</span>), when he was convicted -of murder, theft, false witness, partiality -as arbiter, violence offered to a magistrate, -and so forth. This highest degree of -atimia excluded the person affected by it from -the forum, and from all public assemblies; -from the public sacrifices, and from the law -courts; or rendered him liable to immediate -imprisonment, if he was found in any of these -places. It was either temporary or perpetual, -and either accompanied or not with -confiscation of property. Partial atimia only -involved the forfeiture of some few rights, as, -for instance, the right of pleading in court. -Public debtors were suspended from their -civic functions till they discharged their debt -to the state. People who had once become -altogether atimi were very seldom restored to -their lost privileges. The converse term to -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i> was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epitimia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιτιμία</span>).</p> - - -<p id="Atlantes">ATLANTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄτλαντες</span>) and TĔLĂMŌNES -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελαμῶνες</span>), terms used in architecture, the -former by the Greeks, the latter by the Romans, -to designate those male figures which -are sometimes fancifully used, like the female -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caryatides</i>, in place of columns. Both words -are derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τλῆναι</span>, and the former evidently -refers to the fable of Atlas, who supported<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span> -the vault of heaven, the latter <em>perhaps</em> -to the strength of the Telamonian Ajax.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp72" id="ill048" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill048.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Atlantes. (From Temple at Agrigentum: -Professor Cockerell.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Atramentum">ĀTRĀMENTUM, a term applicable to any -black colouring substance, for whatever purpose -it may be used, like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">melan</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέλαν</span>) -of the Greeks. There were, however, three -principal kinds of atramentum: one called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librarium</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptorium</i> (in Greek, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφικὸν -μέλαν</span>), writing-ink; another called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sutorium</i>, -which was used by the shoemakers for dyeing -leather; the third <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tectorium</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pictorium</i>, -which was used by painters for some purposes, -apparently as a sort of varnish. The -inks of the ancients seem to have been more -durable than our own; they were thicker -and more unctuous, in substance and durability -more resembling the ink now used by -printers. An inkstand was discovered at -Herculaneum, containing ink as thick as oil, -and still usable for writing. The ancients -used inks of various colours. Red ink, made -of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minium</i> or vermilion, was used for writing -the titles and beginning of books. So also -was ink made of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rubrica</i>, “red ochre;” and -because the headings of <em>laws</em> were written -with rubrica, the word rubric came to be -used for the civil law. So <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">album</i>, a white or -whited table, on which the praetors’ edicts -were written, was used in a similar way. A -person devoting himself to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">album</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rubrica</i>, -was a person devoting himself to the law. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Album">Album</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Atrium">ĀTRĬUM (called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλή</span> by the Greeks and -by Virgil, and also <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεσαύλιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίστυλον</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίστῳον</span>) is used in a distinctive as well as -collective sense, to designate a particular part -in the private houses of the Romans [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>], -and also a class of public buildings, so called -from their general resemblance in construction -to the atrium of a private house. An -atrium of the latter description was a building -by itself, resembling in some respects the -open basilica [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Basilica">Basilica</a></span>], but consisting of -three sides. Such was the Atrium Publicum -in the capitol, which, Livy informs us, was -struck with lightning, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 216. It was at -other times attached to some temple or other -edifice, and in such case consisted of an -open area and surrounding portico in front -of the structure. Several of these buildings -are mentioned by the ancient historians, two -of which were dedicated to the same goddess, -Libertas. The most celebrated, as well as -the most ancient, was situated on the Aventine -Mount. In this atrium there was a -tabularium, where the legal tablets (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i>) -relating to the censors were preserved. The -other Atrium Libertatis was in the neighbourhood -of the Forum Caesaris, and was -immediately behind the Basilica Paulli or -Aemilia.</p> - - -<p id="Auctio">AUCTĬO signifies generally “an increasing, -an enhancement,” and hence the name is applied -to a public sale of goods, at which persons -bid against one another. The sale was -sometimes conducted by an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">argentarius</i>, or by -a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister auctionis</i>; and the time, place, -and conditions of sale, were announced either -by a public notice (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">album</i>, &c.), or by -a crier (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeco</i>). The usual phrases to express -the giving notice of a sale were, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctionem -proscribere, praedicare</i>; and to determine -on a sale, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctionem constituere</i>. The -purchasers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emtores</i>), when assembled, were -sometimes said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad tabulam adesse</i>. The -phrases signifying to bid are, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liceri</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">licitari</i>, -which was done either by word of mouth, or -by such significant hints as are known to all -people who have attended an auction. The -property was said to be knocked down (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">addici</i>) -to the purchaser. The praeco, or crier, -seems to have acted the part of the modern -auctioneer, so far as calling out the biddings, -and amusing the company. Slaves, when -sold by auction, were placed on a stone, or -other elevated thing, as is the case when -slaves are sold in the United States of North -America; and hence the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">homo de lapide -emtus</i>. It was usual to put up a spear -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>) in auctions; a symbol derived, it is -said, from the ancient practice of selling under -a spear the booty acquired in war.</p> - - -<p id="Auctor">AUCTOR, a word which contains the same -element as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aug-eo</i>, and signifies generally one -who enlarges, confirms, or gives to a thing -its completeness and efficient form. The -numerous technical significations of the word -are derivable from this general notion. As he -who gives to a thing that which is necessary -for its completeness may in this sense be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span> -viewed as the chief actor or doer, the word -auctor is also used in the sense of one who -originates or proposes a thing; but this cannot -be viewed as its primary meaning. Accordingly, -the word auctor, when used in -connection with lex or senatus consultum, -often means him who originates and proposes.—The -expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores fiunt</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores facti</i>, have given rise to much -discussion. In the earlier periods of the Roman -state, the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres</i> was equivalent to -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patricii</i>; in the later period, when the patricians -had lost all importance as a political -body, the term patres signified the senate. -Hence some ambiguity has arisen. The expression -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores fiunt</i>, when used of -the early period of Rome, means that the -determinations of the populus in the comitia -centuriata were confirmed by the patricians -in the comitia curiata. Till the time of Servius -Tullius there were only the comitia curiata, -and this king first established the -comitia centuriata, in which the plebs also -voted, and consequently it was not till after -this time that the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores fiunt</i> -could be properly applied. Livy, however, -uses it of an earlier period. The comitia -curiata first elected the king, and then by -another vote conferred upon him the imperium. -The latter was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex curiata de -imperio</i>, an expression not used by Livy, -who employs instead the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores -fiunt</i> (Liv. i. 17, 22, 32).—After the -exile of the last Tarquin, the patres, that is -the patricians, had still the privilege of confirming -at the comitia curiata the vote of the -comitia centuriata, that is, they gave to it -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patrum auctoritas</i>; or, in other words, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres</i> were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctores facti</i>. In the -fifth century of the city a change was made. -By one of the laws of the plebeian dictator Q. -Publilius Philo, it was enacted that in the -case of leges to be enacted at the comitia centuriata, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres</i> should be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctores</i>, that is, -the curiae should give their assent before the -vote of the comitia centuriata. By a lex -Maenia of uncertain date the same change -was made as to elections.—But both during -the earlier period and afterwards no business -could be brought before the comitia without -first receiving the sanction of the senate; and -accordingly the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores fiunt</i> -came now to be applied to the approval of -a measure by the senate before it was confirmed -by the votes of the people. This preliminary -approval was also termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus -auctoritas</i>.—When the word auctor is applied -to him who recommends but does not -originate a legislative measure, it is equivalent -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suasor</i>. Sometimes both auctor and -suasor are used in the same sentence, and the -meaning of each is kept distinct. With reference -to dealings between individuals, -auctor has the sense of owner. In this sense -auctor is the seller (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">venditor</i>), as opposed to -the buyer (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emtor</i>): and hence we have the -phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">a malo auctore emere</i>. Auctor is also -used generally to express any person under -whose authority any legal act is done. In -this sense, it means a tutor who is appointed -to aid or advise a woman on account of the -infirmity of her sex.</p> - - -<p id="Auctoramentum">AUCTŌRĀMENTUM, the pay of gladiators. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Auctoritas">AUCTŌRĬTAS. The technical meanings -of this word correlate with those of auctor. -The auctoritas senatus was not a senatus-consultum; -it was a measure, incomplete in -itself, which received its completion by some -other authority. Auctoritas, as applied to -property, is equivalent to legal ownership, -being a correlation of auctor.</p> - - -<p id="Auditorium">AUDĪTŌRĬUM, as the name implies, is -any place for hearing. It was the practice -among the Romans for poets and others to -read their compositions to their friends, who -were sometimes called the auditorium; but -the word was also used to express any place -in which any thing was heard, and under the -empire it was applied to a court of justice. -Under the republic the place for all judicial -proceedings was the comitium and the forum. -But for the sake of shelter and convenience -it became the practice to hold courts in the -Basilicae, which contained halls, which were -also called auditoria. It is first under M. -Aurelius that the auditorium principis is -mentioned, by which we must understand a -hall or room in the imperial residence; and -in such a hall Septimius Severus and the -later emperors held their regular sittings -when they presided as judges. The latest -jurists use the word generally for any place -in which justice was administered.</p> - - -<p id="Augur">AUGUR, AUGŬRĬUM; AUSPEX, AUSPĬCĬUM. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augur</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspex</i> meant a diviner -by birds, but came in course of time, like -the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰωνός</span>, to be applied in a more extended -sense: his art was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augurium</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicium</i>. Plutarch relates that the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augures</i> -were originally termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspices</i>. The -word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspex</i> was supplanted by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augur</i>, but -the scientific term for the observation continued -on the contrary to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicium</i> and -not <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augurium</i>. By Greek writers on Roman -affairs, the augurs are called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰωνοπόλοι</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰωνοσκόποι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰωνισταί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ ἐπ’ οἰωνοῖς ἱερεῖς</span>. -The belief that the flight of birds gave some -intimation of the will of the gods seems to -have been prevalent among many nations of -antiquity, and was common to the Greeks, as -well as the Romans; but it was only among<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span> -the latter people that it was reduced to a -complete system, governed by fixed rules, -and handed down from generation to generation. -In Greece, the oracles supplanted the -birds, and the future was learnt from Apollo -and other gods, rarely from Zeus, who possessed -very few oracles in Greece. The contrary -was the case at Rome: it was from -Jupiter that the future was learnt, and the -birds were regarded as his messengers. It -must be remarked in general, that the Roman -auspices were essentially of a practical nature; -they gave no information respecting the -course of future events, they did not inform -men <em>what was to happen</em>, but simply taught -them <em>what they were to do, or not to do</em>; -they assigned no reason for the decision of -Jupiter—they simply announced, yes or no. -The words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augurium</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicium</i> came to -be used in course of time to signify the observation -of various kinds of signs. They -were divided into five sorts: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex caelo</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex -avibus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex tripudiis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex quadrupedibus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex diris</i>. -Of these, the last three formed no part of the -ancient auspices.—1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ex caelo.</i> This included -the observation of the various kinds of -thunder and lightning, and was regarded as -the most important, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maximum auspicium</i>. -Whenever it was reported by a person authorised -to take the auspices, that Jupiter thundered -or lightened, the comitia could not be -held.—2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ex avibus.</i> It was only a few -birds which could give auguries among the -Romans. They were divided into two classes: -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oscines</i>, those which gave auguries by singing, -or their voice, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alites</i>, those which -gave auguries by their flight. To the former -class belonged the raven (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corvus</i>) and the -crow (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornix</i>), the first of these giving a -favourable omen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicium ratum</i>) when it -appeared on the right, the latter, on the contrary, -when it was seen on the left: likewise -the owl (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">noctua</i>) and the hen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gallina</i>). To -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aves alites</i> belonged first of all the eagle -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquila</i>), which is called pre-eminently the -bird of Jupiter (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jovis ales</i>), and next the vulture -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vultur</i>). Some birds were included both -among the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oscines</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alites</i>: such were -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Picus Martius</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Feronius</i>, and the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parra</i>. These were the principal birds consulted -in the auspices. When the birds favoured -an undertaking, they were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">addicere</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">admittere</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secundare</i>, and were then -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">addictivae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">admissivae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secundae</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praepetes</i>: when unfavourable they were said -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">abdicere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arcere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">refragari</i>, &c., and were -then called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adversae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alterae</i>. The birds -which gave unfavourable omens were termed -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funebres</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inhibitae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lugubres</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">malae</i>, &c., and -such auspices were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clivia</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clamatoria</i>.—3. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ex tripudiis.</i> These auspices -were taken from the feeding of chickens, and -were especially employed on military expeditions. -The chickens were kept in a cage, -under care of a person called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pullarius</i>; and -when the auspices were to be taken, the -pullarius opened the cage and threw to the -chickens pulse or a kind of soft cake. If -they refused to come out or to eat, or uttered -a cry (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">occinerent</i>), or beat their wings, or -flew away, the signs were considered unfavourable. -On the contrary, if they ate -greedily, so that something fell from their -mouth and struck the earth, it was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tripudium solistimum</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tripudium</i> quasi <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">terripavium</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solistimum</i>, from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solum</i>, according to -the ancient writers), and was held a favourable -sign.—4. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ex quadrupedibus.</i> Auguries -could also be taken from four-footed animals; -but these formed no part of the original -science of the augurs, and were never employed -by them in taking auspices on behalf -of the state, or in the exercise of their art -properly so called. They must be looked -upon simply as a mode of private divination. -When a fox, a wolf, a horse, a dog, or any -other kind of quadruped ran across a person’s -path or appeared in an unusual place, it -formed an augury.—5. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ex diris</i>, sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signis</i>. -Under this head was included every kind of -augury which does not fall under any of the -four classes mentioned above, such as sneezing, -stumbling, and other accidental things. -There was an important augury of this kind -connected with the army, which was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex acuminibus</i>, that is, the flames appearing -at the points of spears or other weapons. -The ordinary manner of taking the auspices, -properly so called (i.e. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex caelo</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex avibus</i>), -was as follows: The person who was to take -them first marked out with a wand (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lituus</i>) -a division in the heavens called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tescum</i>, within which he intended to make -his observations. The station where he was -to take the auspices was also separated by a -solemn formula from the rest of the land, -and was likewise called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tescum</i>. -He then proceeded to pitch a tent in it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabernaculum -capere</i>), and this tent again was also -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i>, or, more accurately, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum -minus</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>] Within the walls of -Rome, or, more properly speaking, within -the pomoerium, there was no occasion to select -a spot and pitch a tent on it, as there -was a place on the Arx on the summit of the -Capitoline hill, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Auguraculum</i>, which -had been consecrated once for all for this purpose. -In like manner there was in every -Roman camp a place called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augurale</i>, which -answered the same purpose; but on all other -occasions a place had to be consecrated, and -a tent to be pitched, as, for instance, in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span> -Campus Martius, when the comitia centuriata -were to be held. The person who was then -taking the auspices waited for the favourable -signs to appear; but it was necessary during -this time that there should be no interruption -of any kind whatsoever (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silentium</i>), and hence -the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silentium</i> was used in a more extended -sense to signify the absence of every -thing that was faulty. Every thing, on the -contrary, that rendered the auspices invalid -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitium</i>; and hence we constantly -read in Livy and other writers of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitio magistratus -creati</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitio lex lata</i>, &c. The watching -for the auspices was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">servare de coelo</i>, the declaration of what was -observed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nuntiatio</i>, or, if they were unfavourable, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obnuntiatio</i>. In the latter case, the -person who took the auspices seems usually -to have said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alio die</i>, by which the business -in hand, whether the holding of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia</i> -or any thing else, was entirely stopped.—In -ancient times no one but a patrician could -take the auspices. Hence the possession of -the auspices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">habere auspicia</i>) is one of the -most distinguished prerogatives of the patricians; -they are said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">penes patrum</i>, and -are called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia patrum</i>. It would further -appear that every patrician might take the -auspices; but here a distinction is to be observed -between the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia privata</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia -publica</i>. One of the most frequent -occasions on which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia privata</i> were -taken, was in case of a marriage: and this -was one great argument used by the patricians -against <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">connubium</i> between themselves -and the plebeians, as it would occasion, they -urged, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perturbationem auspiciorum publicorum -privatorumque</i>. In taking these private -auspices, it would appear that any patrician -was employed who knew how to form <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templa</i> -and was acquainted with the art of augury. -The case, however, was very different with -respect to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia publica</i>, generally -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia</i> simply, or those which concerned -the state. The latter could only be -taken by the persons who represented the -state, and who acted as mediators between -the gods and the state; for though all the -patricians were eligible for taking the auspices, -yet it was only the magistrates who -were in actual possession of them. In case, -however, there was no patrician magistrate, -the auspices became vested in the whole body -of the patricians (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia ad patres redeunt</i>), -who had recourse to an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">interregnum</i> for the -renewal of them, and for handing them over -in a perfect state to the new magistrates: -hence we find the expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repetere de integro -auspicia</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">renovare per interregnum -auspicia</i>.—The distinction between the duties -of the magistrates and the augurs in taking -the auspices is one of the most difficult points -connected with this subject, but perhaps a -satisfactory solution of these difficulties may -be found by taking an historical view of the -question. We are told not only that the -kings were in possession of the auspices, but -that they themselves were acquainted with -the art and practised it. Romulus is stated -to have appointed three augurs, but only as -his assistants in taking the auspices, a fact -which it is important to bear in mind. Their -dignity gradually increased in consequence of -their being employed at the inauguration of -the kings, and also in consequence of their -becoming the preservers and depositaries of -the science of augury. Formed into a collegium, -they handed down to their successors -the various rules of the science, while the -kings, and subsequently the magistrates of -the republic, were liable to change. Their -duties thus became two-fold, to assist the magistrates -in taking up auspices, and to preserve -a scientific knowledge of the art. As -the augurs were therefore merely the assistants -of the magistrates, they could not take -the auspices without the latter, though the -magistrates on the contrary could dispense -with their assistance. At the same time it -must be borne in mind, that as the augurs -were the interpreters of the science, they -possessed the right of declaring whether the -auspices were valid or invalid. They thus -possessed in reality a veto upon every important -public transaction; and they frequently -exercised this power as a political -engine to vitiate the election <ins class="corr" id="tn-51" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'of each parties'"> -of such parties</ins> as were unfavourable to the enclusive privileges -of the patricians. But although the -augurs could declare that there was some -fault in the auspices, yet, on the other hand, -they could not, by virtue of their office, declare -that any unfavourable sign had appeared -to them, since it was not to them that the -auspices were sent. Thus we are told that -the augurs did not possess the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio</i>. This -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio</i> was of two kinds, one more extensive -and the other more limited. In the one case -the person who exercised it could put a stop -to the proceedings of any other magistrate by -his obnuntiatio: this was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio et -nuntiatio</i> (perhaps also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio cum nuntiatione</i>), -and belonged only to the highest magistrates, -the consuls, dictators, interreges, -and, with some modifications, to the praetors. -In the other case, the person who took the -auspices only exercised the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio</i> in reference -to the duties of his own office, and could -not interfere with any other magistrate: this -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio sine nuntiatione</i>, and belonged -to the other magistrates, the censors, -aediles, and quaestors. Now as the augurs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> -did not possess the auspices, they consequently -could not possess the spectio (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">habere -spectionem</i>); but as the augurs were constantly -employed by the magistrates to take -the auspices, they <em>exercised</em> the spectio, though -they did not <em>possess</em> it in virtue of their office. -When they were employed by the magistrates -in taking the auspices, they possessed the -right of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nuntiatio</i>, and thus had the -power, by the declaration of unfavourable -signs (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obnuntiatio</i>), to put a stop to all important -public transactions.—The auspices -were not conferred upon the magistrates in -any special manner. It was the act of their -election which made them the recipients of -the auspices, since the comitia, in which they -were appointed to their office, were held <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicato</i>, -and consequently their appointment -was regarded as ratified by the gods. The -auspices, therefore, passed immediately into -their hands upon the abdication of their predecessors -in office.—The auspices belonging -to the different magistrates were divided into -two classes, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia maxima</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">majora</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minora</i>. The former, which belonged -originally to the kings, passed over to the -consuls, censors, and praetors, and likewise -to the extraordinary magistrates, the dictators, -interreges, and consular tribunes. The -quaestors and the curule aediles, on the contrary, -had only the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia minora</i>.—It was -a common opinion in antiquity that a college -of three augurs was appointed by Romulus, -answering to the number of the early tribes, -the Ramnes, Tities, and Lucerenses, but the -accounts vary respecting their origin and -number. At the passing of the Ogulnian -law (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 300) the augurs were four in number. -This law increased the number of pontiffs -to eight, by the addition of four plebeians, -and that of the augurs to nine by the addition -of five plebeians. The number of nine -augurs lasted down to the dictatorship of -Sulla, who increased them to fifteen, a multiple -of the original three, probably with a -reference to the early tribes. A sixteenth -was added by Julius Caesar after his return -from Egypt. The members of the college of -augurs possessed the right of self-election -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cooptatio</i>) until <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 103, the year of the -Domitian law. By this law it was enacted -that vacancies in the priestly colleges should -be filled up by the votes of a minority of the -tribes, <em>i.e.</em> seventeen out of thirty-five chosen -by lot. The Domitian law was repealed by -Sulla <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 81, but again restored <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63, -during the consulship of Cicero, by the tribune -T. Annius Labienus, with the support -of Caesar. It was a second time abrogated -by Antony <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 44; whether again restored -by Hirtius and Pansa in their general annulment -of the acts of Antony, seems uncertain. -The emperors possessed the right of electing -augurs at pleasure. The augurs were elected -for life, and even if capitally convicted, never -lost their sacred character. When a vacancy -occurred, the candidate was nominated by -two of the elder members of the college, the -electors were sworn, and the new member -was then solemnly inaugurated. On such -occasion there was always a splendid banquet -given, at which all the augurs were expected -to be present. The only distinction in the -college was one of age; an elder augur -always voted before a younger, even if the -latter filled one of the higher offices in the -state. The head of the college was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister collegii</i>. As insignia of their office -the augurs wore the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabea</i>, or public dress, -and carried in their hand the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lituus</i> or curved -wand. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lituus">Lituus</a>.</span>] On the coins of the Romans, -who filled the office of augur, we constantly -find the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lituus</i>, and along with it, not -unfrequently, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capis</i>, an earthen vessel -which was used by them in sacrifices. The -science of the augurs was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus augurum</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus augurium</i>, and was preserved in books -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libri augurales</i>), which are frequently mentioned -in the ancient writers. The expression -for consulting the augurs was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">referre ad -augures</i>, and their answers were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decreta</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">responsa augurum</i>. The science of -augury had greatly declined in the time of -Cicero; and although he frequently deplores -its neglect in his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Divinatione</i>, yet neither -he nor any of the educated classes appears to -have had any faith in it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill052" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill052.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Coin representing the lituus and capis on the reverse.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Auguraculum">AŪGŬRĀCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arx">Arx</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a></span>, <a href="#Page_50">p. 50</a>, b.]</p> - - -<p id="Augurale">AUGŬRĀLE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a></span>, <a href="#Page_50">p. 50</a>, b.]</p> - - -<p id="Augurium">AUGŬRIUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Augustales">AUGUSTĀLES—(1) (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi</i>, also called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustalia</i>, sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">certamina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludicra</i>), games -celebrated in honour of Augustus, at Rome -and in other parts of the Roman empire. -After the battle of Actium, a quinquennial -festival was instituted; and the birthday of -Augustus, as well as that on which the victory -was announced at Rome, were regarded -as festival days. It was not, however, till -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 11 that the festival on the birthday of -Augustus was formally established by a decree -of the senate, and it is this festival<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span> -which is usually meant when the Augustales -or Augustalia are mentioned. It was celebrated -iv. Id. Octobr. At the death of Augustus, -this festival assumed a more solemn -character, was added to the Fasti, and celebrated -to his honour as a god. It was henceforth -exhibited annually in the circus, at first -by the tribunes of the plebs, at the commencement -of the reign of Tiberius, but afterwards -by the praetor peregrinus.—(2) The -name of two classes of priests, one at Rome -and the other in the municipia. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustales</i> -at Rome, properly called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sodales Augustales</i>, -were an order of priests instituted by -Tiberius to attend to the worship of Augustus -and the Julia gens. They were chosen by -lot from among the principal persons of -Rome, and were twenty-one in number, to -which were added Tiberius, Drusus, Claudius, -and Germanicus, as members of the imperial -family. They were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacerdotes Augustales</i>, -and sometimes simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustales</i>. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustales</i> in the municipia are supposed -by most modern writers to have been a class -of priests selected by Augustus from the libertini -to attend to the religions rites connected -with the worship of the Lares, which that -emperor was said to have put up in places -where two or more ways met; but there are -good reasons for thinking that they were instituted -in imitation of the Augustales at -Rome, and for the same object, namely, to -attend to the worship of Augustus. They -formed a collegium and were appointed by -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decuriones</i>, or senate of the municipia. -The six principal members of the college were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Seviri</i>, a title which seems to have been -imitated from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Seviri</i> in the equestrian -order at Rome.</p> - - -<p id="Augustus">AUGUSTUS, a name bestowed upon Octavianus -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 27, by the senate and the Roman -people. It was a word used in connection -with religion, and designated a person as -sacred and worthy of worship; hence the -Greek writers translate it by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σεβαστός</span>. It -was adopted by all succeeding emperors, as if -descended, either by birth or adoption, from -the first emperor of the Roman world. The -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augusta</i> was frequently bestowed -upon females of the imperial family; but -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustus</i> belonged exclusively to the reigning -emperor till towards the end of the second -century of the Christian aera, when M. Aurelius -and L. Verus both received this surname. -From this time we frequently find -two or even a greater number of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augusti</i>. -From the time of Probus the title became -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perpetuus Augustus</i>, and from Philippus or -Claudius Gothicus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">semper Augustus</i>, the latter -of which titles was borne by the so-called Roman -emperors in Germany. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caesar">Caesar</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aulaeum">AULAEUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Siparium">Siparium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aureus">AURĔUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Auriga">AURĪGA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill053" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill053.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Aureus Nummus. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Aurum">AURUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρυσός</span>), gold. Gold was scarce -in Greece. The chief places from which the -Greeks procured their gold were India, Arabia, -Armenia, Colchis, and Troas. It was found -mixed with the sands of the Pactolus and -other rivers. Almost the only method of -purifying gold, known to the ancients, seems -to have been that of grinding and then roasting -it, and by this process they succeeded in -getting it very pure. This is what we are to -understand by the phrase <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρυσίον ἄπεφθον</span> in -Thucydides, and by the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obrussa</i> in -Pliny. The art of gilding was known to the -Greeks from the earliest times of which we -have any information. The time when gold -was first coined at Athens is very uncertain, -but on the whole it appears most probable -that gold money was not coined there, or in -Greece Proper generally, till the time of Alexander -the Great, if we except a solitary issue -of debased gold at Athens in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 407. But -from a very early period the Asiatic nations, -and the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the -adjacent islands, as well as Sicily and Cyrene, -possessed a gold coinage, which was more or -less current in Greece. Herodotus says that -the Lydians were the first who coined gold, -and the stater of Croesus appears to have -been the earliest gold coin known to the -Greeks. The Daric was a Persian coin. -Staters of Cyzicus and Phocaea had a considerable -currency in Greece. There was a -gold coinage in Samos as early as the time of -Polycrates. The islands of Siphnos and Thasos, -which possessed gold mines, appear to -have had a gold coinage at an early period. -The Macedonian gold coinage came into circulation -in Greece in the time of Philip, and -continued in use till the subjection of Greece -to the Romans. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dareicus">Daricus</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Stater">Stater</a></span>.] The -standard gold coin of Rome was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aureus -nummus</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">denarius aureus</i>, which, according -to Pliny, was first coined 62 years after -the first silver coinage [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Argentum">Argentum</a></span>], that is, -in the year 207 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> The lowest denomination -was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scrupulum</i>, which was made -equal to 20 sestertii. The weight of the -scrupulum was 18·06 grains. The annexed -cut represents a gold coin of 60 sestertii. -Pliny adds that afterwards aurei were coined<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span> -of 40 to the pound, which weight was diminished, -till under Nero they were 45 to the -pound. The average weight of the aurei of -Augustus, in the British Museum, is 121·26 -grains: and as the weight was afterwards -diminished, we may take the average at 120 -grains. The value of the aureus in terms of -the sovereign = 1<em>l.</em> 1<em>s.</em> 1<em>d.</em> and a little more -than a halfpenny. This is its value according -to the present worth of gold; but its -current value in Rome was different from -this, on account of the difference in the worth -of the metal. The aureus passed for 25 denarii; -therefore, the denarius being 8½<em>d.</em>, it -was worth 17<em>s.</em> 8½<em>d.</em> The ratio of the value -of gold to that of silver is given in the article -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Argentum">Argentum</a></span>. Alexander Severus coined pieces -of one-half and one-third of the aureus, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Semissis</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tremissis</i>, after which time the -aureus was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solidus</i>. Constantine the -Great coined aurei of 72 to the pound; at -which standard the coin remained to the end -of the empire.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill054" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill054.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Aureus of Augustus. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Aurum_c">AURUM CŎRŌNĀRĬUM. When a general -in a Roman province had obtained a victory, -it was the custom for the cities in his own -provinces, and for those from the neighbouring -states, to send golden crowns to him, -which were carried before him in his triumph -at Rome. In the time of Cicero it appears -to have been usual for the cities of the provinces, -instead of sending crowns on occasion -of a victory, to pay money, which was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aurum coronarium</i>. This offering, which -was at first voluntary, came to be regarded -as a regular tribute, and was sometimes -exacted by the governors of the provinces, -even when no victory had been gained.</p> - - -<p id="Aurum_v">AURUM VĪCĒSĬMĀRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Auspex">AUSPEX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Auspicium">AUSPĬCĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Authepsa">AUTHEPSA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐθέψης</span>), which literally -means “self-boiling,” or “self-cooking,” was -the name of a vessel which is supposed to -have been used for heating water, or for -keeping it hot.</p> - - -<p id="Autonomi">AUTŎNŎMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐτονόμοι</span>), the name given -by the Greeks to those states which were -governed by their own laws, and were not -subject to any foreign power. This name -was also given to those cities subject to the -Romans, which were permitted to enjoy -their own laws and elect their own magistrates.</p> - - -<p id="Auxilia">AUXĬLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Socii">Socii</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Axamenta">AXĀMENTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Salii">Salii</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Axine">AXĪNĒ. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Securis">Securis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Axis">AXIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Currus">Currus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Axones">AXŎNES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄξονες</span>), also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">kurbeis</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύρβεις</span>), wooden tablets of a square or pyramidal -form, made to turn on an axis, on -which were written the laws of Solon. According -to some writers the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Axones</i> contained -the civil, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Kurbeis</i> the religious laws; -according to others the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Kurbeis</i> had four -sides and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Axones</i> three. But at Athens, -at all events, they seem to have been identical. -They were at first preserved in the -Acropolis, but were afterwards placed in the -agora, in order that all persons might be able -to read them.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="B_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">B</span></h2> - -<p id="Balista" class="drop-capy">BĀLISTA, BALLISTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Balneum">BALNĔUM or BĂLĬNĔUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λοετρόν</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λουτρόν, βαλανεῖον</span>, also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balneae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balineae</i>), -a bath. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balneum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balineum</i> signifies, in -its primary sense, a bath or bathing vessel, -such as most Romans possessed in their own -houses; and from that it came to mean the -chamber which contained the bath. When -the baths of private individuals became more -sumptuous, and comprised many rooms, the -plural <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balnea</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balinea</i> was adopted, which -still, in correct language, had reference only -to the baths of private persons. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balneae</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balineae</i>, which have no singular number, -were the public baths. But this accuracy -of diction is neglected by many of the later -writers. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thermae</i> (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θέρμη</span>, warmth) -means properly warm springs, or baths of -warm water, but was afterwards applied to -the structures in which the baths were placed, -and which were both hot and cold. There -was, however, a material distinction between -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balneae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thermae</i>, inasmuch as the -former was the term used under the republic, -and referred to the public establishments of -that age, which contained no appliances for -luxury beyond the mere convenience of hot -and cold baths, whereas the latter name was -given to those magnificent edifices which grew -up under the empire, and which comprised -within their range of buildings all the appurtenances -belonging to the Greek gymnasia, as -well as a regular establishment appropriated -for bathing.—Bathing was a practice familiar -to the Greeks of both sexes from the earliest -times. The artificial warm bath was taken -in a vessel called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">asaminthus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσάμινθος</span>) by -Homer, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puelus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύελος</span>) by the later -Greeks. It did not contain water itself, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span> -was only used for the bather to sit in, while -the warm water was poured over him. On -Greek vases, however, we never find anything -corresponding to a modern bath in which -persons can stand or sit; but there is always -a round or oval basin (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λουτήρ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λουτήριον</span>), -resting on a stand, by the side of which those -who are bathing are standing undressed and -washing themselves. In the Homeric times -it was customary to take first a cold and -afterwards a warm bath; but in later times -it was the usual practice of the Greeks to -take first a warm or vapour, and afterwards -a cold bath. At Athens the frequent use of -the public baths, most of which were warm -baths (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βαλανεῖα</span>, called by Homer <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θερμὰ -λοετρά</span>), was regarded in the time of Socrates -and Demosthenes as a mark of luxury and -effeminacy. Accordingly, Phocion was said -to have never bathed in a public bath, and -Socrates to have used it very seldom. After -bathing both sexes anointed themselves, in -order that the skin might not be left harsh -and rough, especially after warm water. Oil -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔλαιον</span>) is the only ointment mentioned by -Homer, but in later times precious unguents -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μῦρα</span>) were used for this purpose. The bath -was usually taken before the principal meal -of the day (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεῖπνον</span>). The Lacedaemonians, -who considered warm water as enervating, -used two kinds of baths; namely, the cold -daily bath in the Eurotas, and a dry sudorific -bath in a chamber heated with warm air by -means of a stove, and from them the chamber -used by the Romans for a similar purpose -was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Laconicum</i>. A sudorific or vapour -bath (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυρία</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυριατήριον</span>) is mentioned -as early as the time of Herodotus. At what -period the use of the warm bath was introduced -among the Romans is not recorded; -but we know that Scipio had a warm bath in -his villa at Liternum, and the practice of -heating an apartment with warm air by flues -placed immediately under it, so as to produce -a vapour bath, is stated to have been invented -by Sergius Orata, who lived in the age of -Crassus, before the Marsic war. By the time -of Cicero the use of baths of warm water and -hot air had become common, and in his time -there were baths at Rome which were open -to the public upon payment of a small fee. -In the public baths at Rome the men and -women used originally to bathe in separate -sets of chambers; but under the empire it -became the common custom for both sexes to -bathe indiscriminately in the same bath. -This practice was forbidden by Hadrian and -M. Aurelius; and Alexander Severus prohibited -any baths, common to both sexes, from -being opened in Rome. The price of a bath -was a quadrant, the smallest piece of coined -money, from the age of Cicero downwards, -which was paid to the keeper of the bath -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balneator</i>). Children below a certain age -were admitted free. It was usual with the -Romans to take the bath after exercise, and -before the principal meal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coena</i>) of the day; -but the debauchees of the empire bathed also -after eating as well as before, in order to -promote digestion, and to acquire a new -appetite for fresh delicacies.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill055" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill055.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Roman Bath. (Fresco from the Thermae of Titus.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Upon quitting -the bath the Romans as well as the Greeks -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span>were anointed with oil. The Romans did not -content themselves with a single bath of hot -or cold water; but they went through a -course of baths in succession, in which the -agency of air as well as water was applied. -It is difficult to ascertain the precise order in -which the course was usually taken; but it -appears to have been a general practice to -close the pores, and brace the body after the -excessive perspiration of the vapour bath, -either by pouring cold water over the head, -or by plunging at once into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">piscina</i>. To -render the subjoined remarks more easily intelligible, -the preceding woodcut is inserted, -which is taken from a fresco painting upon -the walls of the thermae of Titus at Rome. -The chief parts of a Roman bath were as -follow:—1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Apodyterium.</i> Here the bathers -were expected to take off their garments, -which were then delivered to a class of slaves, -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capsarii</i>, whose duty it was to take -charge of them. These men were notorious -for dishonesty, and were leagued with all the -thieves of the city, so that they connived at -the robberies which they were placed to prevent. -There was probably an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Elaeothesium</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Unctorium</i>, as appears from the preceding -cut, in connection with the apodyterium, -where the bathers might be anointed with -oil.—2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Frigidarium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cella Frigidaria</i>, -where the cold bath was taken. The cold -bath itself was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Natatio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Natatorium</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Piscina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Baptisterium</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Puteus</i>.—3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tepidarium</i> -would seem from the preceding cut -to have been a bathing room, for a person is -there apparently represented pouring water -over a bather. But there is good reason for -thinking that this was not the case. In most -cases the tepidarium contained no water at -all, but was a room merely heated with warm -air of an agreeable temperature, in order to -prepare the body for the great heat of the -vapour and warm baths, and upon returning -from the latter, to obviate the danger of a -too sudden transition to the open air.—4. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caldarium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Concamerata Sudatio</i> contained -at one extremity the vapour bath (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Laconicum</i>), -and at the other the warm bath (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balneum</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calda lavatio</i>), while the centre space -between the two ends was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sudatio</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sudatorium</i>. In larger establishments the -vapour bath and warm bath were in two -separate cells, as we see in the preceding -cut: in such cases the former part <em>alone</em> was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">concamerata sudatio</i>. The whole rested -on a suspended pavement (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suspensura</i>), under -which was a fire (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hypocaustum</i>), so that the -flames might heat the whole apartment. (See -cut.) <span id="Calida">The</span> warm water bath (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balneum</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calda lavatio</i>), which is also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">piscina</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calida piscina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">labrum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solium</i>, appears -to have been a capacious marble vase, sometimes -standing upon the floor, like that in the -preceding cut, and sometimes either partly -elevated above the floor, as it was at Pompeii, -or entirely sunk into it. After having gone, -through the regular course of perspiration, -the Romans made use of instruments called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strigiles</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strigles</i>, to scrape off the perspiration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp43" id="ill056a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill056a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Strigil. (From a Relief at Athens.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The strigil was also used by the Greeks, -who called it <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stlengis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στλεγγίς</span>) or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">xystra</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξύστρα</span>). The figure in the cut on <a href="#ill024a">p. 24</a> is -represented with a strigil in his hand. As -the strigil was not a blunt instrument, its -edge was softened by the application of oil, -which was dropped upon it from a small -vessel called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">guttus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ampulla</i>, which had a -narrow neck, so as to discharge its contents -drop by drop, from whence the name is taken.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp43" id="ill056b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill056b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Strigil and Guttus. (From a Statue in the Vatican.)</div> -</div> - -<p>In the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thermae</i>, spoken of above, the baths -were of secondary importance. They were a -Roman adaptation of the Greek gymnasium, -contained exedrae for the philosophers and -rhetoricians to lecture in, porticoes for the -idle, and libraries for the learned, and were -adorned with marbles, fountains, and shaded -walks and plantations. M. Agrippa, in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span> -reign of Augustus, was the first who afforded -these luxuries to his countrymen, by bequeathing -to them the thermae and gardens which -he had erected in the Campus Martius. The -example set by Agrippa was followed by -Nero, and afterwards by Titus, the ruins of -whose thermae are still visible, covering a -vast extent, partly under ground and partly -above the Esquiline hill. Thermae were also -erected by Trajan, Caracalla, and Diocletian, -of the two last of which ample remains still -exist. Previously to the erection of these -establishments for the use of the population, -it was customary for those who sought the -favour of the people to give them a day’s -bathing free of expense. From thence it is -fair to infer that the quadrant paid for admission -into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balneae</i> was not exacted at the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thermae</i>, which, as being the works of the -emperors, would naturally be opened with -imperial generosity to all, and without any -charge.</p> - - -<p id="Balteus">BALTĔUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελαμών</span>), a belt, a shoulder -belt, was used to suspend the sword. See -the figs. on <a href="#ill041">p. 41</a>. In the Homeric times the -Greeks used a belt to support the shield. The -balteus was likewise employed to suspend -the quiver, and sometimes together with it -the bow. More commonly the belt, whether -employed to support the sword, the shield, -or the quiver, was made of leather, and was -frequently ornamented with gold, silver, and -precious stones. In a general sense <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balteus</i> -was applied not only to the belt which passed -over the shoulder, but also to the girdle -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cingulum</i>), which encompassed the waist. -In architecture, Vitruvius applies the term -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Baltei</i> to the bands surrounding the volute -on each side of an Ionic capital. Other -writers apply it to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecinctiones</i> of an -amphitheatre. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Barathron">BĂRATHRON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βάραθρον</span>), also called <span class="smcap">Orugma</span> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄρυγμα</span>), a deep cavern or chasm, like -the Ceadas at Sparta, behind the Acropolis at -Athens, into which criminals were thrown. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ceadas">Ceadas</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Barba">BARBA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πώγων</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένειον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπήνη</span>), the beard. -The Greeks seem generally to have worn the -beard till the time of Alexander the Great; -and a thick beard was considered as a mark -of manliness. The Greek philosophers in -particular were distinguished by their long -beards as a sort of badge. The Romans in -early times wore the beard uncut, and the -Roman beards are said not to have been -shaved till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 300, when P. Ticinius Maena -brought over a barber from Sicily; and Pliny -adds, that the first Roman who is said to -have been shaved every day was Scipio -Africanus. His custom, however, was soon -followed, and shaving became a regular thing. -In the later times of the republic there were -many who shaved the beard only partially, -and trimmed it, so as to give it an ornamental -form; to them the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bene barbati</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">barbatuli</i> are applied. In the general way at -Rome, a long beard (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">barba promissa</i>) was -considered a mark of slovenliness and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">squalor</i>. -The first time of shaving was regarded as the -beginning of manhood, and the day on which -this took place was celebrated as a festival. -There was no particular time fixed for this -to be done. Usually, however, it was done -when the young Roman assumed the toga -virilis. The hair cut off on such occasions -was consecrated to some god. Thus Nero -put his up in a gold box, set with pearls, and -dedicated it to Jupiter Capitolinus. Under -the emperor Hadrian the beard began to -revive. Plutarch says that the emperor wore -it to hide some scars on his face. The practice -afterwards became common, and till the -time of Constantine the Great, the emperors -appear in busts and coins with beards. The -Romans let their beards grow in time of -mourning; the Greeks, on the other hand, -on such occasions shaved the beard close.</p> - - -<p id="Barbitus">BARBĬTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βάρβιτος</span>), or BARBĬTON -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βάρβιτον</span>), a stringed instrument, the original -form of which is uncertain. Later -writers use it as synonymous with the lyra. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lyra">Lyra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Bascauda">BASCAUDA, a British basket. This term, -which remains with very little variation in -the Welsh “basgawd” and the English -“basket,” was conveyed to Rome together -with the articles denoted by it.</p> - - -<p id="Basilica">BĂSĬLĬCA (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aedes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porticus</i>—<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλική</span>, -also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">regia</i>), a building which served -as a court of law and an exchange, or place -of meeting for merchants and men of business. -The word was adopted from the Athenians, -whose second archon was styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">archon -basileus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων βασιλεύς</span>), and the tribunal -where he adjudicated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stoa basileius</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ βασίλειος -στοά</span>), the substantive <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aula</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porticus</i> in -Latin being omitted for convenience, and -the distinctive epithet converted into a substantive. -The first edifice of this description -at Rome was not erected until <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 182. It -was situated in the forum adjoining the curia, -and was denominated <ins class="corr" id="tn-57" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'Basilica Portia, in'"> -Basilica Porcia, in</ins> commemoration -of its founder, M. Porcius Cato. -Besides this there were twenty others erected -at different periods, within the city of Rome. -The forum, or, where there was more than -one, the one which was in the most frequented -and central part of the city, was always selected -for the site of a basilica; and hence it -is that the classic writers not unfrequently -use the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">forum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">basilica</i> synonymously. -The ground plan of all these buildings<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span> -is rectangular, and their width not more -than half, nor less than one-third of the -length. This area was divided into three -naves, consisting of a centre (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">media porticus</i>), -and two side aisles, separated from the centre -one, each by a single row of columns. At one -end of the centre aisle was the tribunal of the -judge, in form either rectangular or circular, as -is seen in the annexed plan of the basilica at -Pompeii. In the centre of the tribunal was -placed the curule chair of the praetor, and seats -for the judices and the advocates. The two side -aisles, as has been said, were separated from -the centre one by a row of columns, behind -each of which was placed a square pier or -pilaster (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parastata</i>), which supported the -flooring of an upper portico, similar to the -gallery of a modern church. The upper -gallery was in like manner decorated with -columns, of lower dimensions than those -below; and these served to support the roof, -and were connected with one another by a -parapet-wall or balustrade (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pluteus</i>), which -served as a defence against the danger of -falling over, and screened the crowd of loiterers -above (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub-basilicani</i>) from the people of -business in the area below. Many of these -edifices were afterwards used as Christian -churches, and many churches were built -after the model above described. Such churches -were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">basilicae</i>, which name they retain -to the present day, being still called at Rome -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">basiliche</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill058" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill058.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ground Plan of a Basilica.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Basterna">BASTERNA, a kind of litter (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lectica</i>) in -which women were carried in the time of the -Roman emperors. It appears to have resembled -the Lectica [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lectica">Lectica</a></span>] very closely; and -the only difference apparently was, that the -lectica was carried by slaves, and the basterna -by two mules.</p> - - -<p id="Baxa">BAXA, or BAXĔA, a sandal made of vegetable -leaves, twigs, or fibres, worn on the -stage by comic actors.</p> - - -<p id="Bema">BĒMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βῆμα</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ecclesia">Ecclesia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Bendideia">BENDĬDEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βενδίδεια</span>), a Thracian festival -in honour of the goddess Bendis, who is -said to be identical with the Grecian Artemis -and with the Roman Diana. The festival -was of a bacchanalian character. From -Thrace it was brought to Athens, where it -was celebrated in the Peiraeeus, on the 19th -or 20th of the month Thargelion, before the -Panathenaea Minora. The temple of Bendis -was called Bendideion.</p> - - -<p id="Beneficium">BĔNĔFĬCĬUM, BĔNĔFĬCĬĀRĬUS. The -term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">beneficium</i> is of frequent occurrence in -the Roman law, in the sense of some special -privilege or favour granted to a person in -respect of age, sex, or condition. But the -word was also used in other senses. In the -time of Cicero it was usual for a general, or -a governor of a province, to report to the -treasury the names of those under his command -who had done good service to the state: -those who were included in such report were -said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in beneficiis ad aerarium deferri</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">In beneficiis</i> -in these passages may mean that the -persons so reported were considered as persons -who had deserved well of the state; and -so the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">beneficium</i> may have reference to -the services of the individuals; but as the -object for which their services were reported -was the benefit of the individuals, it seems -that the term had reference also to the reward, -immediate or remote, obtained for their services. -The honours and offices of the Roman -state, in the republican period, were called -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">beneficia</i> of the Populus Romanus. Beneficium -also signified any promotion conferred -on or grant made to soldiers, who were -thence called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">beneficiarii</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Bestiarii">BESTIĀRĬI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θηριομάχοι</span>), persons who -fought with wild beasts in the games of the -circus. They were either persons who fought -for the sake of pay (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctoramentum</i>), and -who were allowed arms, or they were criminals, -who were usually permitted to have no -means of defence against the wild beasts.</p> - - -<p id="Bibliopola">BIBLĬŎPŌLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιβλιοπώλης</span>), also called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librarius</i>, a bookseller. The shop was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apotheca</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taberna libraria</i>, or merely <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libraria</i>. -The Romans had their Paternoster-row; -for the bibliopolae or librarii lived -mostly in one street, called Argiletum. Another -favourite quarter of the booksellers was -the Vicus Sandalarius. There seems also to -have been a sort of bookstalls by the temples -of Vertumnus and Janus.</p> - - -<p id="Bibliotheca">BIBLĬŎTHĒCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιβλιοθήκη</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποθήκη -βιβλίων</span>), primarily, the place where a collection -of books was kept; secondarily, the collection -itself. Public collections of books -appear to have been very ancient. That of -Peisistratus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 550) was intended for public -use; it was subsequently removed to Persia -by Xerxes. About the same time Polycrates, -tyrant of Samos, is said to have founded a -library. In the best days of Athens, even -private persons had large collections of books; -but the most important and splendid public -library of antiquity was that founded by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span> -Ptolemies at Alexandria, begun under Ptolemy -Soter, but increased and re-arranged in an -orderly and systematic manner by Ptolemy -Philadelphus, who also appointed a fixed -librarian, and otherwise provided for the usefulness -of the institution. A great part of -this splendid library was consumed by fire in -the siege of Alexandria by Julius Caesar; but -it was soon restored, and continued in a -flourishing condition till it was destroyed by -the Arabs, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 640. The Ptolemies were not -long without a rival in zeal. Eumenes, king of -Pergamus, became a patron of literature and -the sciences, and established a library, which, -in spite of the prohibition against exporting -papyrus issued by Ptolemy, who was jealous -of his success, became very extensive, and -perhaps next in importance to the library of -Alexandria. The first public library in Rome -was that founded by Asinius Pollio, and was -in the atrium Libertatis on Mount Aventine. -The library of Pollio was followed by that of -Augustus in the temple of Apollo on Mount Palatine -and by another, bibliothecae Octavianae, -in the theatre of Marcellus. There were also -libraries on the Capitol, in the temple of -Peace, in the palace of Tiberius, besides the -Ulpian library, which was the most famous, -founded by Trajan. Libraries were also -usually attached to the Thermae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>] -Private collections of books were made at -Rome soon after the second Punic war. -The zeal of Cicero, Atticus, and others, -in increasing their libraries is well known. -It became, in fact, the fashion to have a -room elegantly furnished as a library, and -reserved for that purpose. The charge of the -libraries in Rome was given to persons called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librarii</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Bicos">BĪCOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βῖκος</span>), the name of an earthen -vessel in common use among the Greeks, for -holding wine, and salted meat and fish.</p> - - -<p id="Bidental">BĬDENTAL, the name given to a place -where any one had been struck by lightning, -or where any one had been killed by lightning -and buried. Such a place was considered -sacred. Priests, who were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bidentales</i>, -collected the earth which had been torn up -by lightning, and every thing that had been -scorched, and burnt it in the ground with a -sorrowful murmur. The officiating priest -was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">condere fulgur</i>; he further consecrated -the spot by sacrificing a two-year-old -sheep (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bidens</i>), whence the name of the place -and of the priest, and he also erected an altar, -and surrounded it with a wall or fence. To -move the bounds of a bidental, or in any way -to violate its sacred precincts, was considered -as sacrilege.</p> - - -<p id="Bidiaei">BIDIAEI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιδιαῖοι</span>), magistrates in Sparta, -whose business was to inspect the gymnastic -exercises. They were either five or six in -number.</p> - - -<p id="Biga">BĪGA or BĪGAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Currus">Currus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Bigatus">BĪGĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Bipennis">BĬPENNIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Securis">Securis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Biremis">BĬRĒMIS. (1.) A ship with two banks of -oars. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>] Such ships were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dicrota</i> -by the Greeks, which term is also -used by Cicero.—(2.) A boat rowed by two -oars.</p> - - -<p id="Bissextus">BISSEXTUS ANNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>, -Roman.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Boedromia">BŎĒDRŎMĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βοηδρόμια</span>), a festival celebrated -at Athens on the seventh day of the -month Boëdromion, in honour of Apollo Boëdromius. -The name Boëdromius, by which -Apollo was called in Boeotia and many other -parts of Greece, seems to indicate that by -this festival he was honoured as a martial -god, who, either by his actual presence or -by his oracles, afforded assistance in the dangers -of war.</p> - - -<p id="Boeotarches">BOEŌTARCHĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βοιωτάρχης</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βοιωτάρχος</span>), -the name of the chief magistrates of the -Boeotian confederacy, chosen by the different -states. Their duties were chiefly of a military -character. Each state of the confederacy -elected one boeotarch, the Thebans two. The -total number from the whole confederacy -varied with the number of the independent -states, but at the time of the Peloponnesian -war they appear to have been ten or twelve. -The boeotarchs, when engaged in military service, -formed a council of war, the decisions -of which were determined by a majority of -votes, the president being one of the two -Theban boeotarchs, who commanded alternately. -Their period of service was a year, -beginning about the winter solstice; and -whoever continued in office longer than his -time was punishable with death, both at -Thebes and in other cities.</p> - - -<p id="Bona">BŎNA, property. The phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in bonis</i> is -frequently used as opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dominium</i> or -<em>Quiritarian ownership</em> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex jure Quiritium</i>). -The ownership of certain kinds of things among -the Romans could only be transferred from one -person to another with certain formalities, or -acquired by usucapion (that is, the uninterrupted -possession of a thing for a certain -time). But if it was clearly the intention of -the owner to transfer the ownership, and the -necessary forms only were wanting, the purchaser -had the thing <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in bonis</i>, and he had the -enjoyment of it, though the original owner -was still <em>legally</em> the owner, and was said to -have the thing <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex jure Quiritium</i>, notwithstanding -he had parted with the thing. The -person who possessed a thing <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in bonis</i> was -protected in the enjoyment of it by the praetor, -and consequently after a time would<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span> -obtain the Quiritarian ownership of it by -usucapion. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Usucapio">Usucapio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Bona_c">BŎNA CĂDŪCA. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caducum</i> literally signifies -that which falls: thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">glans caduca</i> -is the mast which falls from a tree. The -strict legal sense of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caducum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bona caduca</i> -is as follows:—If a thing is left by testament -to a person, so that he can take it by the jus -civile, but from some cause has not taken it, -that thing is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caducum</i>, as if it had <em>fallen</em> -from him. Or if a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">heres ex parte</i>, or a legatee, -died before the opening of the will, the -thing was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caducum</i>. That which was caducum -came, in the first place, to those among -the heredes who had children; and if the -heredes had no children, it came among those -of the legatees who had children. In case -there was no prior claimant the caducum -belonged to the aerarium; and subsequently -to the fiscus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Bona_f">BŎNA FĬDES implies, generally speaking, -the absence of all fraud and unfair dealing or -acting. In various actions arising out of -mutual dealings, such as buying and selling, -lending and hiring, partnership and others, -bona fides is equivalent to aequum and justum; -and such actions were sometimes called -bonae fidei actiones. The formula of the -praetor, which was the authority of the judex, -empowered him in such cases to inquire and -determine <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex bona fide</i>, that is, according to -the real merits of the case: sometimes aequius -melius was used instead of ex bona fide.</p> - - -<p id="Bonorum">BŎNŌRUM CESSĬO. There were two -kinds of bonorum cessio, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">extra jus</i>. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure cessio</i> was a mode of transferring -ownership by means of a fictitious suit. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bonorum cessio extra jus</i> was introduced by -a Julian law, passed either in the time of -Julius Caesar or Augustus, which allowed an -insolvent debtor to give up his property to his -creditors. The debtor thus avoided the infamia -consequent on the bonorum emtio, -which was involuntary, and he was free from -all personal execution. He was also allowed -to retain a small portion of his property for -his support. The property thus given up -was sold, and the proceeds distributed among -the creditors.</p> - - -<p id="Bonorum_c">BŎNŌRUM COLLĀTĬO. By the strict -rules of the civil law an emancipated son had -no right to the inheritance of his father, whether -he died testate or intestate. But, in -course of time, the praetor granted to emancipated -children the privilege of equal succession -with those who remained in the power -of the father at the time of his death; but -only on condition that they should bring into -one common stock with their father’s property, -and for the purpose of an equal division -among all the father’s children, whatever -property they had at the time of the father’s -death, and which would have been acquired -for the father in case they had still remained -in his power. This was called bonorum collatio.</p> - - -<p id="Bonorum_e">BŎNŌRUM EMTĬO ET EMTOR. The -expression bonorum emtio applies to a sale of -the property either of a living or of a dead -person. It was in effect, as to a living debtor, -an execution. In the case of a dead person, -his property was sold when it was ascertained -that there was neither heres nor bonorum -possessor, nor any other person entitled to -succeed to it. In the case of the property of -a living person being sold, the praetor, on -the application of the creditors, ordered it to -be possessed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possideri</i>) by the creditors for -thirty successive days, and notice to be given -of the sale. This explains the expression in -Livy (ii. 24): “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ne quis militis, donec in -castris esset, bona <em>possideret</em> aut venderet.</span>”</p> - - -<p id="Bonorum_p">BŎNŌRUM POSSESSĬO was the right of -suing for or retaining a patrimony or thing -which belonged to another at the time of his -death. The bonorum possessio was given by -the edict both <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contra tabulas</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secundum tabulas</i>, -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intestati</i>. 1. An emancipated son -had no legal claim on the inheritance of his -father; but if he was omitted in his father’s -will, or not expressly exheredated, the praetor’s -edict gave him the bonorum possessio -contra tabulas, on condition that he would -bring into hotchpot (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bonorum collatio</i>) with -his brethren who continued in the parent’s -power, whatever property he had at the time -of the parent’s death. 2. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bonorum possessio -secundum tabulas</i> was that possession -which the praetor gave, conformably to the -words of the will, to those named in it as -heredes, when there was no person intitled to -make a claim against the will, or none who -chose to make such a claim. 3. In the case -of intestacy (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intestati</i>) there were seven degrees -of persons who might claim the bonorum -possessio, each in his order, upon there being -no claim of a prior degree. The first three -degrees were children, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legitimi heredes</i>, and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proximi cognati</i>. Emancipated children could -claim as well as those who were not emancipated, -and adoptive as well as children -of the blood; but not children who had been -adopted into another family. If a freedman -died intestate, leaving only a wife (in manu) -or an adoptive son, the patron was entitled -to the bonorum possessio of one half of his -property.</p> - - -<p id="Boonae">BŎŌNAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βοῶναι</span>), persons in Athens who -purchased oxen for the public sacrifices and -feasts. They are spoken of by Demosthenes -in conjunction with the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροποιοί</span> and those -who presided over the mysteries.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span></p> - - -<p id="Boreasmus">BORĔASMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βορεασμός</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βορεασμοί</span>), a -festival celebrated by the Athenians in honour -of Boreas, which, as Herodotus seems to -think, was instituted during the Persian war, -when the Athenians, being commanded by an -oracle to invoke their <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γαμβρὸς ἐπίκουρος</span>, prayed -to Boreas. But considering that Boreas was -intimately connected with the early history of -Attica, we have reason to suppose that even -previous to the Persian wars certain honours -were paid to him, which were perhaps only -revived and increased after the event recorded -by Herodotus. The festival, however, -does not seem ever to have had any great -celebrity.</p> - - -<p id="Boule">BOULĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλή—ἡ τῶν πεντακοσίων</span>). In -the heroic ages, represented to us by Homer, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">boulé</i> is simply an aristocratical council -of the elders amongst the nobles, sitting -under their king as president, which decided -on public business and judicial matters, frequently -in connection with, but apparently -not subject to an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agora</i>, or meeting of the -freemen of the state. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Agora">Agora</a>.</span>] This form -of government, though it existed for some -time in the Ionian, Aeolian, and Achaean -states, was at last wholly abolished in these -states. Among the Dorians, however, especially -among the Spartans, this was not the -case, for they retained the kingly power of -the Heracleidae, in conjunction with the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gerousia</i> or assembly of elders, of which the -kings were members. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gerousia">Gerousia</a>.</span>] At Athens -on the contrary, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">boulé</i> was a representative, -and in most respects a popular body -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημοτικόν</span>). The first institution of the -Athenian <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">boulé</i> is generally attributed to -Solon; but there are strong reasons for supposing -that, as in the case of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Areiopagus</i>, -he merely modified the constitution of a body -which he found already existing. But be -this as it may, it is admitted that Solon -made the number of his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">boulé</i> 400, 100 from -each of the four tribes. When the number of -the tribes was raised to ten by Cleisthenes -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 510), the council also was increased to -500, fifty being taken from each of the ten -tribes. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bouleutae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλευταί</span>) or councillors -were appointed by lot, and hence they -are called councillors made by the bean (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ -ἀπὸ τοῦ κυάμου βουλευταί</span>), from the use of -beans in drawing lots. They were required -to submit to a scrutiny or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i>, in which -they gave evidence of being genuine citizens, -of never having lost their civic rights by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i>, -and also of being above 30 years of age. -They remained in office for a year, receiving -a drachma (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισθὸς βουλευτικός</span>) for each day -on which they sat: and independent of the -general account (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐθύναι</span>), which the whole -body had to give at the end of the year, any -single member was liable to expulsion for -misconduct by his colleagues. The senate of -500 was divided into ten sections of fifty -each, the members of which were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytanes</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτάνεις</span>), and were all of the same -tribe; they acted as presidents both of the -council and the assemblies during thirty-five -or thirty-six days, as the case might be, so -as to complete the lunar year of 354 days -(12×29½). Each tribe exercised these functions -in turn; the period of office was called -a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytany</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτανεία</span>), and the tribe that presided -the <em>presiding tribe</em>; the order in which -the tribes presided was determined by lot, -and the four supernumerary days were given -to the tribes which came last in order. Moreover, -to obviate the difficulty of having too -many in office at once, every fifty was subdivided -into five bodies of ten each; its prytany -also being portioned out into five periods -of seven days each; so that only ten senators -presided for a week over the rest, and were -thence called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proedri</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόεδροι</span>). Again, out -of these proedri an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epistates</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστάτης</span>) was -chosen for one day to preside as a chairman -in the senate, and the assembly of the people; -during his day of office he kept the public -records and seal. The prytanes had the right -of convening the council and the assembly -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκκλησία</span>). The duty of the proedri and -their president was to propose subjects for -discussion, and to take the votes both of the -councillors and the people; for neglect of -their duty they were liable to a fine. Moreover, -whenever a meeting, either of the -council or of the assembly, was convened, the -chairman of the proedri selected by lot nine -others, one from each of the non-presiding -tribes; these also were called proedri, and -possessed a chairman of their own, likewise -appointed by lot from among themselves. -But the proedri who proposed the subject for -discussion to the assembly belonged to the -presiding tribe. It is observed, under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Areiopagus">Areiopagus</a></span>, -that the chief object of Solon, in forming -the senate and the areiopagus, was to -control the democratical powers of the state: -for this purpose he ordained that the senate -should discuss and vote upon all matters -before they were submitted to the assembly, -so that nothing could be laid before the -people on which the senate had not come to -a previous decision. This decision, or bill, -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probouleuma</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προβούλευμα</span>); but -then not only might this <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probouleuma</i> be rejected -or modified by the assembly, but the -latter also possessed and exercised the power -of coming to a decision completely different -from the will of the senate. In addition to -the bills which it was the duty of the senate -to propose of their own accord, there were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span> -others of a different character, viz. such as -any private individual might wish to have -submitted to the people. To accomplish this, -it was first necessary for the party to obtain, -by petition, the privilege of access to the -senate, and leave to propose his motion; and -if the measure met with their approbation, he -could then submit it to the assembly. A proposal -of this kind, which had the sanction of -the senate, was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probouleuma</i>, and -frequently related to the conferring of some -particular honour or privilege upon an individual. -Thus the proposal of Ctesiphon for -crowning Demosthenes is so styled. In the -assembly the bill of the senate was first read, -perhaps by the crier, after the introductory -ceremonies were over; and then the proedri -put the question to the people, whether they -approved of it. The people declared their -will by a show of hands (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προχειροτονία</span>). If -it was confirmed it became a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">psephisma</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψήφισμα</span>), or decree of the people, binding -upon all classes. The form for drawing up -such decrees varied in different ages. In the -time of Demosthenes the decrees commence -with the name of the archon; then come the -day of the month, the tribe in office, and, -lastly, the name of the proposer. The motive -for passing the decree is next stated; and -then follows the decree itself, prefaced with -the formula <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεδόχθαι τῇ βουλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ</span>. The -senate-house was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bouleuterion</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλευτηριον</span>). -The prytanes also had a building to -hold their meetings in, where they were entertained -at the public expense during their -prytany. This was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Prytaneion</i>, -and was used for a variety of purposes. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Prytaneium">Prytaneion</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Bracae">BRĀCAE, or BRACCAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναξυρίδες</span>), -trowsers, pantaloons, were common to all the -nations which encircled the Greek and Roman -population, extending from the Indian to the -Atlantic ocean, but were not worn by the -Greeks and Romans themselves. Accordingly -the monuments containing representations of -people different from the Greeks and Romans -exhibit them in trowsers, thus distinguishing -them from the latter people.</p> - - -<p id="Brauronia">BRAURŌNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βραυρώνια</span>), a festival celebrated -in honour of Artemis Brauronia, in the -Attic town of Brauron, where Orestes and -Iphigeneia, on their return from Tauris, were -supposed by the Athenians to have landed, -and left the statue of the Taurian goddess. It -was held every fifth year, and the chief solemnity -consisted in the Attic girls between the -ages of five and ten years going in solemn -procession to the sanctuary, where they were -consecrated to the goddess. During this act -the priests sacrificed a goat, and the girls -performed a propitiatory rite, in which they -imitated bears. This rite may have simply -risen from the circumstance that the bear was -sacred to Artemis, especially in Arcadia. -There was also a quinquennial festival called -Brauronia, which was celebrated by men and -dissolute women, at Brauron, in honour of -Dionysus.</p> - - -<p id="Bruttiani">BRUTTĬĀNI, slaves whose duty it was to -wait upon the Roman magistrates. They are -said to have been originally taken from among -the Bruttians.</p> - - -<p id="Buccina">BUCCĬNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βυκάνη</span>), a kind of horn trumpet, -anciently made out of a shell (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buccinum</i>), the -form of which is exhibited in the specimen -annexed. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buccina</i> was distinct from the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornu</i>; but it is often confounded with it. -The buccina seems to have been chiefly distinguished -by the twisted form of the shell, -from which it was originally made. In later -times it was carved from horn, and perhaps -from wood or metal, so as to imitate the -shell. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buccina</i> was chiefly used to proclaim -the watches of the day and of the -night, hence called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">buccina prima</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secunda</i>, -&c. It was also blown at funerals, and at -festive entertainments both before sitting -down to table and after.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill062a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill062a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Buccina, Trumpet. (Blanchini, De Mus. Instrum. Vet.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Bulla">BULLA, a circular plate or boss of metal, -so called from its resemblance in form to a -bubble floating upon water. Bright studs of -this description were used to adorn the sword<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span> -belt; but we most frequently read of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bullae</i> -as ornaments worn by children, suspended -from the neck, and especially by the sons of -the noble and wealthy. Such an one is called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">heres bullatus</i> by Juvenal. The bulla was -usually made of thin plates of gold. The -use of the bulla, like that of the praetexta, -was derived from the Etruscans. It was -originally worn only by the children of the -patricians, but subsequently by all of free -birth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp41" id="ill062b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill062b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Bulla. (From the Collection of Mr. Rogers; the gold chord -added from a specimen in the Brit. Mus.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Buris">BŪRIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aratrum">Aratrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Bustum">BUSTUM. It was customary among the -Romans to burn the bodies of the dead before -burying them. When the spot appointed for -that purpose adjoined the place of sepulture, -it was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bustum</i>; when it was separate -from it, it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ustrina</i>. From this -word the gladiators, who were hired to fight -round the burning pyre of the deceased, were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bustuarii</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Buxum">BUXUM or BUXUS, probably means the -wood of the box-tree, but was given as a -name to many things made of this wood. -The tablets used for writing on, and covered -with wax (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae ceratae</i>), were usually -made of box. In the same way the Greek -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυξίον</span>, formed from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύξος</span>, “box-wood,” -came to be applied to any tablets, whether -they were made of this wood or any other -substance. Tops and combs were made of -box-wood, and also all wind instruments, -especially the flute.</p> - - -<p id="Byssus">BYSSUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βύσσος</span>), linen, and not cotton. -The word byssus appears to come from the -Hebrew <em>butz</em>, and the Greeks probably got it -through the Phoenicians.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="C_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">C</span></h2> - -<p id="Cabeiria" class="drop-capy">CĂBEIRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καβείρια</span>), mysteries, festivals, -and orgies, solemnised in all places in -which the Pelasgian Cabeiri were worshipped, -but especially in Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos, -Thebes, Anthedon, Pergamus, and Berytos. -Little is known respecting the rites observed -in these mysteries, as no one was allowed to -divulge them. The most celebrated were -those of the island of Samothrace, which, if -we may judge from those of Lemnos, were -solemnised every year, and lasted for nine -days. Persons on their admission seem to -have undergone a sort of examination respecting -the life they had led hitherto, and were -then purified of all their crimes, even if they -had committed murder.</p> - - -<p id="Caduceus">CĀDŪCĔUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηρύκειον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηρύκιον</span>), the staff -or mace carried by heralds and ambassadors -in time of war. This name is also given to -the staff with which Hermes or Mercury is -usually represented, as is shown in the following -figure of that god. From <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caduceus</i> -was formed the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caduceator</i>, which signified -a person sent to treat of peace. The -persons of the caduceatores were considered -sacred.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp60" id="ill063" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill063.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Hermes bearing the Caduceus. (Museo Borbonico, -vol. vi. pl. 2.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Caducum">CĂDŪCUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Bona_c">Bona Caduca</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cadus">CĂDUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάδος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάδδος</span>), a large vessel -usually made of earthenware, which was -used for keeping wine, drawing water, &c. -The name of cadus was sometimes given to -the vessel or urn in which the counters or -pebbles of the dicasts were put, when they -gave their vote on a trial, but the diminutive -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καδίσκος</span> was more commonly used in this -signification.</p> - - -<p id="Caelatura">CAELĀTŪRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τορευτική</span>), a branch of the -fine arts, under which all sorts of ornamental -work in metal, except actual statues, appear -to be included. The principal processes, -which these words were used to designate, -seem to have been of three kinds: hammering -metal plates into moulds or dies, so as to -bring out a raised pattern; engraving the -surface of metals with a sharp tool; and -working a pattern of one metal upon or into -the surface of another: in short, the various -processes which we describe by the words -<em>chasing</em>, <em>damascening</em>, &c. The objects on -which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caelator</i> exercised his art were -chiefly weapons and armour—especially -shields, chariots, tripods, and other votive -offerings, quoits, candelabra, thrones, curule -chairs, mirrors, goblets, dishes, and all kinds -of gold and silver plate. The ornamental -work with which the chaser decorated such -objects consisted either of simple running -patterns, chiefly in imitation of plants and -flowers, or of animals, or of mythological<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span> -subjects, and, for armour, of battles. The -mythological subjects were reserved for the -works of the greatest masters of the art: -they were generally executed in very high -relief (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anaglypha</i>). In the finest works, the -ornamental pattern was frequently distinct -from the vessel, to which it was either fastened -permanently, or so that it could be -removed at pleasure, the vessel being of silver, -and the ornaments of gold, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crustae aut emblemata</i>. -The art of ornamental metal-work -was in an advanced stage of progress among -the Greeks of the heroic period, as we see -from numerous passages of Homer: but its -origin, in the high artistic sense, is to be -ascribed to Phidias, and its complete development -to Polycletus. In the last age of the -Roman Republic, the prevailing wealth and -luxury, and the presence of Greek artists at -Rome, combined to bring the art more than -ever into requisition. After this period it -suddenly fell into disuse.</p> - - -<p id="Caelibatus">CAELĬBĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_u">Aes Uxorium</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex_jpp">Lex Julia -et Papia Poppaea</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Caeritum">CAERĬTUM TĂBŬLAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarii">Aerarii</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Caesar">CAESAR, a title of the Roman emperors, -was originally a family name of the Julia -gens; it was assumed by Octavianus as the -adopted son of the great dictator, C. Julius -Caesar, and was by him handed down to his -adopted son Tiberius. It continued to be -used by Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, as -members either by adoption or female descent -of Caesar’s family; but although the -family became extinct with Nero, succeeding -emperors still retained the name as part of -their titles, and it was the practice to prefix -it to their own names, as for instance, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Imperator -Caesar Domitianus Augustus</i>. When -Hadrian adopted Aelius Varus, he allowed -the latter to take the title of Caesar; and -from this time, though the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustus</i> -continued to be confined to the reigning emperor, -that of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caesar</i> was also granted to the -second person in the state and the heir presumptive -to the throne. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augustus">Augustus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Calamistrum">CĂLĂMISTRUM, an instrument made of -iron, and hollow like a reed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calamus</i>), used -for curling the hair. For this purpose it was -heated, the person who performed the office -of heating it in wood ashes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cinis</i>) being -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ciniflo</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cinerarius</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Calamus">CĂLĂMUS, a sort of reed which the ancients -used as a pen for writing. The best -sorts were got from Aegypt and Cnidus.</p> - - -<p id="Calantica">CĂLANTĬCA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Calathus">CĂLĂTHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλαθος</span>, also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάλαρος</span>), -usually signified the basket in which women -placed their work, and especially the materials -for spinning. In the following cut a -slave, belonging to the class called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasillariae</i>, -is presenting her mistress with the calathus. -Baskets of this kind were also used -for other purposes, such as for carrying fruits, -flowers, &c. The name of calathi was also -given to cups for holding wine. Calathus was -properly a Greek word, though used by -the Latin writers. The Latin word corresponding -to it was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qualus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasillus</i>. From -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasillus</i> came <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasillaria</i>, the name of the -slave who spun, and who was considered the -meanest of the female slaves.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp70" id="ill064" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill064.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Slave presenting a Calathus. (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Calceus">CALCĔUS, CALCĔĀMEN, CALCĔĀMENTUM -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποδήμα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέδιλον</span>), a shoe or boot, anything -adapted to cover and preserve the feet -in walking. The use of shoes was by no -means universal among the Greeks and Romans. -The Homeric heroes are represented -without shoes when armed for battle. Socrates, -Phocion, and Cato, frequently went -barefoot. The Roman slaves had no shoes. -The covering of the feet was removed before -reclining at meals. People in grief, as for -instance at funerals, frequently went barefooted. -Shoes may be divided into those in -which the mere sole of a shoe was attached -to the sole of the foot by ties or bands, or by -a covering for the toes or the instep [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Solea">Solea</a></span>; -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Crepida">Crepida</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Soccus">Soccus</a></span>]; and those which ascended -higher and higher, according as they covered -the ankles, the calf, or the whole of the leg. -To calceamenta of the latter kind, <em>i.e.</em> to -shoes and boots, as distinguished from sandals -and slippers, the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calceus</i> was applied -in its proper and restricted sense. There -were also other varieties of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calceus</i> according -to its adaptation to particular professions -or modes of life. Thus the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Caliga">Caliga</a></span> was -principally worn by soldiers; the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pero">Pero</a></span> by -labourers and rustics; and the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cothurnus">Cothurnus</a></span> by -tragedians, hunters, and horsemen. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calcei</i> probably did not much differ from our -shoes, and are exemplified in a painting at -Herculaneum, which represents a female<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span> -wearing bracelets, a wreath of ivy, and a -panther’s skin, while she is in the attitude of -dancing and playing on the cymbals. The -form and colour of the calceus indicated rank -and office. Roman senators wore high shoes -like buskins, fastened in front with four black -thongs. They were also sometimes adorned -with a small crescent: we do not find on any -ancient statues the crescent, but we may regard -the bottom right hand figure in the -annexed cut as representing the shoe of a -senator. Among the calcei worn by senators, -those called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mullei</i>, from their resemblance to -the scales of the red mullet, were particularly -admired; as well as others called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alutae</i>, because -the leather was softened by the use of alum.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill065" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill065.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Greek Shoes. (From ancient Vases.)</p> -<p class="right">Roman Shoes. (Museo Borbonico.)</p></div> -</div> - - -<p id="Calculator">CALCŬLĀTOR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λογιστής</span>), a keeper of accounts -in general, and also a teacher of arithmetic. -In Roman families of importance -there was a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calculator</i> or account-keeper, who -is, however, more frequently called by the -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dispensator</i>, or procurator: he was a -kind of steward.</p> - - -<p id="Calculi">CALCŬLI, little stones or pebbles, used for -various purposes, as, for instance, among the -Athenians for voting. Calculi were used in -playing a sort of draughts. Subsequently, -instead of pebbles, ivory, or silver, or gold, -or other men (as we call them) were used; -but they still bore the name of calculi. Calculi -were also used in reckoning; and hence -the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calculum ponere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calculum subducere</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Caldarium">CALDĀRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Calendae">CĂLENDAE or KĂLENDAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Calendarium">CĂLENDĀRĬUM or KĂLENDĀRĬUM, -generally signified an account-book, in which -were entered the names of a person’s debtors, -with the interest which they had to pay, and -it was so called because the interest had to -be paid on the calends of each month. The -word, however, was also used in the signification -of a modern calendar or almanac. -(1) <span class="smcap">Greek Calendar.</span> The Greek year was -divided into twelve lunar months, depending -on the actual changes of the moon. The first -day of the month (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νουμηνία</span>) was not the day -of the conjunction, but the day on the evening -of which the new moon appeared; consequently -full moon was the middle of the -month. The lunar month consists of twenty-nine -days and about thirteen hours; accordingly -some months were necessarily reckoned -at twenty-nine days, and rather more of them -at thirty days. The latter were called <em>full</em> -months (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πληρεῖς</span>), the former <em>hollow</em> months -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοῖλοι</span>). As the twelve lunar months fell -short of the solar year, they were obliged -every other year to interpolate an intercalary -month (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μὴν ἐμβολιμαῖος</span>) of thirty or twenty-nine -days. The ordinary year consisted of -354 days, and the interpolated year, therefore, -of 384 or 383. This interpolated year (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριέτηρις</span>) -was seven days and a half too long, -and to correct the error, the intercalary month -was from time to time omitted. The Attic -year began with the summer solstice: the -following is the sequence of the Attic months -and the number of days in each:—Hecatombaeon -(30), Metageitnion (29), Boedromion -(30), Pyanepsion (29), Maemacterion -(30), Poseideon (29), Gamelion (30), Anthesterion -(29), Elaphebolion (30), Munychion -(29), Thargelion (30), Scirophorion (29). -The intercalary month was a second Poseideon -inserted in the middle of the year. Every -Athenian month was divided into three decads. -The days of the first decad were designated -as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱσταμένου</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχομένου μηνος</span>, and -were counted on regularly from one to ten; -thus, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δευτέρα ἀρχομένου</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱσταμένου</span> is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span> -“the second day of the month.” The days of the -second decad were designated as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ δέκα</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεσοῦντος</span>, and were counted on regularly -from the 11th to the 20th day, which was -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἴκας</span>. There were two ways of counting -the days of the last decad; they were -either reckoned onwards from the 20th (thus, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρώτη ἐπὶ εἰκάδι</span> was the 21st), or backwards -from the last day, with the addition <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φθίνοντος</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παυομένου</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λήγοντος</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπίοντος</span>; thus, the -twenty-first day of a hollow month was <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνάτη -φθίνοντος</span>; of a full month, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκάτη φθίνοντος</span>. -The last day of the month was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕνη καὶ -νέα</span>, “the old and new,” because as the lunar -month really consisted of more than twenty-nine -and less than thirty days, the last day -might be considered as belonging equally to -the old and new month. Separate years were -designated at Athens by the name of the -chief archon, hence called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">archon eponymus</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος</span>), or “the name giving archon;” -at Sparta, by the first of the ephors; -at Argos, by the priestess of <span class="smcap">Juno</span>, &c.—(2) -<span id="Calendarium_r" class="smcap">Roman Calendar.</span> The old Roman, frequently -called the Romulian year, consisted -of only ten months, which were called Martius, -Aprilis, Maius, Junius, Quinctilis, Sextilis, -September, October, November, December. -That March was the first month in the -year is implied in the last six names. Of -these months, four, namely, Martius, Maius, -Quinctilis, and October, consisted of thirty-one -days, the other six of thirty. The four -former were distinguished in the latest form -of the Roman calendar by having their nones -two days later than any of the other months. -The symmetry of this arrangement will appear -by placing the numbers in succession:—31, -30; 31, 30; 31, 30, 30; 31, 30, 30. -The Romulian year therefore consisted of 304 -days, and contained thirty-eight nundinae or -weeks; every eighth day, under the name of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nonae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nundinae</i>, being especially devoted -to religious and other public purposes. Hence -we find that the number of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies fasti</i> afterwards -retained in the Julian calendar tally -exactly with these thirty-eight nundines; besides -which, it may be observed that a year -of 304 days bears to a solar year of 365 days -nearly the ratio of five to six, six of the Romulian -years containing 1824, five of the -solar years 1825 days; and hence we may -explain the origin of the well-known quinquennial -period called the lustrum, which -ancient writers expressly call an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annus magnus</i>; -that is, in the modern language of chronology, -a cycle. It was consequently the -period at which the Romulian and solar years -coincided. The next division of the Roman -year was said to have been made by Numa -Pompilius, who instituted a lunar year of 12 -months and 355 days. Livy says that Numa -so regulated his lunar year of twelve months -by the insertion of intercalary months, that -at the end of every <em>nineteenth</em> year (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vicesimo -anno</i>) it again coincided with the same point -in the sun’s course from which it started. It -is well known that 19 years constitute a most -convenient cycle for the junction of a lunar -and solar year. It seems certain that the -Romans continued to use a lunar year for -some time after the establishment of the republic; -and it was probably at the time of -the decemviral legislation that the lunar year -was abandoned. By the change which was -then made the year consisted of 12 months, -the length of each of which was as follows:—</p> - -<table class="autotable" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Martius,</td> -<td class="tdr">31</td> -<td class="tdl">days.</td> -<td class="tdl">September,</td> -<td class="tdr">29</td> -<td class="tdl">days.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Aprilis,</td> -<td class="tdr">29</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">October,</td> -<td class="tdr">31</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Maius,</td> -<td class="tdr">31</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">November,</td> -<td class="tdr">29</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Junius,</td> -<td class="tdr">29</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">December,</td> -<td class="tdr">29</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Quinctilis,</td> -<td class="tdr">31</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">Januarius,</td> -<td class="tdr">29</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sextilis,</td> -<td class="tdr">29</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">Februarius,</td> -<td class="tdr">28</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="noindent">The year thus consisted of 355 days, and this -was made to correspond with the solar year -by the insertion of an intercalary month -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensis intercalaris</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intercalarius</i>), called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mercedonius</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mercidonius</i>. This month of -22 or 23 days seems to have been inserted in -alternate years. As the festivals of the Romans -were for the most part dependent upon -the calendar, the regulation of the latter was -entrusted to the college of pontifices, who in -early times were chosen exclusively from the -body of patricians. It was therefore in the -power of the college to add to their other -means of oppressing the plebeians, by keeping -to themselves the knowledge of the days -on which justice could be administered, and -assemblies of the people could be held. In -the year 304 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, one Cn. Flavius, a secretary -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriba</i>) of Appius Claudius, is said fraudulently -to have made the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti</i> public. The -other privilege of regulating the year by the -insertion of the intercalary month gave the -pontiffs great political power, which they -were not backward to employ. Every thing -connected with the matter of intercalation -was left to their unrestrained pleasure; and -the majority of them, on personal grounds, -added to or took from the year by capricious -intercalations, so as to lengthen or shorten -the period during which a magistrate remained -in office, and seriously to benefit or -injure the farmer of the public revenue. The -calendar was thus involved in complete confusion, -and accordingly we find that in the -time of Cicero the year was three months in -advance of the real solar year. At length, in -the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 46, Caesar, now master of the -Roman world, employed his authority, as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span> -pontifex maximus, in the correction of this -serious evil. The account of the way in -which he effected this is given by Censorinus:—“The -confusion was at last carried so -far that C. Caesar, the pontifex maximus, in -his third consulate, with Lepidus for his colleague, -inserted between November and December -two intercalary months of 67 days, -the month of February having already received -an intercalation of 23 days, and thus -made the whole year to consist of 445 days. -At the same time he provided against a repetition -of similar errors, by casting aside the -intercalary month, and adapting the year to -the sun’s course. Accordingly, to the 355 -days of the previously existing year he added -ten days, which he so distributed between -the seven months having 29 days that January, -Sextilis, and December received two -each, the others but one; and these additional -days he placed at the end of the several -months, no doubt with the wish not to -remove the various festivals from those positions -in the several months which they had -so long occupied. Hence in the present -calendar, although there are seven months of -31 days, yet the four months, which from the -first possessed that number, are still distinguishable -by having their nones on the -seventh, the rest having them on the fifth of -the month. Lastly, in consideration of the -quarter of a day, which he regarded as -completing the true year, he established the -rule that, at the end of every four years, a -single day should be intercalated, where the -month had been hitherto inserted, that is, -immediately after the terminalia; which day -is now called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bissextum</i>.” The mode of -denoting the days of the month will cause no -difficulty, if it be recollected that the kalends -always denote the first of the month; that -the nones occur on the seventh of the four -months of March, May, Quinctilis or July, -and October, and on the fifth of the other -months; that the ides always fall eight days -later than the nones; and lastly, that the -intermediate days are in all cases reckoned -backwards upon the Roman principle of -counting both extremes. For the month of -January the notation will be as follows:—</p> - -<p class="pad3 noindent"> -1. Kal. Jan.<br /> -2. a. d. IV. Non. Jan.<br /> -3. a. d. III. Non. Jan.<br /> -4. Prid. Non. Jan.<br /> -5. Non. Jan.<br /> -6. a. d. VIII. Id. Jan.<br /> -7. a. d. VII. Id. Jan.<br /> -8. a. d. VI. Id. Jan.<br /> -9. a. d. V. Id. Jan.<br /> -10. a. d. IV. Id. Jan.<br /> -11. a. d. III. Id. Jan.<br /> -12. Prid. Id. Jan.<br /> -13. Id. Jan.<br /> -14. a. d. XIX. Kal. Feb.<br /> -15. a. d. XVIII. Kal. Feb.<br /> -16. a. d. XVII. Kal. Feb.<br /> -17. a. d. XVI. Kal. Feb.<br /> -18. a. d. XV. Kal. Feb.<br /> -19. a. d. XIV. Kal. Feb.<br /> -20. a. d. XIII. Kal. Feb.<br /> -21. a. d. XII. Kal. Feb.<br /> -22. a. d. XI. Kal. Feb.<br /> -23. a. d. X. Kal. Feb.<br /> -24. a. d. IX. Kal. Feb.<br /> -25. a. d. VIII. Kal. Feb.<br /> -26. a. d. VII. Kal. Feb.<br /> -27. a. d. VI. Kal. Feb.<br /> -28. a. d. V. Kal. Feb.<br /> -29. a. d. IV. Kal. Feb.<br /> -30. a. d. III. Kal. Feb.<br /> -31. Prid. Kal. Feb.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="noindent">The letters <em>a d</em> are often, through error, written -together, and so confounded with the -preposition <em>ad</em> which would have a different -meaning, for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad kalendas</i> would signify <em>by</em>, -i.e. <em>on or before the kalends</em>. The letters are -in fact an abridgment of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante diem</i>, and the -full phrase for “on the second of January,” -would be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante diem quartum nonas Januarias</i>. -The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante</i> in this expression seems really -to belong in sense to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nonas</i>, and to be the -cause why <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nonas</i> is an accusative. Whether -the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">kalendae Januarii</i> was ever used -by the best writers is doubtful. The words -are commonly abbreviated; and those passages -where Aprilis, Decembris, &c. occur are -of no avail, as they are probably accusatives. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante</i> may be omitted, in which case the -phrase will be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">die quarto nonarum</i>. In the -leap year (to use a modern phrase), the last -days of February were called,—</p> - -<p class="pad2 noindent"> -Feb. 23. a. d. VII. Kal. Mart.<br /> -Feb. 24. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart. posteriorem.<br /> -Feb. 25. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart. priorem.<br /> -Feb. 26. a. d. V. Kal. Mart.<br /> -Feb. 27. a. d. IV. Kal. Mart.<br /> -Feb. 28. a. d. III. Kal. Mart.<br /> -Feb. 29. Prid. Kal. Mart.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="noindent">In which the words <em>prior</em> and <em>posterior</em> are -used in reference to the retrograde direction -of the reckoning. From the fact that the -intercalated year has two days called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante -diem sextum</i>, the name bissextile has been -applied to it. The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annus bissextilis</i>, -however, does not occur in any classical -writer, but in place of it the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annus -bissextus</i>.—The names of two of the months -were changed in honour of Julius Caesar and -Augustus. Julius was substituted for Quinctilis, -the month in which Caesar was born,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span> -in the second Julian year, that is, the year -of the dictator’s death, for the first Julian -year was the first year of the <em>corrected</em> Julian -calendar, that is, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 45. The name Augustus -in place of Sextilis was introduced by the -emperor himself in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 27. The month of -September in like manner received the name -of Germanicus from the general so called, -and the appellation appears to have existed -even in the time of Macrobius. Domitian, -too, conferred his name upon October; but -the old word was restored upon the death of -the tyrant.—The Julian calendar supposes -the mean tropical year to be 365 d. 6 h.; -but this exceeds the real amount by 11′ 12″, -the accumulation of which, year after year, -caused at last considerable inconvenience. -Accordingly, in the year 1582, Pope Gregory -XIII. again reformed the calendar. The ten -days by which the year had been unduly retarded -were struck out by a regulation that -the day after the fourth of October in that -year should be called the fifteenth; and it -was ordered that whereas hitherto an intercalary -day had been inserted every four years, -for the future three such intercalations in the -course of four hundred years should be omitted, -viz., in those years which are divisible -without remainder by 100, but not by 400. -Thus, according to the Julian calendar, the -years 1600, 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000, were to -be bissextile as before. The bull which -effected this change was issued Feb. 24th, -1582. The Protestant parts of Europe resisted -what they called a papistical invention -for more than a century. In England the -Gregorian calendar was first adopted in 1752. -In Russia, and those countries which belonged -to the Greek church, the Julian year, -or <em>old style</em>, as it is called, still prevails. In -the ancient calendars the letters A, B, C, D, -E, F, G, H, were used for the purpose of fixing -the nundines in the week of eight days; -precisely in the same way in which the first -seven letters are still employed in ecclesiastical -calendars, to mark the days of the Christian -week.</p> - - -<p id="Caliga">CĂLĬGA, a strong and heavy sandal worn -by the Roman soldiers, but not by the superior -officers. Hence the common soldiers, -including centurions, were distinguished by -the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caligati</i>. The emperor Caligula -received that cognomen when a boy, in consequence -of wearing the caliga, and being -inured to the life of a common soldier. The -cuts on pp. <a href="#ill001b">1</a>, <a href="#ill041">41</a>, show the difference between -the caliga of the common soldier and the calceus -worn by men of higher rank.</p> - - -<p id="Calix">CĂLIX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύλιξ</span>). (1) a drinking-cup used at -symposia and on similar occasions.—(2) A -vessel used in cooking.—(3) A tube in the -aquaeducts attached to the extremity of each -pipe, where it entered the castellum.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp83" id="ill068" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill068.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Calices, Drinking-cups. (Museo Borbonico, vol. v. pl. 18.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Callis">CALLIS, a beaten path or track made by -the feet of cattle. The sheep-walks in the -mountainous parts of Campania and Apulia -were the property of the Roman state; and -as they were of considerable value, one of the -quaestors usually had these <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calles</i> assigned to -him as his province, whence we read of the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Callium provincia</i>. His principal duties were -to receive the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptura</i>, or tax paid for the -pasturage of the cattle, and to protect life and -property in these wild and mountainous districts. -When the senate wished to put a -slight upon the consuls on one occasion they -endeavoured to assign to them as their provinces, -the care of the woods (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silvae</i>) and -sheep-walks (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calles</i>).</p> - - -<p id="Callisteia">CALLISTEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλλιστεῖα</span>), a festival, or -perhaps merely a part of one, held by the -women of Lesbos; at which they assembled in -the sanctuary of Hera, and the fairest received -the prize of beauty. Similar contests of beauty -are said to have been held in other places.</p> - - -<p id="Calones">CĀLŌNES, the slaves or servants of the -Roman soldiers, so called from carrying -wood (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κᾶλα</span>) for their use. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calo</i>, -however, was also applied to farm-servants. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calones</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lixae</i> are frequently spoken -of together, but they were not the same: the -latter were freemen, who merely followed the -camp for the purposes of gain and merchandise, -and were so far from being indispensable -to an army, that they were sometimes forbidden -to attend it.</p> - - -<p id="Calumnia">CĂLUMNĬA. When an accuser failed in -his proof, and the accused party was acquitted, -there might be an inquiry into the -conduct and motives of the accuser. If the -person who made this judicial inquiry found -that the accuser had merely acted from error<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span> -of judgment, he acquitted him in the form -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">non probasti</i>; if he convicted him of evil intention, -he declared his sentence in the words -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calumniatus es</i>, which sentence was followed -by the legal punishment. The punishment -for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calumnia</i> was fixed by the lex Remmia, or -as it is sometimes, perhaps incorrectly, named, -the lex Memmia. But it is not known when -this lex was passed, nor what were its penalties. -It appears from Cicero, that the false -accuser might be branded on the forehead -with the letter K, the initial of Kalumnia. -The punishment for calumnia was also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsilium, -relegatio in insulam</i>, or loss of rank -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordinis amissio</i>); but probably only in criminal -cases, or in matters relating to status.</p> - - -<p id="Camara">CĂMĂRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καμάρα</span>), or CĂMĔRA. (1) A -particular kind of arched ceiling, formed by -semicircular bands or beams of wood, arranged -at small lateral distances, over which -a coating of lath and plaster was spread, and -the whole covered in by a roof, resembling in -construction the hooped awnings in use -amongst us.—(2) A small boat used in early -times by the people who inhabited the shores -of the Palus Maeotis, capable of containing -from twenty-five to thirty men. These boats -were made to work fore and aft, like the fast-sailing -proas of the Indian seas, and continued -in use until the age of Tacitus.</p> - - -<p id="Camilli">CĂMILLI, CĂMILLAE, boys and girls -employed in the religious rites and ceremonies -of the Romans. They were required to -be perfect in form, and sound in health, free -born, and with both their parents alive; or, -in other words, according to the expression of -the Romans, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pueri seu puellae ingenui, felicissimi, -patrimi matrimique</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Caminus">CĂMĪNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Campestre">CAMPESTRE (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subligar</i>), a kind of -girdle or apron, which the Roman youths -wore around their loins, when they exercised -naked in the Campus Martius. The campestre -was sometimes worn in warm weather, in -place of the tunic under the toga.</p> - - -<p id="Campus">CAMPUS MARTĬUS. [See <span class="smcap">Classical Dictionary</span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Canabus">CĂNĂBUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάναβος</span>), a figure of wood in -the form of a skeleton, round which the clay -or plaster was laid in forming models. Figures -of a similar kind, formed to display the -muscles and veins, were studied by painters in -order to acquire some knowledge of anatomy.</p> - - -<p id="Canathron">CĀNATHRON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάναθρον</span>), a carriage, the -upper part of which was made of basket-work, -or more properly the basket itself, which was -fixed in the carriage.</p> - - -<p id="Cancellarius">CANCELLĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cancelli">Cancelli</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cancelli">CANCELLI, lattice-work, placed before a -window, a door-way, the tribunal of a judge, -or any other place. Hence was derived the -word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cancellarius</i>, which originally signified -a porter, who stood at the latticed or grated -door of the emperor’s palace. The cancellarius -also signified a legal scribe or secretary, -who sat within the cancelli or lattice-work. -The chief scribe or secretary was -called Cancellarius <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατ’ ἐξοχήν</span>, and was eventually -invested with judicial power at Constantinople. -From this word has come the -modern Chancellor.</p> - - -<p id="Candela">CANDĒLA, a candle, made either of wax -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cerea</i>), or tallow (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sebacea</i>), was used universally -by the Romans before the invention -of oil lamps (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lucernae</i>). In later times candelae -were only used by the poorer classes; -the houses of the more wealthy were always -lighted by lucernae.</p> - - -<p id="Candelabrum">CANDĒLABRUM, originally a candlestick, -but afterwards the name of a stand for supporting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span> -lamps (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λυχνοῦχοι</span>), in which signification -it most commonly occurs. The candelabra -of this kind were usually made to stand -upon the ground, and were of a considerable -height. The most common kind were made -of wood; but those which have been found -in Herculaneum and Pompeii are mostly of -bronze. Sometimes they were made of the -more precious metals, and even of jewels. -The candelabra did not always stand upon -the ground, but were also placed upon the -table. Such candelabra usually consisted of -pillars, from the capitals of which several -lamps hung down, or of trees, from whose -branches lamps also were suspended.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp30" id="ill069" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill069.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Candelabrum in the Vatican. (Visconti, vol. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>. tav. 5.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Candidatus">CANDĬDĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Candys">CANDYS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάνδυς</span>), a robe worn by the -Medes and Persians over their trowsers and -other garments. It had wide sleeves, and -was made of woollen cloth, which was either -purple or of some other splendid colour. In -the Persepolitan sculptures, from which the -annexed figures are taken, nearly all the -principal personages wear it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp77" id="ill070a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill070a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Candys, Persian Cloak. (From Bas-relief at Persepolis.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Canephoros">CĂNĒPHŎROS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κανηφόρος</span>), a virgin who -carried a flat circular basket (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάνεον</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">canistrum</i>) -at sacrifices, in which the chaplet of -flowers, the knife to slay the victim, and -sometimes the frankincense were deposited. -The name, however, was more particularly -applied to two virgins of the first Athenian -families who were appointed to officiate as -canephori at the Panathaenaea. The preceding -cut represents the two canephori -approaching a candelabrum. Each of them -elevates one arm to support the basket while -she slightly raises her tunic with the other.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp52" id="ill070b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill070b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Canephori. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Cantharus">CANTHĂRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάνθαρος</span>), a kind of drinking -cup, furnished with handles. It was the cup -sacred to Bacchus, who is frequently represented -on ancient vases holding it in his hand.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill070c" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill070c.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cantharus. (From an ancient Vase.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Canticum">CANTĬCUM, an interlude between the acts -of a Roman comedy, and sometimes, perhaps, -of a tragedy. It consisted of flute music, -accompanied by a kind of recitative performed -by a single actor, or if there were two, the -second was not allowed to speak with the -first. In the canticum, as violent gesticulation -was required, it appears to have been -the custom, from the time of Livius Andronicus, -for the actor to confine himself to -the gesticulation, while another person sang -the recitative.</p> - - -<p id="Capillus">CĂPILLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Capistrum">CĂPISTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φορβειά</span>), a halter, or tie for -horses, asses, or other animals, placed round -the head or neck, and made of osiers or other -fibrous materials. The Greek word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φορβειά</span> -was also applied to a contrivance used by -pipers and trumpeters to compress their -mouths and cheeks, and thus to aid them in -blowing. It is often seen in works of ancient -art, and was said to be the invention of -Marsyas. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tibia">Tibia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Capite">CĂPĬTE CENSI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Capitis">CĂPĬTIS DĒMĬNŪTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Capitolini">CĂPĬTŌLĪNI LŪDI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ludi">Ludi</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Capitolium">CĂPĬTŌLĬUM. [See <span class="smcap">Class. Dictionary.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Capitulum">CĂPĬTŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Columna">Columna</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Capsa">CAPSA, or SCRĪNĬUM, a box for holding -books among the Romans. These boxes -were of a cylindrical form. There does not -appear to have been any difference between -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capsa</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scrinium</i>, except that the latter -word was usually applied to those boxes which -held a considerable number of rolls. The -slaves who had the charge of these book-chests<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span> -were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capsarii</i>, and also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custodes -scriniorum</i>; and the slaves who carried in a -capsa behind their young masters the books, -&c. of the sons of respectable Romans, when -they went to school, were called by the same -name.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp71" id="ill071" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill071.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">The Muse Clio with a Capsa. (Pitture d’Ercolano, vol. ii. pl. 2.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Capsarii">CAPSĀRĬI, the name of three different -classes of slaves. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Capsa">Capsa</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Caput">CĂPUT, the head. The term “head” is -often used by the Roman writers as equivalent -to “person,” or “human being.” By -an easy transition it was used to signify -“life:” thus, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capite damnari</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plecti</i>, &c., are -equivalent to capital punishment. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caput</i> is -also used to express a man’s <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">status</i>, or civil -condition; and the persons who were registered -in the tables of the censor are spoken -of as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capita</i>, sometimes with the addition of -the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civium</i>, and sometimes not. Thus -to be registered in the census was the same -thing as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caput habere</i>: and a slave and a -filius familias, in this sense of the word, were -said to have no <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caput</i>. The sixth class of -Servius Tullius comprised the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proletarii</i> and -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capite censi</i>, of whom the latter, having -little or no property, were barely rated as so -many <em>head</em> of citizens.—He who lost or -changed his status was said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capite -minutus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deminutus</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capitis minor</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capitis -minutio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deminutio</i> was a change of a -person’s status or civil condition, and consisted -of three kinds.—A Roman citizen possessed -freedom (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertas</i>), citizenship (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civitas</i>), -and family (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familias</i>): the loss of all three -constituted the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maxima capitis deminutio</i>. -This capitis deminutio was sustained by those -who refused to be registered at the census, or -neglected the registration, and were thence -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">incensi</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">incensus</i> was liable to -be sold, and so to lose his liberty. Those -who refused to perform military service might -also be sold.—The loss of citizenship and -family only, as when a man was interdicted -from fire and water, was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">media capitis -deminutio</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]—The change of family -by adoption, and by the in manum conventio, -was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minima capitis deminutio</i>.—A -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium capitale</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">poena capitalis</i>, was -one which affected a citizen’s caput.</p> - - -<p id="Caput_f">CĂPUT. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Caput_e">CĂPUT EXTŌRUM. The Roman soothsayers -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">haruspices</i>) pretended to a knowledge -of coming events from the inspection of the -entrails of victims slain for that purpose. -The part to which they especially directed -their attention was the liver, the convex -upper portion of which seems to have been -called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caput extorum</i>. Any disease or -deficiency in this organ was considered an -unfavourable omen; whereas, if healthy and -perfect, it was believed to indicate good fortune. -If no caput was found, it was a bad sign -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nihil tristius accidere potuit</i>); if well defined -or double, it was a lucky omen.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span></p> - - -<p id="Caracalla">CĂRĂCALLA, an outer garment used in -Gaul, and not unlike the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lacerna</i>. It -was first introduced at Rome by the emperor -Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus, who compelled -all the people that came to court to wear it, -whence he obtained the surname of Caracalla. -This garment, as worn in Gaul, does not -appear to have reached lower than the knee, -but Caracalla lengthened it so as to reach the -ankle.</p> - - -<p id="Carcer">CARCER (<em>kerker</em>, German; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γοργύρα</span>, -Greek), a prison, is connected with <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕρκος</span> -and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἵργω</span>, the guttural being interchanged -with the aspirate. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> Imprisonment -was seldom used amongst the Greeks as a -legal punishment for offences; they preferred -banishment to the expense of keeping prisoners -in confinement. The prisons in different -countries were called by different names; -thus there was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ceadas</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεάδας</span>), at Sparta; -and, among the Ionians, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gorgyra</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γοργύρα</span>), -as at Samos. The prison at Athens -was in former times called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Desmoterion</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεσμωτήριον</span>), -and afterwards, by a sort of euphemism, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἴκημα</span>. It was chiefly used as a guard-house -or place of execution, and was under the -charge of the public officers called the Eleven.—(2) -<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> A prison was first built at Rome -by Ancus Martius, overhanging the forum. -This was enlarged by Servius Tullius, who -added to it a souterrain, or dungeon, called -from him the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tullianum</i>. Sallust describes -this as being twelve feet under ground, -walled on each side, and arched over with -stone work. For a long time this was the -only prison at Rome, being, in fact, the -“Tower,” or state prison of the city, which -was sometimes doubly guarded in times of -alarm, and was the chief object of attack in -many conspiracies. There were, however, -other prisons besides this, though, as we -might expect, the words of Roman historians -generally refer to this alone. In the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tullianum</i> -prisoners were generally executed, -and this part of the prison was also called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">robur</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Carceres">CARCĔRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Carchesium">CARCHĒSĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρχήσιον</span>). (1) A beaker or -drinking-cup, which was used by the Greeks -in very early times. It was slightly contracted -in the middle, and its two handles -extended from the top to the bottom. It was -much employed in libations of wine, milk, -and honey.—(2) The upper part of the mast -of a ship. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Carmentalia">CARMENTĀLĬA, a festival celebrated in -honour of Carmenta or Carmentis, who is -fabled to have been the mother of Evander, -who came from Pallantium in Arcadia, and -settled in Latium: he was said to have -brought with him a knowledge of the arts, -and the Latin alphabetical characters as distinguished -from the Etruscan. This festival -was celebrated annually on the 11th of January. -A temple was erected to the same -goddess, at the foot of the Capitoline hill, -near the Porta Carmentalis, afterwards called -Scelerata. The name Carmenta is said to -have been given to her from her prophetic -character, carmens or carmentis being synonymous -with vates. The word is, of course, -connected with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carmen</i>, as prophecies were -generally delivered in verse.</p> - - -<p id="Carneia">CARNEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρνεῖα</span>), a great national festival, -celebrated by the Spartans in honour of -Apollo Carneios. The festival began on the -seventh day of the month of Carneios = Metageitnion -of the Athenians, and lasted for -nine days. It was of a warlike character, -similar to the Attic Boëdromia. During the -time of its celebration nine tents were pitched -near the city, in each of which nine men -lived in the manner of a military camp, obeying -in everything the commands of a herald. -The priest conducting the sacrifices at the -Carneia was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agetes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγητής</span>), whence -the festival was sometimes designated by the -name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agetoria</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agetoreion</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγητόρια</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγητόρειον</span>), and from each of the Spartan -tribes five men (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρνεᾶται</span>) were chosen as -his ministers, whose office lasted four years, -during which period they were not allowed -to marry. When we read in Herodotus and -Thucydides that the Spartans during the -celebration of this festival were not allowed -to take the field against an enemy, we must -remember that this restriction was not peculiar -to the Carneia, but common to all the -great festivals of the Greeks: traces of it are -found even in Homer.</p> - - -<p id="Carnifex">CARNĬFEX, the public executioner at -Rome, who executed slaves and foreigners, -but not citizens, who were punished in a -manner different from slaves. It was also -his business to administer the torture. This -office was considered so disgraceful, that he -was not allowed to reside within the city, -but lived without the Porta Metia or Esquilina, -near the place destined for the punishment -of slaves, called Sestertium under the -emperors.</p> - - -<p id="Carpentum">CARPENTUM, a cart; also a two-wheeled -carriage, enclosed, and with an arched or -sloping cover overhead. The carpentum was -used to convey the Roman matrons in the -public festal processions; and this was a high -distinction, since the use of carriages in the -city was entirely forbidden during the whole -of the republican period. Hence the privilege -of riding in a carpentum in the public festivals -was sometimes granted to females of the imperial -family. This carriage contained seats for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span> -two, and sometimes for three persons, besides -the coachman. It was commonly drawn by -a pair of mules, but more rarely by oxen or -horses, and sometimes by four horses like a -quadriga.—Carpenta, or covered carts, were -much used by the Britons, the Gauls, and -other northern nations. These, together with -the carts of the more common form, including -baggage-waggons, appear to have been comprehended -under the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carri</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carra</i>, -which is the Celtic name with a Latin termination. -The Gauls took a great multitude of -them on their military expeditions, and when -they were encamped, arranged them in close -order, so as to form extensive lines of circumvallation.</p> - - -<p id="Carrago">CARRĀGO, a kind of fortification, consisting -of a great number of waggons placed -round an army. It was employed by barbarous -nations, as, for instance, the Scythians, -Gauls, and Goths. Carrago also signifies sometimes -the baggage of an army.</p> - - -<p id="Carruca">CARRŪCA, a carriage, the name of which -only occurs under the emperors. It appears -to have been a species of rheda [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Rheda">Rheda</a></span>], -had four wheels, and was used in travelling. -These carriages were sometimes used in Rome -by persons of distinction, like the carpenta; -in which case they appear to have been -covered with plates of bronze, silver, and even -gold, which were sometimes ornamented with -embossed work.</p> - - -<p id="Carrus">CARRUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Carpentum">Carpentum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Carya">CĂRỸA or CĂRỸĀTIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρύα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρυατίς</span>), -a festival celebrated at Caryae, in Laconia, in -honour of Artemis Caryatis. It was celebrated -every year by Lacedaemonian maidens with -national dances of a very lively kind.</p> - - -<p id="Caryatides">CĂRỸĀTĬDES, female figures used in -architecture instead of columns. Their name -is usually derived from Caryae, a city in -Arcadia, near the Laconian border, the -women of which are said to have been reduced -to slavery by the Greeks, because -Caryae had joined the Persians at the invasion -of Greece. But this tale is probably -apocryphal. One of the porticos of the -Erechtheum at Athens is supported by Caryatides.</p> - - -<p id="Cassis">CASSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Galea">Galea</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Castellum">CASTELLUM ĂQUAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aquae">Aquae Ductus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Castra">CASTRA. Roman armies never halted for -a single night without forming a regular entrenchment, -termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castra</i>, capable of receiving -within its limits the whole body of fighting -men, their beasts of burden, and the baggage. -So completely was this recognised as a part of -the ordinary duties of each march, that <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pervenire -ad locum tertiis ... quartis ... septuagesimis -castris</i> are the established phrases -for expressing the number of days occupied -in passing from one point to another. Whenever -circumstances rendered it expedient for -a force to occupy the same ground for any -length of time, then the encampment was -distinguished as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castra stativa</i>. In wild and -barbarian lands, where there were no large -towns and no tribes on whose faith reliance -could be placed, armies, whether of invasion -or occupation, were forced to remain constantly -in camps. They usually, however, -occupied different ground in summer and in -winter, whence arose the distinction between -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castra aestiva</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castra hiberna</i>, both alike -being <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stativa</i>. But whether a camp was -temporary or permanent, whether tenanted -in summer or in winter, the main features of -the work were always the same for the same -epoch. In hiberna, huts of turf or stone -would be substituted for the open tents of the -aestiva (hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aedificare hiberna</i>), and in stativa -held for long periods the defences would -present a more substantial and finished aspect, -but the general outline and disposition of the -parts were invariable. Polybius has transmitted -to us a description of a Roman camp, -from which the annexed plan has been drawn -up. It is such as would be formed at the -close of an ordinary day’s march by a regular -consular army consisting of two Roman legions -with the full contingent of Socii. Each legion -is calculated at 4200 infantry and 300 cavalry; -the Socii furnished an equal number of infantry, -and twice as many cavalry, so that -the whole force would amount to 16,800 foot -and 1800 horse. Skill in the selection of a -spot for a camp (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capere locum castris</i>) was -ever considered as a high quality in a general, -and we find it recorded among the praises of -the most renowned commanders that they -were wont in person to perform this duty. -Under ordinary circumstances, however, the -task was devolved upon one of the military -tribunes, and a certain number of centurions -appointed from time to time for the purpose. -These having gone forward in advance of the -army until they reached the place near which -it was intended to halt, and having taken a -general survey of the ground, selected a spot -from whence a good view of the whole proposed -area might be obtained. This spot was -considerably within the limits of the contemplated -enclosure, and was marked by a small -white flag. The next object was to ascertain -in what direction water and fodder might be -most easily and securely provided. These -two preliminary points being decided, the -business of measuring out the ground (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metari -castra</i>) commenced, and was executed, as we -learn from various sources, with graduated -rods (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decempedae</i>) by persons denominated -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metatores</i>. In practice the most important<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span> -points were marked by white poles, some of -which bore flags of various colours, so that -the different battalions on reaching the ground -could at once discover the place assigned to -them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp71" id="ill074" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill074.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p class="negin1">A, praetorium.—B, tents of the tribunes.—C, tents of the praefecti sociorum.—D, street 100 feet wide.—E, F, G, and -H, streets 50 feet wide.—L, select foot and volunteers.—K, select horse and volunteers.—M, extraordinary horse of the -allies.—N, extraordinary foot of the allies.—O, reserved for occasional auxiliaries.—Q, the street called Quintana, -50 feet wide.—V P, via principalis, 100 feet wide.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The white flag A, which served as the -starting point of the whole construction, -marked the position of the consul’s tent, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetorium</i>, so called because <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor</i> was the -ancient term for any one invested with supreme -command. A square area was left open, extending -a hundred feet each way from the -praetorium. The camp was divided into two -parts, the upper and the lower. The upper -part formed about a third of the whole. In -it was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetorium</i> (A) or general’s tent. -A part of the praetorium was called the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augurale</i>, as the auguries were there taken -by the general. On the right and left of the -praetorium were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">forum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quaestorium</i>; -the former a sort of market-place, the latter -appropriated to the quaestor and the camp -stores under his superintendence. On the -sides of and facing the forum and quaestorium, -were stationed select bodies of horse<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span> -(K) taken from the extraordinaries, with -mounted volunteers, who served out of respect -to the consul, and were stationed near him. -And parallel to these were posted similar -bodies of foot-soldiers (L). Before the quaestorium -and the forum were the tents of the -twelve tribunes of the two legions (B), and -before the select bodies of horse and infantry -the tents of the praefecti sociorum were probably -placed (C). Again, behind the praetorium, -the quaestorium, and the forum, ran a -street or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">via</i> (D), 100 feet broad, from one -side of the camp to the other. Along the -upper side of this street was ranged the main -body of the “extraordinary” horse (M): they -were separated into two equal parts by a -street fifty feet broad (E). At the back of -this body of cavalry was posted a similar -body of infantry (N), selected from the allies, -and facing the opposite way, <em>i.e.</em> towards the -ramparts of the camp. The vacant spaces -(O) on each side of these troops were reserved -for foreigners and occasional auxiliaries. The -lower part of the camp was divided from the -upper by a street, called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Principalis</i> -(V P), or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principia</i>, a hundred feet broad. -Here the tribunal of the general was erected, -from which he harangued the soldiers, and -here the tribunes administered justice. Here -also the principal standards, the altars of the -gods, and the images of the emperors were -placed. The lower part of the camp was -occupied by the two legions and the troops of -the allies according to the arrangement of the -preceding cut. Between the ramparts and -the tents was left a vacant space of 200 feet -on every side, which was useful for many -purposes: thus it served for the reception of -any booty that was taken, and facilitated the -entrance and exit of the army. The camp -had four gates, one at the top and bottom, -and one at each of the sides; the top or back-gate, -which was the side most away from the -enemy, was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decumana</i>. The bottom -or the front gate was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">practoria</i>, the gates -of the sides were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porta principalis dextra</i>, -and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porta principalis sinistra</i>. The whole -camp was surrounded by a trench (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fossa</i>), -generally nine feet deep and twelve broad, -and a rampart (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>) made of the earth -that was thrown up (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agger</i>), with stakes -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">valli</i>) fixed at the top of it. The labour of -this work was so divided, that the allies completed -the two sides of the camp alongside of -which they were stationed, and the two -Roman legions the rest.—In describing the -Roman camp and its internal arrangements, -we have confined ourselves to the information -given by Polybius, which, of course, -applies only to his age, and to armies constituted -like those he witnessed. When the -practice of drawing up the army according to -cohorts, ascribed to Marius or Caesar [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>], -had superseded the ancient division -into maniples, and the distinction of triarii, -&c., the internal arrangements of the camp -must have been changed accordingly. In each -legion the tribunes divided themselves into -three sections of two each, and each section in -turn undertook for two months the superintendence -of all matters connected with the -camp. Out of the twenty maniples of Principes -and Triarii in each legion, two were -appointed to take charge of the broad passage -or street called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principia</i>, extending right -across the camp in front of the tents of the -tribunes. Of the remaining eighteen maniples -of Principes and Hastati in each legion, -three were assigned by lot to each of the six -tribunes, and of these three maniples one in -turn rendered each day certain services to the -tribune to whom it was specially attached. -One maniple was selected each day from the -whole legionary force, to keep guard beside -the tent of the general. Three sentinels were -usually posted at the tents of the quaestor, -and of the legati: and by night sentinels -kept watch at every maniple, being chosen -out of the maniple which they guarded. The -Velites mounted guard by day and by night -along the whole extent of the vallum: to -them also in bodies of ten was committed the -charge of the gates, while strong bodies of -infantry and cavalry were thrown forward in -advance of each gate, to resist any sudden -onset, and give timely notice of the approach -of the enemy.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Excubiae</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excubias agere</i>; -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excubare</i>; are the general terms used with -reference to mounting guard whether by -night or by day. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vigiliae</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vigilias agere</i>; -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vigilare</i>; are restricted to night duty: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Excubiae</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vigiliae</i> frequently denote not only -the service itself, but also the individuals -who performed it. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Stationes</i> is used specially -to denote the advanced posts thrown forward -in front of the gates. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Custodes</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Custodiae</i> -the parties who watched the gates themselves, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praesidia</i> the sentinels on the ramparts, but -all these words are employed in many other -significations also. The duty of going the -rounds (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vigilias circuire s. circumire</i>) was -committed to the Equites, and for this purpose -each legion supplied daily four, picked -out from each turma in rotation by the commander -of the troop. The eight persons thus -selected decided by lot in which watch they -should make their rounds, two being assigned -to each watch. They then repaired to the -tribune, and each individual received a -written order specifying the posts which he -was to visit, every post being visited in each -watch by one or other of the two to whom<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span> -the watch belonged. Sometimes we find -centurions, tribunes, and even the general in -chief represented as going the rounds, but, -under ordinary circumstances, the duty was -performed as we have described. The watchword -for the night was not communicated -verbally, but by means of a small rectangular -tablet of wood (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλατεῖον ἐπιγεγραμμένον</span>—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tessera</i>) -upon which it was written.—<em>Breaking -up a Camp.</em> On the first signal being given -by the trumpet, the tents were all struck and -the baggage packed, the tents of the general -and the tribunes being disposed of before the -others were touched. At the second signal -the baggage was placed upon the beasts of -burden; at the third, the whole army began -to move.</p> - - -<p id="Catalogus">CĂTĂLŎGUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάλογος</span>), the catalogue of -those persons in Athens who were liable to -regular military service. At Athens, those -persons alone who possessed a certain amount -of property were allowed to serve in the regular -infantry, whilst the lowest class, the -thetes, had not this privilege. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Census">Census</a>.</span>] -Thus the former are called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ ἐκ καταλόγου -στρατεύοντες</span>, and the latter <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ ἔξω τοῦ καταλόγου</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Cataphracta">CĂTĂPHRACTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lorica">Lorica</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cataphracti">CĂTĂPHRACTI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάφρακτοι</span>). (1) Heavy-armed -cavalry, the horses of which were also -covered with defensive armour. Among -many of the Eastern nations, who placed -their chief dependence upon their cavalry, we -find horses protected in this manner; but -among the Romans we do not read of any -troops of this description till the later times -of the empire, when the discipline of the legions -was destroyed, and the chief dependence -began to be placed on the cavalry. This -species of troops was common among the -Persians from the earliest times, from whom -it was adopted by their Macedonian conquerors. -They were called by the Persians -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clibanarii</i>.—(2) Decked vessels, in opposition -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aphracti</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Catapirater">CĂTĂPĪRĀTĒR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταπειρατηρία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βολίς</span>), the -lead used in sounding (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐν τῷ βολίζειν</span>), or fathoming -the depth of water in navigation. -The mode of employing this instrument appears -to have been precisely the same as that -now in use.</p> - - -<p id="Catapulta">CĂTĂPULTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cataracta">CĂTĂRACTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταῤῥάκτης</span>), a portcullis, -so called because it fell with great force and -a loud noise. It was an additional defence, -suspended by iron rings and ropes, before the -gates of a city, in such a manner that, when -the enemy had come up to the gates, the portcullis -might be let down so as to shut them -in, and to enable the besieged to assail them -from above.</p> - - -<p id="Cateia">CĂTEIA, a missile used in war by the Germans, -Gauls, and some of the Italian nations, -supposed to resemble the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aclis">Aclis</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Catena">CĂTĒNA, dim. CĂTELLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄλυσις</span>, dim. -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλύσιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλυσίδιον</span>), a chain. The chains -which were of superior value, either on account -of the material or the workmanship, -are commonly called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">catellae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλύσια</span>), the -diminutive expressing their fineness and delicacy -as well as their minuteness. The specimens -of ancient chains which we have in -bronze lamps, in scales, and in ornaments for -the person, especially necklaces, show a great -variety of elegant and ingenious patterns. -Besides a plain circle or oval, the separate -link is often shaped like the figure 8, or is a -bar with a circle at each end, or assumes other -forms, some of which are here shown. The -links are also found so closely entwined, that -the chain resembles platted wire or thread, -like the gold chains now manufactured at -Venice. This is represented in the lowest figure -of the woodcut.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill076a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill076a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ancient Chains.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Catervarii">CĂTERVĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp58" id="ill076b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill076b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cathedra. (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Cathedra">CĂTHEDRA, a seat or chair, was more -particularly applied to a soft seat used by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span> -women, whereas <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella</i> signified a seat common -to both sexes. The cathedrae were, no doubt, -of various forms and sizes; but they usually -appear to have had backs to them. On the -cathedra in the annexed cut is seated a bride, -who is being fanned by a female slave with a -fan made of peacock’s feathers. Women were -also accustomed to be carried abroad in these -cathedrae instead of in lecticae, which practice -was sometimes adopted by effeminate -persons of the other sex. The word cathedra -was also applied to the chair or pulpit from -which lectures were read.</p> - - -<p id="Catinus">CĂTĪNUS, or CĂTĪNUM, a large dish, on -which fish and meat were served up at table. -Hence Horace speaks of an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">angustus catinus</i> -as an indication of niggardliness on the part -of the host.</p> - - -<p id="Cavaedium">CĂVAEDĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cavea">CĂVĔA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Caupona">CAUPŌNA. (1) An inn, where travellers -obtained food and lodging; in which sense it -answered to the Greek words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πανδοκεῖον, καταγώγιον</span>, -and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάλυσις</span>. Inns for the accommodation -of persons of all classes existed -among the Greeks and Romans, although they -were not equal either in size or convenience -to similar places in modern times. An inn -was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taberna</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taberna diversoria</i>, -or simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diversorium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deversorium</i>.—(2) A -shop, where wine and ready-dressed meat -were sold, thus corresponding to the Greek -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καπηλεῖον</span>. The person who kept a caupona -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caupo</i>. In Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάπηλος</span> signifies -in general a retail trader, who sold goods in -small quantities; but the word is more particularly -applied to a person who sold ready-dressed -provisions, and especially wine in -small quantities. In these <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καπηλεῖα</span> only persons -of the very lowest class were accustomed -to eat and drink. In Rome itself there were, -no doubt, inns to accommodate strangers; -but these were probably only frequented by -the lower classes, since all persons in respectable -society could easily find accommodation -in the houses of their friends. There were, -however, in all parts of the city, numerous -houses where wine and ready-dressed provisions -were sold. The houses where persons -were allowed to eat and drink were usually -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popinae</i> and not <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cauponae</i>; and the -keepers of them, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popae</i>. They were principally -frequented by slaves and the lower -classes, and were consequently only furnished -with stools to sit upon instead of couches. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thermopolia</i>, where the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calida</i> or warm -wine and water was sold, appear to have -been the same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popinae</i>. Many of these -popinae were little better than the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lupanaria</i> -or brothels; whence Horace calls them <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">immundas -popinas</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ganeae</i>, which are -sometimes mentioned in connection with the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popinae</i>, were brothels, whence they are often -classed with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lustra</i>. Under the emperors -many attempts were made to regulate the popinae, -but apparently with little success. All -persons who kept inns or houses of public -entertainment of any kind were held in low -estimation both among the Greeks and Romans. -They appear to have fully deserved -the bad reputation which they possessed, for -they were accustomed to cheat their customers -by false weights and measures, and by all the -means in their power.</p> - - -<p id="Causia">CAUSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καυσία</span>), a hat with a broad brim, -which was made of felt, and worn by the -Macedonian kings. Its form is seen in the -annexed figure. The Romans adopted it -from the Macedonians.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp66" id="ill077" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill077.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Causia, Hat. (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Cautio">CAUTĬO, CĂVĒRE. These words are of -frequent occurrence, and have a great variety -of significations, according to the matter to -which they refer. Their general signification -is that of security given by one person to -another, or security which one person obtains -by the advice or assistance of another. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cautio</i> was most frequently a writing, -which expressed the object of the parties to -it; accordingly the word cautio came to signify -both the instrument (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">chirographum</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">instrumentum</i>) and the object which it was -the purpose of the instrument to secure. -Cicero uses the expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cautio chirographi -mei</i>. The phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavere aliquid alicui</i> expressed -the fact of one person giving security -to another as to some particular thing or act. -The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cautio</i> was also applied to the release -which a debtor obtained from his creditor -on satisfying his demand; in this sense -cautio is equivalent to a modern receipt; it is -the debtor’s security against the same demand -being made a second time. Thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavere ab -aliquo</i> signifies to obtain this kind of security. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cavere</i> is also applied to express the -professional advice and assistance of a lawyer -to his client for his conduct in any legal matter. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cavere</i> and its derivatives are also used<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span> -to express the provisions of a law, by which -any thing is forbidden or ordered, as in the -phrase, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cautum est lege</i>, &c. It is also used -to express the words in a will, by which a -testator declares his wish that certain things -should be done after his death.</p> - - -<p id="Ceadas">CĔADAS or CAEADAS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεάδας</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καιάδας</span>), -a deep cavern or chasm, like the Barathron -at Athens, into which the Spartans -were accustomed to thrust persons condemned -to death.</p> - - -<p id="Celeres">CĔLĔRES, are said by Livy to have been -three hundred horsemen, who formed the -body-guard of Romulus both in peace and -war. There can, however, be little doubt -that these Celeres were not simply the body-guard -of the king, but were the same as the -equites, or horsemen, a fact which is expressly -stated by some writers. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>] -The etymology of Celeres is variously given. -Some writers derived it from their leader -Celer, who was said to have slain Remus, but -most writers connected it with the Greek -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέλης</span>, in reference to the quickness of their -service. The Celeres were under the command -of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tribunus Celerum</i>, who stood in -the same relation to the king as the magister -equitum did in a subsequent period to the -dictator. He occupied the second place in -the state, and in the absence of the king had -the right of convoking the comitia. Whether -he was appointed by the king, or elected by -the comitia, has been questioned, but the -former is the more probable.</p> - - -<p id="Cella">CELLA, in its primary sense, means a -store-room of any kind. Of these there were -various descriptions, which took their distinguishing -denominations from the articles -they contained, as, for instance, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella penuaria</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">penaria</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella olearia</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella -vinaria</i>. The slave to whom the charge of -these stores was intrusted, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cellarius</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promus</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">condus</i>, “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">quia <em>promit</em> -quod <em>conditum est</em></span>,” and sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promus -condus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procurator peni</i>. This answers -to our butler and housekeeper. Any number -of small rooms clustered together like the cells -of a honeycomb were also termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cellae</i>; -hence the dormitories of slaves and menials -are called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cellae</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cellae familiaricae</i>, in -distinction to a bed-chamber, which was -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cubiculum</i>. Thus a sleeping-room at a public-house -is also termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cella ostiarii</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">janitoris</i>, is the porter’s lodge. In the baths -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella caldaria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tepidaria</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">frigidaria</i>, -were those which contained respectively the -warm, tepid, and cold bath. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneae</a>.</span>] -The interior of a temple, that is the part included -within the outside shell (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σηκός</span>), was -also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i>. There was sometimes more -than one <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i> within the same peristyle or -under the same roof, in which case each cell -took the name of the deity whose statue it -contained, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i> Jovis, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i> Junonis, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i> -Minervae, as in the temple of Jupiter on the -Capitoline.</p> - - -<p id="Cenotaphium">CĔNOTĂPHĬUM, a cenotaph (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κενός</span> and -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάφος</span>), was an empty or honorary tomb, -erected as a memorial of a person whose body -was buried elsewhere, or not found for burial -at all.</p> - - -<p id="Censor">CENSOR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμητής</span>), the name of two magistrates -of high rank in the Roman republic. -Their office was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Censura</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμητεία</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμητία</span>). The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Census</i>, which was a register -of Roman citizens and of their property, was -first established by Servius Tullius, the fifth -king of Rome. After the expulsion of the -kings it was taken by the consuls; and special -magistrates were not appointed for the -purpose of taking it till the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 443. -The reason of this alteration was owing to -the appointment in the preceding year of -tribuni militum with consular power in place -of the consuls; and as these tribunes might -be plebeians, the patricians deprived the consuls, -and consequently their representatives, -the tribunes, of the right of taking the census, -and entrusted it to two magistrates, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Censores</i>, who were to be chosen exclusively -from the patricians. The magistracy continued -to be a patrician one till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 351, -when C. Marcius Rutilus was the first plebeian -censor. Twelve years afterwards, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -339, it was provided by one of the Publilian -laws, that one of the censors must necessarily -be a plebeian, but it was not till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 280 that -a plebeian censor performed the solemn purification -of the people (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lustrum condidit</i>). In -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 131 the two censors were for the first -time plebeians.—The censors were elected in -the comitia centuriata held under the presidency -of a consul. As a general principle, -the only persons eligible to the office were -those who had previously been consuls; but -a few exceptions occur. At first there was -no law to prevent a person being censor a -second time; but the only person, who was -twice elected to the office, was C. Marcius -Rutilus in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 265; and he brought forward -a law in this year, enacting that no one -should be chosen censor a second time, and -received in consequence the surname of Censorinus.—The -censorship is distinguished -from all other Roman magistracies by the -length of time during which it was held. -The censors were originally chosen for a whole -lustrum, that is, a period of five years; but -their office was limited to eighteen months, -as early as ten years after its institution (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -433), by a law of the dictator Mam. Aemilius -Mamercinus. The censors also held a very<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span> -peculiar position with respect to rank and -dignity. No imperium was bestowed upon -them, and accordingly they had no lictors. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus censurae</i> was granted to them by a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex centuriata</i>, and not by the curiae, and in -that respect they were inferior in power to -the consuls and praetors. But notwithstanding -this, the censorship was regarded as the -highest dignity in the state, with the exception -of the dictatorship; it was a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sanctus -magistratus</i>, to which the deepest reverence -was due. They possessed of course the sella -curulis. The funeral of a censor was always -conducted with great pomp and splendour, -and hence a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funus censorium</i> was voted even -to the emperors.—The censorship continued -in existence for 421 years, namely, from <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -443 to <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 22; but during this period many -lustra passed by without any censor being -chosen at all. Its power was limited by one -of the laws of the tribune Clodius (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58). -After the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 22 the emperors discharged -the duties of the censorship under the name -of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praefectura Morum</i>.—The duties of the -censors may be divided into three classes, all -of which were however closely connected with -one another: I. <em>The Census</em>, or register of -the citizens and of their property, in which -were included the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lectio senatus</i>, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">recognitio -equitum</i>; II. <em>The Regimen Morum</em>; -and III. <em>The administration of the finances of -the state</em>, under which were classed the superintendence -of the public buildings and the -erection of all new public works.—I. The -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Census">Census</a></span>, the first and principal duty of the -censors, for which the proper expression is -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censum agere</i>, was always held in the Campus -Martius, and from the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 435 in a -special building called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Villa Publica</i>. After -the auspicia had been taken, the citizens were -summoned by a public crier (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeco</i>) to appear -before the censors. Each tribe was -called up separately, and every paterfamilias -had to appear in person before the censors, -who were seated in their curule chairs. The -census was conducted <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad arbitrium censoris</i>; -but the censors laid down certain rules, -sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">leges censui censendo</i>, in -which mention was made of the different -kinds of property subject to the census, and -in what way their value was to be estimated. -According to these laws each citizen had to -give an account of himself, of his family, and of -his property upon oath, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex animi sententia</i>. -First he had to give his full name (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praenomen</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognomen</i>) and that of his -father, or if he were a freedman that of his -patron, and he was likewise obliged to state -his age. He was then asked, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tu, ex animi -tui sententia, uxorem habes?</i> and if married -he had to give the name of his wife, and -likewise the number, names, and ages of his -children, if any. Single women (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viduae</i>) and -orphans (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">orbi orbaeque</i>) were represented by -their tutores; their names were entered in -separate lists, and they were not included in -the sum total of capita. After a citizen had -stated his name, age, family, &c., he then -had to give an account of all his property, so -far as it was subject to the census. In making -this statement he was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censere</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censeri</i>, -as a deponent, “to value or estimate -himself,” or as a passive “to be valued or -estimated:” the censor, who received the -statement, was also said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censere</i>, as well as -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accipere censum</i>. Only such things were -liable to the census (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censui censendo</i>) as were -property <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex jure Quiritium</i>. Land formed the -most important article in the census; next -came slaves and cattle. The censors also -possessed the right of calling for a return of -such objects as had not usually been given in, -such as clothing, jewels, and carriages. We -can hardly doubt that the censors possessed -the power of setting a higher valuation on the -property than the citizens themselves had -put. The tax (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tributum</i>) was usually one -per thousand upon the property entered in -the books of the censors; but on one occasion -the censors, as a punishment, compelled a -person to pay eight per thousand (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">octuplicato -censu</i>, Liv. iv. 24). A person who voluntarily -absented himself from the census, and -thus became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">incensus</i>, was subject to the severest -punishment. It is probable that service -in the army was a valid excuse for absence. -After the censors had received the -names of all the citizens with the amount of -their property, they then had to make out the -lists of the tribes, and also of the classes and -centuries; for by the legislation of Servius -Tullius the position of each citizen in the -state was determined by the amount of his -property. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia_ce">Comitia Centuriata</a>.</span>] These -lists formed a most important part of the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tabulae Censoriae</i>, under which name were -included all the documents connected in any -way with the discharge of the censors’ duties. -These lists, as far at least as they were connected -with the finances of the state, were -deposited in the aerarium, which was the -temple of Saturn; but the regular depository -for all the archives of the censors was in -earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the -Villa publica, and in later times the temple of -the Nymphs. The censors had also to make -out the lists of the senators for the ensuing -lustrum, or till new censors were appointed; -striking out the names of such as they considered -unworthy, and making additions to -the body from those who were qualified. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>] In the same manner they held a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span> -review of the equites equo publico, and added -and removed names as they judged proper. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>] After the lists had been completed, -the number of citizens was counted -up, and the sum total announced; and accordingly -we find that, in the account of a -census, the number of citizens is likewise -usually given. They are in such cases spoken -of as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capita</i>, sometimes with the addition of -the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civium</i>, and sometimes not; and -hence to be registered in the census was the -same thing as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caput habere</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]—II. -<span class="smcap">Regimen Morum.</span> This was the most important -branch of the censors’ duties, and the -one which caused their office to be the most -revered and the most dreaded in the Roman -state. It naturally grew out of the right -which they possessed of excluding unworthy -persons from the lists of citizens. They -were constituted the conservators of public -and private virtue and morality; they were -not simply to prevent crime or particular acts -of immorality, but their great object was to -maintain the old Roman character and habits, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mos majorum</i>. The proper expression for -this branch of their power was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">regimen morum</i>, -which was called in the times of the -empire <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cura</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefectura morum</i>. The -punishment inflicted by the censors in the -exercise of this branch of their duties was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nota</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Notatio</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Animadversio -Censoria</i>. In inflicting it they were guided -only by their conscientious convictions of -duty; they had to take an oath that they -would act neither through partiality nor favour; -and in addition to this, they were -bound in every case to state in their lists, -opposite the name of the guilty citizen, the -cause of the punishment inflicted on him,—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Subscriptio -censoria</i>. The consequence of -such a nota was only <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ignominia</i> and not infamia -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Infamia">Infamia</a></span>], and the censorial verdict -was not a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium</i> or res <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicata</i>, for its -effects were not lasting, but might be removed -by the following censors, or by a lex. -A nota censoria was moreover not valid, unless -both censors agreed. The ignominia was -thus only a transitory capitis deminutio, -which does not appear even to have deprived -a magistrate of his office, and certainly did -not disqualify persons labouring under it for -obtaining a magistracy, for being appointed -as judices by the praetor, or for serving in -the Roman armies. This superintendence of -the conduct of Roman citizens extended so -far, that it embraced the whole of the public -and private life of the citizens. Thus we -have instances of their censuring or punishing -persons for not marrying, for breaking a -promise of marriage, for divorce, for bad conduct -during marriage, for improper education -of children, for living in an extravagant and -luxurious manner, and for many other irregularities -in private life. Their influence was -still more powerful in matters connected with -the public life of the citizens. Thus we find -them censuring or punishing magistrates who -were forgetful of the dignity of their office or -guilty of bribery, as well as persons who -were guilty of improper conduct towards magistrates, -of perjury, and of neglect of their -duties both in civil and military life. The -punishments inflicted by the censors are generally -divided into four classes:—1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Motio</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ejectio e senatu</i>, or the exclusion of a man -from the number of senators. This punishment -might either be a simple exclusion from -the list of senators, or the person might at -the same time be excluded from the tribes -and degraded to the rank of an aerarian. -The censors in their new lists omitted the -names of such senators as they wished to -exclude, and in reading these new lists in -public, passed over the names of those who -were no longer to be senators. Hence the -expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeteriti senatores</i> is equivalent -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">e senatu ejecti</i>. 2. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ademptio equi</i>, or -the taking away the equus publicus from an -eques. This punishment might likewise be -simple, or combined with the exclusion from -the tribes and the degradation to the rank of -an aerarian. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>] 3. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">motio e -tribu</i>, or the exclusion of a person from his -tribe. If the further degradation to the rank -of an aerarian was combined with the motio -e tribu, it was always expressly stated. 4. -The fourth punishment was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">referre in -aerarios</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">facere aliquem aerarium</i>, and -might be inflicted on any person who was -thought by the censors to deserve it. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarii">Aerarii</a>.</span>]—III. -<span class="smcap">The Administration of the Finances -of the State</span>, was another part of -the censors’ office. In the first place the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tributum</i>, or property-tax, had to be paid by -each citizen according to the amount of his -property registered in the census, and, accordingly, -the regulation of this tax naturally -fell under the jurisdiction of the censors. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tributum">Tributum</a>.</span>] They also had the superintendence -of all the other revenues of the state, the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigalia</i>, such as the tithes paid for the -public lands, the salt-works, the mines, the -customs, &c. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vectigalia">Vectigalia</a>.</span>] All these branches -of the revenue the censors were accustomed -to let out to the highest bidder for the space -of a lustrum or five years. The act of letting -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">venditio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">locatio</i>, and seems to -have taken place in the month of March. -The censors also possessed the right, though -probably not without the concurrence of the -senate, of imposing new vectigalia, and even -of selling the land belonging to the state.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span> -The censors, however, did not receive the revenues -of the state. All the public money -was paid into the aerarium, which was entirely -under the jurisdiction of the senate; -and all disbursements were made by order of -this body, which employed the quaestors as -its officers. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a></span>.]—In one -important department the censors were entrusted -with the expenditure of the public -money; though the actual payments were -no doubt made by the quaestors. The censors -had the general superintendence of all -the public buildings and works (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opera publica</i>); -and to meet the expenses connected -with this part of their duties, the senate voted -them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, -to which they were restricted, but -which they might at the same time employ -according to their discretion. They had to -see that the temples and all other public buildings -were in a good state of repair (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aedes -sacras tueri</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sarta tecta exigere</i>), that no -public places were encroached upon by the -occupation of private persons (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">loca tueri</i>), and -that the aquaeducts, roads, drains, &c. were -properly attended to. The repairs of the -public works and the keeping of them in proper -condition were let out by the censors by -public auction to the lowest bidder. The -persons who undertook the contract were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conductores</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">redemptores</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">susceptores</i>, &c.; and the duties they had to -discharge were specified in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges Censoriae</i>. -The censors had also to superintend -the expenses connected with the worship of -the gods. In these respects it is not easy to -define with accuracy the respective duties of -the censors and aediles: but it may be remarked -in general that the superintendence -of the aediles had more of a police character, -while that of the censors had reference to all -financial matters.—After the censors had performed -their various duties and taken the -census, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lustrum</i> or solemn purification of -the people followed. When the censors entered -upon their office, they drew lots to see -which of them should perform this purification -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lustrum facere</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">condere</i>), but both -censors were obliged of course to be present -at the ceremony. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lustrum">Lustrum</a>.</span>]—In the Roman -and Latin colonies and in the municipia -there were censors, who likewise bore the -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quinquennales</i>. They are spoken of -under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a></span>. A census was sometimes -taken in the provinces, even under the republic; -but there seems to have been no -general census taken in the provinces till the -time of Augustus. At Rome the census still -continued to be taken under the empire, but -the old ceremonies connected with it were no -longer continued, and the ceremony of the -lustration was not performed after the time -of Vespasian.—The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">census</i>, besides the -meaning of “valuation” of a person’s estate, -has other significations, which must be briefly -mentioned: 1. It signified the amount of a -person’s property, and hence we read of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">census senatorius</i>, the estate of a senator; -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">census equestris</i>, the estate of an eques. -2. The lists of the censors. 3. The tax -which depended upon the valuation in the -census.</p> - - -<p id="Census">CENSUS.—(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span>—The Greek term -for a man’s property as ascertained by the -census, as well as for the act of ascertaining -it, is <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τίμημα</span>. The only Greek state concerning -whose arrangement of the census we have -any satisfactory information, is Athens. Previous -to the time of Solon no census had been -instituted at Athens. According to his census, -all citizens were divided into four classes: -1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pentacosiomedimni</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι</span>), -or persons possessing landed property which -yielded an annual income of at least 500 -medimni of dry or liquid produce. 2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hippeis</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππεῖς</span>), i.e. knights or persons able -to keep a war-horse, were those whose lands -yielded an annual produce of at least 300 medimni, -whence they are also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριακοσιομέδιμνοι</span>. -3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Zeugitae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζευγῖται</span>), i.e. persons -able to keep a yoke of oxen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζεῦγος</span>), were -those whose annual income consisted of at -least 150 medimni. 4. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thetes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θῆτες</span>) -contained all the rest of the free population, -whose income was below that of the Zeugitae. -The constitution of Athens, so long as it was -based upon these classes, was a timocracy -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμοκρατία</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπὸ τιμημάτων πολιτεία</span>). The -highest magistracy at Athens, or the archonship, -was at first accessible only to persons -of the first class, until Aristides threw all the -state offices open to all classes indiscriminately. -The maintenance of the republic -mainly devolved upon the first three classes, -the last being exempted from all taxes. As -the land in the legislation of Solon was regarded -as the capital which yielded an annual -income, he regulated his system of taxation -by the value of the land, which was treated -as the taxable capital. Lists of this taxable -property (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπογραφαί</span>) were kept at first by -the naucrari, who also had to conduct the -census, and afterwards by the demarchi.—As -property is a fluctuating thing, the census -was repeated from time to time, but the -periods differed in the various parts of -Greece, for in some a census was held every -year, and in others every two or four years. -At Athens every person had to state the -amount of his property, and if there was any -doubt about his honesty, it seems that a -counter-valuation (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιτίμησις</span>) might be made.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span> -This system of taxation according to classes, -and based upon the possession of productive -estates, underwent a considerable change in -the time of the Peloponnesian war, though the -divisions into classes themselves continued -to be observed for a considerable time after. -As the wants of the republic increased, and -as many citizens were possessed of large -property, without being landed proprietors, -the original land-tax was changed into a -property-tax. This property-tax was called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφορά</span>, concerning which see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Eisphora">Eisphora</a></span>. -Compare <span class="smcap"><a href="#Leiturgia">Leiturgiae</a></span>; and for the taxes paid -by resident aliens, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Metoici">Metoici</a></span>.—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Centesima">CENTESĬMA, namely <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pars</i>, or the hundredth -part, also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigal rerum venalium</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centesima rerum venalium</i>, was a tax -of one per cent. levied at Rome and in Italy -upon all goods that were exposed for public -sale at auctions. It was collected by persons -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coactores</i>. This tax was perhaps introduced -after the civil war between Marius -and Sulla. Its produce was assigned by -Augustus to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aerarium militare</i>. Tiberius -reduced the tax to one half per cent. (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ducentesima</i>), -after he had changed Cappadocia -into a province, and had thereby increased -the revenue of the empire. Caligula in the -beginning of his reign abolished the tax altogether -for Italy.</p> - -<p id="Centumviri">CENTUMVĬRI, were judices, who resembled -other judices in this respect, that they -decided cases under the authority of a magistratus; -but they differed from other judices -in being a definite body or collegium. This -collegium seems to have been divided into -four parts, each of which sometimes sat by -itself. The origin of the court is unknown. -According to an ancient writer, three were -chosen out of each tribe, and consequently -the whole number out of the 35 tribes would -be 105, who, in round numbers, were called -the hundred men. If the centumviri were -chosen from the tribes, this seems a strong -presumption in favour of the high antiquity -of the court. It was the practice to set up a -spear in the place where the centumviri were -sitting, and accordingly the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta centumviralis</i>, is sometimes used as -equivalent to the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium centumvirale</i>. -The praetor presided in this court. -The jurisdiction of the centumviri was chiefly -confined to civil matters, but it appears that -crimina sometimes came under their cognizance. -The younger Pliny, who practised -in this court, makes frequent allusions to it -in his letters.</p> - - -<p id="Centuria">CENTŬRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Centuriata">CENTŬRĬĀTA CŎMĪTĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Centurio">CENTŬRĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Centussis">CENTUSSIS. [As.]</p> - - -<p id="Cera">CĒRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηρός</span>), wax. For its employment -in painting, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a></span>; and for its application -as a writing material, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabulae">Tabulae</a></span> and -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Testamentum">Testamentum</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Cerealia">CĔRĔĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome -in honour of Ceres, whose wanderings in -search of her lost daughter Proserpine were -represented by women, clothed in white, running -about with lighted torches. During its -continuance, games were celebrated in the -Circus Maximus, the spectators of which appeared -in white; but on any occasion of -public mourning the games and festivals were -not celebrated at all, as the matrons could -not appear at them except in white. The -day of the Cerealia is doubtful; some think -it was the ides or 13th of April, others the -7th of the same month.</p> - - -<p id="Cerevisia">CĔRĔVĪSĬA, CERVĪSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζύθος</span>), ale or -beer, was almost or altogether unknown to -the Greeks and Romans; but it was used very -generally by the surrounding nations, whose -soil and climate were less favourable to the -growth of vines. According to Herodotus, the -Egyptians commonly drank “barley wine;” -and Diodorus Siculus says that the Egyptian -beer was nearly equal to wine in strength and -flavour. The Iberians and Thracians, and the -people in the north of Asia Minor, instead of -drinking their beer out of cups, placed it -before them in a large bowl or vase, which -was sometimes of gold or silver. This being -full to the brim with the grains, as well as -the fermented liquor, the guests, when they -pledged one another, drank together out of -the same bowl by stooping down to it, -although, when this token of friendship was -not intended, they adopted the more refined -method of sucking up the fluid through tubes -of cane. The Suevi and other northern nations -offered to their gods libations of beer, -and expected that to drink it in the presence -of Odin would be among the delights of -Valhalla.</p> - - -<p id="Ceroma">CĒRŌMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κήρωμα</span>), the oil mixed with -wax (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηρός</span>) with which wrestlers were -anointed; also the place where they were -anointed, and, in later times, the place where -they wrestled.</p> - - -<p id="Ceruchi">CĔRŪCHI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cestrum">CESTRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cestus">CESTUS. (1) The thongs or bands of leather, -which were tied round the hands of -boxers, in order to render their blows more -powerful (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάντες</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάντες πυκτικοί</span>). The -cestus was used by boxers in the earliest -times, and is mentioned in the Iliad; but in -the heroic times it consisted merely of thongs -of leather, and differed from the cestus used -in later times in the public games, which was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span> -a most formidable weapon, being frequently -covered with knots and nails, and loaded -with lead and iron.—(2) A band or tie of any -kind, but more particularly the zone or girdle -of Venus, on which was represented every -thing that could awaken love.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill083" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill083.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cestus. (Fabretti, de Col. Traj., p. 261.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Cetra">CETRA, or CAETRA, a target, <em>i.e.</em> a small -round shield, made of the hide of a quadruped. -It formed part of the defensive armour -of the Osci, and of the people of Spain, Mauritania, -and Britain, and seems to have been -much the same as the target of the Scotch -Highlanders. The Romans do not appear to -have used the cetra; but we find mention of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cetratae cohortes</i> levied in the provinces. -Livy compares it to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pelta</i> of the Greeks -and Macedonians, which was also a small -light shield.</p> - - -<p id="Chalcioecia">CHALCĬOĒCĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκιοίκια</span>), an annual -festival, with sacrifices, held at Sparta in -honour of Athena, surnamed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chalcioecus</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλκίοικος</span>), i.e. the goddess of the brazen-house. -Young men marched on the occasion -in full armour to the temple of the goddess; -and the ephors, although not entering the -temple, but remaining within its sacred precincts, -were obliged to take part in the -sacrifice.</p> - - -<p id="Chalcus">CHALCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκοῦς</span>), a denomination of -Greek copper-money. Bronze or copper (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκός</span>) -was very little used by the Greeks for -money till after the time of Alexander the -Great. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκία πονηρὰ</span> at Athens issued -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 406 were a peculiar exception; and -they were soon afterwards called in, and the -silver currency restored. It is not improbable, -however, that the copper coin called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκοῦς</span> -was in circulation in Athens still earlier. -The smallest silver coin at Athens was the -quarter-obol, and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκοῦς</span> was the half of -that, or the eighth of an obol. Its value was -somewhat more than 3-4ths of a farthing. -The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκοῦς</span> in later times was divided into -lepta, of which it contained seven. In later -times the obol was coined of copper as well as -silver.</p> - - -<p id="Charistia">CHĂRISTĬA (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαρίζομαι</span>, to grant a -favour or pardon), a solemn feast among the -Romans, to which none but relations and -members of the same family were invited, in -order that any quarrel or disagreement which -had arisen amongst them might be made up. -The day of celebration was the 19th of February.</p> - - -<p id="Cheironomia">CHEIRŎNŎMĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειρονομία</span>), a mimetic -movement of the hands, which formed a part -of the art of dancing among the Greeks and -Romans. In gymnastics it was applied to -the movements of the hands in pugilistic -combat.</p> - - -<p id="Cheirotonia">CHEIRŎTŎNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>). In the -Athenian assemblies two modes of voting were -practised, the one by pebbles (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψηφίζεσθαι</span>), -the other by a show of hands (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονεῖν</span>). -The latter was employed in the election of -those magistrates who were chosen in the -public assemblies, and who were hence called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονητοί</span>, in voting upon laws, and in -some kinds of trials on matters which concerned -the people. We frequently find, however, -the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψηφίζεσθαι</span> used where the -votes were really given by show of hands. -The manner of voting by a show of hands -was as follows:—The herald said: “Whoever -thinks that Meidias is guilty, let him -lift up his hand.” Then those who thought -so stretched forth their hands. Then the -herald said again: “Whoever thinks that -Meidias is not guilty, let him lift up his -hand;” and those who were of this opinion -stretched forth their hands. The number of -hands was counted each time by the herald; -and the president, upon the herald’s report, -declared on which side the majority voted. -It is important to understand clearly the -compounds of this word. A vote condemning -an accused person is <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταχειροτονία</span>: one acquitting -him, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποχειροτονία</span>; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιχειροτονεῖν</span> is -to confirm by a majority of votes: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιχειροτονία -τῶν νομῶν</span> was a revision of the laws, -which took place at the beginning of every year: -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιχειροτονία τῶν ἀρχῶν</span> was a vote taken in the -first assembly of each prytany on the conduct -of the magistrates; in these cases, those who -voted for the confirmation of the law, or for -the continuance in office of the magistrate, -were said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιχειροτονεῖν</span>, those on the other -side <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποχειροτονεῖν</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαχειροτονία</span> is a vote for -one of two alternatives: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιχειροτονεῖν</span>, to -vote against a proposition. The compounds -of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψηφίζεσθαι</span> have similar meanings.</p> - - -<p id="Chirographum">CHĪRŎGRĂPHUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειρόγραφον</span>), meant -first, as its derivation implies, a hand-writing -or autograph. In this its simple sense, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χείρ</span> -in Greek and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manus</i> in Latin are often substituted -for it. From this meaning was easily -derived that of a signature to a will or other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span> -instrument, especially a note of hand given -by a debtor to his creditor.</p> - - -<p id="Chiton">CHITON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιτών</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tunica">Tunica</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Chlaena">CHLAENA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χλαῖνα</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pallium">Pallium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp81" id="ill084a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill084a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Chlamys. (The Figure on the left from a Painting on a -Vase; that on the right from the Brit. Mus.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Chlamys">CHLĂMỸS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χλαμύς</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χλαμύδιον</span>), a -scarf, denoted an article of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amictus</i>, or -outer raiment of the Greeks. It was for the -most part woollen; and it differed from the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">himation</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάτιον</span>), or cloak, the usual amictus -of the male sex, in being smaller, finer, and -oblong instead of square, its length being -generally about twice its breadth. The scarf -does not appear to have been much worn by -children. It was generally assumed on -reaching adolescence, and was worn by the -ephebi from about seventeen to twenty years -of age, and hence was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χλαμὺς ἐφηβηική</span>. -It was also worn by the military, especially -of high rank, over their body armour, and by -hunters and travellers, more particularly on -horseback. The usual mode of wearing the -scarf was to pass one of its shorter sides -round the neck, and to fasten it by means of -a brooch (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fibula</i>), either over the breast (cut, -<span class="smcap"><a href="#ill200b">Hasta</a></span>), in which case it hung down the back, -or over the right shoulder, so as to cover the -left arm (cut, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Causia">Causia</a></span>). In the following cut -it is worn again in another way. The aptitude -of the scarf to be turned in every possible -form around the body, made it useful -even for defence. The hunter used to wrap -his chlamys about his left arm when pursuing -wild animals, and preparing to fight with -them. The annexed woodcut exhibits a -figure of Neptune armed with the trident in -his right hand, and having a chlamys to -protect the left. When Diana goes to the -chase, as she does not require her scarf for -purposes of defence, she draws it from behind -over her shoulders, and twists it round her -waist so that the belt of her quiver passes across -it. (See <a href="#ill084b">woodcut</a>.) Among the Romans the -scarf came more into use under the emperors. -Caligula wore one enriched with gold. -Severus, when he was in the country or on -an expedition, wore a scarf dyed with the -coccus.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="ill084b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill084b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Chlamys. (Neptune from a Coin, and Diana from a -Statue in the Vatican.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Choenix">CHOENIX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοῖνιξ</span>), a Greek measure of -capacity, the size of which is differently -given; it was probably of different sizes in -the several states. Some writers make it -equal to three cotylae (nearly 1½ pints English); -others to four cotylae (nearly 2 pints -English); others again make it eight cotylae -(nearly 4 pints English).</p> - - -<p id="Choregus">CHŎRĒGUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χορηγός</span>), a person who had -to bear the expenses of the choregia (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χορηγία</span>), -one of the regularly recurring state burthens -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐγκύκλιοι λειτουργίαι</span>) at Athens. The choregus -was appointed by his tribe, though we -are not informed according to what order. -The same person might serve as choregus for -two tribes at once; and after <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 412 a decree -was passed allowing two persons to unite -and undertake a choregia together. The duties -of the choregia consisted in providing -the choruses for tragedies and comedies, the -lyric choruses of men and boys, the pyrrhicists, -the cyclic choruses, and the choruses of -flute-players for the different religious festivals -at Athens. When a poet intended to -bring out a play, he had to get a chorus assigned -him by the archon [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a></span>], who -nominated a choregus to fulfil the requisite -duties. He had first to collect his chorus, -and then to procure a teacher (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοροδιδάσκαλος</span>), -whom he paid for instructing the choreutae. -The chorus were generally maintained, during -the period of their instruction, at the expense -of the choregus. The choregus who exhibited<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span> -the best musical or theatrical entertainment -received as a prize a tripod, which he -had the expense of consecrating, and sometimes -he had also to build the monument on -which it was placed. There was a whole -street at Athens formed by the line of these -tripod-temples, and called “The Street of the -Tripods.”</p> - -<p id="Chorus">CHŎRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χορός</span>) probably signified originally -a company of dancers dancing in a ring. -In later times, a choric performance always -implies the singing or musical recitation of a -poetical composition, accompanied by appropriate -dancing and gesticulation, or at least -by a measured march. In all the Dorian -states, especially among the Spartans, choral -performances were cultivated with great assiduity. -Various causes contributed to this, as, -for example, their universal employment in -the worship of Apollo, the fact that they were -not confined to the men, but that women -also took part in them, and that many of the -dances had a gymnastic character given them, -and were employed as a mode of training to -martial exercises. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Saltatio">Saltatio</a>.</span>] Hence Doric -lyric poetry became almost exclusively choral, -which was not the case with the other great -school of Greek lyric poetry, the Aeolian; so -that the Doric dialect came to be looked upon -as the appropriate dialect for choral compositions, -and Doric forms were retained by the -Athenians even in the choral compositions -which were interwoven with their dramas. -The instrument commonly used in connection -with the Doric choral poetry was the cithara. -A great impetus was given to choral poetry -by its application to the dithyramb. This ancient -Bacchanalian performance seems to have -been a hymn sung by one or more of an irregular -band of revellers, to the music of the -flute. Arion, a contemporary of Periander, -was the first who gave a regular choral form -to the dithyramb. This chorus, which ordinarily -consisted of fifty men or youths, danced -in a ring round the altar of Dionysus. Hence -such choruses were termed <em>cyclic</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύκλιοι -χοροί</span>). With the introduction of a regular -choral character, Arion also substituted the -cithara for the flute. It was from the dithyramb -that the Attic tragedy was developed. -For details see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Tragoedia">Tragoedia</a></span>. From the time -of Sophocles onwards the regular number of -the chorus in a tragedy was 15; but it is -impossible to arrive at any definite conclusion -with regard to the number of the chorus in -the early dramas of Aeschylus. The fact -that the number of the dithyrambic chorus -was 50, and that the mythological number -of the Oceanides and Danaides was the same, -tempts one to suppose that the chorus in the -Prometheus and the Supplices consisted of -50. Most writers, however, agree in thinking -that such a number was too large to have -been employed. The later chorus of 15 was -arranged in a quadrangular form (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετράγωνος</span>). -It entered the theatre by the passage -to the right of the spectators. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>] -Its entrance was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάροδος</span>; its leaving -the stage in the course of the play <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετάστασις</span>; -its re-entrance <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιπάροδος</span>; its exit <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄφοδος</span>. -As it entered in three lines, with the spectators -on its left, the stage on its right, the -middle choreutes of the left row (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίτος ἀριστέρου</span>) -was the Coryphaeus or Hegemon, who -in early times at least was not unfrequently -the choregus himself. Of course the positions -first taken up by the choreutae were -only retained till they commenced their evolutions. -To guide them in these, lines were -marked upon the boards with which the -orchestra was floored. The flute as well as -the cithara was used as an accompaniment to -the choric songs. The dance of the tragic -chorus was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμμέλεια</span>.—The ordinary -number of the chorus in a comedy was 24. -Like the tragic chorus it was arranged in a -quadrangular form, and entered the orchestra -from opposite sides, according as it was supposed -to come from the city or from the -country. It consisted sometimes half of male -and half of female choreutae. The dance of -the comic chorus was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρδαξ</span>. In the -Satyric drama the chorus consisted of Satyrs: -its number is quite uncertain. Its dance was -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σίκιννις</span>. When a poet intended to -bring forward a play, he had to apply for a -chorus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χορὸν αἰτεῖν</span>) to the archons, to the -king archon if the play was to be brought -forward at the Lenaea, to the archon eponymus -if at the great Dionysia. If the play -were thought to deserve it, he received a -chorus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χορὸν λαμβάνειν</span>), the expenses of -which were borne by a choregus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Choregus">Choregus</a>.</span>] -The poet then either trained (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διδάσκειν</span>) -the chorus himself, or entrusted that business -to a professed chorus trainer (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοροδιδάσκαλος</span>), -who usually had an assistant (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποδιδάσκαλος</span>). -For training the chorus in its evolutions there -was also an <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀρχηστοδιδάσκαλος</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Chous">CHOUS, or CHOEUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοῦς</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοεῦς</span>), was -equal to the Roman congius, and contained six -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξέσται</span>, or sextarii (nearly six pints English). -It seems that there was also a smaller measure -of the same name, containing two sextarii -(nearly two pints English).</p> - - -<p id="Chronologia">CHRŎNOLŎGĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρονολογία</span>), chronology. -The Greeks reckoned their years generally -according to their magistrates, in the early -times according to the years of the reign of -their kings, and afterwards according to their -annual magistrates. At Athens the year was -called by the name of one of the nine archons,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span> -who from this circumstance was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων -ἐπώνυμος</span>, or the archon par excellence; and -at Sparta the years were called after one of -the five ephors, who for this reason was likewise -termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπώνυμος</span>. In Argos time was -counted according to the years of the high -priestess of Hera, who held her office for life -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡρεσίς</span>); and the inhabitants of Elis probably -reckoned according to the Olympic games, -which were celebrated every fifth year during -the first full moon which followed after the -summer solstice. Thus there was no era -which was used by <em>all</em> the Greeks in common -for the ordinary purposes of life.—Timaeus, -who flourished about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 260, was the first -historian who counted the years by Olympiads, -each of which contained four years. -The beginning of the Olympiads is commonly -fixed in the year 3938 of the Julian period, -or in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 776. If we want to reduce any -given Olympiad to years before Christ, <em>e.g.</em> -Ol. 87, we take the number of the Olympiads -actually elapsed, that is, 86, multiply it by 4, -and deduct the number obtained from 776, so -that the first year of the 87th Ol. will be the -same as the year 432 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> If the number of -Olympiads amounts to more than 776 years, -that is, if the Olympiad falls after the birth -of Christ, the process is the same as before, -but from the sum obtained by multiplying -the Olympiads by 4, we must deduct the -number 776, and what remains is the number -of the years after Christ. As the Olympic -games were celebrated 293 times, we have -293 Olympic cycles, that is, 1172 years, 776 -of which fall before, and 396 after Christ.—Some -writers also adopted the Trojan era, the -fall of Troy being placed by Eratosthenes and -those who adopted this era, in the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -1184. After the time of Alexander the Great, -several other eras were introduced in the -kingdoms that arose out of his empire. The -first was the Philippic era, sometimes also -called the era of Alexander or the era of -Edessa; it began on the 12th of November -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 324, the date of the accession of Philip -Arrhidaeus. The second was the era of the -Seleucidae, beginning on the 1st of October -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 312, the date of the victory of Seleucus -Nicator at Gaza, and of his re-conquest of -Babylonia. This era was used very extensively -in the East. The Chaldaean era differed -from it only by six months, beginning -in the spring of <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 311. Lastly, the eras of -Antioch, of which there were three, but the -one most commonly used began in November -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 49.—The Romans during the time of the -republic reckoned their years by the names -of the consuls, which were registered in the -Fasti. Along with this era there existed -another, used only by the historians. It -reckoned the years from the foundation of the -city (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ab urbe condita</i>); but the year of the -foundation of the city was a question of uncertainty -among the Romans themselves. M. -Terentius Varro placed it on the 21st of April -in the third year of the 6th Olympiad, that -is, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 753; and this is the era most commonly -used. To find out the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> corresponding -to the year <span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span>, subtract the year -<span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span> from 754; thus 605 <span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span> = 149 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -To find out the year <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> corresponding to -the year <span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span>, subtract 753 from the year -<span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span>; thus 767 <span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span> = 14 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p> - - -<p id="Chrysendeta">CHRȲSENDĔTA, costly dishes used by the -Romans at their entertainments, apparently -made of silver, with golden ornaments.</p> - - -<p id="Cidaris">CIDĂRIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tiara">Tiara</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cinctus">CINCTUS GABĪNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Toga">Toga</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cingulum">CINGŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Zona">Zona</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cinerarius">CĬNĔRĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calamistrum">Calamistrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cineres">CĬNĔRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ciniflo">CĬNĬFLO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calamistrum">Calamistrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cippus">CIPPUS, a low column, sometimes round, -but more frequently rectangular. Cippi were -used for various purposes; the decrees of the -senate were sometimes inscribed upon them; -and with distances engraved upon them, they -also served as mile-stones. They were, however, -more frequently employed as sepulchral -monuments. It was also usual to place at -one corner of the burying-ground a cippus, -on which the extent of the burying-ground -was marked, towards the road (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in fronte</i>), -and backwards to the fields (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in agrum</i>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp54" id="ill086" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill086.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cippus, in the Vatican.</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span></p> - - -<p id="Circenses">CIRCENSES LŪDI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Circitores">CIRCĬTŌRES, or CIRCŬĬTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill087" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill087.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ground Plan of the Circus.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Circus">CIRCUS. When Tarquinius Priscus had -taken the town of Apiolae from the Latins, -he commemorated his success by an exhibition -of races and pugilistic contests in the -Murcian valley, between the Palatine and -Aventine hills, around which a number of -temporary platforms were erected by the -patres and equites, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectacula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fori</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foruli</i>, from their resemblance to the deck of -a ship; each one raising a stage for himself, -upon which he stood to view the games. -This course, with its surrounding scaffoldings, -was termed circus; either because the spectators -stood round to see the shows, or because -the procession and races went round in -a circuit. Previously, however, to the death -of Tarquin, a permanent building was constructed -for the purpose, with regular tiers -of seats in the form of a theatre. To this the -name of Circus Maximus was subsequently -given, as a distinction from the Flaminian -and other similar buildings, which it surpassed -in extent and splendour; and hence -it is often spoken of as <em>the</em> Circus, without -any distinguishing epithet. Of the Circus -Maximus scarcely a vestige now remains; -but this loss is fortunately supplied by the -remains of a small circus on the Via Appia, -the ground-plan of which is in a state of considerable -preservation: it is represented in -the annexed cut, and may be taken as a model -of all others. Around the double lines -(A, A) were arranged the seats (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gradus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sedilia</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subsellia</i>), as in a theatre, termed collectively -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavea</i>; the lowest of which were -separated from the ground by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">podium</i>, and -the whole divided longitudinally by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecinctiones</i>, -and diagonally into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cunei</i>, with their -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vomitoria</i> attached to each. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>] -Towards the extremity of the upper -branch of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavea</i>, the general outline is -broken by an outwork (B), which was probably -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulvinar</i>, or station for the emperor, -as it is placed in the best situation for -seeing both the commencement and end of -the course, and in the most prominent part -of the circus. In the opposite branch is observed -another interruption to the uniform -line of seats (C), betokening also, from its -construction, a place of distinction; which -might have been assigned to the person at -whose expense the games were given (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">editor -spectaculorum</i>). In the centre of the area -was a low wall (D) running lengthways down -the course, which, from its resemblance to -the position of the dorsal bone in the human -frame, was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spina</i>. At each extremity -of the spina were placed, upon a base (E, E), -three wooden cylinders, of a conical shape, -like cypress trees, which were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metae</i>—the -goals. Their situation is distinctly seen -in the cut on <a href="#ill089">p. 89</a>. The most remarkable -objects upon the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spina</i> were two columns (F) -supporting seven conical balls, which, from -their resemblance to eggs, were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ova</i>. -Their use was to enable the spectators to -count the number of rounds which had been -run; and they were seven in number, because -seven was the number of the circuits -made in each race. As each round was run, -one of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ova</i> was either put up or taken -down. An egg was adopted for this purpose, -in honour of Castor and Pollux. At the -other extremity of the spina were two similar -columns (G), sustaining dolphins, termed -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">delphinae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">delphinarum columnae</i>, which -do not appear to have been intended to be -removed, but only placed there as corresponding -ornaments to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ova</i>; and the figure -of the dolphin was selected in honour of -Neptune. These figures are also seen in the -cut on <a href="#ill089">p. 89</a>. At the extremity of the circus -in which the two horns of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavea</i> terminate, -were placed the stalls for the horses and -chariots (H, H), commonly called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carceres</i>, -but more anciently the whole line of building -at this end of the circus was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oppidum</i>: -hence in the circus, of which the plan is -given above, we find two towers (I, I) at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span> -each end of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carceres</i>. The number of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carceres</i> is supposed to have been usually -twelve, as in this plan.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill088a" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill088a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Carceres opening of the Gates. (From a marble at Velletri.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill088b" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill088b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Carceres, with Gates open. (Marble in British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p>They were vaults, -closed in front by gates of open wood-work -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cancelli</i>), which were opened simultaneously -upon the signal being given, by removing a -rope attached to pilasters of the kind called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermae</i>, placed for that purpose between -each stall, upon which the gates were immediately -thrown open by a number of men, as -represented in the preceding woodcut. The -cut below represents a set of four <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carceres</i>, -with their <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermae</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cancelli</i> open, as left -after the chariots had started; in which the -gates are made to open inwards. The preceding -account and woodcuts will be sufficient -to explain the meaning of the various words -by which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carceres</i> were designated in -poetical language, namely, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">claustra</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crypta</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fauces</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fores carceris</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repagula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">limina -equorum</i>. There were five entrances to the -circus; one (L) in the centre of the carceres, -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porta pompae</i>, because it was the one -through which the Circensian procession entered, -and the others at M, M, N, and O. At -the entrance of the course, exactly in the -direction of the line (J, K), were two small -pedestals (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hermuli</i>) on each side of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">podium</i>, -to which was attached a chalked rope -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alba linea</i>), for the purpose of making the -start fair, precisely as is practised at Rome -for the horse-races during Carnival. Thus, -when the doors of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carceres</i> were thrown -open, if any of the horses rushed out before -the others, they were brought up by this rope -until the whole were fairly abreast, when it -was loosened from one side, and all poured -into the course at once. This line was also -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calx</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">creta</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metae</i> served -only to regulate the turnings of the course, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alba linea</i> answered to the starting and -winning post of modern days.—From this -description the Circus Maximus differed little, -except in size and magnificence of embellishment. -The numbers which the Circus Maximus -was capable of containing are computed -at 150,000 by Dionysius, 260,000 by Pliny, -and 385,000 by P. Victor, all of which are -probably correct, but have reference to different -periods of its history. Its length, in -the time of Julius Caesar, was three stadia, -the width one, and the depth of the buildings -occupied half a stadium. When the Circus -Maximus was permanently formed by Tarquinius -Priscus, each of the thirty curiae had -a particular place assigned to it; but as no -provision was made for the plebeians in this -circus, it is supposed that the Circus Flaminius -was designed for the games of the commonalty, -who in early times chose their tribunes -there, on the Flaminian field. However, -in the latter days of the republic, these invidious -distinctions were lost, and all classes -sat promiscuously in the circus. The seats -were then marked off at intervals by a line -or groove drawn across them (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">linea</i>), so that -the space included between two lines afforded -sitting room for a certain number of spectators. -Under the empire, however, the senators -and equites were separated from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span> -common people. The seat of the emperor -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulvinar or cubiculum</i>) was most likely in -the same situation in the Circus Maximus as -in the one above described.—The Circensian -games (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ludi Circenses</i>) were first instituted -by Romulus, according to the legends, when -he wished to attract the Sabine population to -Rome, for the purpose of furnishing his own -people with wives, and were celebrated in -honour of the god Consus, or Neptunus -Equestris, from whom they were styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Consuales</i>. -But after the construction of the -Circus Maximus they were called indiscriminately -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circenses</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Romani</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Magni</i>. They -embraced six kinds of games:—I. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus_i">Cursus</a></span>; -II. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus_ii">Ludus Trojae</a></span>; III. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus_iii">Pugna Equestris</a></span>; -IV. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus_iv">Certamen Gymnicum</a></span>; V. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus_v">Venatio</a></span>; VI. -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus_vi">Naumachia</a></span>. The two last were not peculiar -to the circus, but were exhibited also in the -amphitheatre, or in buildings appropriated -for them. The games commenced with a -grand procession (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pompa Circensis</i>), in which -all those who were about to exhibit in the -circus, as well as persons of distinction, bore -a part. The statues of the gods formed the -most conspicuous feature in the show, which -were paraded upon wooden platforms, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fercula</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thensae</i>. The former were borne -upon the shoulders, as the statues of saints -are carried in modern processions; the latter -were drawn along upon wheels.—I. <span id="Circus_i" class="smcap">Cursus</span>, -the races. The carriage usually employed in -the circus was drawn by two or four horses -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bigae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrigae</i>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Currus">Currus</a>.</span>] The usual -number of chariots which started for each -race was four. The drivers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aurigae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agitatores</i>) -were also divided into four companies, -each distinguished by a different colour, to -represent the four seasons of the year, and -called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">factio</i>: thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">factio prasina</i>, the green, -represented the spring; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">factio russata</i>, red, -the summer; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">factio veneta</i>, azure, the autumn; -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">factio alba</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">albata</i>, white, the -winter. Originally there were but two factions, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">albata</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">russata</i>, and consequently -only two chariots started at each race. The -driver stood in his car within the reins, which -went round his back. This enabled him to -throw all his weight against the horses, by -leaning backwards; but it greatly enhanced -his danger in case of an upset. To avoid -this peril, a sort of knife or bill-hook was -carried at the waist, for the purpose of cutting -the reins in a case of emergency. When -all was ready, the doors of the carceres were -flung open, and the chariots were formed -abreast of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alba linea</i> by men called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">moratores</i> -from their duty; the signal for the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span> -start was then given by the person who presided -at the games, sometimes by sound of -trumpet, or more usually by letting fall a -napkin; whence the Circensian games are -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectacula mappae</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alba linea</i> -was then cast off, and the race commenced, -the extent of which was seven times round -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spina</i>, keeping it always on the left. A -course of seven circuits was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unus -missus</i>, and twenty-five was the number of -races run in each day, the last of which was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">missus aerarius</i>, because in early times -the expense of it was defrayed by a collection -of money (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i>) made amongst the people. -The victor descended from his car at the conclusion -of the race, and ascended the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spina</i>, -where he received his reward (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bravium</i>, from -the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βραβεῖον</span>), which consisted in a -considerable sum of money.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp94" id="ill089" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill089.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Chariot Race in the Circus. (Florentine Gem.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The horse-racing -followed the same rules as the chariots. -The enthusiasm of the Romans for these -races exceeded all bounds. Lists of the -horses (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libella</i>), with their names and colours, -and those of the drivers, were handed about, -and heavy bets made upon each faction; and -sometimes the contests between two parties -broke out into open violence and bloody quarrels, -until at last the disputes which originated -in the circus had nearly lost the Emperor -Justinian his crown.—II. <span id="Circus_ii" class="smcap">Ludus Trojae</span>, -a sort of sham-fight, said to have been invented -by Aeneas, performed by young men -of rank on horseback, and often exhibited by -the emperors.—III. <span id="Circus_iii" class="smcap">Pugna equestris et -pedestris</span>, a representation of a battle, upon -which occasions a camp was formed in the -circus.—IV. <span id="Circus_iv" class="smcap">Certamen Gymnicum.</span> See <span class="smcap"><a href="#Athletae">Athletae</a></span>, -and the references to the articles there -given.—V. [<span id="Circus_v" class="smcap"><a href="#Venatio">Venatio</a>.</span>]—VI. [<span id="Circus_vi" class="smcap"><a href="#Naumachia">Naumachia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figleft illowp100" id="ill090a" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill090a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cisium. (From monument -at Igel, near Treves.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Cisium">CĬSĬUM, a light open carriage with two -wheels, adapted to carry two persons rapidly -from place to place. The cisia were quickly -drawn by mules. -Cicero mentions the -case of a messenger -who travelled 56 -miles in 10 hours -in such vehicles, -which were kept for -hire at the stations -along the great -roads; a proof that -the ancients considered six Roman miles per -hour as an extraordinary speed.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp34" id="ill090b" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill090b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cista. (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="figright illowp75" id="ill090c" style="max-width: 6.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill090c.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p id="Cista">CISTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κίστη</span>). (1) A small box or chest, -in which anything might be placed, but more -particularly applied to the small boxes which -were carried in procession in the festivals of -Demeter and Dionysus. These boxes, which -were always kept closed in the public processions, -contained sacred things connected with -the worship of these deities. In the representations -of Dionysiac processions on ancient -vases women carrying cistae are frequently -introduced.—(2) The ballot-box, into which -those who voted in the comitia and in the -courts of justice cast their tabellae. It is represented -in the annexed cut, and -should not be confounded with the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">situla</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sitella</i>, into which sortes -or lots were thrown. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Situla">Situla</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cistophorus">CISTŎPHŎRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κιστοφόρος</span>), a silver coin, -which is supposed to belong to Rhodes, and -which was in general circulation in Asia -Minor at the time of the conquest of that -country by the Romans. It took its name -from the device upon it, which was either the -sacred chest (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cista</i>) of Bacchus, or more probably -a flower called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κιστός</span>. Its value is -extremely uncertain: some writers suppose -it to have been worth in our money about -7¼<em>d.</em></p> - - -<p id="Cithara">CĬTHĂRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lyra">Lyra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Civis">CĪVIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Civitas">CĪVĬTAS, citizenship. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολιτεία</span>). -Aristotle defines a citizen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολίτης</span>) to -be one who is a partner in the legislative and -judicial power (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέτοχος κρίσεως καὶ ἀρχῆς</span>). -No definition will equally apply to all the -different states of Greece, or to any single -state at different times; the above seems to -comprehend more or less properly all those -whom the common use of language entitled -to the name. A state in the heroic ages was -the government of a prince; the citizens were -his subjects, and derived all their privileges, -civil as well as religious, from their nobles -and princes. The shadows of a council and -assembly were already in existence, but their -business was to obey. Upon the whole the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span> -notion of citizenship in the heroic ages only -existed so far as the condition of aliens or of -domestic slaves was its negative. The rise -of a dominant class gradually overthrew the -monarchies of ancient Greece. Of such a -class, the chief characteristics were good birth -and the hereditary transmission of privileges, -the possession of land, and the performance -of military service. To these characters the -names <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gamori</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γάμοροι</span>), <em>knights</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππεῖς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">eupatridae</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐπατρίδαι</span>), &c. severally correspond. -Strictly speaking, these were the only -citizens; yet the lower class were quite distinct -from bondmen or slaves. It commonly -happened that the nobility occupied the fortified -towns, while the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span>) lived in -the country and followed agricultural pursuits: -whenever the latter were gathered -within the walls, and became seamen or -handicraftsmen, the difference of ranks was -soon lost, and wealth made the only standard. -The quarrels of the nobility among themselves, -and the admixture of population arising from -immigrations, all tended to raise the lower -orders from their political subjection. It -must be remembered, too, that the possession -of domestic slaves, if it placed them in no -new relation to the governing body, at any -rate gave them leisure to attend to the higher -duties of a citizen, and thus served to increase -their political efficiency. During the convulsions -which followed the heroic ages, naturalisation -was readily granted to all who desired -it; as the value of citizenship increased, it -was, of course, more sparingly bestowed. The -ties of hospitality descended from the prince -to the state, and the friendly relations of the -Homeric heroes were exchanged for the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προξενίαι</span> of a later period. In political intercourse, -the importance of these last soon began -to be felt, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Proxenus</i> at Athens, in -after times, obtained rights only inferior to -actual citizenship. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hospitium">Hospitium</a>.</span>] The isopolite -relation existed, however, on a much -more extended scale. Sometimes particular -privileges were granted: as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιγαμία</span>, the -right of intermarriage; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγκτησις</span>, the right -of acquiring landed property; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτέλεια</span>, immunity -from taxation, especially <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτέλεια μετοικίου</span>, -from the tax imposed on resident aliens. -All these privileges were included under the -general term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσοτέλεια</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσοπολίτεια</span>, and the -class who obtained them were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσοτελεῖς</span>. -They bore the same burthens with the citizens, -and could plead in the courts or transact -business with the people, without the intervention -of a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span>, or patron. Respecting -the division of the Athenian citizens into -tribes, phratriae and demes, see the articles -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Demus">Demus</a></span>.—If we would picture to -ourselves the true notion which the Greeks -embodied in the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">polis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόλις</span>), we must -lay aside all modern ideas respecting the -nature and object of a state. With us practically, -if not in theory, the <em>essential</em> object of -a state hardly embraces more than the protection -of life and property. The Greeks, on -the other hand, had the most vivid conception -of the state as a whole, every part of which -was to co-operate to some great end to which -all other duties were considered as subordinate. -Thus the aim of democracy was said -to be liberty; wealth, of oligarchy; and education, -of aristocracy. In all governments -the endeavour was to draw the social union -as close as possible, and it seems to have been -with this view that Aristotle laid down a -principle which answered well enough to the -accidental circumstances of the Grecian states, -that a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">polis</i> must be of a certain size. This -unity of purpose was nowhere so fully carried -out as in the government of Sparta. The -design of Spartan institutions was evidently -to unite the governing body among themselves -against the superior numbers of the subject -population. The division of lands, the syssitia, -the education of their youth, all tended -to this great object. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Helotes">Helotes</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Perioeci">Perioeci</a></span>.] -In legal rights all Spartans were equal: but -there were yet several gradations, which, -when once formed, retained their hold on the -aristocratic feelings of the people. First, -there was the dignity of the Heraclide families; -and, connected with this, a certain pre-eminence -of the Hyllean tribe. Another distinction -was that between the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Homoioi</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅμοιοι</span>) -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hypomeiones</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπομείονες</span>), which, in later -times, appears to have been considerable. -The latter term probably comprehended those -citizens who, from degeneracy of manners or -other causes, had undergone some kind of -civil degradation. To these the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Homoioi</i> were -opposed, although it is not certain in what -the precise difference consisted. All the -Spartan citizens were included in the three -tribes, Hylleans, Dymanes or Dymanatae, and -Pamphilians, each of which was divided into -ten obes or phratries. The citizens of Sparta, -as of most oligarchical states, were landowners, -although this does not seem to have been -looked upon as an essential of citizenship.—(2) -<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Civitas</i> means the whole body -of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cives</i>, or members, of any given state, and -the word is frequently used by the Roman -writers to express the rights of a Roman -citizen, as distinguished from those of other -persons not Roman citizens, as in the phrases, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dare civitatem</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">donare civitate</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">usurpare civitatem</i>. -Some members of a political community -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cives</i>) may have more political rights -than others; and this was the case at Rome -under the republic, in which we find a distinction<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span> -made between two great classes of -Roman citizens, one that had, and another -that had not, a share in the sovereign power -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">optimo jure</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">non optimo jure cives</i>). That -which peculiarly distinguished the higher -class, or the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">optimo jure cives</i>, was the right -to vote in a tribe (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus suffragiorum</i>), and the -capacity of enjoying magistracy (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus honorum</i>). -The inferior class, or the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">non optimo -jure cives</i>, did not possess the above rights, -which the Romans called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus publicum</i>, but -they only had the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus privatum</i>, which comprehended -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus connubii</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus commercii</i>, -and those who had not these had no citizenship.—Under -the empire we find the free -persons who were within the political limits -of the Roman state divided into three great -classes. The same division probably existed -in an early period of the Roman state, and -certainly existed in the time of Cicero. These -classes were, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cives</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latini</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Peregrini</i>. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Civis</i> is he who possesses the complete rights -of a Roman citizen. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Peregrinus</i> was incapable -of exercising the rights of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">commercium</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">connubium</i>, which were the characteristic -rights of a Roman citizen; but he had a -capacity for making all kinds of contracts -which were allowable by the jus gentium. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latinus</i> was in an intermediate state; -he had not the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">connubium</i>, and consequently -he had not the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patria potestas</i> nor rights of -agnatio; but he had the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">commercium</i> or the -right of acquiring quiritarian ownership, and -he had also a capacity for all acts incident to -quiritarian ownership, as the power of making -a will in Roman form, and of becoming heres -under a will. The rights of a Roman citizen -were acquired in several ways, but most commonly -by a person being born of parents who -were Roman citizens. A slave might obtain -the civitas by manumission (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vindicta</i>), by the -census, and by a testamentum, if there was -no legal impediment; but it depended on -circumstances whether he became a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civis -Romanus</i>, a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latinus</i>, or in the number of the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peregrini dediticii</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Manumissio">Manumissio</a>.</span>] The -civitas could be conferred on a foreigner by a -lex, as in the case of Archias, who was a -civis of Heraclea, a civitas which had a foedus -with Rome, and who claimed the civitas Romana -under the provisions of a lex of Silvanus -and Carbo, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 89. By the provisions of -this lex, the person who chose to take the -benefit of it was required, within sixty days -after the passing of the lex, to signify to the -praetor his wish and consent to accept the -civitas (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">profiteri</i>). This lex was intended to -give the civitas, under certain limitations, to -foreigners who were citizens of foederate -states (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foederatis civitatibus adscripti</i>). -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Foederatae">Foederatae Civitates</a>.</span>] Thus the great -mass of the Italians obtained the civitas, and -the privileges of the former civitates foederatae -were extended to the provinces, first to -part of Gaul, and then to Sicily, under the -name of Jus Latii or Latinitas. This Latinitas -gave a man the right of acquiring the -Roman citizenship by having exercised a -magistratus in his own civitas; a privilege -which belonged to the foederatae civitates of -Italy before they obtained the Roman civitas.</p> - - -<p id="Clarigatio">CLĀRĬGĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fetiales">Fetiales</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Classicum">CLASSĬCUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cornu">Cornu</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Clavus">CLĀVUS ANNĀLIS. In the early ages of -Rome, when letters were yet scarcely in use, -the Romans kept a reckoning of their years by -driving a nail (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavus</i>), on the ides of each -September, into the side walls of the temple -of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, which ceremony -was performed by the consul or a dictator.</p> - - -<p id="Clavus_g">CLĀVUS GŬBERNĀCŬLI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Clavus_l">CLĀVUS LĀTUS, CLĀVUS ANGUSTUS. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavus</i>, as an article of dress, seems to -have been a purple band worn upon the tunic -and toga, and was of two fashions, one broad -and the other narrow, denominated respectively -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavus latus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavus angustus</i>. The -former was a single broad band of purple, -extending perpendicularly from the neck -down the centre of the tunic; the latter probably -consisted of two narrow purple slips, -running parallel to each from the top to the -bottom of the tunic, one from each shoulder. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">latus clavus</i> was a distinctive badge of -the senatorian order; and hence it is used to -signify the senatorial dignity, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">laticlavius</i>, -the person who enjoys it. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">angustus -clavus</i> was the decoration of the equestrian -order; but the right of wearing the latus -clavus was also given to the children of -equestrians, at least in the time of Augustus, -as a prelude to entering the senate-house. -This, however, was a matter of personal indulgence, -and was granted only to persons of -very ancient family and corresponding wealth, -and then by special favour of the emperor. -In such cases the latus clavus was assumed -with the toga virilis, and worn until the age -arrived at which the young equestrian was -admissible into the senate, when it was relinquished -and the angustus clavis resumed, if a -disinclination on his part, or any other circumstances, -prevented him from entering the -senate, as was the case with Ovid. But it -seems that the latus clavus could be again -resumed if the same individual subsequently -wished to become a senator, and hence a -fickle character is designated as one who is -always changing his clavus. The latus clavus -is said to have been introduced at Rome by -Tullus Hostilius, and to have been adopted by -him after his conquest of the Etruscans; nor<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span> -does it appear to have been confined to any -particular class during the earlier periods, -but to have been worn by all ranks promiscuously. -It was laid aside in public mourning.</p> - - -<p id="Clepsydra">CLEPSȲDRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Horologium">Horologium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cleruchi">CLĒRŪCHI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κληροῦχοι</span>), the name of -Athenian citizens who occupied conquered -lands; their possession was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cleruchia</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κληρουχία</span>). The Athenian Cleruchi differed -from the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄποικοι</span> or ordinary colonists. The -only object of the earlier colonies was to -relieve surplus population, or to provide a -home for those whom internal quarrels had -exiled from their country. Most usually they -originated in private enterprise, and became -independent of, and lost their interest in, the -parent state. On the other hand, it was -essential to the very notion of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cleruchia</i> that -it should be a public enterprise, and should -always retain a connection more or less intimate -with Athens herself. The connection -with the parent state subsisted in all degrees. -Sometimes, as in the case of Lesbos, the -holders of land did not reside upon their -estates, but let them to the original inhabitants, -while themselves remained at Athens. -The condition of these cleruchi did not differ -from that of Athenian citizens who had estates -in Attica. All their political rights they -not only retained, but exercised as Athenians. -Another case was where the cleruchi resided -on their estates, and either with or without -the old inhabitants, formed a new community. -These still retained the rights of Athenian -citizens, which distance only precluded them -from exercising: they used the Athenian -courts; and if they or their children wished -to return to Athens, naturally and of course -they regained the exercise of their former -privileges. Sometimes, however, the connection -might gradually dissolve, and the cleruchi -sink into the condition of mere allies, or -separate wholly from the mother country. -It was to Pericles that Athens was chiefly -indebted for the extension and permanence -of her colonial settlements. His principal object -was to provide for the redundancies of -population, and raise the poorer citizens to -a fortune becoming the dignity of Athenian -citizens. It was of this class of persons that -the settlers were chiefly composed; the state -provided them with arms, and defrayed the -expenses of their journey. The Cleruchiae -were lost by the battle of Aegospotami, but -partially restored on the revival of Athenian -power.</p> - - -<p id="Cleteres">CLĒTĒRES or CLĒTORES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλητῆρες</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλῆτορες</span>), summoners, were at Athens not -official persons, but merely witnesses to the -prosecutor that he had served the defendant -with a notice of the action brought against him, -and the day upon which it would be requisite -for him to appear before the proper magistrate.</p> - - -<p id="Clibanarii">CLĪBĂNĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cataphracti">Cataphracti</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cliens">CLĬENS is said to contain the same element -as the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cluere</i>, to “hear” or “obey,” -and may be accordingly compared with the -German word <em>höriger</em>, “a dependant,” from -<em>hören</em>, “to hear.” In the earliest times of -the Roman state we find a class of persons -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clientes</i>, who must not be confounded -with the plebeians, from whom they were -distinct. The clients were not slaves: they -had property of their own and freedom, and -appear to have had votes in the comitia centuriata, -but they did not possess the full rights -of Roman citizens; and the peculiarity of -their condition consisted in every client being -in a state of dependence upon or subjection to -some patrician, who was called his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patronus</i>, -and to whom he owed certain rights and -duties. The patronus, on the other hand, -likewise incurred certain obligations towards -his client. This relationship between patronus -and cliens was expressed by the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clientela</i>, -which also expressed the whole body of a -man’s clients. The relative rights and duties -of the patrons and the clients were, according -to Dionysius, as follows:—The patron was the -legal adviser of the cliens; he was the client’s -guardian and protector, as he was the guardian -and protector of his own children; he -maintained the client’s suit when he was -wronged, and defended him when another -complained of being wronged by him: in a -word, the patron was the guardian of the -client’s interests, both private and public. -The client contributed to the marriage portion -of the patron’s daughter, if the patron -was poor; and to his ransom, or that of his -children, if they were taken prisoners; he -paid the costs and damages of a suit which -the patron lost, and of any penalty in which -he was condemned; he bore a part of the -patron’s expenses incurred by his discharging -public duties, or filling the honourable places -in the state. Neither party could accuse the -other, or bear testimony against the other, or -give his vote against the other. This relationship -between patron and client subsisted -for many generations, and resembled in all -respects the relationship by blood. The -relation of a master to his liberated slave -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertus</i>) was expressed by the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patronus</i>, -and the libertus was the cliens of his -patronus. Distinguished Romans were also -the protectors of states and cities, which were -in a certain relation of subjection or dependence -to Rome. In the time of Cicero we also -find <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patronus</i> in the sense of adviser, advocate, -or defender, opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cliens</i> in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span> -sense of the person defended or the consultor,—a -use of the word which must be referred -to the original character of the patronus.</p> - - -<p id="Clientela">CLĬENTĒLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cliens">Cliens</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Clipeus">CLĬPĔUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσπίς</span>), the large shield worn -by the Greeks and Romans, which was originally -of a circular form, and is said to have -been first used by Proetus and Acrisius of -Argos, and therefore is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clipeus Argolicus</i>, -and likened to the sun. But the clipeus -is often represented in Roman sculpture of an -oblong oval, which makes the distinction between -the common buckler and that of Argos. -The outer rim was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄντυξ</span> by the Greeks; -and in the centre was a projection called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀμφάλος</span> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">umbo</i>, which served as a sort of -weapon by itself, or caused the missiles of the -enemy to glance off from the shield. In the -Homeric times, the Greeks merely used a -leather strap (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελαμών</span>) to support the shield, -but subsequently a handle (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄχανον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀχάνη</span>). -The usual form of the clipeus is exhibited in -the figure of the Greek warrior on <a href="#ill041">p. 41</a>. -When the census was instituted by Servius -Tullius at Rome, the first class only used the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clipeus</i>, and the second were armed with the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutum</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Scutum">Scutum</a></span>]; but after the Roman soldiery -received pay, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clipeus</i> was discontinued -altogether for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutum</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Clitellae">CLĪTELLAE, a pair of panniers, and therefore -only used in the plural number.</p> - - -<p id="Cloaca">CLŎĀCA, a sewer, a drain. Rome was -intersected by numerous sewers, some of -which were of an immense size: the most -celebrated of them was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cloaca maxima</i>, -the construction of which is ascribed to Tarquinius -Priscus. It was formed by three -tiers of arches, one within the other, the -innermost of which is a semicircular vault of -14 feet in diameter. The manner of its construction -is shown in the preceding cut. -Under the republic, the administration of the -sewers was entrusted to the censors: but -under the empire, particular officers were -appointed for that purpose, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cloacarum -curatores</i>, who employed condemned criminals -in cleansing and repairing them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill094a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill094a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cloaca Maxima at Rome.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Coa">CŌA VESTIS, the Coan robe, was a transparent -dress, chiefly worn by women of loose -reputation. It has been supposed to have -been made of silk, because in Cos silk was -spun and woven at a very early period.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp61" id="ill094b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill094b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Coa Vestis. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Coactor">CŎACTOR, the name of collectors of various -sorts, <em>e.g.</em> the servants of the publicani, or -farmers of the public taxes, who collected the -revenues for them, and those who collected -the money from the purchasers of things sold -at a public auction. Horace informs us that -his father was a coactor of this kind. Moreover, -the servants of the money-changers were so -called, from collecting their debts for them. -The “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">coactores agminis</span>” were the soldiers -who brought up the rear of a line of march.</p> - - -<p id="Cochlea">CŎCHLĔA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοχλίας</span>), which properly means -a snail, was also used to signify other things -of a spiral form. (1) A screw, used in -working clothes-presses, and oil and wine -presses.—(2) A spiral pump for raising -water, invented by Archimedes, from whom -it has ever since been called the Archimedean -screw.—(3) A peculiar kind of door through -which the wild beasts passed from their dens -into the arena of the amphitheatre.</p> - - -<p id="Cochlear">COCHLĔAR. (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοχλιάριον</span>), a kind of spoon, -which appears to have terminated with a -point at one end, and at the other was broad -and hollow like our own spoons. The pointed -end was used for drawing snails (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cochleae</i>) -out of their shells, and eating them, whence -it derived its name; and the broader part -for eating eggs, &c. Cochlear was also the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span> -name given to a small measure like our -spoonful.</p> - - -<p id="Codex">CŌDEX, identical with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caudex</i>, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Claudius</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Clodius</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">claustrum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clostrum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cauda</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coda</i>, originally signified the trunk or -stem of a tree. The name codex was especially -applied to wooden tablets bound together -and lined with a coat of wax, for the purpose -of writing upon them, and when, at a later -age, parchment or paper, or other materials -were substituted for wood, and put together -in the shape of a book, the name of codex was -still given to them. In the time of Cicero -we find it also applied to the tablet on which -a bill was written. At a still later period, -during the time of the emperors, the word -was used to express any collection of laws or -constitutions of the emperors, whether made -by private individuals or by public authority, -as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Codex Gregorianus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Codex Theodosianus</i>, -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Codex Justinianeus</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Coemptio">COEMPTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Coena">COENA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεῖπνον</span>), the principal meal of the -Greeks and Romans, dinner. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> -Three names of meals occur in the Iliad and -Odyssey—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄριστον</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεῖπνον</span>), -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dorpon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόρπον</span>). The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i> uniformly -means the early, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dorpon</i> does the -late meal; but <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i>, on the other hand, -is used for either, apparently without any -reference to time. In the Homeric age it -appears to have been usual to sit during mealtimes. -Beef, mutton, and goat’s flesh were -the ordinary meats, usually eaten roasted. -Cheese, flour, and occasionally fruits, also -formed part of the Homeric meals. Bread, -brought on in baskets, and salt (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἃλς</span>, to which -Homer gives the epithet <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεῖος</span>), are mentioned. -The Greeks of a later age usually partook of -three meals, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acratisma</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκράτισμα</span>), -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i>. The last, which corresponds -to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dorpon</i> of the Homeric poems, -was the evening meal or dinner; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i> -was the luncheon; and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acratisma</i>, which -answers to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i> of Homer, was the -early meal or breakfast. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acratisma</i> was -taken immediately after rising in the morning. -It usually consisted of bread, dipped in unmixed -wine (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκρατος</span>), whence it derived its -name. Next followed the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i> or luncheon; -but the time at which it was taken is uncertain. -It is frequently mentioned in Xenophon’s -Anabasis, and appears to have been -taken at different times, as would naturally -be the case with soldiers in active service. -We may conclude from many circumstances -that this meal was taken about the middle of -the day, and that it answered to the Roman -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prandium</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ariston</i> was usually a simple -meal, but of course varied according to the -habits of individuals. The principal meal -was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i>. It was usually taken -rather late in the day, frequently not before -sunset. The Athenians were a social people, -and were very fond of dining in company. -Entertainments were usually given, both in -the heroic ages and later times, when sacrifices -were offered to the gods, either on public -or private occasions; and also on the anniversary -of the birthdays of members of the -family, or of illustrious persons, whether -living or dead. When young men wished to -dine together they frequently contributed -each a certain sum of money, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">symbole</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμβολή</span>), or brought their own provisions -with them. When the first plan was adopted, -they were said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπὸ συμβολῶν δειπνεῖν</span>, and one -individual was usually entrusted with the -money to procure the provisions, and make -all the necessary preparations. This kind of -entertainment, in which each guest contributed -to the expense, is mentioned in Homer -under the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔρανος</span>. An entertainment -in which each person brought his own provisions -with him, or at least contributed something -to the general stock, was called a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεῖπνον -ἀπὸ σπυρίδος</span>, because the provisions were -brought in baskets.—The most usual kind of -entertainments, however, were those in which -a person invited his friends to his own house. -It was expected that they should come dressed -with more than ordinary care, and also have -bathed shortly before. As soon as the guests -arrived at the house of their host, their shoes -or sandals were taken off by the slaves and -their feet washed. After their feet had been -washed, the guests reclined on the couches. -It has already been remarked that Homer -never describes persons as reclining, but -always as sitting at their meals; but at what -time the change was introduced is uncertain. -The Dorians of Crete always sat; but the -other Greeks reclined. The Greek women -and children, however, like the Roman, continued -to sit at their meals. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Accubatio">Accubatio</a>.</span>] -It was usual for only two persons to recline -on each couch. After the guests had placed -themselves on the couches, the slaves brought -in water to wash their hands. The dinner -was then served up; whence we read of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰς -τραπέζας εἰσφέρειν</span>, by which expression we -are to understand not merely the dishes, but -the tables themselves, which were small -enough to be moved with ease. In eating, -the Greeks had no knives or forks, but made -use of their fingers only, except in eating -soups or other liquids, which they partook of -by means of a spoon, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυστίλη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύστρον</span>, -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύστρος</span>. It would exceed the limits of -this work to give an account of the different -dishes which were introduced at a Greek -dinner, though their number is far below<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span> -those which were usually partaken of at a -Roman entertainment. The most common -food among the Greeks was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάζα</span>, a kind -of frumenty or soft cake, which was prepared -in different ways. Wheaten or barley bread -was the second most usual species of food; it -was sometimes made at home, but more -usually bought at the market of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτοπῶλαι</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτοπώλιδες</span>. The vegetables ordinarily -eaten were mallows (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαλάχη</span>), lettuces (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θρίδαξ</span>), -cabbages (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥάφανοι</span>), beans (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύαμοι</span>), lentils -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φακαῖ</span>), &c. Pork was the most favourite -animal food, as was the case among the Romans. -It is a curious fact, which Plato has -remarked, that we never read in Homer of -the heroes partaking of fish. In later times, -however, fish was one of the most favourite -foods of the Greeks. A dinner given by an -opulent Athenian usually consisted of two -courses, called respectively <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρῶται τράπεζαι</span> -and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεύτεραι τράπεζαι</span>. The first course embraced -the whole of what we consider the -dinner, namely, fish, poultry, meat, &c.; the -second, which corresponds to our dessert and -the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bellaria</i>, consisted of different -kinds of fruit, sweetmeats, confections, &c. -When the first course was finished, the tables -were taken away, and water was given to the -guests for the purpose of washing their hands. -Crowns made of garlands of flowers were also -then given to them, as well as various kinds -of perfumes. Wine was not drunk till the -first course was finished; but as soon as the -guests had washed their hands, unmixed wine -was introduced in a large goblet, of which -each drank a little, after pouring out a small -quantity as a libation. This libation was -said to be made to the “good spirit” -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγαθοῦ δαίμονος</span>), and was usually accompanied -with the singing of the paean and the -playing of flutes. After this libation mixed -wine was brought in, and with their first cup -the guests drank to <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διὸς Σωτῆρος</span>. With the -libations the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i> closed; and at the introduction -of the dessert (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεύτεραι τράπεζαι</span>) -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πότος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμπόσιον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῶμος</span> commenced, of -which an account is given under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium</a></span>.—(2) -<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> As the Roman meals are not -always clearly distinguished, it will be convenient -to treat of all under the most important -one; and we shall confine ourselves to the -description of the ordinary life of the middle -ranks of society in the Augustan age, noticing -incidentally the most remarkable deviations. -The meal with which the Roman sometimes -began the day was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jentaculum</i>, which was -chiefly taken by children, or sick persons, or -the luxurious. An irregular meal (if we may -so express it) was not likely to have any very -regular time: two epigrams of Martial, however, -seem to fix the hour at about three or -four o’clock in the morning. Bread formed -the substantial part of this early breakfast, to -which cheese, or dried fruit, as dates and -raisins, were sometimes added. Next followed -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prandium</i> or luncheon, with persons of -simple habits a frugal meal, usually taken -about twelve or one o’clock. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coena</i>, or -principal meal of the day, corresponding to -our “dinner,” was usually taken about three -o’clock in the time of Cicero and Augustus, -though we read of some persons not dining -till near sunset. A Roman dinner at the -house of a wealthy man usually consisted of -three courses. The first was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promulsis</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">antecoena</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gustatio</i>, and was made up of -all sorts of stimulants to the appetite. Eggs -also were so indispensable to the first course -that they almost gave a name to it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ab ovo -usque ad mala</i>). The frugality of Martial -only allowed of lettuce and Sicenian olives; -indeed he himself tells us that the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promulsis</i> -was a refinement of modern luxury. It would -far exceed our limits to mention all the dishes -which formed the second course of a Roman -dinner. Of birds, the Guinea hen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Afra avis</i>), -the pheasant (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phasiana</i>, so called from Phasis, -a river of Colchis), and the thrush, were -most in repute; the liver of a capon steeped -in milk, and beccaficos (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ficedulae</i>) dressed -with pepper, were held a delicacy. The peacock, -according to Macrobius, was first introduced -by Hortensius the orator, at an inaugural -supper, and acquired such repute among -the Roman gourmands as to be commonly sold -for fifty denarii. Other birds are mentioned, -as the duck (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anas</i>), especially its head and -breast; the woodcock (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">attagen</i>), the turtle, -and flamingo (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phoenicopterus</i>), the tongue of -which, Martial tells us, particularly commended -itself to the delicate palate. Of fish, -the variety was perhaps still greater; the -charr (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scarus</i>), the turbot (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rhombus</i>), the sturgeon -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acipenser</i>), the mullet (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mullus</i>), were -highly prized, and dressed in the most various -fashions. Of solid meat, pork seems to have -been the favourite dish, especially sucking -pig. Boar’s flesh and venison were also in -high repute: the former is described by -Juvenal as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">animal propter convivia natum</i>. -Condiments were added to most of these -dishes: such were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">muria</i>, a kind of -pickle made from the tunny fish; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">garum -sociorum</i>, made from the intestines of the -mackerel (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scomber</i>), so called because brought -from abroad; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alec</i>, a sort of brine; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">faex</i>, the -sediment of wine, &c. Several kinds of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fungi</i> -are mentioned, truffles (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">boleti</i>), mushrooms -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tuberes</i>), which either made dishes by themselves, -or formed the garniture for larger -dishes. It must not be supposed that the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">artistes</i> of imperial Rome were at all behind<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span> -ourselves in the preparation and arrangements -of the table. In a large household, the functionaries -to whom this important duty was -entrusted were four, the butler (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promus</i>), the -cook (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">archimagirus</i>), the arranger of the dishes -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">structor</i>), and the carver (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carptor</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scissor</i>). -Carving was taught as an art, and performed -to the sound of music, with appropriate gesticulations.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> - <div class="verse indent0">——“minimo sane discrimine refert,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Quo vultu lepores, et quo gallina secetur.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">In the supper of Petronius, a large round -tray (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ferculum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repositorium</i>) is brought in, -with the signs of the zodiac figured all round -it, upon each of which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">artiste</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">structor</i>) -had placed some appropriate viand, a goose -on Aquarius, a pair of scales with tarts (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriblitae</i>) -and cheesecakes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">placentae</i>) in each -scale on Libra, &c. In the middle was -placed a hive supported by delicate herbage. -Presently four slaves come forward dancing -to the sound of music, and take away the -upper part of the dish; beneath appear all -kinds of dressed meats; a hare with wings to -imitate Pegasus, in the middle; and four -figures of Marsyas at the corners, pouring -hot sauce (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">garum piperatum</i>) over the fish, -that were swimming in the Euripus below. So -entirely had the Romans lost all shame of -luxury, since the days when Cincius, in supporting -the Fannian law, charged his own -age with the enormity of introducing the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porcus Trojanus</i>, a sort of pudding stuffed -with the flesh of other animals.—The third -course was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bellaria</i> or dessert, to which -Horace alludes when he says of Tigellius <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ab -ovo usque ad mala citaret</i>; it consisted of -fruits (which the Romans usually ate uncooked), -such as almonds (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amygdalae</i>), dried -grapes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uvae passae</i>), dates (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palmulae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caryotae</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dactyli</i>); of sweetmeats and confections, -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edulia mellita</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dulciaria</i>, such as cheesecakes -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cupediae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crustula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liba</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">placentae</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">artolagani</i>), almond cakes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coptae</i>), tarts -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriblitae</i>), whence the maker of them was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pistor dulciarius</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">placentarius</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libarius</i>, -&c. We will now suppose the table -spread and the guests assembled, each with -his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mappa</i> or napkin, and in his dinner dress, -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coenatoria</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cubitoria</i>, usually of a -bright colour, and variegated with flowers. -First they took off their shoes, for fear of -soiling the couch, which was often inlaid -with ivory or tortoise-shell, and covered with -cloth of gold. Next they lay down to eat, -the head resting on the left elbow and supported -by cushions. There were usually, but -not always, three on the same couch, the -middle place being esteemed the most honourable. -Around the tables stood the servants -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ministri</i>) clothed in a tunic, and girt with -napkins; some removed the dishes and wiped -the tables with a rough cloth, others gave the -guests water for their hands, or cooled the -room with fans. Here stood an eastern youth -behind his master’s couch, ready to answer -the noise of the fingers, while others bore a -large platter of different kinds of meat to the -guests. Dinner was set out in a room called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coenatio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diaeta</i> (which two words perhaps -conveyed to a Roman ear nearly the same -distinction as our dining-room and parlour). -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coenatio</i>, in rich men’s houses, was fitted -up with great magnificence. Suetonius mentions -a supper-room in the golden palace of -Nero, constructed like a theatre, with shifting -scenes to change with every course. In the -midst of the coenatio were set three couches<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span> -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triclinia</i>), answering in shape to the square, -as the long semicircular couches (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sigmata</i>) -did to the oval tables. An account of the -disposition of the couches, and of the place -which each guest occupied, is given in the -article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinium</a></span>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill097" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill097.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">A Feast. (Vatican Virgil MS.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Coenaculum">COENĀCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Coenatio">COENĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cognati">COGNĀTI, COGNĀTĬO. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognatio</i> was -the relationship of blood which existed between -those who were sprung from a common -pair; and all persons so related were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognati</i>. The foundation of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognatio</i> is a -legal marriage. The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognatus</i> (with -some exceptions) comprehends <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agnatus</i>; an -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agnatus</i> may be a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognatus</i>, but a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognatus</i> is -only an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agnatus</i> when his relationship by -blood is traced through males. Those who -were of the same blood by both parents were -sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">germani</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consanguinei</i> were -those who had a common father only; and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uterini</i> those who had a common mother -only.</p> - - -<p id="Cognitor">COGNĬTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cognomen">COGNŌMEN. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nomen">Nomen</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cohors">CŎHORS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Colacretae">CŌLĂCRĔTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωλακρέται</span>, also called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωλαγρέται</span>), the name of very ancient magistrates -at Athens, who had the management of -all financial matters in the time of the kings. -Cleisthenes deprived them of the charge of -the finances, which he transferred to the -Apodectae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apodectae">Apodectae</a>.</span>] From this time -the Colacretae had only to provide for the -meals in the Prytaneium, and subsequently to -pay the fees to the dicasts, when the practice -of paying the dicasts was introduced by -Pericles.</p> - - -<p id="Collegium">COLLĒGĬUM. The persons who formed -a collegium were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">collegae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sodales</i>. -The word collegium properly expressed the -notion of several persons being united in any -office or for any common purpose; it afterwards -came to signify a body of persons, and -the union which bound them together. The -collegium was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑταιρία</span> of the Greeks. The -legal notion of a collegium was as follows:—A -collegium or corpus, as it was also called, -must consist of three persons at least. Persons -who legally formed such an association -were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corpus habere</i>, which is equivalent -to our phrase of being incorporated; and in -later times they were said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corporati</i>, -and the body was called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corporatio</i>. Associations -of individuals, who were entitled to -have a corpus, could hold property in common. -Such a body, which was sometimes also called -a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">universitas</i>, was a legal unity. That which -was due to the body, was not due to the individuals -of it; and that which the body owed, -was not the debt of the individuals. The -common property of the body was liable to be -seized and sold for the debts of the body. It -does not appear how collegia were formed, -except that some were specially established by -legal authority. Other collegia were probably -formed by voluntary associations of individuals -under the provisions of some general -legal authority, such as those of the publicani. -Some of these corporate bodies resembled -our companies or guilds; such were the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabrorum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pistorum</i>, &c. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">collegia</i>. Others -were of a religious character; such as the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pontificum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augurum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fratrum arvalium collegia</i>. -Others were bodies concerned about -government and administration; as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribunorum -plebis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quaestorum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decurionum collegia</i>. According -to the definition of a collegium, the -consuls being only two in number were not -a collegium, though each was called collega -with respect to the other, and their union in -office was called collegium. When a new -member was taken into a collegium, he was -said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">co-optari</i>, and the old members were said -with respect to him, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">recipere in collegium</i>. -The mode of filling up vacancies would vary -in different collegia. The statement of their -rules belongs to the several heads of <span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a></span>, -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pontifex">Pontifex</a></span>, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Colonia">CŎLŌNĬA, a colony, contains the same -element as the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colere</i>, “to cultivate,” and -as the word colonus, which probably originally -signified a “tiller of the earth.” (1) -<span class="smcap">Greek.</span> The usual Greek words for a colony -are <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποικία</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κληρουχία</span>. The latter word, -which signified a division of conquered lands -among Athenian citizens, and which corresponds -in some respects to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colonia</i>, -is explained in the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cleruchi">Cleruchi</a></span>. The -earlier Greek colonies, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποικίαι</span>, were -usually composed of mere bands of adventurers, -who left their native country, with their -families and property, to seek a new home for -themselves. Some of the colonies, which -arose in consequence of foreign invasion or -civil wars, were undertaken without any -formal consent from the rest of the community; -but usually a colony was sent out with the -approbation of the mother country, and under -the management of a leader (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰκιστής</span>) appointed -by it. But whatever may have been -the origin of the colony, it was always considered -in a political point of view independent -of the mother country, called by the -Greeks <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metropolis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μητρόπολις</span>), the “mother-city,” -and entirely emancipated from its control. -At the same time, though a colony was -in no political subjection to its parent state, -it was united to it by the ties of filial affection; -and, according to the generally received -opinions of the Greeks, its duties to the parent -state corresponded to those of a daughter to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span> -her mother. Hence, in all matters of common -interest, the colony gave precedence to the -mother state; and the founder of the colony -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰκιστής</span>), who might be considered as the -representative of the parent state, was usually -worshipped, after his death, as a hero. -Also, when the colony became in its turn a -parent, it usually sought a leader for the -colony which it intended to found from the -original mother country; and the same feeling -of respect was manifested by embassies -which were sent to honour the principal -festivals of the parent state, and also by bestowing -places of honour and other marks of -respect upon the ambassadors and other members -of the parent state, when they visited -the colony at festivals and on similar occasions. -The colonists also worshipped in their new -settlement the same deities as they had been -accustomed to honour in their native country: -the sacred fire, which was constantly kept -burning on their public hearth, was taken -from the Prytaneium of the parent city; and -sometimes the priests also were brought from -the mother state. In the same spirit, it was -considered a violation of sacred ties for a -mother country and a colony to make war -upon one another. The preceding account of -the relations between the Greek colonies and -the mother country is supported by the history -which Thucydides gives us of the quarrel -between Corcyra and Corinth. Corcyra was -a colony of Corinth, and Epidamnus a -colony of Corcyra; but the leader (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰκιστής</span>) -of the colony of Epidamnus was a Corinthian -who was invited from the metropolis Corinth. -In course of time, in consequence of civil dissensions, -and attacks from the neighbouring -barbarians, the Epidamnians apply for aid to -Corcyra, but their request is rejected. They -next apply to the Corinthians, who took -Epidamnus under their protection, thinking, -says Thucydides, that the colony was no less -theirs than the Corinthians’: and also induced -to do so through hatred of the Corcyraeans, -because they neglected them though -they were colonists; for they did not give to -the Corinthians the customary honours and -deference in the public solemnities and sacrifices, -which the other colonies were wont to -pay to the mother country. The Corcyraeans, -who had become very powerful by sea, took -offence at the Corinthians receiving Epidamnus -under their protection, and the result -was a war between Corcyra and Corinth. -The Corcyraeans sent ambassadors to Athens -to ask assistance; and in reply to the objection -that they were a colony of Corinth, they -said, “that every colony, as long as it is -treated kindly, respects the mother country: -but when it is injured, is alienated from it; -for colonists are not sent out as subjects, but -that they may have equal rights with those -that remain at home.” It is true that ambitious -states, such as Athens, sometimes -claimed dominion over other states on the -ground of relationship; but as a general -rule, colonies may be regarded as independent -states, attached to their metropolis by ties of -sympathy and common descent, but no further. -The case of Potidaea, to which the -Corinthians sent annually the chief magistrates -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημιουργοί</span>), appears to have been an -exception to the general rule.—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> -A kind of colonisation seems to have existed -among the oldest Italian nations, who, on -certain occasions, sent out their superfluous -male population, with arms in their hands, -to seek for a new home. But these were -apparently mere bands of adventurers, and -such colonies rather resembled the old Greek -colonies, than those by which Rome extended -her dominion and her name. Colonies were -established by the Romans as far back as the -annals or traditions of the city extend, and -the practice was continued, without intermission, -during the republic and under -the empire. Colonies were intended to keep -in check a conquered people, and also to -repress hostile incursions; and their chief -object was originally the extension and preservation -of the Roman dominion in Italy. -Cicero calls the old Italian colonies the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propugnacula -imperii</i>. Another object was to -increase the power of Rome by increasing the -population. Sometimes the immediate object -of a colony was to carry off a number of turbulent -and discontented persons. Colonies -were also established for the purpose of providing -for veteran soldiers, a practice which -was begun by Sulla, and continued under the -emperors; these coloniae were called militares. -The old Roman colonies were in the -nature of garrisons planted in conquered -towns, and the colonists had a portion of the -conquered territory (usually a third part) -assigned to them. The inhabitants retained -the rest of their lands, and lived together -with the new settlers, who alone composed -the proper colony. The conquered people -must at first have been quite a distinct class -from, and inferior to, the colonists. No -colonia was established without a lex, plebiscitum, -or senatusconsultum; a fact which -shows that a Roman colony was never a mere -body of adventurers, but had a regular organisation -by the parent state. When a law -was passed for founding a colony, persons -were appointed to superintend its formation -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coloniam deducere</i>). These persons varied -in number, but three was a common number -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triumviri ad colonos deducendos</i>). We also<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span> -read of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duumviri</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quinqueviri</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vigintiviri</i> for -the same purpose. The law fixed the quantity -of land that was to be distributed, and -how much was to be assigned to each person. -No Roman could be sent out as a colonist -without his free consent, and when the colony -was not an inviting one, it was difficult to -fill up the number of volunteers. The colonia -proceeded to its place of destination in the -form of an army (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub vexillo</i>), which is indicated -on the coins of some coloniae. An urbs, -if one did not already exist, was a necessary -part of a new colony, and its limits were -marked out by a plough, which is also indicated -on ancient coins. The colonia had also a territory, -which, whether marked out by the -plough or not, was at least marked out by -metes and bounds. Thus the urbs and territory -of the colonia respectively corresponded -to the urbs Roma and its territory. Religious -ceremonies always accompanied the foundation -of the colony, and the anniversary was -afterwards observed. It is stated that a -colony could not be sent out to the same -place to which a colony had already been sent -in due form (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicato deducta</i>). This merely -means, that so long as the colony maintained -its existence, there could be no new colony in -the same place; a doctrine that would hardly -need proof, for a new colony implied a new -assignment of lands; but new settlers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novi -adscripti</i>) might be sent to occupy colonial -lands not already assigned. Indeed it was -not unusual for a colony to receive additions, -and a colony might be re-established, -if it seemed necessary, from any cause. The -commissioners appointed to conduct the -colony had apparently a profitable office, and -the establishment of a new settlement gave -employment to numerous functionaries, among -whom Cicero enumerates—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apparitores</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scribae</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecones</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">architecti</i>. The -foundation of a colony might then, in many -cases, not only be a mere party measure, carried -for the purpose of gaining popularity, -but it would give those in power an opportunity -of providing places for many of their -friends.—The colonies founded by the Romans -were divided into two great classes of colonies -of Roman citizens and Latin colonies; -names which had no reference to the persons -who formed the colonies, but merely indicated -their political rights with respect to Rome as -members of the colony. The members of a -Roman colony (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colonia civium Romanorum</i>) -preserved all the rights of Roman citizens. -The members of a Latin colony (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colonia -Latina</i>) ceased to have the full rights of -Roman citizens. Probably some of the old -Latin colonies were established by the Romans -in conjunction with other Latin states. After -the conquest of Latium, the Romans established -colonies, called Latin colonies, in -various parts of Italy. Roman citizens, who -chose to join such colonies, gave up their -civic rights for the more solid advantage of a -grant of land, and became <span class="smcap">Latini</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a>.</span>] -Such colonies were subject to, and part of, the -Roman state; but they did not possess the -Roman franchise, and had no political bond -among themselves.—The lex Julia, passed -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 90, gave the Roman franchise to the -members of the Latin colonies and the Socii; -and such Latin colonies and states of the Socii -were then called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">municipia</i>, and became complete -members of the Roman state. Thus -there was then really no difference between -these municipia and the Roman coloniae, except -in their historical origin: the members -of both were Roman citizens, and the Roman -law prevailed in both.—In the colonies, as at -Rome, the popular assembly had originally -the sovereign power; they chose the magistrates, -and could even make laws. When the -popular assemblies became a mere form in -Rome, and the elections were transferred by -Tiberius to the senate, the same thing happened -in the colonies, whose senates then -possessed whatever power had once belonged -to the community. The common name of this -senate was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo decurionum</i>; in later times, -simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curia</i>; the members of it -were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decuriones</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiales</i>. Thus, in the -later ages, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curia</i> is opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus</i>, the -former being the senate of a colony, and the -latter the senate of Rome. But the terms -senatus and senator were also applied to the -senate and members of the senate of a colony. -After the decline of the popular assemblies, -the senate had the whole internal administration -of a city, conjointly with the magistratus; -but only a decurio could be a magistratus, -and the choice was made by the decuriones. -The highest magistratus of a colonia were the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duumviri</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quattuorviri</i>, so called, as the -members might vary, whose functions may -be compared with those of the consulate at -Rome before the establishment of the praetorship. -The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duumviri</i> seems to have -been the most common. Their principal -duties were the administration of justice, and -accordingly we find on inscriptions “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Duumviri -J. D.” (<em>juri dicundo</em>), “Quattuorviri -J. D.</span>” The name consul also occurs in inscriptions -to denote this chief magistracy; -and even dictator and praetor occur under the -empire and under the republic. The office of -the duumviri lasted a year.—In some Italian -towns there was a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefectus juri dicundo</i>; -he was in the place of, and not co-existent -with, the duumviri. The duumviri were, as -we have seen, originally chosen by the people;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span> -but the praefectus was appointed annually in -Rome, and sent to the town called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefectura</i>, -which might be either a municipium -or a colonia, for it was only in the matter of -the praefectus that a town called a praefectura -differed from other Italian towns. Arpinum -is called both a municipium and a -praefectura; and Cicero, a native of this -place, obtained the highest honours that -Rome could confer.—The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censor</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curator</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quinquennalis</i>, all which names denote the -same functionary, was also a municipal magistrate, -and corresponded to the censor at -Rome, and in some cases, perhaps, to the -quaestor also. Censors are mentioned in -Livy as magistrates of the twelve Latin colonies. -The quinquennales were sometimes -duumviri, sometimes quattuorviri; but they -are always carefully distinguished from the -duumviri and quattuorviri J. D.; and their -functions were those of censors. They held -their office for one year, and during the four -intermediate years the functions were not -exercised. The office of censor or quinquennalis -was higher in rank than that of the -duumviri J. D., and it could only be filled by -those who had discharged the other offices of -the municipality.</p> - - -<p id="Colossus">CŎLOSSUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κολοσσός</span>) is used both by -the Greeks and Romans to signify a statue -larger than life; but as such statues were -very common, the word was more frequently -applied to designate figures of gigantic dimensions. -Such figures were first executed -in Egypt, and were afterwards made by the -Greeks and Romans. Among the colossal -statues of Greece, the most celebrated was -the bronze <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colossus</i> at Rhodes, dedicated to -the sun, the height of which was about 90 feet.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp61" id="ill101" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill101.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Colum. (Museo Borbonico, vol. viii. pl. 14.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Colum">CŌLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἠθμός</span>), a strainer or colander, -was used for straining wine, milk, olive-oil, -and other liquids. Those that were used as -articles of luxury for straining wine were -frequently made of some metal, such as bronze -or silver. Occasionally a piece of linen cloth -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saccus</i>) was placed over the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρύγοιπος</span> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colum</i>, and the wine (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σακκίας</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saccatus</i>) -filtered through. The use of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saccus</i> was -considered objectionable for all delicate wines, -since it was believed to injure, if not entirely -to destroy their flavour, and in every instance -to diminish the strength of the liquor. For -this reason it was employed by the dissipated -in order that they might be able to swallow a -greater quantity without becoming intoxicated. -The double purpose of cooling and -weakening was effectually accomplished by -placing ice or snow in the filter, which under -such circumstances became a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colum nivarium</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saccus nivarius</i>. The preceding woodcut -shows the plan and profile of a silver -colum.</p> - - -<p id="Columbarium">CŎLUMBĀRĬUM, a dovecot or pigeon-house, -also signified a sepulchral chamber -formed to receive the ashes of the lower orders, -or dependants of great families; and in the -plural, the niches in which the cinerary urns -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ollae</i>) were deposited.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="ill102a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill102a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ancient Columns.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Columna">CŎLUMNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κίων</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στύλος</span>), a pillar or column. -The use of the trunks of trees placed upright -for supporting buildings, unquestionably -led to the adoption of similar supports -wrought in stone. As the tree required to -be based upon a flat square stone, and to have -a stone or tile of similar form fixed on its -summit to preserve it from decay, so the column -was made with a square base, and was -covered with an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">abacus</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Abacus">Abacus</a>.</span>] Hence -the principal parts of which every column -consists are three, the base (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">basis</i>), the shaft -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scapus</i>), and the capital (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capitulum</i>). In the -Doric, which is the oldest style of Greek -architecture, we must consider all the columns -in the same row as having one common -base (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">podium</i>), whereas in the Ionic and Corinthian -each column has a separate base, -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spira</i>. The capitals of these two latter -orders show, on comparison with the Doric, -a much richer style of ornament; and the -character of lightness and elegance is further -obtained in them by their more slender shaft, -its height being much greater in proportion -to its thickness. Of all these circumstances -some idea may be formed by the inspection of -the three accompanying specimens of pillars. -The first on the left hand is Doric, the second -Ionic, and the third Corinthian. In all the -orders the shaft tapers from the bottom towards -the top. The shaft was, however, -made with a slight swelling in the middle, -which was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">entasis</i>. It was, moreover, -almost universally channelled or fluted.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span> -Columns were used in the interior of buildings, -to sustain the beams which supported -the ceiling. Rows of columns were often employed -within a building, to enclose a space -open to the sky. Beams supporting ceilings -passed from above the columns to the adjoining -walls, so as to form covered passages or -ambulatories (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στοαί</span>). Such a circuit of columns -was called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peristyle</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίστυλον</span>), and -the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atrium</i> was built upon this plan. -The largest and most splendid temples enclosed -an open space like an atrium, which -was accomplished by placing one peristyle -upon another. In such cases, the lower rows -of columns being Doric, the upper were sometimes -Ionic or Corinthian, the lighter being -properly based upon the heavier. A temple -so constructed was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hypaethral</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕπαιθρος</span>). -But it was on the exterior of public -buildings, and especially of temples, that columns -were displayed in the most beautiful -combinations, either surrounding the building -entirely, or arranged in porticoes on one or -more of its fronts. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>] Their original -and proper use was, of course, to support -the roof of the building; and, amidst all -the elaborations of architectural design, this -object was still kept in view. On the summit -of the row of columns rests the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">architrave</i>, -i.e. <em>chief beam</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστύλιον</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epistylium</i>): above -this is the <em>frieze</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζωοφόρος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζωφόρος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">zophorus</i>), -in which the most ancient order, namely the -Doric, shows, in its triglyphs, what were -originally the ends of the cross-beams: in -the other orders these ends are generally concealed, -and the frieze forms a flat surface, -which is frequently ornamented by figures in -relief, whence its Greek name. Above the -frieze projects the cornice (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κορωνίς</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coronis</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corona</i>), forming a handsome finish to the -entablature (for so these three members taken -together are called), and also, on the sides of -the building, serving to unite the ends of the -rafters of the roof. The triangular gable-end -of the roof, above the entablature, is called -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pediment</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fastigium">Fastigium</a>.</span>]—Columns in -long rows were used in aquaeducts, and single -pillars were fixed in harbours for mooring -ships.—Single columns were also erected to -commemorate persons or events. Among -these, some of the most remarkable were the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">columnae rostratae</i>, called by that name because -three ship-beaks proceeded from each -side of them, designed to record successful -engagements at sea. The most important -and celebrated of those which yet remain, is -one erected in honour of the consul C. Duillius, -on occasion of his victory over the Carthaginian -fleet, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 261. Columns were also -employed to commemorate the dead. The -column on the right hand in the last woodcut -exhibits that which the senate erected to -the honour of the Emperor Trajan. Similar -columns were erected to the memory of many -of the Roman emperors.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="ill102b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill102b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Columna Rostrata. <span class="pad4">Columna Trajana.</span></div> -</div> - - -<p id="Columnarium">CŎLUMNĀRĬUM, a tax imposed in the -time of Julius Caesar upon the pillars that -supported a house. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ostiarium</i> was a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span> -similar tax. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ostiarium">Ostiarium</a>.</span>] The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">columnarium</i>, -levied by Metellus Scipio in Syria in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -49-48, was a tax of a similar kind, but was -simply an illegal means of extorting money -from the provincials.</p> - - -<p id="Colus">CŎLUS, a distaff. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fusus">Fusus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp65" id="ill103" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill103.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Greek Head-dresses. (From Ancient Vases.)<br /> - -<p class="negin1">The left-hand figure on the top wears a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεκρύφαλος</span> -proper (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reticulum</i>). Of the two bottom figures, the one -on the left-hand wears a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span>, and the one on the -right a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span>.]</p></div> -</div> - -<p id="Coma">CŎMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόμη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κουρά</span>), the hair. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> -In the earliest times the Greeks wore their -hair long, and thus they are constantly called -in Homer <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρηκομόωντες Ἀχαιοί</span>. The Spartan -boys always had their hair cut quite short (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐν -χρῷ κείροντες</span>); but as soon as they reached -the age of puberty (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφηβοι</span>), they let it grow -long. Before going to battle they combed -and dressed it with especial care. It seems that -both Spartan men and women tied their hair -in a knot over the crown of the head. The -custom of the Athenians was different. They -wore their hair long in childhood, and cut it -off when they reached the age of puberty. -The cutting off of the hair, which was always -done when a boy became an <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφηβος</span>, was a -solemn act, attended with religious ceremonies. -A libation was first offered to Hercules, -which was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰνιστήρια</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰνιαστήρια</span>, -and the hair after being cut off was -dedicated to some deity, usually a river-god. -But when the Athenians passed into the age -of manhood, they again let their hair grow. -In ancient times at Athens the hair was -rolled up into a kind of knot on the crown of -the head, and fastened with golden clasps in -the shape of grasshoppers. This fashion of -wearing the hair was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρωβύλος</span>, and in -the case of females <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρυμβος</span>. The heads of -females were frequently covered with a kind -of band or a coif of net-work. Of these coiffures -one was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφενδόνη</span>, which was a -broad band across the forehead, sometimes -made of metal, and sometimes of leather, -adorned with gold. But the most common -kind of head-dress for females was called by -the general name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεκρύφαλος</span>, and this was -divided into the three species of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεκρύφαλος</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span>. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεκρύφαλος</span>, in its -narrower sense, was a caul or coif of net-work, -corresponding to the Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reticulum</i>. -These hair-nets were frequently made of gold -threads, sometimes of silk, or the Elean -byssus, and probably of other materials. The -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span> and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span> were, on the contrary, -made of close materials. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span> covered -the head entirely like a sack or bag; it was -made of various materials, such as silk, byssus, -and wool. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span> was a broad band of -cloth of different colours, which was wound -round the hair, and was worn in various -ways. It was originally an Eastern head-dress, -and may, therefore, be compared to the -modern turban. The Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calautica</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calvatica</i> is said by Servius to have been the -same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mitra</i>, but in a passage in the -Digest they are mentioned as if they were -distinct.—With respect to the colour of the -hair, black was the most frequent, but <em>blonde</em> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξανθὴ κόμη</span>) was the most prized. In Homer, -Achilles, Ulysses, and other heroes are represented -with blonde hair. At a later time it -seems to have been not unfrequent to dye -hair, so as to make it either black or blonde, -and this was done by men as well as by -women, especially when the hair was growing -gray.—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> Besides the generic <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coma</i> -we also find the following words signifying the -hair: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capillus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caesaries</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crines</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cincinnus</i>, -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cirrus</i>, the two last words being used to -signify curled hair. In early times the Romans -wore their hair long, and hence the -Romans of the Augustan age designated their -ancestors <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intonsi</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capillati</i>. But after the -introduction of barbers into Italy about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -300, it became the practice to wear the hair -short. The women, too, originally dressed -their hair with great simplicity, but in the -Augustan period a variety of different head-dresses -came into fashion. Sometimes these -head-dresses were raised to a great height by -rows of false curls. So much attention did -the Roman ladies devote to the dressing of -the hair, that they kept slaves especially for -this purpose, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ornatrices</i>, and had them -instructed by a master in the art. Most of -the Greek head-dresses mentioned above were -also worn by the Roman ladies; but the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span> -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mitrae</i> appear to have been confined to prostitutes. -One of the simplest modes of wearing -the hair was allowing it to fall down in -tresses behind, and only confining it by a -band encircling the head. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vitta">Vitta</a>.</span>] Another -favourite plan was platting the hair, and then -fastening it behind with a large pin. Blonde -hair was as much prized by the Romans as -by the Greeks, and hence the Roman ladies -used a kind of composition or wash to make -it appear this colour (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spuma caustica</i>). False -hair or wigs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φενάκη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πηνίκη</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">galerus</i>) were -worn both by Greeks and Romans. Among -both people likewise in ancient times the hair -was cut close in mourning [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>]; and -among both the slaves had their hair cut -close as a mark of servitude.</p> - - -<p id="Comissatio">CŌMISSĀTĬO (derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῶμος</span>), the -name of a drinking entertainment, which -took place after the coena, from which, however, -it must be distinguished. The comissatio -was frequently prolonged to a late hour -at night, whence the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comissari</i> means -“to revel,” and the substantive <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comissator</i> a -“reveller,” or “debauchee.”</p> - - -<p id="Comitia">CŎMĬTĬA. This word is formed from <em>co</em>, -<em>cum</em>, or <em>con</em>, and <em>ire</em>, and therefore <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitium</i> -is a place of meeting, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia</i> the meeting -itself, or the assembled people. In the -Roman constitution the comitia were the -ordinary and legal meetings or assemblies of -the people, and distinct from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contiones</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">concilia</i>. All the powers of government -were divided at Rome between the senate, -the magistrates, and the people in their assemblies. -Properly speaking, the people -alone (the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">populus</i>) was the real sovereign by -whom the power was delegated to the magistrates -and the senate. The sovereign people -or populus, however, was not the same at all -times. In the earliest times of Rome the -populus consisted of the patricians (or patres) -only, the plebs and the clients forming no -part of the populus, but being without the -pale of the state. The original populus was -divided into thirty <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiae</i>, and the assembly -of these curiae (the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia curiata</i>) was the -only assembly in which the populus was represented. -A kind of amalgamation of the -patricians and the plebs afterwards appeared -in the comitia of the centuries, instituted by -king Servius Tullius, and henceforth the term -populus was applied to the united patricians and -plebeians assembled in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia centuriata</i>. -But Servius had also made a local division of -the whole Roman territory into thirty tribes, -which held their meetings in assemblies called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia tributa</i>, which, in the course of time, -acquired the character of national assemblies, -so that the people thus assembled were likewise -designated by the term populus.</p> - -<p>We shall examine in order the nature, -power, and business of each of these different -comitia. (1) <span id="Comitia_cu" class="smcap">Comitia curiata</span> consisted of -the members of the thirty curiae, that is, -the patricians, who formed exclusively the -populus in the early times. They were convened, -in the kingly period, by the king -himself, or by his tribunus celerum, and in -the king’s absence by the praefectus urbi. -After the death of a king the comitia were -held by the interrex. In the republican -period, the president was always one of the -high patrician magistrates, viz. a consul, -praetor, or dictator. They were called together -by lictors or heralds. The votes were -given by curiae, each curia having one collective -vote; but within a curia each citizen -belonging to it had an independent vote, and -the majority of the members of a curia determined -the vote of the whole curia. The -meeting was always held in the comitium. -The comitia curiata did not possess much -power in the kingly period. They could only -be called together when the king (or his representative) -chose, and could only determine -upon matters which the king submitted to -them. The main points upon which the populus -had to decide were the election of the -king, the passing of laws, declarations of war, -the capital punishment of Roman citizens, -and, lastly, certain affairs of the curiae and -gentes. The priestly officers, such as the -Curiones, Flamines Curiales, were likewise -either elected by the curiae, or at least inaugurated -by them. The right of finally deciding -upon the life of Roman citizens (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicia -de capite civis Romani</i>) is said to have been -given to the populus by king Tullus Hostilius. -It must further be remarked, that when the -king had been elected, the populus held a -second meeting, in which he was formally -inducted into his new office. This formality -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex curiata de imperio</i>, whereby -the king received his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imperium</i>, together -with the right of holding the comitia. Down -to the time of Servius Tullius, the comitia -curiata were the only popular assemblies of -Rome, and remained of course in the undiminished -possession of the rights above described; -but the constitution of that king -brought about a great change, by transferring -the principal rights which had hitherto been -enjoyed by the curiae to a new national assembly -or the comitia centuriata. But while -the patricians were obliged to share their -rights with the plebeians, they reserved for -themselves the very important right of sanctioning -or rejecting any measure which had -been passed by the centuries. The sanction -of decrees passed by the centuries is often expressed -by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores fiunt</i>, and down to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span> -the time of the Publilian law no decree of the -centuries could become law without this sanction. -By the Publilian law (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 339) it was -enacted that the curiae should give their -assent before the vote of the comitia centuriata; -so that the veto of the curiae was thus -virtually abolished. The comitia curiata thus -became a mere formality, and, instead of the -thirty curiae themselves giving their votes, -the ceremony was performed by thirty lictors. -The comitia of the curiae were also called -<span id="Comitia_ca" class="smcap">Comitia calata</span> or “the summoned comitia” -(from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calare</i>, i.e. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vocare</i>), when summoned -for the purposes mentioned below:—1. -On the calends it was proclaimed to the -comitia calata on what day of the new -month the nones fell, and perhaps also the -ides as well as the nature of the other days, -namely, whether they were fasti or nefasti, -comitiales, feriae, &c., because all these things -were known in the early times to the pontiffs -exclusively. 2. The inauguration of the -flamines, and after the banishment of the -kings, also that of the rex sacrorum. 3. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testamenti factio</i>, or the making of a will. -4. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">detestatio sacrorum</i>, which was in all -probability an act connected with the testamenti -factio, that is, a solemn declaration, by -which the heir was enjoined to undertake the -sacra privata of the testator along with the -reception of his property. The comitia calata -were summoned by the college of pontiffs, -who also presided in them.</p> - -<p>(2) <span id="Comitia_ce" class="smcap">Comitia centuriata.</span> The object of the -legislation of Servius Tullius was to unite the -different elements of which the Roman people -consisted, into one great political body, in which -power and influence were to be determined by -property and age. The whole people was conceived -as an army (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exercitus</i>), and was therefore -divided into two parts, the cavalry -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equites</i>), and infantry (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pedites</i>). The infantry -was divided into five classes, or, as -Dionysius has it, into six classes, for he regards -the whole body of people, whose property -did not come up to the census of the -fifth class, as a sixth. The class to which a -citizen belonged determined the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tributum</i>, or -war tax, he had to pay, as well as the kind -of service he had to perform in the army and -the armour in which he had to serve. But -for the purpose of voting in the comitia, each -class was subdivided into a number of centuries -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuriae</i>, probably because each was -conceived to contain 100 men, though the -centuries may have greatly differed in the -number of men they contained). Hence the -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Comitia Centuriata</i>. Each century -was divided into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">seniores</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">juniores</i>. -Each century, further, was counted as one -vote, so that a class had as many votes as it -contained centuries. In like manner, the -equites were divided into a number of centuries -or votes. The two principal authorities -on these subdivisions are Livy and Dionysius. -The annexed table will show the -census as well as the number of centuries or -votes assigned to each class.</p> - - -<table class="autotable fs80" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3"><em>According to Livy.</em></td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3"><em>According to Dionysius.</em></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I.</td> -<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 100,000 asses.</td> -<td class="tdr">I.</td> -<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 100 minae.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">40 centuriae seniorum.</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">40 centuriae seniorum.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">40 centuriae juniorum.</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">40 centuriae juniorum.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"> 2 centuriae fabrum.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II.</td> -<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 75,000 asses.</td> -<td class="tdr">II.</td> -<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 75 minae.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">10 centuriae seniorum.</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">10 centuriae seniorum.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">10 centuriae juniorum.</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">10 centuriae juniorum.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"> 2 centuriae fabrum (one</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">voting with the seniores</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">and the other with the</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">juniores).</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 50,000 asses.</td> -<td class="tdr">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 50 minae.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">10 centuriae seniorum.</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">10 centuriae seniorum.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">10 centuriae juniorum.</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">10 centuriae juniorum.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 25,000 asses.</td> -<td class="tdr">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 25 minae.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">10 centuriae seniorum.</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">10 centuriae seniorum.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">10 centuriae juniorum.</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">10 centuriae juniorum.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"> 2 centuriae cornicinum and</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">tubicinum (one voting with</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">the seniores, and the</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">other with the juniores).</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">V.</td> -<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 11,000 asses.</td> -<td class="tdr">V.</td> -<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: 12½ minae.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">15 centuriae seniorum.</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">15 centuriae seniorum.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">15 centuriae juniorum.</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">15 centuriae juniorum.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"> 3 centuriae accensorum,</td> -<td class="tdr">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl">Classis. Census: below 12½</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">cornicinum, tubicinum.</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl">minae.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"> 1 centuria capite censorum.</td> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl"> 1 centuria capite censorum.</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span></p> - -<p class="noindent">According to both Dionysius and Livy, the -equites voted in eighteen centuries before the -seniores of the first class; and hence there -were, according to Livy, 194, and, according -to Dionysius, 193 centuries or votes. The -latter number is the more probable, since -Livy’s even number of 194 centuries would -have rendered it impossible to obtain an absolute -majority. In this manner all Roman -citizens, whether patricians or plebeians, who -had property to a certain amount, were privileged -to take part and vote in the centuriata -comitia, and none were excluded except -slaves, peregrini, women and the aerarii. -The juniores were all men from the age of -seventeen to that of forty-six, and the seniores -all men from the age of forty-six upwards. -The order of voting was arranged in such a -manner, that if the eighteen centuries of the -equites and the eighty centuries of the first -class were agreed upon a measure, the question -was decided at once, there being no need -for calling upon the other classes to vote. -Hence, although all Roman citizens appeared -in these comitia on a footing of equality, yet -by far the greater power was thrown into the -hands of the wealthy.—As regards the functions -of the comitia centuriata, they were—(a.) -<em>The election of magistrates.</em> The magistrates -that were elected by the centuries are -the consuls (whence the assembly is called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia consularia</i>), the praetors (hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia -praetoria</i>), the military tribunes with -consular power, the censors, and the decemvirs. -(b.) <em>Legislation.</em> The legislative power -of the centuries at first consisted in their -passing or rejecting a measure which was -brought before them by the presiding magistrate -in the form of a senatus consultum, so -that the assembly had no right of originating -any legislative measure, but voted only upon -such as were brought before them as resolutions -of the senate. (c.) <em>The decision upon -war</em>, on the ground of a senatus consultum, -likewise belonged to the centuries. Peace -was concluded by a mere senatus consultum, -and without any co-operation of the people. -(d.) <em>The highest judicial power.</em> The comitia -centuriata were in the first place the highest -court of appeal, and in the second, they had -to try all offences committed against the -state; hence, all cases of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perduellio</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">majestas</i>: -and no case involving the life of a Roman -citizen could be decided by any other -court. The sanction of the curiae to the -measures of the centuriae has been already -explained.—The comitia centuriata could be -held only on <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies comitiales</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti</i>, on which it -was lawful to transact business with the people, -and the number of such days in every year -was about 190; but on <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies nefasti</i> (that is, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies festi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriati</i>, comp. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Dies">Dies</a></span>), and, at first -also on the nundinae, no comitia could be -held, until in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 287 the Hortensian law -ordained that the nundinae should be regarded -as dies fasti.—The place where the -centuries met was the Campus Martius, which -contained the septa for the voters, a tabernaculum -for the president, and the villa publica -for the augurs.—The president at the -comitia was the same magistrate who convoked -them, and this right was a privilege of -the consuls, and, in their absence, of the -praetors. An interrex and dictator also, or -his representative, the magister equitum, -might likewise convene and preside at the -comitia. One of the main duties devolving -upon the president, and which he had to perform -before holding the comitia, was to consult -the auspices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicari</i>). When the -auspices were favourable, the people were -called together, which was done by three successive -and distinct acts: the first was quite -a general invitation to come to the assembly -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inlicium</i>). At the same time when this invitation -was proclaimed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">circum moeros</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de -moeris</i>, a horn was blown, which being the -more audible signal, is mentioned by some -writers alone, and without the inlicium. -When upon this signal the people assembled -in irregular masses, there followed the second -call by the accensus, or the call <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad contionem</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventionem</i>; that is, to a regular assembly, -and the crowd then separated, grouping -themselves according to their classes and -ages. Hereupon the consul appeared, ordering -the people to come <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad comitia centuriata</i>; -and led the whole <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exercitus</i>—for, in these -comitia, the Roman people are always conceived -as an exercitus—out of the city, to the -Campus Martius.—It was customary from -the earliest times for an armed force to occupy -the Janiculum, when the people were -assembled in the Campus Martius, for the -purpose of protecting the city against any -sudden attack of the neighbouring people; -and on the Janiculum a vexillum was hoisted -during the whole time that the assembly -lasted. This custom continued to be observed -even at the time when Rome had no -longer anything to fear from the neighbouring -tribes.—When the people were thus regularly -assembled, the business was commenced -with a solemn sacrifice, and a prayer of the -president, who then took his seat on his tribunal. -The president then opened the business -by explaining to the people the subject -for which they had been convened, and concluded -his exposition with the words, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velitis, -jubeatis Quirites</i>, e.g. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bellum indici</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ut -M. Tullio aqua igni interdictum sit</i>, or whatever -the subject might be. This formula was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span> -the standing one in all comitia, and the whole -exposition of the president was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogatio</i>. -When the comitia were assembled for the -purpose of an election, the presiding magistrate -had to read out the names of the candidates, -and might exercise his influence by -recommending the one whom he thought -most fit for the office in question. If the -assembly had been convened for the purpose -of passing a legislative measure, the president -usually recommended the proposal, or he -might grant to others, if they desired it, permission -to speak about the measure, either -in its favour or against it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Contionem dare</i>). -When the comitia acted as a court of justice, -the president stated the crime, proposed the -punishment to be inflicted upon the offender, -and then allowed others to speak either in -defence of the accused or against him. When -the subject brought before the assembly was -sufficiently discussed, the president called -upon the people to prepare for voting by the -words, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ite in suffragium, bene juvantibus diis</i>. -He then passed the stream Petronia, and -went to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">septa</i>.—Respecting the mode of -voting, it is commonly supposed that the -people were always polled by word of mouth, -till the passing of the leges tabellariae about -the middle of the second century before -Christ, when the ballot by means of tabellae -was introduced. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabellariae">Leges Tabellariae</a>.</span>] It -appears, however, that the popular assemblies -voted by ballot, as well as by word of -mouth, long before the passing of the leges -tabellariae, but that instead of using tabellae, -they employed stones or pebbles (the Greek -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψῆφοι</span>), and that each voter received two -stones, one white and the other black, the -former to be used in the approval and the -latter in the condemnation of a measure. -The voting by word of mouth seems to have -been adopted in elections and trials, and the -use of pebbles to have been confined to the -enactment and repeal of laws. Previous to -the leges tabellariae, the rogatores, who subsequently -collected the written votes, stood -at the entrance of the septa, and asked every -citizen for his vote, which was taken down, -and used to determine the vote of each century. -After the introduction of the ballot, if -the business was the passing of a law, each -citizen was provided with two tabellae, one -inscribed V. R. <em>i.e.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uti Rogas</i>, “I vote for -the law,” the other inscribed A. <em>i.e.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antiquo</i>, -“I am for the old law.” If the business -was the election of a magistrate, each citizen -was supplied with only one tablet, on which -the names of the candidates were written, or -the initials of their names; the voter then -placed a mark (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">punctum</i>) against the one for -whom he voted, whence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puncta</i> are spoken of -in the sense of votes. For further particulars -respecting the voting in the comitia, see -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Diribitores">Diribitores</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Situla">Situla</a></span>. In judicial assemblies -every citizen was provided with three -tabellae, one of which was marked with A. -<em>i.e.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Absolvo</i>, “I acquit;” the second with C. -<em>i.e.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Condemno</i>, “I condemn;” and the third -with N. L. <em>i.e.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Non Liquet</i>, “It is not clear -to me.” The first of these was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tabella -absolutoria</i> and the second <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tabella damnatoria</i>, -and hence Cicero calls the former <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">litera -salutaris</i>, and the latter <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">litera tristis</i>.—There -were in the Campus Martius septa or inclosures -(whether they existed from the earliest -times is unknown), into which one class of -citizens was admitted after another for the -purpose of voting. The first that entered -were the eighteen centuries of the equites, -then followed the first class and so on. It -very rarely happened that the lowest class -was called upon to vote, as there was no necessity -for it, unless the first class did not -agree with the equites. After the time when -the comitia of the centuries became amalgamated -with those of the tribes, a large space -near the villa publica was surrounded with -an enclosure, and divided into compartments -for the several tribes. The whole of this enclosure -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ovile, septa, carceres</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cancelli</i>; and in later times a stone building, -containing the whole people, was erected; it -was divided into compartments for the classes -as well as the tribes and centuries; the access -to these compartments was formed by -narrow passages called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pontes</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ponticuli</i>. -On entering, the citizens received their tablets, -and when they had consulted within -the enclosures, they passed out of them again -by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pons</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ponticulus</i>, at which they threw -their vote into a chest (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cista</i>) which was -watched by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogatores</i>. Hereupon the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogatores</i> -collected the tablets, and gave them to -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diribitores</i>, who classified and counted the -votes, and then handed them over to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custodes</i>, -who again checked them off by points -marked on a tablet. The order in which the -centuries voted was determined in the Servian -constitution, in the manner described -above; but after the union of the centuries -and tribes, the order was determined by lot; -and this was a matter of no slight importance, -since it frequently happened that the -vote of the first determined the manner in -which subsequent ones voted. In the case of -elections, the successful candidate was proclaimed -twice, first by the praeco, and then -by the president, and without this renuntiatio -the election was not valid. After all the -business was done, the president pronounced -a prayer, and dismissed the assembly with -the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">discedite</i>.—Cases are frequently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span> -mentioned in which the proceedings of the -assembly were disturbed, so that it was necessary -to defer the business till another day. -This occurred—1, when it was discovered -that the auspices had been unfavourable, or -when the gods manifested their displeasure -by rain, thunder, or lightning; 2, when a -tribune interceded; 3, when the sun set before -the business was over, for it was a principle -that the auspices were valid only for -one day from sunrise to sunset; 4, when a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">morbus comitialis</i> occurred, <em>i.e.</em> when one of -the assembled citizens was seized with an -epileptic fit; 5, when the vexillum was taken -away from the Janiculum, this being a signal -which all citizens had to obey; 6, when any -tumult or insurrection broke out in the city.</p> - -<p>(3) <span id="Comitia_tr" class="smcap">Comitia tributa.</span> These assemblies -likewise were called into existence by the -constitution of Servius Tullius, who divided -the Roman territory into thirty local tribes. -It is a disputed question whether the patricians -were originally included in these -tribes; but, whether they were or not, it is -certain, that by far the majority of the people -in the tribes were plebeians, and that, -consequently, the character of these assemblies -was essentially plebeian. After the -decemvirate, the patricians had certainly -the right of voting in the assemblies of the -tribes, which were then also convened by the -higher magistrates. The assemblies of the -tribes had originally only a local power; they -were intended to collect the tributum, and to -furnish the contingents for the army; they -may further have discussed the internal affairs -of each tribe, such as the making or keeping -up of roads, wells, and the like. But their -influence gradually increased, and they at -length acquired the following powers:—1. -<em>The election of the inferior magistrates</em>, -whose office it was to protect the commonalty -or to superintend the affairs of the tribes. -Hence the tribunes of the plebs were elected -in the comitia tributa. In like manner, the -aediles were elected by them, though the -curule aediles were elected at a different -time from the plebeian aediles and under the -presidency of a consul. At a still later time, -the quaestors and tribunes of the soldiers, -who had before been appointed by the consuls, -were appointed in the assemblies of the -tribes. The proconsuls to be sent into the -provinces, and the prolongation of the imperium -for a magistrate who was already in -a province, were likewise points which were -determined by the tribes in later times. The -inferior magistrates elected by the tribes -are:—the triumviri capitales, triumviri monetales, -the curatores viarum, decemviri litibus -judicandis, tribuni aerarii, magistri -vicorum et pagorum, praefecti annonae, duumviri -navales, quinqueviri muris turribusque -reficiendis, triumviri coloniae deducendae, -triumviri, quatuorviri, &c., mensarii, -and lastly, after the Domitian law, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 104, -also the members of colleges of priests. The -pontifex maximus had been elected by the -people from an earlier time. 2. <em>The legislative -power</em> of the comitia tributa was at first -very insignificant, for all they could do was -to make regulations concerning the local -affairs of the tribes. But after a time, when -the tribes began to be the real representatives -of the people, matters affecting the whole -people also were brought before them by the -tribunes, which, framed as resolutions, were -laid before the senate, where they might -either be sanctioned or rejected. This practice -of the tributa comitia gradually acquired -for them the right of taking the initiative -in any measure, or the right of originating -measures, until, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449, this right was -recognised and sanctioned by a law of L. -Valerius Publicola and M. Horatius Barbatus. -This law gave to the decrees passed by the -tribes the power of a real <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex</i>, binding upon -the whole people, provided they obtained the -sanction of the senate and the populus, that -is, the people assembled in the comitia curiata -or in the comitia centuriata. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -339, the Publilian law enacted <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ut plebiscita -omnes Quirites tenerent</i>. This law was either -a re-enactment of the one passed in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449, -or contained a more detailed specification of -the cases in which plebiscita should be binding -upon the whole nation, or, lastly, it -made their validity independent of the sanction -of other comitia, so that nothing would -be required except the assent of the senate. In -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 287, the Hortensian law was passed, -which seems to have been only a revival and -a confirmation of the two preceding laws, for -it was framed in almost the same terms; but -it may also be, that the Hortensian law made -the plebiscita independent of the sanction of -the senate, so that henceforth the comitia -tributa were quite independent in their legislative -character. 3. <em>The judicial power</em> of -the comitia tributa was much more limited -than that of the comitia centuriata, inasmuch -as they could take cognizance only of -offences against the majesty of the people, -while all crimes committed against the state -were brought before the centuries. Even -patricians, when they had offended against -the commonalty or its members, were tried -and fined by the tribes. This again constitutes -a difference between the judicial power -of the centuries and that of the tribes, for -the former could inflict capital punishment, -but the latter only fines. The comitia tributa<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span> -might assemble either within or without -the city, but not farther from it than -1000 paces, because the power of the tribunes -did not extend farther. For elections -the Campus Martius was usually chosen, but -sometimes also the forum, the Capitol, or the -Circus Flaminius. The presidents were commonly -the tribunes, who were supported by -the aediles, and no matter could be brought -before the tribes without the knowledge and -consent of the tribunes. As the comitia tributa, -however, more and more assumed the -character of national assemblies, the higher -magistrates also sometimes acted as presidents, -though perhaps not without previously -obtaining the permission of the tribunes. -The preparations for the comitia tributa were -less formal and solemn than for those of the -centuries. In the case of elections, the candidates -had to give in their names, and the -president communicated them to the people. -When a legislative measure was to be brought -before the assembly, a tribune made the -people acquainted with it in <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contiones</i>, and -that on the three preceding nundines. The -same was the case when the people were to -meet as a court of justice. The auspicia -were not consulted for the comitia of the -tribes, but the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spectio</i> alone was sufficient, -and the tribunes had the right of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obnuntiatio</i>. -In the comitia the tribune who had been -chosen to preside sat on the tribunal supported -by his colleagues, and laid before the -people the subject of the meeting, concluding -with the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velitis, jubeatis Quirites</i>. The -bill was never read by the tribune himself, -but by a praeco, and then began the debates, -in which persons might either oppose or recommend -the measure, though private persons -had to ask the tribunes for permission -to speak. When the discussion was over the -president called upon the people <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ite in suffragium</i>, -as at the comitia centuriata. They -then formed themselves into their tribes, -which, like the centuries, ascertained their -own votes in enclosures (septa). Which of -the 35 tribes was to give its vote first, was -determined by lot, and that tribe was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praerogativa</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">principium</i> (the others were -termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jure vocatae</i>). The vote of the first -tribe was given by some person of distinction -whose name was mentioned in the plebiscitum, -if it was of a legislative nature. The -manner of collecting the votes was, on the -whole, the same as in the comitia centuriata. -The announcing of the result of the votes -was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">renuntiatio</i>. If it so happened that -two candidates had the same number of votes, -the question was decided by drawing lots. -The circumstances which might cause the -meeting to break up and defer its business till -another day, are the same as those which -put an end to the comitia centuriata.</p> - -<p>(4) <em>The comitia centuriata mixed with the -comitia tributa.</em>—The Servian constitution -was retained unaltered so long as no great -change took place in the republic; but when -the coinage and the standard of property had -become altered, when the constitution of the -army had been placed on a different footing, -and, above all, when the plebeians began to -be recognized as a great and essential element -in the Roman state, it must have been -found inconvenient to leave to the equites and -the first class so great a preponderance in -the comitia of the centuries, and it became -necessary to secure more power and influence -to the democratic element. A change, therefore, -took place, and the comitia centuriata -became mixed with the comitia tributa; but -neither the time nor the exact nature of this -change is accurately ascertained. Some refer -it to the censorship of C. Flaminius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 220, -others to that of Q. Fabius and P. Decius, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304. But there is evidence that it must -be assigned to even an earlier date than this, -for the (tribus) praerogativa is mentioned as -early as <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 396 in the election of the consular -tribunes, where the pure comitia tributa -cannot be meant, and a centuria praerogativa -is a thing unknown. With regard to -the manner of the change, the most probable -opinion is, that the citizens of each tribe were -divided into five property classes, each consisting -of seniores and juniores, so that each -of the 35 tribes contained ten centuries, and -all the tribes together 350 centuries. According -to this new arrangement, the five ancient -classes, divided into seniores and juniores, -continued to exist as before, but henceforth -they were most closely united with the tribes, -whereas before the tribes had been mere -local divisions and entirely independent of -property. The union now effected was that -the classes became subdivisions of the tribes, -and that accordingly centuries occur both in -the classes and in the tribes. Each tribe contained -ten centuries, two of the first class -(one of the seniores and one of the juniores), -two of the second (likewise seniores and -juniores), two of the third, two of the fourth, -and two of the fifth class. The equites were -likewise divided according to tribes and centuries, -and they seem to have voted with the -first class, and to have been in fact included -in it, so as to be called centuries of the first -class. The centuries of the cornicines, tubicines -and fabri, which are no longer mentioned, -probably ceased to exist as distinct -centuries. The voting by tribes can hardly -be conceived, except in those cases in which -the ten centuries of every tribe were unanimous;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span> -this may have been the case very -often, and when it was so, the tribus praerogativa -was certainly the tribe chosen by -lot to give its unanimous vote first. But if -there was any difference of opinion among the -centuries making up a tribe, the true majority -could only be ascertained by choosing by lot -one of the 70 centuriae of the first class to -give its vote first, or rather it was decided by -lot from which tribe the two centuries of the -first class were to be taken to give their vote -first. (Hence the plural <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praerogativae</i>.) The -tribe, moreover, to which those centuries -belonged which voted first, was itself likewise -called tribus praerogativa. Of the two centuries, -again, that of seniores gave its vote -before the juniores, and in the documents -both were called by the name of their tribe, -as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Galeria juniorum</i>, <em>i.e.</em> the juniores of the -first class in the tribus Galeria, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aniensis juniorum, -Veturia juniorum</i>. As soon as the -praerogativa had voted, the renuntiatio took -place, and the remaining centuries then deliberated -whether they should vote the same -way or not. When this was done all the -centuries of the first tribe proceeded to vote -at once, for there would not have been time -for the 350 centuries to vote one after another, -as was done by the 193 centuries in the -comitia centuriata.—These comitia of the -centuries combined with the tribes were far -more democratical than the comitia of the -centuries; they continued to be held, and -preserved their power along with the comitia -tributa, even after the latter had acquired -their supreme importance in the republic. -During the time of the moral and political -corruption of the Romans, the latter appear -to have been chiefly attended by the populace, -which was guided by the tribunes, and the -wealthier and more respectable citizens had -little influence in them. When the libertini -and all the Italians were incorporated in the -old thirty-five tribes, and when the political -corruption had reached its height, no trace of -the sedate and moderate character was left by -which the comitia tributa had been distinguished -in former times. Under Augustus -the comitia still sanctioned new laws and -elected magistrates, but their whole proceedings -were a mere farce, for they could not -venture to elect any other persons than those -recommended by the emperor. Tiberius deprived -the people even of this shadow of their -former power, and conferred the power of -election upon the senate. When the elections -were made by the senate the result was announced -to the people assembled as comitia -centuriata or tributa. Legislation was taken -away from the comitia entirely, and was completely -in the hands of the senate and the -emperor. From this time the comitia may be -said to have ceased to exist, as all the sovereign -power formerly possessed by the people -was conferred upon the emperor by the lex -regia. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Regia">Lex Regia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Commeatus">COMMĔĀTUS, a furlough, or leave of absence -from the army for a certain time.</p> - - -<p id="Commentarius">COMMENTĀRĬUS or COMMENTĀRĬUM, -a book of memoirs or memorandum-book, -whence the expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caesaris Commentarii</i>. -It is also used for a lawyer’s brief, the notes -of a speech, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Commercium">COMMERCĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a> (Roman).</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Comoedia">CŌMOEDĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωμῳδία</span>), comedy. (1) -<span class="smcap">Greek.</span> Comedy took its rise at the vintage -festivals of Dionysus. It originated with -those who led off the phallic songs of the -band of revellers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῶμος</span>), who at the vintage -festivals of Dionysus gave expression to the -feelings of exuberant joy and merriment which -were regarded as appropriate to the occasion, -by parading about, partly on foot, partly in -waggons, with the symbol of the productive -powers of nature, singing a wild, jovial song -in honour of Dionysus and his companions. -These songs were commonly interspersed -with, or followed by petulant, extemporal -witticisms with which the revellers assailed -the bystanders. This origin of comedy is -indicated by the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωμῳδία</span>, which undoubtedly -means “the song of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῶμος</span>,” -though it has sometimes been derived from -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώμη</span>, as if the meaning were “a village -song.” It was among the Dorians that -comedy first assumed any thing of a regular -shape. The Megarians, both in the mother -country and in Sicily, claimed to be considered -as its originators, and so far as the -comedy of Athens is concerned, the claim of -the former appears well founded. Among -the Athenians the first attempts at comedy -were made at Icaria by Susarion, a native of -Megara, about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 578. Susarion no doubt -substituted for the more ancient improvisations -of the chorus and its leader premeditated -compositions. There would seem also -to have been some kind of poetical contest, -for we learn that the prize for the successful -poet was a basket of figs and a jar of wine. -It was also the practice of those who took -part in the comus to smear their faces with -wine-lees, either to prevent their features -from being recognised, or to give themselves -a more grotesque appearance. Hence comedy -came to be called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρυγῳδία</span>, or lee-song. -Others connected the name with the circumstance -of a jar of new wine (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρύξ</span>) being the -prize for the successful poet. It was, however, -in Sicily, that comedy was earliest -brought to something like perfection. Epicharmus -was the first writer who gave it a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span> -new form, and introduced a regular plot. -In his efforts he appears to have been associated -with Phormis, a somewhat older contemporary. -The Megarians in Sicily claimed -the honour of the invention of comedy, on -account of Epicharmus having lived in Megara -before he went to Syracuse. In Attica, -the first comic poet of any importance whom -we hear of after Susarion is Chionides, who -is said to have brought out plays in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 488. -Euetes, Euxenides, and Myllus were probably -contemporaries of Chionides; he was -followed by Magnes and Ecphantides. Their -compositions, however, seem to have been -little but the reproduction of the old Megaric -farce of Susarion, differing, no doubt, in -form, by the introduction of an actor or -actors, separate from the chorus, in imitation -of the improvements that had been made in -tragedy.—That branch of the Attic drama -which was called the <em>Old Comedy</em>, begins -properly with Cratinus, who was to comedy -very much what Aeschylus was to tragedy. -The old comedy has been described as the -comedy of caricature, and such indeed it was, -but it was also a great deal more. As it appeared -in the hands of its great masters Cratinus, -Hermippus, Eupolis, and especially -Aristophanes, its main characteristic was -that it was throughout <em>political</em>. Everything -that bore upon the political or social interests -of the Athenians furnished materials for it. -The old Attic comedy lasted from Ol. 80 to -Ol. 94 (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 458-404). From Cratinus to -Theopompus there were forty-one poets, fourteen -of whom preceded Aristophanes. The -later pieces of Aristophanes belong to the -Middle rather than to the Old Comedy. The -chorus in a comedy consisted of twenty-four. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a>.</span>] The dance of the chorus was the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρδαξ</span>, the movements of which were capricious -and licentious, consisting partly in a -reeling to and fro, in imitation of a drunken -man, and in various unseemly and immodest -gestures. Comedies have choric songs, but -no <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στάσιμα</span>, or songs between acts. The most -important of the choral parts was the Parabasis, -when the actors having left the stage, the -chorus, which was ordinarily divided into four -rows, containing six each, and was turned -towards the stage, turned round, and advancing -towards the spectators delivered an -address to them in the name of the poet, -either on public topics of general interest, or -on matters which concerned the poet personally, -criticising his rivals and calling attention -to his merits; the address having -nothing whatever to do with the action of the -play. The parabasis was not universally introduced: -three plays of Aristophanes, the -Ecclesiazusae, Lysistrata, and Plutus, have -none. As the old Attic comedy was the offspring -of the political and social vigour and -freedom of the age during which it flourished, -it naturally declined and ceased with the decline -and overthrow of the freedom and vigour -which were necessary for its development.—It -was replaced by a comedy of a -somewhat different style, which was known -as the <em>Middle Comedy</em>, the age of which -lasted from the end of the Peloponnesian war -to the overthrow of liberty by Philip of Macedon. -(Ol. 94-110.) The comedy of this -period found its materials in satirizing classes -of people instead of individuals, in criticising -the systems and merits of philosophers and -literary men, and in parodies of the compositions -of living and earlier poets, and travesties -of mythological subjects. It formed -a transition from the old to the new comedy, -and approximated to the latter in the greater -attention to the construction of plots which -seem frequently to have been founded on -amorous intrigues, and in the absence of that -wild grotesqueness which marked the old -comedy. As regards its external form, the -plays of the middle comedy, generally speaking, -had neither parabasis nor chorus. The most -celebrated authors of the middle comedy were -Antiphanes and Alexis.—The <em>New Comedy</em> -was a further development of the last mentioned -kind. It answered as nearly as may -be to the modern comedy of manners or character. -Dropping for the most part personal -allusions, caricature, ridicule, and parody, -which, in a more general form than in the -old comedy, had maintained their ground in -the middle comedy, the poets of the new -comedy made it their business to reproduce -in a generalized form a picture of the every-day -life of those by whom they were surrounded. -There were various standing characters -which found a place in most plays, -such as we find in the plays of Plautus and -Terence, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">leno perjurus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amator fervidus</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">servulus callidus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amica illudens</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sodalis opitulator</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">miles proeliator</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parasitus edax</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parentes -tenaces</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">meretrices procaces</i>. In -the new comedy there was no chorus. It -flourished from about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 340 to <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 260. -The poets of the new comedy amounted to 64 -in number. The most distinguished was -Menander.—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>—The accounts of -the early stages of comic poetry among the -Romans are scanty. Scenic entertainments -were introduced at Rome in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 363 from -Etruria, where it would seem they were a -familiar amusement. Tuscan players (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludiones</i>), -who were fetched from Etruria, exhibited -a sort of pantomimic dance to the -music of a flute, without any song accompanying -their dance, and without regular<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span> -dramatic gesticulation. The amusement became -popular, and was imitated by the young -Romans, who improved upon the original -entertainment by uniting with it extemporaneous -mutual raillery, composed in a rude -irregular measure, a species of diversion -which had been long known among the Romans -at their agrarian festivals under the -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fescennina</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fescennina">Fescennina</a></span>]. It was -123 years after the first introduction of these -scenic performances before the improvement -was introduced of having a regular plot. -This advance was made by Livius Andronicus, -a native of Magna Graecia, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 240. His -pieces, which were both tragedies and comedies, -were merely adaptations of Greek -dramas. The representation of regular plays -of this sort was now left to those who were -histriones by profession, and who were very -commonly either foreigners or slaves; the -free-born youth of Rome confined their own -scenic performances to the older, irregular -farces, which long maintained their ground, -and were subsequently called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exodia</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exodia">Exodia</a>; -<a href="#Satura">Satura</a>.</span>] Livius, as was common at -that time, was himself an actor in his own -pieces. The first imitator of the dramatic -works of Livius Andronicus was Cn. Naevius, -a native of Campania. He composed -both tragedies and comedies, which were -either translations or imitations of those of -Greek writers. The most distinguished successors -of Naevius were Plautus, who chiefly -imitated Epicharmus, and Terence, whose -materials were drawn mostly from Menander, -Diphilus, Philemon, and Apollodorus. The -comedy of the Romans was throughout but -an imitation of that of the Greeks, and -chiefly of the new comedy. Where the characters -were ostensibly Greek, and the scene -laid in Athens or some other Greek town, the -comedies were termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palliatae</i>. All the -comedies of Terence and Plautus belong to -this class. When the story and characters -were Roman, the plays were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">togatae</i>. -But the fabulae togatae were in fact little else -than Greek comedies clothed in a Latin dress.</p> - -<p>The togatae were divided into two classes, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabeatae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabernariae</i>, according as the -subject was taken from high or from low life. -In the comediae palliatae, the costume of the -ordinary actors was the Greek pallium. The -plays which bore the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetextatae</i>, -were not so much tragedies as historical -plays. It is a mistake to represent them as -comedies. There was a species of tragi-comedy, -named from the poet who introduced -that style <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rhinthonica</i>. A tragedy the -argument of which was Greek was termed -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crepidata</i>. The mimes are sometimes classed -with the Latin comedies. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mimus">Mimus</a>.</span>] The -mimes differed from the comedies in little -more than the predominance of the mimic -representation over the dialogue. Latin comedies -had no chorus, any more than the -dramas of the new comedy, of which they -were for the most part imitations. Like -them, too, they were introduced by a prologue, -which answered some of the purposes -of the parabasis of the old comedy, so far as -bespeaking the good will of the spectators, -and defending the poet against his rivals and -enemies. It also communicated so much information -as was necessary to understand -the story of the play. The prologue was -commonly spoken by one of the players, or, -perhaps, by the manager of the troop. Respecting -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Atellanae fabulae</i> see that article.</p> - - -<p id="Compitalia">COMPĬTĀLĬA, also called LŪDI COMPĬTĀLĬCĬI, -a festival celebrated once a year in -honour of the lares compitales, to whom sacrifices -were offered at the places where two -or more ways met. In the time of Augustus, -the ludi compitalicii had gone out of fashion, -but were restored by him. The compitalia -belonged to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriae conceptivae</i>, that is, -festivals which were celebrated on days appointed -annually by the magistrates or -priests. The exact day on which this festival -was celebrated appears to have varied, -though it was always in the winter, generally -at the beginning of January.</p> - - -<p id="Compluvium">COMPLŪVĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Concilium">CONCĬLĬUM generally has the same -meaning as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventio</i>, but the -technical import of concilium in the Roman -constitution was an assembly of a <em>portion</em> of -the people as distinct from the general assemblies -or comitia. Accordingly, as the -comitia tributa embraced only a portion of -the Roman people, viz. the plebeians, these -comitia are often designated by the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">concilia -plebis</i>. Concilium is also used by Latin -writers to denote the assemblies or meetings -of confederate towns or nations, at which -either their deputies alone or any of the -citizens met who had time and inclination, -and thus formed a representative assembly. -Such an assembly or diet is commonly designated -as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">commune concilium</i>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ κοινόν</span>, -e.g. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Achaeorum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aetolorum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Boeotorum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Macedoniae</i>, -and the like.</p> - - -<p id="Confarreatio">CONFARRĔĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Congiarium">CONGĬĀRĬUM (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scil. vas</i>, from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congius</i>), a -vessel containing a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congius</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Congius">Congius</a>.</span>] In -the early times of the Roman republic the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congius</i> was the usual measure of oil or wine -which was, on certain occasions, distributed -among the people; and thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congiarium</i> became -a name for liberal donations to the -people, in general, whether consisting of oil, -wine, corn, money, or other things, while<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span> -donations made to the soldiers were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">donativa</i>, though they were sometimes also -termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congiaria</i>. Many coins of the Roman -emperors were struck in commemoration of -such congiaria. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Congiarium</i> was, moreover, -occasionally used simply to designate a present -or a pension given by a person of high -rank, or a prince, to his friends.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill113" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill113.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Congiarium. (Coin of Trajan.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Congius">CONGĬUS, a Roman liquid measure, which -contained six sextarii, or the eighth part of -the amphora (nearly six pints Eng.) It was -equal to the larger <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">chous</i> of the Greeks.</p> - - -<p id="Connubium">CONNUBĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Conopeum">CŌNŌPĒUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωνωπεῖον</span>), a gnat or musquito-curtain, -<em>i.e.</em> a covering made to be expanded -over beds and couches to keep away -gnats and other flying insects, so called from -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώνωψ</span>, a gnat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Conopeum</i> is the origin of -the English word <em>canopy</em>.</p> - - -<p id="Conquisitores">CONQUĪSĪTŌRES, persons employed to go -about the country and impress soldiers, when -there was a difficulty in completing a levy. -Sometimes commissioners were appointed by -a decree of the senate for the purpose of -making a conquisitio.</p> - - -<p id="Consanguinei">CONSANGUĬNĔI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cognati">Cognati</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Consecratio">CONSĔCRĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apotheosis">Apotheosis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Consilium">CONSĬLĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Conventus">Conventus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Consualia">CONSUĀLĬA, a festival, with games, celebrated -by the Romans, according to Ovid and -others, in honour of Consus, the god of -secret deliberations, or, according to Livy, of -Neptunus Equestris. Some writers, however, -say that Neptunus Equestris and Consus -were only different names for one and -the same deity. It was solemnised every -year in the circus, by the symbolical ceremony -of uncovering an altar dedicated to the -god, which was buried in the earth. For -Romulus, who was considered as the founder -of the festival, was said to have discovered -an altar in the earth on that spot. The solemnity -took place on the 21st of August -with horse and chariot races, and libations -were poured into the flames which consumed -the sacrifices. During these festive games -horses and mules were not allowed to do any -work, and were adorned with garlands of -flowers. It was at their first celebration that, -according to the ancient legend, the Sabine -maidens were carried off.</p> - - -<p id="Consul">CONSUL (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕπατος</span>), the title of the two -chief officers or magistrates of the Roman -republic. The word is probably composed of -<em>con</em> and <em>sul</em>, which contains the same root as -the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salio</i>, so that consules signifies -“those who come together,” just as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praesul</i> -means “one who goes before,” and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsul</i>, -“one who goes out.” The consulship is said -to have been instituted upon the expulsion of -the kings in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 509, when the kingly power -was transferred to two magistrates, whose -office lasted only for one year, that it might -not degenerate into tyranny by being vested -longer in the same persons; and for the same -reason two were appointed instead of one -king, as neither could undertake anything -unless it was sanctioned and approved by his -colleague. Their original title was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetores</i>, -or commanders of the armies, but this was -changed into that of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consules</i> in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449, -and the latter title remained in use until the -latest periods of the Roman empire.—The -consuls were at first elected from the patricians -exclusively. Their office was suspended -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 451, and its functions were performed -by ten high commissioners (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decemviri</i>), -appointed to frame a code of laws. On -the re-establishment of the consulship in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -449, the tribunes proposed that one of the -consuls should be chosen from the plebeians, -but this was strenuously resisted by the patricians, -and a compromise effected by suspending -the consular office, and creating in -its stead military tribunes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni militum</i>) -with consular power, who might be elected -indifferently both from the patricians and -plebeians. They were first appointed in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -444. The plebeians, however, were not satisfied -with this concession, and still endeavoured -to attain the higher dignity of the -consulship. At length, after a serious and -long-protracted struggle between the two -orders, it was enacted by the Licinian law, -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 367, that henceforth the consulship -should be divided between the patricians and -plebeians, and that one of the consuls should -always be a plebeian. Accordingly, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -366 L. Sextius was elected the first plebeian -consul. This law, however, was not always -observed, and it still frequently happened -that both consuls were patricians, until, in -later times, when the difference between the -two orders had entirely ceased, and the plebeians -were on a footing of perfect equality -with the patricians, the consuls were elected<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span> -from both orders indiscriminately.—During -the later periods of the republic it was customary -for persons to pass through several -subordinate magistracies before they were -elected consuls, though this rule was departed -from in many particular cases. The -age at which a person was eligible to the -consulship was fixed in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 180, by the lex -annalis [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Annalis">Lex Annalis</a></span>], at 43.—The election -of the consuls always took place in the comitia -of the centuries, some time before the -expiration of the official year of the actual -consuls, and the election was conducted -either by the actual consuls themselves, or -by an interrex or a dictator, and the persons -elected, until they entered upon their office, -were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consules designati</i>. While they -were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">designati</i>, they were in reality no more -than private persons, but still they might -exercise considerable influence upon public -affairs, for in the senate they were asked for -their opinion first. If they had been guilty -of any illegal act, either before or during -their election, such as bribery (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambitus</i>), they -were liable to prosecution, and the election -might be declared void.—The time at which -the old consuls laid down their office and the -consules designati entered upon theirs, differed -at different times. The first consuls -are said to have entered upon their office in -October, then we find mention of the 1st of -August, of the ides of December, the 1st of -July, and very frequently of the ides of -March, until, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 153, it became an established -rule for the consuls to enter upon -their duties on the 1st of January; and this -custom remained down to the end of the republic. -On that day the senators, equites, -and citizens of all classes conducted in a procession -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deductio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">processus consularis</i>) the -new magistrates from their residence to the -capitol, where, if the auspices were favourable, -the consuls offered up sacrifices, and -were inaugurated. From thence the procession -went to the curia, where the senate -assembled, and where the consuls returned -thanks for their election. There they might -also speak on any subject that was of importance -to the republic, such as peace and -war, the distribution of provinces, the general -condition of the state, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriae Latinae</i>, -and the like. During the first five days of -their office they had to convoke a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contio</i>, and -publicly to take a solemn oath, by which, in -the earliest times, they pledged themselves -not to allow any one to assume regal power -at Rome, but afterwards only to maintain the -laws of the republic (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in leges jurare</i>). On the -expiration of their office they had to take -another oath, stating that they had faithfully -obeyed the laws, and not done anything -against the constitution. The new consuls -on entering upon their office usually invited -their friends to a banquet. When a consul -died during his year of office, his colleague -immediately convoked the comitia to elect a -new one. A consul thus elected to fill a -vacancy was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consul suffectus</i>, but his -powers were not equal to those of an ordinary -consul, for he could not preside at the -elections of other magistrates, not even in -the case of the death of his colleague. In the -latter case, as well as when the consuls were -prevented by illness or other circumstances, -the comitia were held by an interrex or a -dictator.—The outward distinctions of the -consuls were, with few exceptions, the same -as those which had formerly belonged to the -kings. The principal distinction was the -twelve lictors with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasces</i>, who preceded -the consuls; but the axes did not appear in -the fasces within the city. This outward -sign of their power was taken by the consuls -in turn every month, and while one -consul was preceded by the twelve lictors -with their fasces, the other was during the -same month preceded by an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accensus</i>, and -followed by the lictors; and the one was -called during that month <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consul major</i>, and -the other <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consul minor</i>. Other distinctions -of the consuls were the curule chair (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella -curulis</i>), and the toga with the purple hem -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga praetexta</i>). The ivory sceptre (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scipio</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sceptrum</i>) and purple toga were not distinctions -of the consuls in general, but only -when they celebrated a triumph. Under the -empire a consul was sometimes distinguished -by the senate with a sceptre bearing an eagle -on the top, but his regular ensigns consisted -of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga picta</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabea</i>, and the fasces, -both within and without the city.—The consuls -were the highest ordinary magistrates at -Rome. Their power was at first quite equal -to that of the kings, except that it was -limited to one year, and that the office of -high priest, which had been vested in the -king, was at the very beginning detached -from the consulship, and given to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rex -sacrorum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rex sacrificulus</i>. Yet the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia -majora</i> continued to belong to the -consuls. This regal power of the consuls, -however, was gradually curtailed by various -laws, especially by the institution of the tribunes -of the plebs, whose province it was to -protect the plebeians against the unjust or -oppressive commands of the patrician magistrates. -Nay, in the course of time, whole -branches of the consular power were detached -from it; the reason for which was, that, as -the patricians were compelled to allow the -plebeians a share in the highest magistracy, -they stripped it of as much of its original<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span> -power as they could, and reserved these detached -portions for themselves. In this manner -the censorship was detached from the -consulship in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 443, and the praetorship -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 367. But notwithstanding all this, -the consuls remained the highest magistrates, -and all other magistrates, except the tribunes -of the plebs, were obliged to obey their commands, -and show them great outward respect. -The functions of the consuls during -the time of the republic may be conveniently -described under the following heads:—1. -They were in all civil matters the heads of -the state, being invested with the imperium, -which emanated from the sovereign people, -and which they held during the time of their -office. In this capacity they had the right of -convoking both the senate and the assembly -of the people; they presided in each (in the -comitia of the curies as well as in those of -the centuries), and they took care that the -resolutions of the senate and people were -carried into effect. They might also convoke -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contiones</i>, whenever they thought it necessary. -In the senate they conducted the discussions, -and put the questions to the vote, -thus exercising the greatest influence upon -all matters which were brought before the -senate either by themselves or by others. -When a decree was passed by the senate, the -consuls were usually commissioned to see that -it was carried into effect; though there are -also instances of the consuls opposing a decree -of the senate. 2. The supreme command -of the armies belonged to the consuls -alone by virtue of their imperium. Accordingly, -when a war was decreed, they were -ordered by a senatus consultum to levy the -troops, whose number was determined by the -senate, and they appointed most of the other -military officers. While at the head of their -armies they had full power of life and death -over their soldiers, who, on their enrolment, -had to take an oath (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacramentum</i>) to be -faithful and obedient to the commands of the -consuls. When the consuls had entered upon -their office, the senate assigned them their -provinces, that is, their spheres of action, -and the consuls either settled between themselves -which province each was to have, or, -which was more common, they drew lots. -Usually one consul remained at Rome, while -the other went out at the head of the army: -sometimes both left the city, and carried on -war in different quarters; and sometimes, -when the danger was very pressing, both -consuls commanded the armies against one -and the same enemy. If it was deemed advisable, -the imperium of one or of both consuls -was prolonged for the particular province -in which they were engaged, in which case -they had the title of proconsuls [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Proconsul">Proconsul</a></span>], -and their successors either remained at -Rome, or were engaged in other quarters. -During the latter period of the republic the -consuls remained at Rome during the time of -their office, and on its expiration they had a -foreign province (in the real sense of the -word) assigned to them, where they undertook -either the peaceful administration, or -carried on war against internal or external -enemies. While in their provinces, both -the consuls and proconsuls had the power -of life and death over the provincials, for -they were looked upon there as the chief -military commanders; and the provincials, -being <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peregrini</i>, did not enjoy the privileges -of Roman citizens. 3. The supreme jurisdiction -was part of the consular imperium, and -as such vested in the consuls so long as there -were no praetors. In civil cases they administered -justice to the patricians as well as -plebeians, either acting themselves as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judices</i>, -or appointing others as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judices</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arbitri</i>. -In criminal cases there appears from early -times to have been this difference: that patricians -charged with capital offences were -tried by the curies, while the plebeians came -under the jurisdiction of the consuls, whose -power, however, was in this case rather -limited, partly by the intercession of the tribunes -of the people, and partly by the right -of appeal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>) from the sentence of -the consuls. The consuls might, further, -summon any citizen before their tribunal, -and, in case of disobedience, seize him (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prendere</i>), -and fine him up to a certain amount. -After the institution of the praetorship, the -consuls no longer possessed any regular ordinary -jurisdiction; and whenever they exercised -it, it was an exception to the general -custom, and only by a special command of -the senate. 4. Previous to the institution -of the censorship the consuls had to perform -all the functions which afterwards belonged -to the censors: they were accordingly the -highest officers of finance, held the census, -drew up the lists of the senators, equites, &c. -After the establishment of the censorship they -still retained the general superintendence of -the public economy, inasmuch as they had -the keys of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aerarium</i>, and as the quaestors -or paymasters were dependent on them. -But still in the management of the finances -the consuls were at all times under the control -of the senate. 5. In all relations with -foreign states the consuls were the representatives -of the Roman republic. Hence they -might conclude peace or treaties with foreign -nations, which had, however, to be sanctioned -by the senate and people at Rome; -and unless this sanction was obtained a treaty<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span> -was void. They received foreign ambassadors, -and introduced them into the senate, -and in short all negotiations with foreign -princes or nations passed through their -hands. 6. In matters connected with their -own official functions, the consuls, like all -other magistrates, had the power of issuing -proclamations or orders (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edicta</i>), which might -be binding either for the occasion only, or -remain in force permanently.—Although the -consular power had been gradually diminished, -it was in cases of imminent danger -restored to its original and full extent, by a -decree of the senate calling upon the consuls -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">videant ne quid res publica detrimenti capiat</i>. -In such cases the consuls received sovereign -power, but they were responsible for the -manner in which they had exercised it.—It -has already been observed, that to avoid collision -and confusion, the two consuls did not -possess the same power at the same time, but -that each had the imperium every other -month. The one who possessed it, as the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consul major</i>, exercised all the rights of the -office, though he always consulted his colleague. -In the earliest times it was customary -for the elder of the two consuls to take -the imperium first, afterwards the one who -had had the greater number of votes at the -election, and had therefore been proclaimed -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">renuntiare</i>) first. In the time of Augustus -it was enacted that the consul who had most -children should take precedence of the other; -and some distinction of rank continued to be -observed down to the latest times of the empire.—Towards -the end of the republic the -consulship lost its power and importance. -The first severe blow it received was from -Julius Caesar, the dictator, for he received -the consulship in addition to his dictatorship, -or he arbitrarily ordered others to be elected, -who were mere nominal officers, and were -allowed to do nothing without his sanction. -He himself was elected consul at first for five, -then for ten years, and at last for life. Under -Augustus the consulship was a mere shadow of -what it had been: the consuls no longer held -their office for a whole year, but usually for a -few months only; and hence it happened -that sometimes one year saw six, twelve, or -even twenty-five consuls. Those who were -elected the first in the year ranked higher -than the rest, and their names alone were -used to mark the year, according to the ancient -custom of the Romans of marking the -date of an event by the names of the consuls -of the year in which the event occurred. -During the last period of the empire it became -the practice to have titular or honorary -consuls, who were elected by the senate -and confirmed by the emperor. Constantine -appointed two consuls, one for Rome and -another for Constantinople, who held their -office for a whole year, and whose functions -were only those of chief justices. All the -other consuls were designated as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">honorarii</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consulares</i>. But though the consulship had -thus become almost an empty title, it was -still regarded as the highest dignity in the -empire, and as the object of the greatest ambition. -It was connected with very great -expenses, partly on account of the public -games which a consul had to provide, and -partly on account of the large donations he -had to make to the people. The last consul -at Rome was Decimus Theodorus Paulinus, -<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 536, and at Constantinople, Flavius Basilius -junior, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 541.</p> - - -<p id="Consularis">CONSŬLARIS, signified, under the republic, -a person who had held the office of -consul; but under the empire, it was the -title of many magistrates and public officers, -who enjoyed the insignia of consular dignity, -without having filled the office of consul. -Thus we find commanders of armies and governors -of provinces called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Consulares</i> under -the empire.</p> - - -<p id="Contio">CONTĬO, a contraction for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventio</i>, that -is, a meeting, or a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventus</i>. In the technical -sense, however, a contio was an assembly -of the people at Rome convened by a -magistrate for the purpose of making the -people acquainted with measures which were -to be brought before the next comitia, and of -working upon them either to support or oppose -the measure. But no question of any -kind could be decided by a contio, and this -constitutes the difference between contiones -and comitia. Still contiones were also -convened for other purposes, <em>e.g.</em> of persuading -the people to take part in a war, or -of bringing complaints against a party in the -republic. Every magistrate had the right to -convene contiones, but it was most frequently -exercised by the consuls and tribunes, and -the latter more especially exercised a great -influence over the people in and through these -contiones. A magistrate who was higher in -rank than the one who had convened a contio, -had the right to order the people to disperse, -if he disapproved of the object. It should be -remarked, that the term contio is also used -to designate the speeches and harangues addressed -to the people in an assembly, and -that in a loose mode of speaking, contio denotes -any assembly of the people.</p> - - -<p id="Contubernales">CONTŬBERNĀLES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύσκηνοι</span>), signified -originally men who served in the same army -and lived in the same tent. The word is derived -from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taberna</i> (afterwards <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabernaculum</i>), -which was the original name for a -military tent, as it was made of boards (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i>).<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span> -Each tent was occupied by ten soldiers -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contubernales</i>), with a subordinate -officer at their head, who was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decanus</i>, -and in later times <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caput contubernii</i>. Young -Romans of illustrious families used to accompany -a distinguished general on his expeditions, -or to his province, for the purpose of -gaining under his superintendence a practical -training in the art of war, or in the administration -of public affairs, and were, like soldiers -living in the same tent, called his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contubernales</i>. -In a still wider sense, the name -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contubernales</i> was applied to persons connected -by ties of intimate friendship, and -living under the same roof; and hence, when -a freeman and a slave, or two slaves, who -were not allowed to contract a legal marriage, -lived together as husband and wife, -they were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contubernales</i>; and their -connection, as well as their place of residence, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contubernium</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Contubernium">CONTŬBERNĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Contubernales">Contubernales</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Convenire">CONVĔNĪRE IN MĂNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Conventus">CONVENTUS, was the name applied to -the whole body of Roman citizens who were -either permanently or for a time settled in a -province. In order to facilitate the administration -of justice, a province was divided into -a number of districts or circuits, each of which -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">forum</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurisdictio</i>. -Roman citizens living in a province were entirely -under the jurisdiction of the proconsul; -and at certain times of the year, fixed by the -proconsul, they assembled in the chief town -of the district, and this meeting bore the -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνοδος</span>). Hence the expressions—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conventus -agere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peragere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">convocare</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dimittere</i>. At this conventus litigant -parties applied to the proconsul, who selected -a number of judges from the conventus to try -their causes. The proconsul himself presided -at the trials, and pronounced the sentence -according to the views of the judges, -who were his assessors (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consilium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consiliarii</i>). -These conventus appear to have -been generally held after the proconsul had -settled the military affairs of the province; at -least, when Caesar was proconsul of Gaul, he -made it a regular practice to hold the conventus -after his armies had retired to their -winter quarters.</p> - - -<p id="Convivium">CONVĪVĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cophinus">CŎPHĬNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόφινος</span>, Engl. <em>coffin</em>), a large -kind of wicker basket, made of willow -branches. It would seem that it was used -by the Greeks as a basket or cage for birds. -The Romans used it for agricultural purposes, -and it sometimes formed a kind of -portable hot-bed. Juvenal, when speaking -of the Jews, uses the expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cophinus et -foenum</i> (a truss of hay), figuratively to designate -their poverty.</p> - - -<p id="Corbis">CORBIS, <em>dim</em>. CORBŬLA, CORBĬCŬLA, a -basket of very peculiar form and common use -among the Romans, both for agricultural and -other purposes. It was made of osiers twisted -together, and was of a conical or pyramidal -shape. A basket answering precisely to this -description, both in form and material, is still -to be seen in every-day use among the Campanian -peasantry, which is called in the language -of the country “la corbella.”</p> - - -<p id="Corbitae">CORBĪTAE, merchantmen of the larger -class, so called because they hung out a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corbis</i> at the mast-head for a sign. They -were also termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">onerariae</i>; and hence Plautus, -in order to designate the voracious appetites -of some women, says, “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Corbitam cibi -comesse possunt</span>.”</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill117a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill117a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cornu. (Bartholini de Tibiis.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp58" id="ill117b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill117b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Altar of Julius Victor. (Bartoli, Pict. Ant., p. 76.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Cornu">CORNU, a wind instrument, anciently -made of horn, but afterwards of brass. Like -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tuba</i>, it differed from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tibia</i> in being a -larger and more powerful instrument, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span> -from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tuba</i> itself, in being curved nearly -in the shape of a C, with a cross-piece to -steady the instrument for the convenience of -the performer. Hence Ovid says (<cite>Met.</cite> i. 98):</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Non tuba <em>directi</em>, non aeris cornua <em>flexi</em>.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">classicum</i>, which originally meant a signal, -rather than the musical instrument which gave -the signal, was usually sounded with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornu</i>.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Sonuit reflexo classicum cornu,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Lituusque <em>adunco</em> stridulos cantus</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Elisit aere.”</div> - <div class="verse indent26">(Sen. <cite>Oed.</cite> 734.)</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cornicines</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liticines</i>, the persons who -blew the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cornu</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lituus</i>, formed a collegium. -In the preceding cut, M. Julius -Victor, a member of the Collegium, holds a -lituus in his right hand, and touches with -his left a cornu on the ground. See engraving -under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Tuba">Tuba</a></span>.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill118" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill118.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Corona Civica, on a Coin of the Emperor Galba.<br /> -SPQR OB CS = Senatus Populusque Romanus ob -civem servatum.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Corona">CŎRŌNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στέφανος</span>), a crown, that is, a -circular ornament of metal, leaves, or flowers, -worn by the ancients round the head or neck, -and used as a festive as well as funereal decoration, -and as a reward of talent, military -or naval prowess, and civil worth. Its first -introduction as an honorary reward is attributable -to the athletic games, in some of -which it was bestowed as a prize upon the -victor. It was the only reward contended -for by the Spartans in their gymnic contests, -and was worn by them when going to battle. -The Romans refined upon the practice of the -Greeks, and invented a great variety of -crowns formed of different materials, each -with a separate appellation, and appropriated -to a particular purpose.—I. <span id="Corona_ob" class="smcap">Corona Obsidionalis.</span> -Amongst the honorary crowns -bestowed by the Romans for military achievements, -the most difficult of attainment, and -the one which conferred the highest honour, -was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corona obsidionalis</i>, presented by a -beleaguered army after its liberation to the -general who broke up the siege. It was -made of grass, or weeds and wild flowers, -thence called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corona graminea</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">graminea -obsidionalis</i>, gathered from the spot on which -the beleaguered army had been enclosed.—II. -<span id="Corona_ci" class="smcap">Corona Civica</span>, the second in honour and -importance, was presented to the soldier who -had preserved the life of a Roman citizen in -battle. It was made of the leaves of the oak. -The soldier who had acquired this crown had -a place reserved next to the senate at all the -public spectacles; and they, as well as the -rest of the company, rose up upon his entrance. -He was freed from all public burthens, -as were also his father, and his paternal -grandfather; and the person who owed -his life to him was bound, ever after, to -cherish his preserver as a parent, and afford -him all such offices as were due from a son -to his father.—III. <span id="Corona_na" class="smcap">Corona Navalis</span> or <span id="Corona_ro" class="smcap">Rostrata</span>, -called also <span id="Corona_cl" class="smcap">Classica</span>. It is difficult to -determine whether these were two distinct -crowns, or only two denominations for the -same one. It seems probable that the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">navalis -corona</i>, besides being a generic term, was -inferior in dignity to the latter, and given -to the sailor who first boarded an enemy’s -ship; whereas the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rostrata</i> was given to a -commander who destroyed the whole fleet, -or gained any very signal victory. At all -events, they were both made of gold; and -one at least (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rostrata</i>) decorated with the -beaks of ships like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rostra</i> in the forum. -The Athenians likewise bestowed golden -crowns for naval services; sometimes upon -the person who got his trireme first equipped, -and at others upon the captain who had his -vessel in the best order.—IV. <span id="Corona_mu" class="smcap">Corona Muralis</span>, -was presented by the general to the -first man who scaled the wall of a besieged -city. It was made of gold, and decorated -with turrets.—V. <span id="Corona_ca" class="smcap">Corona Castrensis</span> or <span id="Corona_va" class="smcap">Vallaris</span>, -was presented to the first soldier who -surmounted the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>, and forced an entrance -into the enemy’s camp. This crown -was made of gold, and ornamented with the -palisades (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">valli</i>) used in forming an entrenchment.—VI. -<span id="Corona_tr" class="smcap">Corona Triumphalis.</span> There -were three sorts of triumphal crowns: the -first was made of laurel or bay leaves, and -was worn round the head of the commander -during his triumph; the second was of gold, -which, being too large and massive to be -worn, was held over the head of the general -during his triumph, by a public officer. This -crown, as well as the former one, was presented -to the victorious general by his army. -The third kind, likewise of gold and of great -value, was sent as a present from the provinces -to the commander. [<span id="Corona_au" class="smcap">Aurum Coronarium.</span>]—VII. -<span id="Corona_ov" class="smcap">Corona Ovalis</span>, was given to -a commander who obtained only an ovation. -It was made of myrtle.—VIII. <span id="Corona_ol" class="smcap">Corona Oleagina</span>, -was made of the olive leaf, and conferred -upon the soldiers as well as their commanders.—The -Greeks in general made but -little use of crowns as rewards of valour in -the earlier periods of their history, except as -prizes in the athletic contests; but previous -to the time of Alexander, crowns of gold<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span> -were profusely distributed, amongst the -Athenians at least, for every trifling feat, -whether civil, naval, or military, which, -though lavished without much discrimination -as far as regards the character of the receiving -parties, were still subjected to certain -legal restrictions in respect of the time, place, -and mode in which they were conferred. -They could not be presented but in the public -assemblies, and with the consent, that is by -suffrage, of the people, or by the senators in -their council, or by the tribes to their own -members, or by the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημόται</span> to members of -their own <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span>. According to the statement -of Aeschines, the people could not lawfully -present crowns in any place except in their -assembly, nor the senators except in the senate-house; -nor, according to the same authority, -in the theatre, which is, however, -denied by Demosthenes; nor at the public -games, and if any crier there proclaimed the -crowns he was subject to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i>. Neither -could any person holding an office receive a -crown whilst he was <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπεύθυνος</span>, that is, before -he had passed his accounts.—The second -class of crowns were emblematical and not -honorary, and the adoption of them was not -regulated by law, but custom. Of these there -were also several kinds.—I. <span id="Corona_sa" class="smcap">Corona Sacerdotalis</span>, -was worn by the priests (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacerdotes</i>), -with the exception of the pontifex maximus -and his minister (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">camillus</i>), as well as the -bystanders, when officiating at the sacrifice. -It does not appear to have been confined to -any one material.—II. <span id="Corona_fu" class="smcap">Corona Funebris</span> and -<span id="Corona_se" class="smcap">Sepulchralis</span>. The Greeks first set the example -of crowning the dead with chaplets of -leaves and flowers, which was imitated by -the Romans. Garlands of flowers were also -placed upon the bier, or scattered from the -windows under which the procession passed, -or entwined about the cinerary urn, or as a -decoration to the tomb. In Greece these -crowns were commonly made of parsley.—III. -<span id="Corona_co" class="smcap">Corona Convivialis.</span> The use of chaplets -at festive entertainments sprung likewise -from Greece. They were of various shrubs -and flowers, such as roses (which were the -choicest), violets, myrtle, ivy, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">philyra</i>, and -even parsley.—IV. <span id="Corona_nu" class="smcap">Corona Nuptialis.</span> The -bridal wreath was also of Greek origin, among -whom it was made of flowers plucked by the -bride herself, and not bought, which was of ill -omen. Amongst the Romans it was made of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verbena</i>, also gathered by the bride herself, -and worn under the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flammeum</i>, with which -the bride was always enveloped. The bridegroom -also wore a chaplet. The doors of -his house were likewise decorated with garlands, -and also the bridal couch.—V. <span id="Corona_nt" class="smcap">Corona -Natalitia</span>, the chaplet suspended over the door -of the vestibule, both in the houses of Athens -and Rome, in which a child was born. At -Athens, when the infant was male, the crown -was made of olive; when female, of wool. At -Rome it was of laurel, ivy, or parsley.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp66" id="ill119" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill119.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Females with Crowns. (From an ancient Painting.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Coronis">CŎRŌNIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κορωνίς</span>), the cornice of an entablature, -is properly a Greek word signifying -anything curved. It is also used by -Latin writers, but the genuine Latin word for -a <em>cornice</em> is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corona</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coronix</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Cortina">CORTĪNA, the name of the table or hollow -slab, supported by a tripod, upon which the -priestess at Delphi sat to deliver her responses; -and hence the word is used for the -oracle itself. The Romans made tables of -marble or bronze after the pattern of the -Delphian tripod, which they used as we do -our sideboards, for the purpose of displaying -their plate at an entertainment. These were -termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cortinae Delphicae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Delphicae</i> simply.</p> - - -<p id="Corybantica">CŎRỸBANTĬCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κορυβαντικά</span>), a festival -and mysteries celebrated at Cnossus in Crete, by -the Corybantes. (See <cite>Class. Dict.</cite>, <span class="smcap">Corybantes</span>.)</p> - - -<p id="Corymbus">CŎRYMBUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρυμβος</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Corvus">CORVUS, a sort of crane, used by C. Duilius -against the Carthaginian fleet in the -battle fought off Mylae, in Sicily (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 260). -The Romans, we are told, being unused to -the sea, saw that their only chance of victory -was by bringing a sea-fight to resemble -one on land. For this purpose they invented -a machine, of which Polybius has left a minute -description. In the fore part of the -ship a round pole was fixed perpendicularly, -twenty-four feet in height and about nine -inches in diameter; at the top of this was a -pivot, upon which a ladder was set, thirty-six -feet in length and four in breadth. The -ladder was guarded by cross-beams, fastened -to the upright pole by a ring of wood, which -turned with the pivot above. Along the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span> -ladder a rope was passed, one end of which -took hold of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corvus</i> by means of a ring. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corvus</i> itself was a strong piece of iron, -with a spike at the end, which was raised or -lowered by drawing in or letting out the -rope. When an enemy’s ship drew near, the -machine was turned outwards, by means of -the pivot, in the direction of the assailant. -Another part of the machine was a breast-work, -let down from the ladder, and serving -as a bridge, on which to board the enemy’s -vessel. By means of these cranes the Carthaginian -ships were either broken or closely -locked with the Roman, and Duilius gained a -complete victory.</p> - - -<p id="Corytos">CŌRȲTOS or CŌRȲTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γωρυτός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωρυτός</span>), -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cosmetae">COSMĒTAE, a class of slaves among the -Romans, whose duty it was to dress and -adorn ladies.</p> - - -<p id="Cosmi">COSMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοσμοί</span>), the supreme magistrates -in Crete, were ten in number, and were -chosen, not from the body of the people, but -from certain <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένη</span> or houses, which were probably -of more pure Doric or Achaean descent -than their neighbours. The first of them in -rank was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">protocosmus</i>, and gave his -name to the year. They commanded in war, -and also conducted the business of the state -with the representatives and ambassadors of -other cities. Their period of office was a year; -but any of them during that time might resign, -and was also liable to deposition by his colleagues. -In some cases, too, they might be -indicted for neglect of their duties. On the -whole, we may conclude that they formed the -executive and chief power in most of the -cities of Crete.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill120" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill120.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cothurnus. (From Statues of Artemis—Diana.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Cothurnus">CŎTHURNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόθορνος</span>), a boot. Its essential -distinction was its height; it rose -above the middle of the leg, so as to surround -the calf, and sometimes it reached as high as -the knees. It was worn principally by horsemen, -by hunters, and by men of rank and -authority. The sole of the cothurnus was -commonly of the ordinary thickness; but it -was sometimes made much thicker than usual, -probably by the insertion of slices of cork. -The object was, to add to the apparent stature -of the wearer; and this was done in the case -of the actors in Athenian tragedy, who had -the soles made unusually thick as one of the -methods adopted in order to magnify their -whole appearance. Hence tragedy in general -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cothurnus</i>. As the cothurnus was -commonly worn in hunting, it is represented -as part of the costume of Artemis (Diana).</p> - - -<p id="Cottabus">COTTĂBUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κότταβος</span>), a social game which -was introduced from Sicily into Greece, where -it became one of the favourite amusements of -young people after their repasts. The simplest -way in which it originally was played -was this:—One of the company threw out of -a goblet a certain quantity of wine, at a certain -distance, into a metal basin. While he -was doing this, he either thought of or pronounced -the name of his mistress; and if all -the wine fell in the basin, and with a full -sound, it was a good sign for the lover. This -simple amusement soon assumed a variety of -different characters, and became, in some -instances, a regular contest, with prizes for -the victor. One of the most celebrated modes -in which it was carried on is called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δι’ ὀξυβάφων</span>. -A basin was filled with water, with -small empty cups (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀξύβαφα</span>) swimming upon -it. Into these the young men, one after -another, threw the remnant of the wine from -their goblets, and he who had the good fortune -to drown most of the bowls obtained the -prize, consisting either of simple cakes, sweetmeats, -or sesame-cakes.</p> - - -<p id="Cotyttia">CŎTYTTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοττύτια</span>), a festival which was -originally celebrated by the Edonians of -Thrace, in honour of a goddess called Cotys, -or Cotytto. It was held at night. The worship -of Cotys, together with the festival of -the Cotyttia, was adopted by several Greek -states, chiefly those which were induced by -their commercial interest to maintain friendly -relations with Thrace. The festivals of this -goddess were notorious among the ancients -for the dissolute manner and the debaucheries -with which they were celebrated.</p> - - -<p id="Cotyla">CŎTỸLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοτύλη</span>), a measure of capacity -among the Romans and Greeks: by the former -it was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hemina</i>; by the latter, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρυβλίον</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμίνα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμίμνα</span>. It was the -half of the sextarius or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξέστης</span>, and contained -6 cyathi, or nearly half a pint English.</p> - - -<p id="Covinus">CŎVĪNUS (Celtic, <em>kowain</em>), a kind of car, -the spokes of which were armed with long -sickles, and which was used as a scythe-chariot -chiefly by the ancient Belgians and -Britons. The Romans designated, by the -name of covinus, a kind of travelling carriage, -which seems to have been covered on all sides -with the exception of the front. It had no -seat for a driver, but was conducted by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span> -traveller himself, who sat inside. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">covinarii</i> -(this word occurs only in Tacitus) seem -to have constituted a regular and distinct part -of a British army. Compare <span class="smcap"><a href="#Esseda">Essedum</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Crater">CRĀTER (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρατήρ</span>, Ionic <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρητήρ</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεράννυμι</span>, -I mix), a vessel in which the wine, according -to the custom of the ancients, who -very seldom drank it pure, was mixed with -water, and from which the cups were filled. -Craters were among the first things on the -embellishment of which the ancient artists -exercised their skill; and the number of -craters dedicated in temples seems everywhere -to have been very great.</p> - - -<p id="Crepida">CRĔPĬDA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρηπίς</span>), a slipper. Slippers -were worn with the pallium, not with the toga, -and were properly characteristic of the Greeks, -though adopted from them by the Romans.</p> - - -<p id="Crimen">CRĪMEN. Though this word occurs so -frequently, it is not easy to fix its meaning. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Crimen</i> is often equivalent to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accusatio</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατηγορία</span>); -but it frequently means an act which -is legally punishable. Those delicta which -were punishable according to special leges, -senatus consulta, and constitutiones, and were -prosecuted in judicia publica by an accusatio -publica, were more especially called crimina; -and the penalties in case of conviction were -loss of life, of freedom, of civitas, and the -consequent infamia, and sometimes pecuniary -penalties also.</p> - - -<p id="Crista">CRISTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Galea">Galea</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Crites">CRĬTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κριτής</span>), a judge, was the name -applied by the Greeks to any person who did -not judge of a thing like a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δικαστής</span>, according -to positive laws, but according to his own -sense of justice and equity. But at Athens -a number of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κριταί</span> was chosen by ballot from -a number of selected candidates at every -celebration of the Dionysia: they were called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ κριταί, κατ’ ἐξοχήν</span>. Their office was to -judge of the merit of the different choruses -and dramatic poems, and to award the prizes -to the victors. Their number was five for -comedy and the same number for tragedy, -one being taken from every tribe.</p> - - -<p id="Crobylus">CRŌBỸLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Crocota">CRŎCŌTA (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestis</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κροκωτὸν</span> sc. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάτιον</span>, -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κροκωτὸς</span> sc. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιτών</span>), was a kind of gala-dress, -chiefly worn by women on solemn -occasions, and in Greece especially, at the -festival of the Dionysia. Its name was derived -from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crocus</i>, one of the favourite colours -of the Greek ladies.</p> - - -<p id="Crotalum">CRŎTĂLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cymbalum">Cymbalum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Crusta">CRUSTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caelatura">Caelatura</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Crux">CRUX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σταυρός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκόλοψ</span>), an instrument of -capital punishment, used by several ancient -nations, especially the Romans and Carthaginians. -Crucifixion was of two kinds, the -less usual sort being rather impalement than -what we should describe by the word crucifixion, -as the criminal was transfixed by a -pole, which passed through the back and -spine and came out at the mouth. The cross -was of several kinds; one in the shape of an -X, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crux Andreana</i>, because tradition -reports St. Andrew to have suffered upon it; -another was formed like a T. The third, and -most common sort, was made of two pieces of -wood crossed, so as to make four right angles. -It was on this, according to the unanimous -testimony of the fathers, that our Saviour -suffered. The punishment, as is well known, -was chiefly inflicted on slaves, and the worst -kind of malefactors. The criminal, after sentence -pronounced, carried his cross to the -place of execution; a custom mentioned in -the Gospels. Scourging appears to have -formed a part of this, as of other capital -punishments among the Romans; but the -scourging of our Saviour is not to be regarded -in this light, for it was inflicted before sentence -was pronounced. The criminal was -next stripped of his clothes and nailed or -bound to the cross. The latter was the more -painful method, as the sufferer was left to die -of hunger. Instances are recorded of persons -who survived nine days. It was usual to -leave the body on the cross after death. The -breaking of the legs of the thieves, mentioned -in the Gospels, was accidental; because, by -the Jewish law, it is expressly remarked, the -bodies could not remain on the cross during -the Sabbath-day.</p> - - -<p id="Crypta">CRYPTA (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρύπτειν</span>, to conceal), a -crypt. Amongst the Romans, any long narrow -vault, whether wholly or partially below -the level of the earth, is expressed by this -term. The specific senses of the word are:—(1) -A covered portico or arcade; called more -definitely <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crypto-porticus</i>, because it was not -supported by open columns like the ordinary -portico, but closed at the sides, with windows -only for the admission of light and air.—(2) -A grotto, particularly one open at both extremities, -forming what in modern language -is denominated a “tunnel.” A subterranean -vault used for any secret worship was also -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crypta</i>.—(3) When the practice of -consuming the body by fire was relinquished -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>], and a number of bodies was consigned -to one place of burial, as the catacombs -for instance, this common tomb was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crypta</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Crypteia">CRYPTEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρυπτεία</span>), the name of an -atrocious practice at Sparta, said to have been -introduced by Lycurgus. The following is -the description given of the crypteia. The -ephors, at intervals, selected from among the -young Spartans, those who appeared to be -best qualified for the task, and sent them in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span> -various directions all over the country, provided -with daggers and their necessary food. -During the day-time, these young men concealed -themselves; but at night they broke -forth into the high-roads, and massacred those -of the helots whom they met, or whom they -thought proper.</p> - - -<p id="Cubicularii">CŬBĬCŬLĀRĬI, slaves who had the care -of the sleeping and dwelling rooms. Faithful -slaves were always selected for this office, as -they had, to a certain extent, the care of their -master’s person. It was the duty of the cubicularii -to introduce visitors to their master.</p> - - -<p id="Cubiculum">CŬBĬCŬLUM usually means a sleeping and -dwelling room in a Roman house [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>], -but it is also applied to the pavilion or tent -in which the Roman emperors were accustomed -to witness the public games. It appears -to have been so called, because the -emperors were accustomed to recline in the -cubicula, instead of sitting, as was anciently -the practice, in a sella curulis.</p> - - -<p id="Cubitus">CŬBĬTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πῆχυς</span>), a Greek and Roman -measure of length, originally the length of -the human arm from the elbow to the wrist, -or to the knuckle of the middle finger. It -was equal to a foot and a half, which gives -1 foot 5·4744 inches Eng. for the Roman, and -1 foot 6·2016 inches for the Greek cubit.</p> - - -<p id="Cucullus">CŬCULLUS, a cowl. As the cowl was -intended to be used in the open air, and to -be drawn over the head to protect it from the -injuries of the weather, instead of a hat or -cap, it was attached only to garments of the -coarsest kind. The cucullus was also used -by persons in the higher circles of society, -when they wished to go abroad without being -known.</p> - - -<p id="Cudo">CŪDO or CŪDON, a skull-cap made of -leather or of the rough shaggy fur of any -wild animal, such as were worn by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velites</i> -of the Roman armies, and apparently synonymous -with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">galerus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">galericulus</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Culeus">CŪLĔUS, or CULLĔUS, a Roman measure, -which was used for estimating the produce of -vineyards. It was the largest liquid measure -used by the Romans, containing 20 amphorae, -or 118 gallons, 7·546 pints.</p> - - -<p id="Culina">CŬLĪNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, <a href="#ill143a">p. 143</a>.]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp66" id="ill122" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill122.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cultri (From Tombstone of a Cultrarius.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Culter">CULTER (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάχαιρα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοπίς</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαγίς</span>), a -knife with only one edge, which formed a -straight line. The blade was pointed, and -its back curved. It was used for a variety -of purposes, but chiefly for killing animals -either in the slaughter-house, or in hunting, -or at the altars of the gods. The priest who -conducted a sacrifice never killed the victim -himself; but one of his ministri, appointed -for that purpose, who was called either by -the general name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minister</i>, or the more specific -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popa</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cultrarius</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Cultrarius">CULTRĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Culter">Culter</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cuneus">CŬNĔUS was the name applied to a body -of foot soldiers, drawn up in the form of a -wedge, for the purpose of breaking through -an enemy’s line. The common soldiers called -it a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caput porcinum</i>, or pig’s head. The name -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cuneus</i> was also applied to the compartments -of seats in circular or semi-circular theatres, -which were so arranged as to converge to the -centre of the theatre, and diverge towards -the external walls of the building, with passages -between each compartment.</p> - - -<p id="Cuniculus">CŬNĪCŬLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόνομος</span>), a mine or passage -underground, was so called from its -resemblance to the burrowing of a rabbit. -Fidenae and Veii are said to have been -taken by mines, which opened, one of them -into the citadel, the other into the temple of -Juno.</p> - - -<p id="Cupa">CŪPA, a wine-vat, a vessel very much -like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolium</i>, and used for the same purpose, -namely, to receive the fresh must, and -to contain it during the process of fermentation. -The inferior wines were drawn for -drinking from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cupa</i>, without being bottled -in <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amphorae</i>, and hence the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vinum -de cupa</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cupa</i> was either made of earthenware, -like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolium</i>, or of wood, and -covered with pitch. It was also used for -fruits and corn, forming rafts, and containing -combustibles in war, and even for a sarcophagus.</p> - - -<p id="Curator">CŪRĀTOR. Till a Roman youth attained -the age of puberty, which was generally fixed -at fourteen years of age, he was incapable of -any legal act, and was under the authority -of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tutor</i> or guardian; but with the attainment -of the age of puberty, he became capable -of performing every legal act, and was -freed from the control of his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tutor</i>. As, -however, a person of that tender age was -liable to be imposed upon, the lex Plaetoria -enacted that every person between the time -of puberty and twenty-five years of age should -be under the protection of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curator</i>. The -date of this lex is not known, though it is -certain that the law existed when Plautus -wrote (about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 200), who speaks of it as -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex quina vicemaria</i>. This law established -a distinction of age, which was of great practical -importance, by forming the citizens into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span> -two classes, those above and those below -twenty-five years of age (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minores viginti -quinque annis</i>). A person under the last-mentioned -age was sometimes simply called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minor</i>. The object of the lex was to protect -persons under twenty-five years of age against -all fraud (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolus</i>). A person who wasted his -property (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prodigus</i>), and a person of unsound -mind (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">furiosus, demens</i>), were also placed -under the care of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curator</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Curatores">CŪRĀTŌRES were public officers of various -kinds under the Roman empire, such as the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores annonae</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores ludorum</i>, the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores regionum</i>, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Curia">CŪRĬA, signifies both a division of the -Roman people and the place of assembly for -such a division. Each of the three ancient -Romulian tribes, the Ramnes, Tities, and -Luceres, was subdivided into 10 curiae, so -that the whole body of the populus or the -patricians was divided into 30 curiae. The -plebeians had no connection whatever with -the curiae. All the members of the different -gentes belonging to one curia were called, in -respect of one another, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiales</i>. The division -into curiae was of great political importance -in the earliest times of Rome, for -the curiae alone contained the citizens, and -their assembly alone was the legitimate representative -of the whole people. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia_cu">Comitia -curiata</a>.</span>] Each curia as a corporation had -its peculiar sacra, and besides the gods of the -state, they worshipped other divinities and -with peculiar rites and ceremonies. For such -religious purposes each curia had its own -place of worship, called curia, in which the -curiales assembled for the purpose of discussing -political, financial, religious and other -matters. The religious affairs of each curia -were taken care of by a priest, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Curio</i>, who -was assisted by another called curialis Flamen. -As there were 30 curiae, there were -likewise 30 curiones, who formed a college of -priests, presided over by one of them, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Curio Maximus</i>. The 30 curiae had each its -distinct name, which are said to have been -derived from the names of the Sabine women -who had been carried off by the Romans, -though it is evident that some derived their -names from certain districts or from ancient -eponymous heroes. Curia is also used to designate -the place in which the senate held its -meetings, such as curia Hostilia, curia Julia, -curia Pompeii, and from this there gradually -arose the custom of calling the senate itself -in the Italian towns curia, but never the senate -of Rome. The official residence of the -Salii, which was dedicated to Mars, was likewise -styled curia.</p> - - -<p id="Curiata">CŪRIĀTA CŎMĬTĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Curio">CŪRĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Curia">Curia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Curius">CŪRĬUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύριος</span>), signified generally at -Athens the person responsible for the welfare -of such members of a family as the law presumed -to be incapable of protecting themselves; -as, for instance, minors and slaves, -and women of all ages.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp72" id="ill123" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill123.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Currus. (Ancient Chariot preserved in the Vatican.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Currus">CURRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅρμα</span>), a chariot, a car. These -terms appear to have denoted those two-wheeled -vehicles for the carriage of persons, -which were open overhead, thus differing -from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carpentum</i>, and closed in front, in -which they differed from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cisium</i>. The -most essential articles in the construction of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span> -the currus were, 1. The rim (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄντυξ</span>) [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Antyx">Antyx</a></span>]. -2. The axle (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄξων</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">axis</i>). 3. The wheels -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύκλα, τροχοί</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rotae</i>), which revolved upon -the axle, and were prevented from coming -off by the insertion of pins (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμβολοι</span>) into the -extremities of the axles. The parts of the -wheel were:—(<em>a</em>) The nave (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλήμνη</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">modiolus</i>). -(<em>b</em>) The spokes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνῆμαι</span>, literally, the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legs, radii</i>.) (<em>c</em>) The felly (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴτυς</span>). (<em>d</em>) The -tire (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίσωτρον</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">canthus</i>). 4. The pole (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥυμός</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">temo</i>). All the parts above mentioned are -seen in the preceding cut of an ancient chariot. -The Greeks and Romans appear never to have -used more than one pole and one yoke, and -the currus thus constructed was commonly -drawn by two horses, which were attached to -it by their necks, and therefore called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίζυγες -ἵπποι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνωρίς</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gemini jugales</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equi bijuges</i>, -&c. If a third horse was added, as was not -unfrequently the case, it was fastened by -traces. The horse so attached was called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρήορος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράσειρος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σειραφόρος</span>, in Latin, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funalis</i>, -and is opposed to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζυγῖται</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζύγιοι</span>, -the yoke-horses. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵππος παρήορος</span> is placed -on the right of the two yoke-horses. (See -woodcut.) The Latin name for a chariot and -pair was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">biga</i>, generally <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bigae</i>. When a -third horse was added, it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triga</i>.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill124a" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill124a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Triga. (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill124b" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill124b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Quadrigae. (From Paintings on a Vase and a Terra-cotta.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="A">A chariot and four was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadriga</i>, -generally <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrigae</i>; in Greek, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετραορία</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέθριππος</span>. The horses were commonly -harnessed in a quadriga after the manner -already represented, the two strongest horses -being placed under the yoke, and the two -others fastened on each side by means of -ropes. This is clearly seen in the two quadrigae -figured below, especially in the one on -the right hand. It represents a chariot overthrown -in passing the goal at the circus. The -charioteer having fallen backwards, the pole -and yoke are thrown upwards into the air; -the two trace-horses have fallen on their -knees, and the two yoke-horses are prancing -on their hind legs.—The currus was adapted -to carry two persons, and on this account was -called in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίφρος</span>. One of the two was -of course the driver. He was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡνίοχος</span>, -because he held the reins, and his companion -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραβάτης</span>, from going by his side or near -him. In the Homeric ages, chariots were -commonly employed on the field of battle. -The men of rank all took their chariots with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span> -them, and in an engagement placed themselves -in front. Chariots were not much -used by the Romans. The most splendid -kind were the quadrigae, in which the Roman -generals and emperors rode when they -triumphed. The body of the triumphal car -was cylindrical, as we often see it represented -on medals. It was enriched with -gold and ivory. The utmost skill of the -painter and the sculptor was employed to -enhance its beauty and splendour. The -triumphal car had in general no pole, the -horses being led by men who were stationed -at their heads.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp89" id="ill125a" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill125a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Marble Chariot in the Vatican.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Cursores">CURSŌRES, slaves whose duty it was to -run before the carriage of their masters. They -first came into fashion in the first century of -the Christian aera. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cursores</i> was -also applied to all slaves whom their masters -employed in carrying letters, messages, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Cursus">CURSUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Curulis">CŬRŪLIS SELLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sella_cu">Sella Curulis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Custodes">CUSTŌDES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Custodes_c">CUSTŌDES, CUSTŌDĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Custos">CUSTOS URBIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praefectus_u">Praefectus Urbi</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="ill125b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill125b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cyathi. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iv. pl. 12.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Cyathus">CỸĂTHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύαθος</span>), a Greek and Roman -liquid measure, containing one-twelfth of the -sextarius, or ·0825 of a pint English. The -form of the cyathus used at banquets was -that of a small ladle, by means of which the -wine was conveyed into the drinking-cups -from the large vessel (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crater</i>) in which it was -mixed. Two of these cyathi are represented -in the preceding woodcut. The cyathus was -also the name given to a cup holding the same -quantity as the measure. Hence Horace says -(<cite>Carm.</cite> iii. 8. 13):</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> - <div class="verse indentq">“Sume, Maecenas, cyathos amici</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Sospitis centum.”</div> -</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Cyclas">CYCLAS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυκλάς</span>), a circular robe worn by -women, to the bottom of which a border was -affixed, inlaid with gold. It appears to have -been usually made of some thin material.</p> - - -<p id="Cyma">CȲMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῦμα</span>), in architecture, an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ogee</i>, a -wave-shaped moulding, consisting of two -curves, the one concave and the other convex. -There were two forms, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cyma recta</i>, -which was concave above, and convex below, -thus, <img class="cym" src="images/cyma1.jpg" alt="" />, -and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cyma reversa</i>, which was -convex above and concave below, thus <img class="cym" src="images/cyma2.jpg" alt="" />. -The diminutive <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cymatium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cumatium</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυμάτιον</span>) -is also used, and is indeed the more -common name.</p> - - -<p id="Cymba">CYMBA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύμβη</span>) is derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύμβος</span>, a -hollow, and is employed to signify any small -kind of boat used on lakes, rivers, &c. It -appears to have been much the same as the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acatium</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scapha</i>.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="ill126a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill126a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cymbala. (From a Bas-relief in the Vatican.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Cymbalum">CYMBĂLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύμβαλον</span>), a musical instrument, -in the shape of two half globes, which -were held one in each hand by the performer,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span> -and played by being struck against each other. -The word is derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύμβος</span>, a hollow. -The cymbal was a very ancient instrument, -being used in the worship of Cybelé, Bacchus, -Juno, and all the earlier deities of the Grecian -and Roman mythology. It probably -came from the East. The crotalum (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρόταλον</span>) -was a kind of cymbal. It appears to have -been a split reed or cane, which clattered -when shaken with the hand. Women who -played on the crotalum were termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crotalistriae</i>. -Such was Virgil’s Copa:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Crispum sub crotalo docta movere latus.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The line alludes to the dance with crotala -(similar to castanets).—For <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sistrum</i>, which -some have referred to the class of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cymbala</i>, -see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Sistrum">Sistrum</a></span>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="ill126b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill126b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Crotala. (Borghese Vase now in the Louvre.)</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="D_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">D</span></h2> - -<p id="Dactylus" class="drop-capy">DACTỸLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δάκτυλος</span>), a Greek measure, -answering to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">digitus</i>, each -signifying a <em>finger-breadth</em>, and being the -sixteenth part of a foot. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Daedala">DAEDALA or DAEDĂLEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δαίδαλα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δαιδάλεια</span>), -names used by the Greeks to signify -those early works of art which were ascribed -to the age of Daedalus, and especially the -ancient wooden statues, ornamented with -gilding and bright colours and real drapery, -which were the earliest known forms of the -images of the gods, after the mere blocks of -wood or stone, which were at first used for -symbols of them.</p> - - -<p id="Daedala_d">DAEDĂLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δαίδαλα</span>), the name of two -festivals, celebrated in Boeotia in honour of -Hera, and called respectively the <em>Great</em> and -the <em>Lesser Daedala</em>. The latter were celebrated -by the Plataeans alone; in the celebration -of the former, which took place only -every sixtieth year, the Plataeans were joined -by the other Boeotians.</p> - - -<p id="Damaretion">DAMARĔTĪON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δαμαρέτειον χρύσιον</span>), a -Sicilian coin, respecting which there is much -dispute; but it was probably a gold coin, -equal in value to fifty litrae or ten Attic -drachmae of silver; that is, a half stater.</p> - - -<p id="Damiurgi">DAMIURGI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Demiurgi">Demiurgi</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Damosia">DAMŎSĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Danace">DANĂCE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δανάκη</span>), properly the name of a -foreign coin, was also the name given to the -obolos, which was placed in the mouth of the -dead to pay the ferryman in Hades.</p> - - -<p id="Daphnephoria">DAPHNĒPHŎRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δαφνηφόρια</span>), a festival -celebrated every ninth year at Thebes in -honour of Apollo, surnamed Ismenius or Galaxius. -Its name was derived from the laurel -branches (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δάφναι</span>) which were carried by those -who took part in its celebration.</p> - - -<p id="Dareicus">DĀREICUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δαρεικός</span>), or to give the name -in full, the Stater of Dareius, a gold coin of -Persia, stamped on one side with the figure -of an archer crowned and kneeling upon one -knee, and on the other with a sort of quadrata -incusa or deep cleft. It is supposed to -have derived its name from the first Dareius, -king of Persia. It is equal to about 1<em>l.</em> 1<em>s.</em> 10<em>d.</em> -1·76 farthings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill126c" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill126c.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Dareicus. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span></p> - - -<p id="Decaduchi">DĔCĂDŪCHI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκαδοῦχοι</span>), the members -of a council of Ten, who succeeded the Thirty -in the supreme power at Athens, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 403. -They were chosen from the ten tribes, one -from each; but, though opposed to the -Thirty, they sent ambassadors to Sparta to -ask for assistance against Thrasybulus and -the exiles. They remained masters of Athens -till the party of Thrasybulus obtained possession -of the city and the democracy was restored.</p> - - -<p id="Decarchia">DĔCARCHĬA or DĔCĂDARCHĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκαρχία</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκαδαρχία</span>), a supreme council established -in many of the Grecian cities by the Lacedaemonians, -who entrusted to it the whole -government of the state under the direction -of a Spartan harmost. It always consisted -of the leading members of the aristocratical -party.</p> - - -<p id="Decasmus">DĔCASMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκασμός</span>), bribery. There -were two actions for bribery at Athens: one, -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκασμοῦ γραφή</span>, lay against the person -who gave the bribe; and the other, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δώρων</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δωροδοκίας γραφή</span>, against the person who -received it. These actions applied to the -bribery of citizens in the public assemblies -of the people (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνδεκάζειν τὴν ἐκκλησίαν</span>), of -the Heliaea or any of the courts of justice, of -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλή</span>, and of the public advocates. Actions -for bribery were under the jurisdiction -of the thesmothetae. The punishment on -conviction of the defendant was death, or -payment of ten times the value of the gift -received, to which the court might add a -further punishment (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστίμημα</span>).</p> - - -<p id="Decate">DĔCĂTE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκάτη</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Decumae">Decumae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Decempeda">DĔCEMPĔDA, a pole ten feet long, used -by the agrimensores [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Agrimensores">Agrimensores</a></span>] in measuring -land. Thus we find that the agrimensores -were sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decempedatores</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Decemprimi">DĔCEMPRĪMI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Decemviri">DĔCEMVĬRI, or the “ten-men,” the name -of various magistrates and functionaries at -Rome, of whom the most important were:—(1) -<span class="smcap">Decemviri Legibus Scribendis</span>, ten commissioners, -who were appointed to draw up -a code of laws. They were entrusted with -supreme power in the state, and all the other -magistracies were suspended. They entered -upon their office at the beginning of the year -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 451; and they discharged their duties -with diligence, and dispensed justice with -impartiality. Each administered the government -day by day in succession as during an -interregnum; and the fasces were only carried -before the one who presided for the -day. They drew up a body of laws, distributed -into ten sections; which, after being -approved of by the senate and the comitia, -were engraven on tables of metal, and set up -in the comitium. On the expiration of their -year of office, all parties were so well satisfied -with the manner in which they had discharged -their duties, that it was resolved to continue -the same form of government for another -year; more especially as some of the decemvirs -said that their work was not finished. -Ten new decemvirs were accordingly elected, -of whom App. Claudius alone belonged to the -former body. These magistrates framed -several new laws, which were approved of by -the centuries, and engraven on two additional -tables. They acted, however, in a most -tyrannical manner. Each was attended by -twelve lictors, who carried not the rods only, -but the axes, the emblem of sovereignty. -They made common cause with the patrician -party, and committed all kinds of outrages -upon the persons and property of the plebeians -and their families. When their year -of office expired they refused to resign or to -appoint successors. At length, the unjust -decision of App. Claudius, in the case of Virginia, -which led her father to kill her with his -own hands to save her from prostitution, occasioned -an insurrection of the people. The decemvirs -were in consequence obliged to resign -their office, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449; after which the usual magistracies -were re-established. The ten tables -of the former, and the two tables of the latter -decemvirs, form together the laws of the -Twelve Tables, which were the groundwork -of the Roman laws. This, the first attempt -to make a code, remained also the only attempt -for near one thousand years, until the -legislation of Justinian.—(2) <span class="smcap">Decemviri Litibus</span> -or <span class="smcap">Stlitibus Judicandis</span>, were magistrates -forming a court of justice, which took -cognizance of civil cases. The history as well -as the peculiar jurisdiction of this court during -the time of the republic is involved in -inextricable obscurity. In the time of Cicero -it still existed, and the proceedings in it took -place in the ancient form of the sacramentum. -Augustus transferred to these decemvirs the -presidency in the courts of the centumviri. -During the empire, this court had jurisdiction -in capital matters, which is expressly -stated in regard to the decemvirs.—(3) <span class="smcap">Decemviri -Sacris Faciundis</span>, sometimes called -simply <span class="smcap">Decemviri Sacrorum</span>, were the members -of an ecclesiastical collegium, and were -elected for life. Their chief duty was to take -care of the Sibylline books, and to inspect -them on all important occasions by command -of the senate. Under the kings the care of -the Sibylline books was committed to two -men (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duumviri</i>) of high rank. On the expulsion -of the kings, the care of these books was -entrusted to the noblest of the patricians, who -were exempted from all military and civil -duties. Their number was increased about -the year 367 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> to ten, of whom five were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span> -chosen from the patricians and five from the -plebeians. Subsequently their number was -still further increased to fifteen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quindecemviri</i>), -probably by Sulla. It was also the -duty of the decemviri to celebrate the games -of Apollo, and the secular games.</p> - - -<p id="Decennalia">DĔCENNĀLĬA or DĔCENNĬA, a festival -celebrated with games every ten years by the -Roman emperors. This festival owed its -origin to the fact that Augustus refused the -supreme power when offered to him for his -life, and would only consent to accept it for -ten years, and when these expired, for -another period of ten years, and so on to the -end of his life.</p> - - -<p id="Decimatio">DĔCĬMĀTĬO, the selection, by lot, of every -tenth man for punishment, when any number -of soldiers in the Roman army had been -guilty of any crime. The remainder usually -had barley allowed to them instead of wheat. -This punishment appears not to have been -inflicted in the early times of the republic.</p> - - -<p id="Decretum">DĒCRĒTUM seems to mean that which is -determined in a particular case after examination -or consideration. It is sometimes -applied to a determination of the consuls, and -sometimes to a determination of the senate. -A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decretum</i> of the senate would seem to differ -from a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus-consultum</i>, in the way above -indicated: it was limited to the special occasion -and circumstances, and this would be -true whether the decretum was of a judicial -or a legislative character. But this distinction -in the use of the two words, as applied -to an act of the senate, was, perhaps, not -always observed.</p> - - -<p id="Decumae">DĔCŬMAE (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">partes</i>) formed a portion -of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigalia</i> of the Romans, and were -paid by subjects whose territory, either by -conquest or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deditio</i>, had become the property -of the state (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ager publicus</i>). They consisted, -as the name denotes, of a tithe or tenth of -the produce of the soil, levied upon the cultivators -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aratores</i>) or occupiers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possessores</i>) of -the lands, which, from being subject to this -payment, were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agri decumani</i>. The tax -of a tenth was, however, generally paid by corn -lands: plantations and vineyards, as requiring -no seed and less labour, paid a fifth of the -produce. A similar system existed in Greece -also. Peisistratus, for instance, imposed a -tax of a tenth on the lands of the Athenians, -which the Peisistratidae lowered to a twentieth. -At the time of the Persian war the -confederate Greeks made a vow, by which all -the states who had surrendered themselves to -the enemy were subjected to the payment of -tithes for the use of the god at Delphi. The -tithes of the public lands belonging to Athens -were farmed out as at Rome to contractors, -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκατώναι</span>: the term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκατηλόγοι</span> was -applied to the collectors; but the callings -were, as we might suppose, often united in -the same person. The title <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκατευταί</span> is applied -to both. A <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκάτη</span>, or tenth of a different -kind, was the arbitrary exaction imposed -by the Athenians (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 410) on the cargoes -of all ships sailing into or out of the Pontus. -They lost it by the battle of Aegospotami -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 405); but it was re-established by -Thrasybulus about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 391. The tithe was -let out to farm.</p> - - -<p id="Decuncis">DĔCUNCIS, another name for the Dextans. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Decuria">DĔCŬRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Decuriones">DĔCŬRĬŌNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>: <a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Decussis">DĔCUSSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Dedicatio">DĒDĬCĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Inauguratio">Inauguratio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Dediticii">DĒDĬTĬCĬI, were those who had taken up -arms against the Roman people, and being -conquered, had surrendered themselves. Such -people did not individually lose their freedom, -but as a community all political existence, -and of course had no other relation to Rome -than that of subjects.</p> - - -<p id="Deductores">DĒDUCTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Deigma">DEIGMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεῖγμα</span>), a particular place in the -Peiraeeus, as well as in the harbours of other -states, where merchants exposed samples of -their goods for sale. The samples themselves -were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deigmata</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Deipnon">DEIPNON. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Delator">DĒLĀTOR, an informer. The delatores, -under the emperors, were a class of men who -gained their livelihood by informing against -their fellow-citizens. They constantly brought -forward false charges to gratify the avarice -or jealousy of the different emperors, and -were consequently paid according to the importance -of the information which they gave.</p> - - -<p id="Delectus">DĒLECTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Delia">DĒLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δήλια</span>), the name of festivals and -games celebrated in the island of Delos, to -which the Cyclades and the neighbouring Ionians -on the coasts belonged. The Delia had -existed from very early times, and were celebrated -every fifth year. That the Athenians -took part in these solemnities at a very early -period, is evident from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Deliastae</i> (afterwards -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωροί</span>) mentioned in the laws of -Solon; the sacred vessel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρίς</span>), moreover, -which they sent to Delos every year, was -said to be the same which Theseus had sent -after his return from Crete. In the course -of time the celebration of this ancient panegyris -in Delos had ceased, and it was not revived -until <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 426, when the Athenians, -after having purified the island in the winter -of that year, restored the ancient solemnities, -and added horse-races, which had never -before taken place at the Delia. After this -restoration, Athens, being at the head of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span> -Ionian confederacy, took the most prominent -part in the celebration of the Delia; and -though the islanders, in common with Athens, -provided the choruses and victims, the leader -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχιθέωρος</span>), who conducted the whole solemnity, -was an Athenian, and the Athenians -had the superintendence of the common sanctuary. -From these solemnities, belonging to -the great Delian panegyris, we must distinguish -the <em>lesser Delia</em>, which were mentioned -above, and which were celebrated -every year, probably on the 6th of Thargelion. -The Athenians on this occasion sent -the sacred vessel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρίς</span>), which the priest of -Apollo adorned with laurel branches, to Delos. -The embassy was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρία</span>; and -those who sailed to the island, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωροί</span>; and -before they set sail a solemn sacrifice was -offered in the Delion, at Marathon, in order -to obtain a happy voyage. During the absence -of the vessel the city of Athens was purified, -and no criminal was allowed to be executed.</p> - - -<p id="Delphinia">DELPHĪNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δελφίνια</span>), a festival of the -same expiatory character as the Apollonia, -which was celebrated in various towns of -Greece, in honour of Apollo, surnamed Delphinius.</p> - - -<p id="Delphis">DELPHIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δελφίς</span>), an instrument of naval -warfare. It consisted of a large mass of iron -or lead suspended on a beam, which projected -from the mast of the ship like a yard-arm. -It was used to sink, or make a hole in, -an enemy’s vessel, by being dropped upon it -when alongside.</p> - - -<p id="Delubrum">DĒLŪBRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Demarchi">DĒMARCHI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δήμαρχοι</span>), officers, who were -the head-boroughs or chief magistrates of the -demi in Attica, and are said to have been -first appointed by Cleisthenes. Their duties -were various and important. Thus, they -convened meetings of the demus, and took -the votes upon all questions under consideration; -they made and kept a register of the -landed estates in their districts, levied the -monies due to the demus for rent, &c. They -succeeded to the functions which had been -discharged by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naucrari</i> of the old constitution.</p> - - -<p id="Demensum">DĒMENSUM, an allowance of corn, given -to Roman slaves monthly or daily. It -usually consisted of four or five modii of corn -a month.</p> - - -<p id="Deminutio">DĒMĬNŪTIO CĂPĬTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Demiurgi">DĒMĬURGI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημιουργοί</span>), magistrates, -whose title is expressive of their doing the -service of the people, existed in several of -the Peloponnesian states. Among the Eleans -and Mantineans they seem to have been the -chief executive magistracy. We also read of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demiurgi</i> in the Achaean league, who probably -ranked next to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strategi</i>, and put questions -to the vote in the general assembly of the -confederates. Officers named <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epidemiurgi</i>, or -upper demiurgi, were sent by the Corinthians -to manage the government of their -colony at Potidaea.</p> - - -<p id="Democratia">DĒMŎCRĂTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημοκρατία</span>), that form of -constitution in which the sovereign political -power is in the hands of the demus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span>) -or commonalty. In a passage of Herodotus -(iii. 80), the characteristics of a democracy -are specified to be—1. Equality of legal -rights (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσονομίη</span>). 2. The appointment of -magistrates by lot. 3. The accountability of -all magistrates and officers. 4. The reference -of all public matters to the decision of the -community at large. Aristotle remarks—“The -following points are characteristic of a -democracy; that all magistrates should be -chosen out of the whole body of citizens; -that all should rule each, and each in turn -rule all; that either all magistracies, or those -not requiring experience and professional -knowledge, should be assigned by lot; that -there should be no property qualification, or -but a very small one, for filling any magistracy; -that the same man should not fill the -same office twice, or should fill offices but few -times, and but few offices, except in the case -of military commands; that all, or as many -as possible of the magistracies, should be of -brief duration; that all citizens should be -qualified to serve as dicasts; that the supreme -power in everything should reside in -the public assembly, and that no magistrate -should be entrusted with irresponsible power -except in very small matters.” It is somewhat -curious that neither in practice nor in -theory did the representative system attract -any attention among the Greeks. That diseased -form of a democracy, in which from -the practice of giving pay to the poorer citizens -for their attendance in the public assembly, -and from other causes, the predominant -party in the state came to be in fact the -lowest class of the citizens, was by later -writers termed an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ochlocracy</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀχλοκρατία</span>—the -dominion of the mob).</p> - - -<p id="Demosii">DĒMŎSĬI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημόσιοι</span>), public slaves at -Athens, who were purchased by the state. -The public slaves, most frequently mentioned, -formed the city guard; it was their -duty to preserve order in the public assembly, -and to remove any person whom the -prytaneis might order. They are generally -called bowmen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοξόται</span>); or from the native -country of the majority, Scythians (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκύθαι</span>); -and also Speusinians, from the name of the -person who first established the force. They -originally lived in tents in the market-place, -and afterwards upon the Areiopagus. Their -officers had the name of toxarchs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόξαρχοι</span>).<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span> -Their number was at first 300, purchased -soon after the battle of Salamis, but was afterwards -increased to 1200.</p> - - -<p id="Demus">DĒMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span>), originally indicated a district -or tract of land; and in this meaning of -a country district, inhabited and under cultivation, -it is contrasted with <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόλις</span>. When -Cleisthenes, at Athens, broke up the four -tribes of the old constitution, he substituted -in their place ten local tribes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλαὶ τοπικαί</span>), -each of which he subdivided into ten <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demi</i> or -country parishes, possessing each its principal -town; and in some one of these demi -were enrolled all the Athenian citizens resident -in Attica, with the exception, perhaps, -of those who were natives of Athens itself. -These subdivisions corresponded in some degree -to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naucrariae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναυκραρίαι</span>) of the old -tribes, and were originally one hundred in -number. These demi formed independent -corporations, and had each their several magistrates, -landed and other property, with a -common treasury. They had likewise their -respective convocations or “parish meetings,” -convened by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demarchi</i>, in which was -transacted the public business of the demus, -such as the leasing of its estates, the elections -of officers, the revision of the registers or -lists of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημόται</span>, and the admission of new -members. Independent of these bonds of -union, each demus seems to have had its -peculiar temples and religious worship. -There were likewise judges, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δικασταὶ -κατα δημους</span>, who decided cases where the matter -in dispute was of less value than ten -drachmae. Admission into a demus was necessary -before any individual could enter upon -his full rights and privileges as an Attic citizen. -The register of enrolment was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ληξιαρχικὸν -γραμματεῖον</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Denarius">DĒNĀRĬUS, the principal silver coin among -the Romans, was so called because it was -originally equal to ten asses; but on the reduction -of the weight of the as [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a></span>], it was -made equal to sixteen asses, except in military -pay, in which it was still reckoned as -equal to ten asses. The denarius was first -coined five years before the first Punic war, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 269. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Argentum">Argentum</a>.</span>] The average value -of the denarii coined at the end of the commonwealth -is about 8½<em>d.</em>, and those under -the empire about 7½<em>d.</em> If the denarius be -reckoned in value 8½<em>d.</em>, the other Roman -coins of silver will be of the following value:</p> - - -<table class="autotable" width="70%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc">Pence.</td> -<td class="tdc">Farth.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Teruncius</td> -<td class="tdc">—</td> -<td class="tdl"> ·53125</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sembella</td> -<td class="tdc">—</td> -<td class="tdl">1·0625</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Libella</td> -<td class="tdc">—</td> -<td class="tdl">2·125</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sestertius</td> -<td class="tdc">2</td> -<td class="tdl"> ·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Quinarius or Victoriatus</td> -<td class="tdc">4</td> -<td class="tdl">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Denarius</td> -<td class="tdc">8</td> -<td class="tdl">2</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill130" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="p2 w100" src="images/ill130.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Denarius. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Some denarii were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">serrati</i>, because -their edges were notched like a saw, which -appears to have been done to prove that they -were solid silver, and not plated; and others -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bigati</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrigati</i>, because on their reverse -were represented chariots drawn by two -and four horses respectively.</p> - -<p id="Designator">DĒSIGNĀTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Desultor">DĒSULTOR, a rider in the Roman games, -who generally rode two horses at the same -time, sitting on them without a saddle, and -vaulting upon either of them at his pleasure.</p> - - -<p id="Deunx">DĔUNX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>, <a href="#Libra_a">Libra</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Dextans">DEXTANS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>, <a href="#Libra_a">Libra</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Diadema">DĬĂDĒMA, originally a white fillet, used to -encircle the head. It is represented on the -head of Dionysus, and was, in an ornamented -form, assumed by kings as an emblem of sovereignty.</p> - - -<p id="Diaetetae">DĬAETĒTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαιτηταί</span>), or arbitrators, at -Athens, were of two kinds; the one public -and appointed by lot (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κληρωτοί</span>), the other -private, and chosen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἱρετοί</span>) by the parties -who referred to them the decision of a disputed -point, instead of trying it before a court -of justice; the judgments of both, according -to Aristotle, being founded on equity rather -than law. The number of public arbitrators -seems to have been 40, four for each -tribe. Their jurisdiction was confined to civil -cases.</p> - - -<p id="Dialis">DĬĀLIS FLĀMEN. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Flamen">Flamen</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Diamastigosis">DĬĂMASTĪGŌSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαμαστίγωσις</span>), a solemnity -performed at Sparta at the festival -of Artemis Orthia. Spartan youths were -scourged on the occasion at the altar of Artemis, -by persons appointed for the purpose, -until their blood gushed forth and covered -the altar. Many anecdotes are related of the -courage and intrepidity with which young -Spartans bore the lashes of the scourge; some -even died without uttering a murmur at their -sufferings, for to die under the strokes was -considered as honourable a death as that on -the field of battle.</p> - - -<p id="Diapsephisis">DĬĂPSĔPHĬSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαψήφισις</span>), a political -institution at Athens, the object of which was -to prevent aliens, or such as were the offspring -of an unlawful marriage, from assuming -the rights of citizens. By this method<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span> -a trial of spurious citizens was to be -held by the demotae, within whose deme intruders -were suspected to exist.</p> - - -<p id="Diasia">DĪĂSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διάσια</span>), a great festival celebrated -at Athens, without the walls of the city, in -honour of Zeus, surnamed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μειλίχιος</span>. The -whole people took part in it, and the wealthier -citizens offered victims, while the poorer -classes burnt such incense as their country -furnished. The diasia took place in the latter -half of the month of Anthesterion with -feasting and rejoicings, and was, like most -other festivals, accompanied by a fair.</p> - - -<p id="Dicastes">DĬCASTĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δικαστής</span>), the name of a judge, -or rather juryman, at Athens. The conditions -of his eligibility were, that he should -be a free citizen, in the enjoyment of his full -franchise (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιτιμία</span>), and not less than thirty -years of age, and of persons so qualified -6,000 were selected by lot for the service -of every year. Their appointment took place -annually under the conduct of the nine archons -and their official scribe; each of these -ten personages drew by lot the names of -600 persons of the tribe assigned to him; -the whole number so selected was again divided -by lot into ten sections of 500 each, -together with a supernumerary one, consisting -of 1000 persons, from among whom -the occasional deficiencies in the sections of -500 might be supplied. To each of the ten -sections one of the ten first letters of the -alphabet was appropriated as a distinguishing -mark, and a small tablet (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πινάκιον</span>), inscribed -with the letter of the section and the name -of the individual, was delivered as a certificate -of his appointment to each dicast. Before -proceeding to the exercise of his functions, -the dicast was obliged to swear the -official oath. This oath being taken, and the -divisions made as above mentioned, it remained -to assign the courts to the several -sections of dicasts in which they were to sit. -This was not, like the first, an appointment -intended to last during the year, but took -place under the conduct of the thesmothetae, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de novo</i>, every time that it was necessary to -impanel a number of dicasts. As soon as the -allotment had taken place, each dicast received -a staff, on which was painted the letter -and the colour of the court awarded him, -which might serve both as a ticket to procure -admittance, and also to distinguish him -from any loiterer that might endeavour -clandestinely to obtain a sitting after business -had begun. While in court, and probably -from the hand of the presiding magistrate -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡγέμων δικαστηρίου</span>), he received the -token or ticket that entitled him to receive -his fee (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δικαστικόν</span>). This payment is said to -have been first instituted by Pericles, and -was originally a single obolus; it was increased -by Cleon to thrice that amount about -the 88th Olympiad.</p> - - -<p id="Dice">DĬCĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη</span>), signifies generally any proceedings -at law by one party directly or mediately -against others. The object of all -such actions is to protect the body politic, or -one or more of its individual members, from -injury and aggression; a distinction which has -in most countries suggested the division of all -causes into two great classes, the public and -the private, and assigned to each its peculiar -form and treatment. At Athens the first of -these was implied by the terms public <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι</span>, -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶνες</span>, or still more peculiarly by -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφαί</span>; causes of the other class were -termed private <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶνες</span>, or simply <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι</span> -in its limited sense. In a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη</span>, only the person -whose rights were alleged to be affected, -or the legal protector (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύριος</span>) of such person, -if a minor or otherwise incapable of appearing -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suo jure</i>, was permitted to institute -an action as plaintiff; in public causes, with -the exception of some few in which the person -injured or his family were peculiarly -bound and interested to act, any free citizen, -and sometimes, when the state was directly -attacked, almost any alien, was empowered -to do so. The court fees, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytaneia</i>, -were paid in private but not in public causes, -and a public prosecutor that compromised -the action with the defendant was in most -cases punished by a fine of a thousand drachmae -and a modified disfranchisement, while -there was no legal impediment at any period -of a private lawsuit to the reconciliation of -the litigant parties.—The proceedings in -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη</span> were commenced by a summons -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόσκλησις</span>) to the defendant to appear on a -certain day before the proper magistrate -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσαγωγεύς</span>), and there answer the charges -preferred against him. This summons was -often served by the plaintiff in person, accompanied -by one or two witnesses (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλητῆρες</span>), -whose names were endorsed upon the declaration -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λῆξις</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγκλημα</span>). Between the service -of the summons and appearance of the parties -before the magistrate, it is very probable that -the law prescribed the intervention of a period -of five days. If both parties appeared, the -proceedings commenced by the plaintiff putting -in his declaration, and at the same time -depositing his share of the court fees (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτανεῖα</span>), -which were trifling in amount, but -the non-payment of which was a fatal objection -to the further progress of a cause. -When these were paid, it became the duty of -the magistrate, if no manifest objection appeared -on the face of the declaration, to cause -it to be written out on a tablet, and exposed -for the inspection of the public on the wall<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span> -or other place that served as the cause list of -his court. The magistrate then appointed a -day for the further proceedings of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anacrisis</i> -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Anacrisis">Anacrisis</a></span>]. If the plaintiff failed to -appear at the anacrisis, the suit, of course, -fell to the ground; if the defendant made -default, judgment passed against him. An -affidavit might at this, as well as at other -periods of the action, be made in behalf of a -person unable to attend upon the given day, -and this would, if allowed, have the effect of -postponing further proceedings (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπωμοσία</span>); -it might, however, be combated by a counter-affidavit, -to the effect that the alleged reason -was unfounded or otherwise insufficient (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνθυπωμοσία</span>); -and a question would arise upon -this point, the decision of which, when adverse -to the defendant, would render him -liable to the penalty of contumacy. The -plaintiff was in this case said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρήμην ἑλεῖν</span>; -the defendant, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρήμην ὀφλεῖν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκην</span> being the -word omitted in both phrases. The anacrisis -began with the affidavit of the plaintiff (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προωμοσία</span>), -then followed the answer of the defendant -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντωμοσία</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιγραφή</span>), then the -parties produced their respective witnesses, -and reduced their evidence to writing, and -put in originals, or authenticated copies, of -all the records, deeds, and contracts that -might be useful in establishing their case, as -well as memoranda of offers and requisitions -then made by either side (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προκλήσεις</span>). The -whole of the documents were then, if the -cause took a straightforward course (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐθυδικία</span>), -enclosed on the last day of the anacrisis -in a casket (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐχῖνος</span>), which was sealed, -and entrusted to the custody of the presiding -magistrate, till it was produced and opened at -the trial. During the interval no alteration -in its contents was permitted, and accordingly -evidence that had been discovered after the -anacrisis was not producible at the trial.—In -some causes, the trial before the dicasts -was by law appointed to come on within a -given time; in such as were not provided for -by such regulations, we may suppose that it -would principally depend upon the leisure of -the magistrate. Upon the court being assembled, -the magistrate called on the cause, and -the plaintiff opened his case. At the commencement -of the speech, the proper officer -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ ἐφ’ ὕδωρ</span>) filled the clepsydra with water. -As long as the water flowed from this vessel -the orator was permitted to speak; if, however, -evidence was to be read by the officer -of the court, or a law recited, the water was -stopped till the speaker recommenced. The -quantity of water, or, in other words, the -length of the speeches, was different in different -causes. After the speeches of the advocates, -which were in general two on each -side, and the incidental reading of the documentary -and other evidence, the dicasts proceeded -to give their judgment by ballot.—When -the principal point at issue was decided -in favour of the plaintiff, there followed -in many cases a further discussion as to the -fine or punishment to be inflicted on the -defendant (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παθεῖν ἢ ἀποτῖσαι</span>). All actions -were divided into two classes,—<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶνες ἀτίμητοι</span>, -<em>suits not to be assessed</em>, in which the fine, -or other penalty, was determined by the -laws; and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶνες τιμητοί</span>, <em>suits to be assessed</em>, -in which the penalty had to be fixed -by the judges. If the suit was an <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγῶν -τιμητος</span>, the plaintiff generally mentioned -in the pleadings the punishment which he -considered the defendant deserved (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τίμημα</span>); -and the defendant was allowed to make a -counter-assessment (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιτιμᾶσθαι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποτιμᾶσθαι</span>), -and to argue before the judges why -the assessment of the plaintiff ought to be -changed or mitigated. In certain causes, -which were determined by the laws, any of -the judges was allowed to propose an additional -assessment (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστίμημα</span>); the amount -of which, however, appears to have been -usually fixed by the laws. Thus, in certain -cases of theft, the additional penalty was -fixed at five days’ and nights’ imprisonment. -Upon judgment being given in a -private suit, the Athenian law left its execution -very much in the hands of the successful -party, who was empowered to seize the moveables -of his antagonist as a pledge for the -payment of the money, or institute an action -of ejectment (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξούλης</span>) against the refractory -debtor. The judgment of a court of dicasts -was in general decisive (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη αὐτοτελής</span>); but -upon certain occasions, as, for instance, when -a gross case of perjury or conspiracy could -be proved by the unsuccessful party to have -operated to his disadvantage, the cause, upon -the conviction of such conspirators or witnesses, -might be commenced <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de novo</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Dictator">DICTĀTOR, an extraordinary magistrate -at Rome. The name is of Latin origin, and -the office probably existed in many Latin -towns before it was introduced into Rome. -We find it in Lanuvium even in very late times. -At Rome this magistrate was originally called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister populi</i> and not <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dictator</i>, and in the -sacred books he was always designated by the -former name down to the latest times. On -the establishment of the Roman republic the -government of the state was entrusted to two -consuls, that the citizens might be the better -protected against the tyrannical exercise of -the supreme power. But it was soon felt -that circumstances might arise in which it -was of importance for the safety of the state -that the government should be vested in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span> -hands of a single person, who should possess -for a season absolute power, and from whose -decision there should be no appeal to any -other body. Thus it came to pass that in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 501, nine years after the expulsion of -the Tarquins, the dictatorship (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dictatura</i>) -was instituted. By the original law respecting -the appointment of a dictator (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex de dictatore -creando</i>) no one was eligible for this -office unless he had previously been consul. -We find, however, a few instances in which -this law was not observed.—When a dictator -was considered necessary, the senate passed a -senatus consultum, that one of the consuls -should nominate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dicere</i>) a dictator; and -without a previous decree of the senate the -consuls had not the power of naming a dictator. -The nomination or proclamation of the -dictator was always made by the consul, probably -without any witnesses, between midnight -and morning, and with the observance -of the auspices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">surgens</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oriens nocte silentio -dictatorem dicebat</i>). The technical word -for this nomination or proclamation was -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dicere</i> (seldom <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">creare</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">facere</i>). Originally -the dictator was of course a patrician. The -first plebeian dictator was C. Marcius Rutilus, -nominated in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 356 by the plebeian consul -M. Popillius Laenas. The reasons which -led to the appointment of a dictator, required -that there should be only one at a time. The -dictators that were appointed for carrying on -the business of the state were said to be nominated -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rei gerundae causa</i>, or sometimes -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">seditionis sedandae causa</i>; and upon them, -as well as upon the other magistrates, the -imperium was conferred by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Curiata</i>. -The dictatorship was limited to six months, -and no instances occur in which a person -held this office for a longer time, for the dictatorships -of Sulla and Caesar are of course -not to be taken into account. On the contrary, -though a dictator was appointed for -six months, he often resigned his office long -previously, immediately after he had dispatched -the business for which he had been -appointed. As soon as the dictator was nominated, -a kind of suspension took place with -respect to the consuls and all the other -magistrates, with the exception of the tribuni -plebis. The regular magistrates continued, -indeed, to discharge the duties of their -various offices under the dictator, but they -were no longer independent officers, but were -subject to the higher imperium of the dictator, -and obliged to obey his orders in every thing. -The superiority of the dictator’s power to -that of the consuls consisted chiefly in the -three following points—greater independence -of the senate, more extensive power of -punishment without any appeal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>) -from their sentence to the people, and irresponsibility. -To these three points, must of -course be added that he was not fettered by a -colleague. We may naturally suppose that -the dictator would usually act in unison with -the senate; but it is expressly stated that in -many cases where the consuls required the -co-operation of the senate, the dictator could -act on his own responsibility. That there -was originally no appeal from the sentence of -the dictator is certain, and accordingly the -lictors bore the axes in the fasces before -them even in the city, as a symbol of their -absolute power over the lives of the citizens, -although by the Valerian law the axes had -disappeared from the fasces of the consuls. -Whether, however, the right of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i> -was afterwards given cannot be determined. -It was in consequence of the great and irresponsible -power possessed by the dictatorship, -that we find it frequently compared with the -regal dignity, from which it only differed in -being held for a limited time.—There were -however a few limits to the power of the -dictator. 1. The most important was that -which we have mentioned above, that the -period of his office was only six months. 2. -He had not power over the treasury, but -could only make use of the money which was -granted him by the senate. 3. He was not -allowed to leave Italy, since he might thus -easily become dangerous to the republic; -though the case of Atilius Calatinus in the -first Punic war forms an exception to this -rule. 4. He was not allowed to ride on -horseback at Rome, without previously obtaining -the permission of the people; a -regulation apparently capricious, but perhaps -adopted that he might not bear too great a -resemblance to the kings, who were accustomed -to ride.—The insignia of the dictator -were nearly the same as those of the kings in -earlier times; and of the consuls subsequently. -Instead however of having only -twelve lictors, as was the case with the consuls, -he was preceded by twenty-four bearing -the secures as well as the fasces. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella -curulis</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga praetexta</i> also belonged to -the dictator.—The preceding account of the -dictatorship applies more particularly to the -dictator rei gerundae causa; but dictators -were also frequently appointed, especially -when the consuls were absent from the city, -to perform certain acts, which could not be -done by any inferior magistrate. These dictators -had little more than the name; and as -they were only appointed to discharge a particular -duty, they had to resign immediately -that duty was performed. The occasions on -which such dictators were appointed, were -principally:—1. For the purpose of holding<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span> -the comitia for the elections (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitiorum habendorum -causa</i>). 2. For fixing the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavus -annalis</i> in the temple of Jupiter (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavi figendi -causa</i>) in times of pestilence or civil discord, -because the law said that this ceremony was -to be performed by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor maximus</i>, and -after the institution of the dictatorship the -latter was regarded as the highest magistracy -in the state. 3. For appointing holidays -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriarum constituendarum causa</i>) on the appearance -of prodigies, and for officiating at -the public games (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludorum faciendorum -causa</i>), the presidency of which belonged to -the consuls or praetors. 4. For holding -trials (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quaestionibus exercendis</i>.) 5. And on -one occasion, for filling up vacancies in the -senate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legendo senatui</i>).—Along with the -dictator there was always a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister equitum</i>, -the nomination of whom was left to the -choice of the dictator, unless the senatus -consultum specified, as was sometimes the -case, the name of the person who was to be -appointed. The magister equitum had, like -the dictator, to receive the imperium by a -lex curiata. The dictator could not be without -a magister equitum, and, consequently, -if the latter died during the six months of -the dictatorship, another had to be nominated -in his stead. The magister equitum was -subject to the imperium of the dictator, but -in the absence of his superior he became his -representative, and exercised the same powers -as the dictator. The magister equitum was -originally, as his name imports, the commander -of the cavalry, while the dictator was -at the head of the legions, the infantry; and -the relation between them was in this respect -similar to that which subsisted between -the king and the tribunus celerum. Dictators -were only appointed so long as the Romans -had to carry on wars in Italy. A solitary -instance of the nomination of a dictator -for the purpose of carrying on war out of -Italy has been already mentioned. The last -dictator rei gerundae causa was M. Junius -Pera, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 216. From that time dictators -were frequently appointed for holding -the elections down to <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 202, but after that -year the dictatorship disappears altogether.—After -a lapse of 120 years, Sulla caused himself -to be appointed dictator in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 82, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reipublicae -constituendae causa</i>, but neither his dictatorship -nor that of Caesar is to be compared -with the genuine office. Soon after Caesar’s -death the dictatorship was abolished for ever -by a lex proposed by the consul Antonius. -During the time, however, that the dictatorship -was in abeyance, a substitute was invented -for it, whenever the circumstances of -the republic required the adoption of extraordinary -measures, by the senate investing -the consuls with dictatorial power. This -was done by the well-known formula, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Videant</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dent operam consules, ne quid respublica -detrimenti capiat</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Dictynnia">DICTYNNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δικτύννια</span>), a festival with -sacrifices, celebrated at Cydonia in Crete, in -honour of Artemis, surnamed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίκτυννα</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δικτύνναια</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκτυον</span>, a hunter’s net.</p> - - -<p id="Dies">DĬES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμέρα</span>), a day. The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies</i> was -applied, like our word day, to the time during -which, according to the notions of the ancients, -the sun performed his course around -the earth, and this time they called the civil -day (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies civilis</i>, in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νυχθήμερον</span>, because -it included both night and day). The natural -day (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies naturalis</i>), or the time from the -rising to the setting of the sun, was likewise -designated by the name dies. The civil day -began with the Greeks at the setting of the -sun, and with the Romans at midnight. At -the time of the Homeric poems the natural -day was divided into three parts. The first, -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἠώς</span>, began with sunrise, and comprehended -the whole space of time during which -light seemed to be increasing, <em>i.e.</em> till mid-day. -The second part was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσον ἦμαρ</span> -or mid-day, during which the sun was -thought to stand still. The third part bore -the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δείλη</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δείελον ἦμαρ</span>, which derived -its name from the increased warmth of -the atmosphere. Among the Athenians the -first and last of the divisions made at the -time of Homer were afterwards subdivided -into two parts. The earlier part of the -morning was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωΐ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρῲ τῆς ἡμέρας</span>: -the latter, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πληθούσης τῆς ἀγορᾶς</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περὶ -πλήθουσαν ἀγοράν</span>. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσον ἦμαρ</span> of Homer -was afterwards expressed by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεσημβρία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσον -ἡμέρας</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέση ἡμέρα</span>, and comprehended, as -before, the middle of the day, when the sun -seemed neither to rise nor to decline. The -two parts of the afternoon were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δείλη -πρωΐη</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωΐα</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δείλη ὀψίη</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀψία</span>. This -division continued to be observed down to -the latest period of Grecian history, though -another more accurate division was introduced -at an early period; for Anaximander, -or, according to others, his disciple Anaximenes, -is said to have made the Greeks -acquainted with the use of the Babylonian -chronometer or sun-dial (called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόλος</span>, or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὡρολόγιον</span>), by means of which the natural -day was divided into twelve equal spaces of -time. The division of the day most generally -observed by the Romans, was that into -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tempus antemeridianum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pomeridianum</i>, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">meridies</i> itself being only considered as a -point at which the one ended and the other -commenced. But as it was of importance -that this moment should be known, an especial -officer [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Accensus">Accensus</a></span>] was appointed, who<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span> -proclaimed the time of mid-day. The division -of the day into twelve equal spaces, -which were shorter in winter than in summer, -was first adopted when artificial means of -measuring time were introduced among the -Romans from Greece. This was about the -year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 291, when L. Papirius Cursor, after -the war with Pyrrhus in southern Italy, -brought to Rome an instrument called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solarium -horologium</i>, or simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solarium</i>. But -as the solarium had been made for a different -latitude, it showed the time at Rome very -incorrectly. Scipio Nasica, therefore, erected -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 159 a public clepsydra, which indicated -the hours of the night as well as of the -day. Even after the erection of this clepsydra -it was customary for one of the subordinate -officers of the praetor to proclaim the -third, sixth, and ninth hours; which shows -that the day was, like the night, divided into -four parts, each consisting of three hours.—All -the days of the year were, according to -different points of view, divided by the Romans -into different classes. <span id="Dies_f">For</span> the purpose -of the administration of justice all days were -divided into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies fasti</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies nefasti</i>. <span class="smcap">Dies -fasti</span> were the days on which the praetor -was allowed to administer justice in the public -courts; they derived their name from -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fari</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fari tria verba</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">do</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dico</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">addico</i>). On -some of the dies fasti comitia could be held, -but not on all. The regular <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies fasti</i> were -marked in the Roman calendar by the letter -F, and their number in the course of the year -was 38.—Besides these there were certain -days called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies intercisi</i>, on which the praetor -might hold his courts, but not at all -hours, so that sometimes one half of such a -day was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fastus</i>, while the other half was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nefastus</i>. -Their number was 65 in the year.—<span class="smcap">Dies -nefasti</span> were days on which neither -courts of justice nor comitia were allowed to -be held, and which were dedicated to other -purposes. The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies nefasti</i>, which -originally had nothing to do with religion, -but simply indicated days on which no courts -were to be held, was in subsequent times -applied to religious days in general, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies -nefasti</i> were mostly dedicated to the worship -of the gods.—In a religious point of view all -days of the year were either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies festi</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies profesti</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies intercisi</i>. According to -the definition given by Macrobius, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies festi</i> -were dedicated to the gods, and spent with -sacrifices, repasts, games, and other solemnities; -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies profesti</i> belonged to men for the -administration of their private and public -affairs. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dies intercisi</i> were common between -gods and men, that is, partly devoted to the -worship of the gods, partly to the transaction -of ordinary business. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dies profesti</i> were -either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies fasti</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies comitiales</i>, that is, -days on which comitia were held, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies -comperendini</i>, that is, days to which any action -was allowed to be transferred; or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies -stati</i>, that is, days set apart for causes -between Roman citizens and foreigners; or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies proeliales</i>, that is, all days on which religion -did not forbid the commencement of a -war.</p> - - -<p id="Diffarreatio">DIFFARRĔĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Divortium">Divortium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Diipoleia">DĬĬPŎLEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διιπόλεια</span>), also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διπόλεια</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διπόλια</span>, a very ancient festival celebrated -every year on the acropolis of Athens -in honour of Zeus, surnamed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πολιεύς</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Dimachae">DĬMĂCHAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διμάχαι</span>), Macedonian horse-soldiers, -who also fought on foot when occasion -required, like our dragoons.</p> - - -<p id="Diminutio">DĪMĬNŪTĬO CĂPĬTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Diocleia">DĬŎCLEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διόκλεια</span>), a festival celebrated -by the Megarians in honour of an ancient -Athenian hero, Diocles, around whose grave -young men assembled on the occasion, and -amused themselves with gymnastic and other -contests. We read that he who gave the -sweetest kiss obtained the prize, consisting -of a garland of flowers.</p> - - -<p id="Dionysia">DĬŎNȲSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διονύσια</span>), festivals celebrated -in various parts of Greece in honour of Dionysus, -and characterised by extravagant -merriment and enthusiastic joy. Drunkenness, -and the boisterous music of flutes, cymbals, -and drums, were likewise common to -all Dionysiac festivals. In the processions -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θίασοι</span> (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θείαζω</span>), with which they -were celebrated, women also took part in the -disguise of Bacchae, Lenae, Thyades, Naiades, -Nymphs, &c., adorned with garlands of ivy, -and bearing the thyrsus in their hands, so -that the whole train represented a population -inspired, and actuated by the powerful presence -of the god. The choruses sung on the -occasion were called dithyrambs, and were -hymns addressed to the god in the freest -metres and with the boldest imagery, in -which his exploits and achievements were -extolled. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a>.</span>] The phallus, the symbol -of the fertility of nature, was also carried -in these processions. The indulgence in -drinking was considered by the Greeks as a -duty of gratitude which they owed to the -giver of the vine; hence in some places it -was thought a crime to remain sober at the -Dionysia. The Attic festivals of Dionysus -were four in number: the <em>Rural</em> or <em>Lesser -Dionysia</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διονύσια κατ’ ἀγρούς</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μικρά</span>), the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lenaea</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λήναια</span>), the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anthesteria</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθεστήρια</span>), -and the <em>City</em> or <em>Great Dionysia</em> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διονύσια ἐν ἄστει</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστικά</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεγάλα</span>). The -season of the year sacred to Dionysus was -during the months nearest to the shortest -day; and the Attic festivals were accordingly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span> -celebrated in Poseideon, Gamelion, Anthesterion, -and Elaphebolion.—The <em>Rural</em> or -<em>Lesser Dionysia</em>, a vintage festival, were celebrated -in the various demes of Attica in the -month of Poseideon, and were under the superintendence -of the several local magistrates, -the demarchs. This was doubtless the most -ancient of all, and was held with the highest -degree of merriment and freedom; even -slaves enjoyed full freedom during its celebration, -and their boisterous shouts on the -occasion were almost intolerable. It is here -that we have to seek for the origin of comedy, -in the jests and the scurrilous abuse with which -the peasants assailed the bystanders from a -waggon in which they rode about. The Dionysia -in the Peiraeeus, as well as those of -the other demes of Attica, belonged to the -lesser Dionysia.—The second festival, the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lenaea</i> (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ληνός</span>, the wine-press, from -which also the month of Gamelion was called -by the Ionians Lenaeon), was celebrated in -the month of Gamelion; the place of its celebration -was the ancient temple of Dionysus -Limnaeus (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λίμνη</span>, as the district was -originally a swamp). This temple was called -the Lenaeon. The Lenaea were celebrated -with a procession and scenic contests in tragedy -and comedy. The procession probably -went to the Lenaeon, where a goat (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράγος</span>, -whence the chorus and tragedy which arose -out of it were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τραγικὸς χορός</span>, and -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τραγῳδία</span>) was sacrificed, and a chorus standing -around the altar sang the dithyrambic -ode to the god. As the dithyramb was the -element out of which, by the introduction of -an actor, tragedy arose [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a></span>], it is natural -that, in the scenic contests of this festival, -tragedy should have preceded comedy. The -poet who wished his play to be brought out -at the Lenaea applied to the second archon, -who had the superintendence of this festival, -and who gave him a chorus if the piece was -thought to deserve it.—The third festival, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anthesteria</i>, was celebrated on the 11th, -12th, and 13th days of the month of Anthesterion. -The second archon likewise superintended -the celebration of the Anthesteria, -and distributed the prizes among the victors -in the various games which were carried on -during the season. The first day was called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πιθοιγία</span>: the second, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χόες</span>: and the third, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χύτροι</span>. The first day derived its name from -the opening of the casks to taste the wine of -the preceding year; the second from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοῦς</span>, -the cup, and seems to have been the day -devoted to drinking. The third day had its -name from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χύτρος</span>, a pot, as on this day persons -offered pots with flowers, seeds, or cooked -vegetables, as a sacrifice to Dionysus and -Hermes Chthonius. It is uncertain whether -dramas were performed at the Anthesteria; -but it is supposed that comedies were represented, -and that tragedies which were to be -brought out at the great Dionysia were perhaps -rehearsed at the Anthesteria. The mysteries -connected with the celebration of the -Anthesteria were held at night.—The fourth -festival, the <em>City</em> or <em>Great Dionysia</em>, was -celebrated about the 12th of the month of -Elaphebolion; but we do not know whether -they lasted more than one day or not. The -order in which the solemnities took place was -as follows:—the great public procession, the -chorus of boys, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comus</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a></span>], comedy, -and, lastly, tragedy. Of the dramas which -were performed at the great Dionysia, the -tragedies at least were generally new pieces; -repetitions do not, however, seem to have -been excluded from any Dionysiac festival. -The first archon had the superintendence, -and gave the chorus to the dramatic poet who -wished to bring out his piece at this festival. -The prize awarded to the dramatist for the -best play consisted of a crown, and his name -was proclaimed in the theatre of Dionysus. -As the great Dionysia were celebrated at the -beginning of spring, when the navigation was -re-opened, Athens was not only visited by -numbers of country people, but also by -strangers from other parts of Greece, and the -various amusements and exhibitions on this -occasion were not unlike those of a modern -fair.—The worship of Dionysus, whom the -Romans called Bacchus, or rather the Bacchic -mysteries and orgies (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bacchanalia</i>), are -said to have been introduced from southern -Italy into Etruria, and from thence to Rome, -where for a time they were carried on in -secret, and, during the latter period of their -existence, at night. The initiated, according -to Livy, not only indulged in feasting and -drinking at their meetings, but when their -minds were heated with wine they indulged in -the coarsest excesses and the most unnatural -vices. The time of initiation lasted ten days; -on the tenth, the person who was to be initiated -took a solemn meal, underwent a purification -by water, and was led into the sanctuary -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bacchanal</i>). At first only women -were initiated, and the orgies were celebrated -every year during three days. But Pacula -Annia, a Campanian matron, pretending to -act under the direct influence of Bacchus, -changed the whole method of celebration: -she admitted men to the initiation, and transferred -the solemnisation, which had hitherto -taken place during the daytime, to the night. -Instead of three days in the year, she ordered -that the Bacchanalia should be held during -five days in every month. It was from that -time that these orgies were carried on with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span> -frightful licentiousness and excesses of every -kind. The evil at length became so alarming, -that, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 186, the consuls, by the command -of the senate, instituted an investigation -into the nature and object of these new -rites. The result was that numerous persons -were arrested, and some put to death; and -that a decree of the senate was issued, commanding -that no Bacchanalia should be held -either in Rome or Italy; that if any one -should think such ceremonies necessary, or if -he could not neglect them without scruples -or making atonements, he should apply to -the praetor urbanus, who might then consult -the senate. If the permission should be -granted to him in an assembly of the senate, -consisting of not less than one hundred members, -he might solemnise the Bacchic sacra; -but no more than five persons were to be -present at the celebration; there should be -no common fund, and no master of the sacra -or priest. A brazen table containing this -important document was discovered near -Bari, in southern Italy, in the year 1640, -and is at present in the imperial Museum of -Vienna. While the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bacchanalia</i> were thus -suppressed, another more simple and innocent -festival of Bacchus, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liberalia</i> (from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liber</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liber Pater</i>, a name of Bacchus), continued -to be celebrated at Rome every year on the -16th of March. Priests and aged priestesses, -adorned with garlands of ivy, carried through -the city wine, honey, cakes, and sweetmeats, -together with an altar with a handle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ansata -ara</i>), in the middle of which there was a -small fire-pan (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foculus</i>), in which from time -to time sacrifices were burnt. On this day -Roman youths who had attained their sixteenth -year received the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga virilis</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Dioscuria">DĬŎSCŪRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διοσκούρια</span>), festivals celebrated -in various parts of Greece in honour -of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux). Their -worship was very generally adopted in Greece, -especially in the Doric and Achaean states; -but little is known of the manner in which -their festivals were celebrated. At Athens -the festival was called Anaceia.</p> - - -<p id="Diota">DĬŌTA, a vessel having two ears (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὦτα</span>) or -handles, used for holding wine. It appears -to have been much the same as the amphora. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphora">Amphora</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Diphthera">DIPHTHĔRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διφθέρα</span>), a kind of cloak -made of the skins of animals, and worn by -herdsmen and country people. It had a -covering for the head (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπικράνον</span>), in which -respect it would correspond to the Roman -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cucullus</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Diploma">DIPLŌMA, a writ or public document, -which conferred upon a person any right -or privilege. During the republic, it was -granted by the consuls and senate; and under -the empire, by the emperor and the magistrates -whom he authorised to do so. It consisted -of two leaves, whence it derived its -name.</p> - - -<p id="Diptycha">DIPTỸCHA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίπτυχα</span>), two writing tablets, -which could be folded together. They were -commonly made of wood and covered over -with wax.</p> - - -<p id="Diribitores">DĬRĬBĬTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Discus">DISCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίσκος</span>), a circular plate of stone, -or metal, made for throwing to a distance as -an exercise of strength and dexterity. It -was one of the principal gymnastic exercises -of the ancients, being included in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pentathlum</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp40" id="ill137" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill137.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Discobolus. (Osterley, Denk. der alt Kunst, vol. 1. No. 139)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Dispensator">DISPENSĀTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calculator">Calculator</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Dithyrambus">DITHỸRAMBUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Diversorium">DĪVERSŌRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caupona">Caupona</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Divinatio">DĪVĪNĀTĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαντική</span>), a power in man -which foresees future things by means of those -signs which the gods throw in his way. -Among the Greeks the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manteis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάντεις</span>), or -seers, who announced the future, were supposed -to be under the direct influence of the -gods, chiefly that of Apollo. In many families -of seers the inspired knowledge of the -future was considered to be hereditary, and -to be transmitted from father to son. To -these families belonged the Iamids, who from -Olympia spread over a considerable part of -Greece; the Branchidae, near Miletus; the -Eumolpids, at Athens and Eleusis; the Telliads,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span> -the Acarnanian seers, and others. Along -with the seers we may also mention the Bacides -and the Sibyllae. Both existed from a -very remote time, and were distinct from the -manteis so far as they pretended to derive -their knowledge of the future from sacred -books (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρησμοί</span>) which they consulted, and -which were in some places, as at Athens and -Rome, kept by the government or some especial -officers, in the acropolis and in the -most revered sanctuary. The Bacides are -said to have been descended from one or -more prophetic nymphs of the name of Bacis. -The Sibyllae were prophetic women, probably -of Asiatic origin, whose peculiar custom -seems to have been to wander with their -sacred books from place to place. The Sibylla, -whose books gained so great an importance -at Rome, is reported to have been -the Erythraean: the books which she was -said to have sold to one of the Tarquins were -carefully concealed from the public, and only -accessible to the duumvirs. Besides these -more respectable prophets and prophetesses, -there were numbers of diviners of an inferior -order (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρησμολόγοι</span>), who made it their business -to explain all sorts of signs, and to tell -fortunes. They were, however, more particularly -popular with the lower orders, who -are everywhere most ready to believe what -is most marvellous and least entitled to credit. -No public undertaking of any consequence -was ever entered upon by the Greeks and -Romans without consulting the will of the -gods, by observing the signs which they -sent, especially those in the sacrifices offered -for the purpose, and by which they were -thought to indicate the success or the failure of -the undertaking. For this kind of divination -no divine inspiration was thought necessary, -but merely experience and a certain knowledge -acquired by routine; and although in -some cases priests were appointed for the -purpose of observing and explaining signs -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Haruspices">Haruspex</a></span>], yet on any sudden -emergency, especially in private affairs, any -one who met with something extraordinary, -might act as his own interpreter. The principal -signs by which the gods were thought -to declare their will, were things connected -with the offering of sacrifices, the flight and -voice of birds, all kinds of natural phenomena, -ordinary as well as extraordinary, and -dreams.—The interpretation of signs of the -first class (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερομαντεία</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροσκοπία</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">haruspicium</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ars haruspicina</i>) was, according to -Aeschylus, the invention of Prometheus. It -seems to have been most cultivated by the -Etruscans, among whom it was raised into a -complete science, and from whom it passed -to the Romans. Sacrifices were either offered -for the special purpose of consulting the gods, -or in the ordinary way; but in both cases -the signs were observed, and when they were -propitious, the sacrifice was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλλιερεῖν</span>. -The principal points that were generally observed -were, 1. The manner in which the -victim approached the altar. 2. The nature -of the intestines with respect to their colour -and smoothness; the liver and bile were of -particular importance. 3. The nature of the -flame which consumed the sacrifice. Especial -care was also taken during a sacrifice, that -no inauspicious or frivolous words were uttered -by any of the bystanders: hence the -admonitions of the priests, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐφημεῖτε</span> and -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐφημία</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιγᾶτε, σιωπᾶτε</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">favete linguis</i>, -and others; for improper expressions were -not only thought to pollute and profane the -sacred act, but to be unlucky omens.—The -art of interpreting signs of the second class -was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰωνιστική</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">augurium</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicium</i>. -It was, like the former, common to Greeks -and Romans, but never attained the same -degree of importance in Greece as it did in -Rome. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Auspicium">Auspicium</a>.</span>] The Greeks, when -observing the flight of birds, turned their -face toward the north, and then a bird appearing -to the right (east), especially an -eagle, a heron, or a falcon, was a favourable -sign; while birds appearing to the left (west) -were considered as unlucky signs. Of greater -importance than the appearance of animals, -at least to the Greeks, were the phenomena -in the heavens, particularly during any public -transaction. Among the unlucky phenomena -in the heavens (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διοσημεῖα</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signa</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portenta</i>) -were thunder and lightning, an eclipse of the -sun or moon, earthquakes, rain of blood, -stones, milk, &c. Any one of these signs -was sufficient at Athens to break up the assembly -of the people.—In common life, things -apparently of no importance, when occurring -at a critical moment, were thought by the -ancients to be signs sent by the gods, from -which conclusions might be drawn respecting -the future. Among these common occurrences -we may mention sneezing, twinkling -of the eyes, tinkling of the ears, &c.—The -art of interpreting dreams (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀνειροπολία</span>), which -had probably been introduced into Europe -from Asia, where it is still a universal practice, -seems in the Homeric age to have been -held in high esteem, for dreams were said to -be sent by Zeus. In subsequent times, that -class of diviners who occupied themselves -with the interpretation of dreams, seems to -have been very numerous and popular; but -they never enjoyed any protection from the -state, and were chiefly resorted to by private -individuals.—The subject of oracles is treated -in a separate article. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Oraculum">Oraculum</a>.</span>]—The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span> -word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divinatio</i> was used in a particular manner -by the Romans as a law term. If in any -case two or more accusers came forward -against one and the same individual, it was, -as the phrase ran, <em>decided by divination</em>, who -should be the chief or real accuser, whom the -others then joined as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subscriptores;</i> <em>i.e.</em> by -putting their names to the charge brought -against the offender. This transaction, by -which one of several accusers was selected to -conduct the accusation, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divinatio</i>, -as the question here was not about facts, but -about something which was to be done, and -which could not be found out by witnesses or -written documents; so that the judices had, -as it were, to divine the course which they -had to take. Hence the oration of Cicero, in -which he tries to show that he, and not -Q. Caecilius Niger, ought to conduct the accusation -against Verres, is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Divinatio in -Caecilium</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Divisor">DĪVĪSOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Divortium">DĪVORTĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπόλειψις</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπόπεμψις</span>), divorce. -(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> The laws of Athens permitted -either the husband or the wife to call -for and effect a divorce. If it originated with -the wife, she was said to leave her husband’s -house (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπολείπειν</span>); if otherwise, to be dismissed -from it (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποπεμπέσθαι</span>). After divorce, -the wife resorted to her male relations, with -whom she would have remained if she had -never quitted her maiden state; and it then -became their duty to receive or recover from -her late husband all the property that she -had brought to him in acknowledged dowry -upon their marriage. If, upon this, both -parties were satisfied, the divorce was final -and complete: if otherwise, an action <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπολείψεως</span>, -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποπέμψεως</span>, would be instituted, as -the case might be, by the party opposed to -the separation. A separation, however, whether -it originated from the husband or the -wife, was considered to reflect discredit on the -latter.—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> Divorce always existed -in the Roman polity. As one essential part -of a marriage was the consent and conjugal -affection of the parties, it was considered -that this affection was necessary to its -continuance, and accordingly either party -might declare his or her intention to dissolve -the connection. No judicial decree, and no -interference of any public authority, was -requisite to dissolve a marriage. The first -instance of divorce at Rome is said to have -occurred about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 234, when Sp. Carvilius -Ruga put away his wife, on the ground of -barrenness: it is added, that his conduct was -generally condemned. Towards the latter -part of the republic, and under the empire, -divorces became very common. Pompey divorced -his wife Mucia for alleged adultery; -and Cicero divorced his wife Terentia, after -living with her thirty years, and married a -young woman. Cato the younger divorced -his wife Marcia, that his friend Hortensius -might marry her, and have children by her; -for this is the true meaning of the story -that he lent his wife to Hortensius. If a -husband divorced his wife, the wife’s dowry, -as a general rule, was restored; and the -same was the case when the divorce took -place by mutual consent. Corresponding to -the forms of marriage by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">confarreatio</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coemtio</i>, there were the forms of divorce by -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diffarreatio</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">remancipatio</i>. In course of -time, less ceremony was used; but still some -distinct notice or declaration of intention was -necessary to constitute a divorce. The term -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repudium</i>, it is said, properly applies to a -marriage only contracted, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divortium</i> to an -actual marriage; but sometimes divortium -and repudium appear to be used indifferently. -The phrases to express a divorce are, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nuntium -remittere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divortium facere</i>; and the -form of words might be as follows—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tuas res -tibi habeto, tuas res tibi agito</i>. The phrases -used to express the renunciation of a marriage -contract were, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">renuntiare repudium</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repudium -remittere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dicere</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repudiare</i>; and -the form of words might be, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Conditione tua -non utor</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Docana">DŎCĂNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰ δόκανα</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοκός</span>, a beam) -was an ancient symbolical representation of -the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), at Sparta. -It consisted of two upright beams with others -laid across them transversely.</p> - - -<p id="Docimasia">DŎCĬMĂSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοκιμασία</span>). When any citizen -of Athens was either appointed by lot, -or chosen by suffrage, to hold a public office, -he was obliged, before entering on its duties, -to submit to a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i>, or scrutiny into his -previous life and conduct, in which any person -could object to him as unfit. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i>, -however, was not confined to persons -appointed to public offices; for we read of -the denouncement of a scrutiny against orators -who spoke in the assembly while leading -profligate lives, or after having committed -flagitious crimes.</p> - - -<p id="Dodrans">DODRANS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Dolabra">DŎLĀBRA, <em>dim.</em> DŎLĀBELLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σμίλη</span>, -<em>dim</em>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σμιλίον</span>), a chisel, a celt, was used for a -variety of purposes in ancient as in modern -times. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Celtes</i> is an old Latin word for a -chisel, probably derived from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coelo</i>, to engrave. -Celts, or chisels, were frequently -employed in making entrenchments and in -destroying fortifications; and hence they are -often found in ancient earth-works and encampments. -They are for the most part of -bronze, more rarely of hard stone. The sizes -and forms which they present, are as various<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span> -as the uses to which they were applied. The -annexed woodcut is designed to show a few -of the most remarkable varieties.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill140" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill140.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Dolabrae, Celts. (From different Collections in Great Britain.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Dolium">DŌLĬUM, a cylindrical vessel, somewhat -resembling our tubs or casks, into which new -wine was put to let it ferment.</p> - -<p id="Dolo">DŎLO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόλων</span>). (1) A secret poniard or -dagger contained in a case, used by the -Italians. It was inserted in the handles of -whips, and also in walking sticks, thus corresponding -to our sword-stick.—(2) A small -top-sail.</p> - - -<p id="Dominium">DŎMĬNĬUM signifies quiritarian ownership, -or property in a thing; and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dominus</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dominus legitimus</i>, is the owner. The -dominus has the power of dealing with a -thing as he pleases, and differs from the bare -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">possessor</i>, who has only the right of possession, -and has not the absolute ownership of -the thing.</p> - - -<p id="Domus">DŎMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἶκος</span>), a house.—(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> A -Greek house was always divided into two -distinct portions, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Andronitis</i>, or men’s -apartments (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδρωνῖτις</span>), and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gynaeconitis</i>, -or women’s apartments (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυναικωνῖτις</span>). In -the earliest times, as in the houses referred -to by Homer, and in some houses at a later -period, the women’s apartments were in the -upper story (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπερῷον</span>), but usually at a later -time the gynaeconitis was on the same story -with the andronitis, and behind it. The front -of the house towards the street was not large, -as the apartments extended rather in the -direction of its depth than of its width. In -towns the houses were often built side by -side, with party-walls between. The exterior -wall was plain, being composed generally of -stone, brick, and timber, and often covered -with stucco. There was no open space between -the street and the house-door, like the -Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestibulum</i>. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόθυρα</span>, which is -sometimes mentioned, seems to be merely -the space in front of the house, where there -was generally an altar of Apollo Agyieus, -or a rude obelisk emblematical of the -god. Sometimes there was a laurel tree in -the same position, and sometimes a head of -the god Hermes. A few steps (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναβαθμοί</span>) -led up to the house-door, which generally -bore some inscription, for the sake of a good -omen, or as a charm. The door sometimes -opened outwards; but this seems to have -been an exception to the general rule, as is -proved by the expressions used for opening, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνδοῦναι</span>, and shutting it, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπισπάσασθαι</span> and -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφελκύσασθαι</span>. The handles were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπισπαστῆρες</span>. -The house-door was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλειος</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλεια θύρα</span>, because it led to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλή</span>. -It gave admittance to a narrow passage -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρωρεῖον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυλών</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρών</span>), on one side of -which, in a large house, were the stables, on -the other the porter’s lodge. The duty of -the porter (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρωρός</span>) was to admit visitors -and to prevent anything improper from being -carried into or out of the house. The porter -was attended by a dog. Hence the phrase -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐλαβεῖσθαι τὴν κύνα</span>, corresponding to the -Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cave canem</i>. From the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρωρεῖον</span> we -pass into the peristyle or court (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περιστύλιον</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλή</span>) of the andronitis, which was a space -open to the sky in the centre (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕπαιθρον</span>), and -surrounded on all four sides by porticoes -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στοαί</span>), of which one, probably that nearest the -entrance, was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστόον</span>. These porticoes -were used for exercise, and sometimes -for dining in. Here was commonly the altar -on which sacrifices were offered to the household -gods. In building the porticoes the -object sought was to obtain as much sun in -winter, and as much shade and air in summer -as possible. Round the peristyle were -arranged the chambers used by the men, such -as banqueting rooms (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἶκοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδρῶνες</span>), which -were large enough to contain several sets of -couches (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίκλινοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑπτάκλινοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριακοντάκλινοι</span>, -and at the same time to allow abundant room -for attendants, musicians, and performers of -games; parlours or sitting rooms (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξέδραι</span>), -and smaller chambers and sleeping rooms -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δωμάτια</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοιτῶνες</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰκήματα</span>); picture-galleries<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span> -and libraries, and sometimes store-rooms; -and in the arrangement of these -apartments attention was paid to their aspect. -The peristyle of the andronitis was connected -with that of the gynaeconitis by a door called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέταυλος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσαυλος</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεσαύλιος</span>, which was -in the middle of the portico of the peristyle -opposite to the entrance. By means of this -door all communication between the andronitis -and gynaeconitis could be shut off.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp35" id="ill141" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill141.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ground-plan of a Greek House.</div> -</div> - -<p class="negin1 pad3 fs80"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">α</span>, House-door, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλειος θύρα</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρ’</span>, passage, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρωρεῖον</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρών</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Α</span>, peristyle, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλή</span> of the andronitis; -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ο</span>, the halls and chambers of the andronitis; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μ</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέταυλος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσαυλος θύρα</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γ</span>, peristyle of the -gynaeconitis; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γ</span>, chambers of the gynaeconitis; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">π</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάς</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραστάς</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θάλαμος</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφιθάλαμος</span>: -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ι</span>, rooms for working in wool (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστῶνες</span>); <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κ</span>, -garden-door, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηταία θύρα</span>.</p> - -<p>Accordingly Xenophon calls it <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύρα βαλανωτός</span>. -Its name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσαυλος</span> is evidently derived from -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσος</span>, and means the door <em>between</em> the two -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλαί</span> or peristyles. This door gave admittance -to the peristyle of the gynaeconitis, -which differed from that of the andronitis in -having porticoes round only three of its sides. -On the fourth side were placed two antae -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Antae">Antae</a></span>], at a considerable distance from each -other. A third of the distance between these -antae was set off inwards, thus forming a -chamber or vestibule, which was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάς</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραστάς</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόδρομος</span>. On the right -and left of this <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάς</span> were two bed-chambers, -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θάλαμος</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφιθάλαμος</span>, of which -the former was the principal bed-chamber of -the house, and here also seem to have been -kept the vases, and other valuable articles of -ornament. Beyond these rooms were large -apartments (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστῶνες</span>) used for working in -wool. Round the peristyle were the eating-rooms, -bed-chambers, store-rooms, and other -apartments in common use. Besides the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλειος θύρα</span> and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσαυλος θύρα</span>, there was -a third door (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηπαία θύρα</span>) leading to the -garden. The preceding is a conjectural plan -of the ground-floor of a Greek house of the -larger size. There was usually, though not -always, an upper story (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπερῷον διῆρες</span>), -which seldom extended over the whole space -occupied by the lower story. The principal -use of the upper story was for the lodging -of the slaves. The access to the upper -floor seems to have been sometimes by stairs -on the outside of the house, leading up from -the street. Guests were also lodged in the -upper story. But in some large houses -there were rooms set apart for their reception -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενῶνες</span>) on the ground-floor. The roofs -were generally flat, and it was customary to -walk about upon them. In the interior of -the house the place of doors was sometimes -supplied by curtains (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραπετάσματα</span>), which -were either plain, or dyed, or embroidered. -The principal openings for the admission of -light and air were in the roofs of the peristyles; -but it is incorrect to suppose that the -houses had no windows (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρίδες</span>), or at least -none overlooking the street. They were not -at all uncommon. Artificial warmth was -procured partly by means of fire-places. It -is supposed that chimneys were altogether -unknown, and that the smoke escaped through -an opening in the roof (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καπνοδόκη</span>), but it is -not easy to understand how this could be -the case when there was an upper story. -Little portable stoves (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐσχάραι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐσχαρίδες</span>) or -chafing-dishes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνθράκια</span>) were frequently -used. The houses of the wealthy in the -country, at least in Attica, were much larger -and more magnificent than those in the towns. -The latter seem to have been generally small -and plain, especially in earlier times, when -the Greeks preferred expending the resources -of art and wealth on their temples and public -buildings; but the private houses became -more magnificent as the public buildings began -to be neglected. The decorations of the -interior were very plain at the period to -which our description refers. The floors -were of stone. At a late period coloured -stones were used. Mosaics are first mentioned -under the kings of Pergamus. The -walls, up to the 4th century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, seem to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span> -have been only whited. The first instance of -painting them is that of Alcibiades. This -innovation met with considerable opposition. -We have also mention of painted ceilings at -the same period. At a later period this mode -of decoration became general.—(2) <span id="Domu_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span> -The houses of the Romans were poor and mean -for many centuries after the foundation of the -city. Till the war with Pyrrhus the houses -were covered only with thatch or shingles, -and were usually built of wood or unbaked -bricks. It was not till the latter times of the -republic, when wealth had been acquired by -conquests in the East, that houses of any -splendour began to be built; but it then became -the fashion not only to build houses of -an immense size, but also to adorn them with -columns, paintings, statues, and costly works -of art. Some idea may be formed of the size -and magnificence of the houses of the Roman -nobles during the later times of the republic -by the price which they fetched. The consul -Messalla bought the house of Autronius for -3700 sestertia (nearly 33,000<em>l.</em>), and Cicero -the house of Crassus, on the Palatine, for -3500 sestertia (nearly 31,000<em>l.</em>). The house -of Publius Clodius, whom Milo killed, cost -14,800 sestertia (about 131,000<em>l.</em>); and the -Tusculan villa of Scaurus was fitted up with -such magnificence, that when it was burnt by -his slaves, he lost 100,000 sestertia, upwards -of 885,000<em>l.</em>—Houses were originally only -one story high; but as the value of ground -increased in the city they were built several -stories in height, and the highest floors were -usually inhabited by the poor. Till the time -of Nero, the streets in Rome were narrow -and irregular, and bore traces of the haste -and confusion with which the city was built -after it had been burnt by the Gauls; but -after the great fire in the time of that emperor, -by which two-thirds of Rome was burnt -to the ground, the city was built with great -regularity. The streets were made straight -and broad; the height of the houses was restricted, -and a certain part of each was required -to be built of Gabian or Alban stone, -which was proof against fire. The principal -parts of a Roman house were the, 1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vestibulum</i>, -2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ostium</i>, 3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Atrium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cavum Aedium</i>, -4. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alae</i>, 5. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tablinum</i>, 6. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fauces</i>, 7. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Peristylium</i>. -The parts of a house which were considered -of less importance, and of which the -arrangement differed in different houses, -were the, 1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cubicula</i>, 2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triclinia</i>, 3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oeci</i>, -4. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Exedrae</i>, 5. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pinacotheca</i>, 6. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bibliotheca</i>, -7. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Balineum</i>, 8. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Culina</i>, 9. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coenacula</i>, 10. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diaeta</i>, -11. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Solaria</i>. We shall speak of each in -order.—1. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Vestibulum">Vestibulum</a></span> did not properly form -part of the house, but was a vacant space before -the door, forming a court, which was -surrounded on three sides by the house, and -was open on the fourth to the street.—2. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Ostium">Ostium</a></span>, -which is also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">janua</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fores</i>, -was the entrance to the house. The street-door -admitted into a hall, to which the name -of ostium was also given, and in which there -was frequently a small room (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i>) for the -porter (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">janitor</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostiarius</i>), and also for a dog, -which was usually kept in the hall to guard -the house. Another door (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">janua interior</i>) -opposite the street-door led into the atrium.—3. -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Atrium">Atrium</a></span> or <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cavaedium">Cavum Aedium</a></span>, also written -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cavaedium</i>, are probably only different names -of the same room.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill143b" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill143b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Atrium of the House of Ceres at Pompeii.</div> -</div> - -<p>The Atrium or Cavum -Aedium was a large apartment roofed over -with the exception of an opening in the -centre, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">compluvium</i>, towards which the -roof sloped so as to throw the rain-water into -a cistern in the floor, termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impluvium</i>, -which was frequently ornamented with statues, -columns, and other works of art. The -word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impluvium</i>, however, is also employed -to denote the aperture in the roof. The -atrium was the most important room in the -house, and among the wealthy was usually -fitted up with much splendour and magnificence. -Originally it was the only sitting-room -in the house; but in the houses of the -wealthy it was distinct from the private -apartments, and was used as a reception-room, -where the patron received his clients, -and the great and noble the numerous visitors -who were accustomed to call every morning -to pay their respects or solicit favours. -But though the atrium was not used by the -wealthy as a sitting-room for the family, it -still continued to be employed for many purposes -which it had originally served. Thus -the nuptial couch was placed in the atrium -opposite the door, and also the instruments -and materials for spinning and weaving, -which were formerly carried on by the women -of the family in this room. Here also -the images of their ancestors were placed, -and the focus or fire-place, which possessed -a sacred character, being dedicated to the -Lares of each family.—4. <span class="smcap">Alae</span>, wings, were -small apartments or recesses on the left and -right sides of the atrium.—5. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Tablinum">Tablinum</a></span> was -in all probability a recess or room at the further -end of the atrium opposite the door -leading into the hall, and was regarded as -part of the atrium. It contained the family -records and archives. With the tablinum -the Roman house appears to have originally -ceased; and the sleeping-rooms were probably -arranged on each side of the atrium. But -when the atrium and its surrounding rooms -were used for the reception of clients and -other public visitors, it became necessary to -increase the size of the house; and the following<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span> -rooms were accordingly added:—6. -<span class="smcap">Fauces</span> appear to have been passages, -which passed from the atrium to the peristylium -or interior of the house.—7. <span class="smcap">Peristylium</span> -was in its general form like the -atrium, but it was one-third greater in -breadth, measured transversely, than in -length. It was a court open to the sky in the -middle; the open part, which was surrounded -by columns, was larger than the impluvium -in the atrium, and was frequently decorated -with flowers and shrubs.—The arrangement -of the rooms, which are next to be noticed, -varied according to the taste and circumstances -of the owner. It is therefore impossible -to assign to them any regular place -in the house.—1. <span class="smcap">Cubicula</span>, bed-chambers, -appear to have been usually small. There -were separate cubicula for the day and night; -the latter were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dormitoria</i>.—2. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinia</a></span> -are treated of in a separate article. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinium</a>.</span>]—3. <span class="smcap">Oeci</span>, from the Greek -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἶκος</span>, were spacious halls or saloons borrowed -from the Greeks, and were frequently used as -triclinia. They were to have the same proportions -as triclinia, but were to be more -spacious on account of having columns, which -triclinia had not.—4. <span class="smcap">Exedrae</span> were rooms -for conversation and the other purposes of -society.—5. <span class="smcap">Pinacotheca</span>, a picture-gallery.—6, -7. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Bibliotheca">Bibliotheca</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balineum</a></span> are treated -of in separate articles.—8. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Culina">Culina</a></span>, the kitchen.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill143a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill143a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Kitchen of the House of Pansa at Pompeii.</div> -</div> - -<p>The food was originally cooked in the atrium: -but the progress of refinement afterwards led -to the use of another part of the house for -this purpose. In the kitchen of Pansa’s -house at Pompeii, a stove for stews and similar -preparations was found, very much like -the charcoal stoves used in the present day. -Before it lie a knife, a strainer, and a kind -of frying-pan with four spherical cavities, as -if it were meant to cook eggs.—9. <span class="smcap">Coenacula</span>, -properly signified rooms to dine in; -but after it became the fashion to dine in the -upper part of the house, the whole of the -rooms above the ground-floor were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coenacula</i>.—10. <span class="smcap">Diaeta</span>, an apartment used -for dining in, and for the other purposes of -life. It appears to have been smaller than -the triclinium. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diaeta</i> is also the name given -by Pliny to rooms containing three or four -bed-chambers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cubicula</i>). Pleasure-houses -or summer-houses are also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diaetae</i>.—11. -<span class="smcap">Solaria</span>, properly places for basking in -the sun, were terraces on the tops of houses. -The preceding cut represents the atrium of a -house at Pompeii. In the centre is the impluvium, -and the passage at the further end -is the ostium or entrance hall.—The preceding -account of the different rooms, and -especially of the arrangement of the atrium, -tablinum, peristyle, &c., is best illustrated -by the houses which have been disinterred at -Pompeii. The ground-plan of one is accordingly -subjoined.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="ill144" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill144.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ground-plan of a House at Pompeii.</div> -</div> - -<p>Like most of the other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span> -houses at Pompeii, it had no vestibulum -according to the meaning given above. 1. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostium</i> or entrance-hall, which is six -feet wide and nearly thirty long. Near the -street-door there is a figure of a large fierce -dog worked in mosaic on the pavement, and -beneath it is written <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cave Canem</i>. The two -large rooms on each side of the vestibule appear -from the large openings in front of them -to have been shops; they communicate with -the entrance-hall, and were therefore probably -occupied by the master of the house. -2. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atrium</i>, which is about twenty-eight -feet in length and twenty in breadth; its -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impluvium</i> is near the centre of the room, -and its floor is paved with white tesserae, -spotted with black. 3. Chambers for the use -of the family, or intended for the reception of -guests, who were entitled to claim hospitality. -4. A small room with a staircase leading -up to the upper rooms. 5. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alae.</i> 6. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tablinum</i>. 7. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fauces</i>. 8. Peristyle, -with Doric columns and garden in the centre. -The large room on the right of the peristyle -is the triclinium; beside it is the kitchen; -and the smaller apartments are cubicula and -other rooms for the use of the family.—Having -given a general description of the rooms -of a Roman house, it remains to speak of the -(1) floors, (2) walls, (3) ceilings, (4) windows, -and (5) the mode of warming the rooms. -For the doors, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a></span>.—(1.) The floor -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solum</i>) of a room was seldom boarded: it -was generally covered with stone or marble, -or mosaics. The common floors were paved -with pieces of bricks, tiles, stones, &c., forming -a kind of composition called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ruderatic</i>. -Sometimes pieces of marble were imbedded -in a composition ground, and these probably -gave the idea of mosaics. As these floors -were beaten down (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pavita</i>) with rammers -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fistucae</i>), the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pavimentum</i> became the -general name for a floor. Mosaics, called by -Pliny <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lithostrota</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λιθόστρωτα</span>), though this -word has a more extensive meaning, first -came into use in Sulla’s time, who made one -in the temple of Fortune at Praeneste. Mosaic -work was afterwards called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Musivum -opus</i>, and was most extensively employed.—(2.) -The inner walls (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parietes</i>) of private -rooms were frequently lined with slabs of -marble, but were more usually covered by -paintings, which in the time of Augustus -were made upon the walls themselves. This -practice was so common that we find even -the small houses in Pompeii have paintings -upon their walls.—(3.) The ceilings seem -originally to have been left uncovered, the -beams which supported the roof or the upper -story being visible. Afterwards planks were -placed across these beams at certain intervals, -leaving hollow spaces, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lacunaria</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">laquearia</i>, -which were frequently covered with -gold and ivory, and sometimes with paintings. -There was an arched ceiling in common -use, called <span class="smcap"><a href="#Camara">Camara</a></span>.—(4.) The Roman -houses had few windows (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fenestrae</i>). The -principal apartments, the atrium, peristyle, -&c., were lighted from above, and the cubicula -and other small rooms generally derived -their light from them, and not from windows -looking into the street. The rooms only -on the upper story seem to have been usually -lighted by windows. The windows appear -originally to have been merely openings in -the wall, closed by means of shutters, which -frequently had two leaves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bifores fenestrae</i>). -Windows were also sometimes covered by a -kind of lattice or trellis work (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clathri</i>), and -sometimes by net-work, to prevent serpents -and other noxious reptiles from getting in. -Afterwards, however, windows were made of -a transparent stone, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lapis specularis</i> -(mica); such windows were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">specularia</i>. -Windows made of glass (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitrum</i>) are -first mentioned by Lactantius, who lived in -the fourth century of the Christian era; but -the discoveries at Pompeii prove that glass -was used for windows under the early emperors.—(5.) -The rooms were heated in winter -in different ways; but the Romans had no<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span> -stoves like ours. The cubicula, triclinia, and -other rooms, which were intended for winter -use, were built in that part of the house upon -which the sun shone most; and in the mild -climate of Italy this frequently enabled them -to dispense with any artificial mode of warming -the rooms. Rooms exposed to the sun -in this way were sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">heliocamini</i>. -The rooms were sometimes heated by hot air, -which was introduced by means of pipes from -a furnace below, but more frequently by -portable furnaces or braziers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foculi</i>), in -which coal or charcoal was burnt. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caminus</i> -was also a kind of stove, in which -wood appears to have been usually burnt, and -probably only differed from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foculus</i> in being -larger and fixed to one place. The rooms -usually had no chimneys for carrying off the -smoke, which escaped through the windows, -doors, and openings in the roof; still chimneys -do not appear to have been entirely unknown -to the ancients, as some are said to -have been found in the ruins of ancient -buildings.</p> - - -<p id="Donaria">DŌNĀRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναθήματα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνακείμενα</span>), presents -made to the gods, either by individuals -or communities. Sometimes they are also -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dona</i> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῶρα</span>. The belief that the gods -were pleased with costly presents was as -natural to the ancients as the belief that they -could be influenced in their conduct towards -men by the offering of sacrifices; and, indeed, -both sprang from the same feeling. -Presents were mostly given as tokens of gratitude -for some favour which a god had bestowed -on man; as, for instance, by persons -who had recovered from illness or escaped -from shipwreck; but some are also mentioned, -which were intended to induce the -deity to grant some especial favour. Almost -all presents were dedicated in temples, to -which in some places an especial building was -added, in which these treasures were preserved. -Such buildings were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θησαυροί</span> -(treasuries); and in the most frequented -temples of Greece many states had their -separate treasuries. The act of dedication -was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνατιθέναι</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">donare</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dedicare</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacrare</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Donativum">DŌNĀTĪVUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Congiarium">Congiarium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Dormitoria">DORMĪTŌRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Dos">DOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φερνή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προΐξ</span>), dowry. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> -In the Homeric times it was customary for -the husband to purchase his wife from her -relations, by gifts called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕδνα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔεδνα</span>. But -at Athens, during the historical period, the -contrary was the case; for every woman had -to bring her husband some dowry, and so -universal was the practice, that one of the -chief distinctions between a wife and a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλλακή</span>, -or concubine, consisted in the former -having a portion, whereas the latter had not; -hence, persons who married wives without -portions appear to have given them or their -guardians an acknowledgment in writing -by which the receipt of a portion was admitted. -Moreover, poor heiresses were either -married or portioned by their next of kin, -according to a law, which fixed the amount -of portion to be given at five minae by a Pentacosiomedimnus, -three by a Horseman, and -one and a half by a Zeugites. The husband -had to give to the relatives or guardians of -the wife security (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποτίμημα</span>) for the dowry, -which was not considered the property of the -husband himself, but rather of his wife and -children. The portion was returned to the -wife in case of a divorce.—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dos</i> among the Romans was every thing -which on the occasion of a woman’s marriage -was transferred by her, or by another person, -to the husband. All the property of the wife -which was not made dos continued to be her -own, and was comprised under the name of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parapherna</i>. The dos upon its delivery became -the husband’s property, and continued -to be his so long as the marriage relation -existed. In the case of divorce, the woman, -or her relations, could bring an action for -the restitution of the dos; and, accordingly, -a woman whose dos was large (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dotata uxor</i>) -had some influence over her husband, inasmuch -as she had the power of divorcing herself, -and thus of depriving him of the enjoyment -of her property.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill145" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill145.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Attic Drachma. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Drachma">DRACHMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δραχμή</span>), the principal silver -coin among the Greeks. The two chief -standards in the currencies of the Greek -states were the Attic and Aeginetan. The -average value of the Attic drachma was 9¾<em>d.</em> -of our money. It contained six obols (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀβολοί</span>); -and the Athenians had separate silver coins, -from four drachmae to a quarter of an obol. -There were also silver pieces of two drachmae -and four drachmae. (See tables.) The tetradrachm -in later times was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stater</i>. The -latter word also signifies a gold coin, equal -in value to twenty drachmae [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stater">Stater</a></span>]. The -obolos, in later times, was of bronze: but in -the best times of Athens we only read of -silver obols. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκοῦς</span> was a copper coin, -and the eighth part of an obol. The Attic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span> -standard prevailed most in the maritime and -commercial states. It was the standard of -Philip’s gold, and was introduced by Alexander -for silver also.—The Aeginetan standard -appears to have been the prevalent one in -early times: we are told that money was -first coined at Aegina by order of Pheidon at -Argos. In later times the Aeginetan standard -was used in almost all the states of the Peloponnesus, -except Corinth. The average value -of the Aeginetan drachma was 1<em>s.</em> 1¾<em>d.</em> in our -money; and the values of the different coins -of this standard are as follows:—</p> - -<table class="autotable" width="70%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc">Shill.</td> -<td class="tdc">Pence.</td> -<td class="tdl">Farth.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">½ Obol</td> -<td class="tdc">-</td> -<td class="tdc">1</td> -<td class="tdl">0·583</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Obol</td> -<td class="tdc">-</td> -<td class="tdc">2</td> -<td class="tdl">1·166</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Diobolus</td> -<td class="tdc">-</td> -<td class="tdc">4</td> -<td class="tdl">2·33</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Triobolus</td> -<td class="tdc">-</td> -<td class="tdc">6</td> -<td class="tdl">2·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Drachma</td> -<td class="tdc">1</td> -<td class="tdc">1</td> -<td class="tdl">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Didrachm</td> -<td class="tdc">2</td> -<td class="tdc">3</td> -<td class="tdl">2</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill146" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="p2 w100" src="images/ill146.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Aeginetan Drachma. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p>As the Romans reckoned in sesterces, so the -Greeks generally reckoned by drachmae; and -when a sum is mentioned in the Attic writers, -without any specification of the unit, drachmae -are usually meant.</p> - - -<p id="Draco">DRĂCO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Signa">Signa Militaria</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ducenarii">DŬCĒNĀRĬI.—(1) The name given to the -Roman procuratores, who received a salary -of 200 sestertia. The procuratores first received -a salary in the time of Augustus.—(2) -A class or decuria of judices, first established -by Augustus. They were so called because -their property, as valued in the census, -amounted only to 200 sestertia. They appear -to <ins class="corr" id="tn-146" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'have tried causes'"> -have tried cases</ins> of small importance.</p> - - -<p id="Ducentesima">DŬCENTĒSĬMA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Centesima">Centesima</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Duodecim">DŬŎDĔCIM SCRIPTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Latrunculi">Latrunculi</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Duodecim_l">DŬŎDĔCIM TĂBŬLĀRUM LEX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Duplarii">DUPLĀRĬI or DUPLĬCĀRĬI, were soldiers -who received on account of their good conduct -double allowance (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duplicia cibaria</i>), and -perhaps in some cases double pay likewise.</p> - - -<p id="Dupondius">DŬPONDĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Dussis">DUSSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Duumviri">DUUMVĬRI, or the two men, the name of -various magistrates and functionaries at -Rome, and in the coloniae and municipia. -(1) <span class="smcap">Duumviri Juri Dicundo</span> were the highest -magistrates in the municipal towns. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>]—(2) -<span class="smcap">Duumviri Navales</span>, extraordinary -magistrates, who were created, whenever -occasion required, for the purpose of -equipping and repairing the fleet. They -appear to have been originally appointed by -the consuls and dictators, but were first -elected by the people, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 311.—(3) <span class="smcap">Duumviri -Perduellionis</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Perduellio">Perduellio</a>.</span>]—(4) <span class="smcap">Duumviri -Quinquennales</span>, were the censors in -the municipal towns, and must not be confounded -with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duumviri juri dicundo</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>]—(5) -<span class="smcap">Duumviri Sacrorum</span> originally -had the charge of the Sibylline books. Their -duties were afterwards discharged by the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decemviri sacris faciundis</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Decemviri">Decemviri</a>.</span>]—(6) -<span class="smcap">Duumviri</span> were also appointed for the purpose -of building or dedicating a temple.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="E_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">E</span></h2> - -<p id="Ecclesia" class="drop-capy">ECCLĒSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκκλησία</span>), the name of the -general assembly of the citizens at Athens, -in which they met to discuss and determine -upon matters of public interest, and which -was therefore the sovereign power in the -state. These assemblies were either <em>ordinary</em> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμιμοι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυρίαι</span>), and held four times in -each prytany, or <em>extraordinary</em>, that is, specially -convened, upon any sudden emergency, -and therefore called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύγκλητοι</span>. The place in -which they were anciently held was the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agora</i>. Afterwards they were transferred to -the Pnyx, and at last to the great theatre of -Dionysus, and other places. The most usual -place, however, was the Pnyx, which was -situated to the west of the Areiopagus, on a -slope connected with Mount Lycabettus, and -partly at least within the walls of the city. -It was semicircular in form, with a boundary -wall part rock and part masonry, and an area -of about 12,000 square yards. On the north -the ground was filled up and paved with -large stones, so as to get a level surface on -the slope. Towards this side, and close to -the wall, was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bema</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βῆμα</span>), a stone platform -or hustings ten or eleven feet high, -with an ascent of steps. The position of the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bema</i> was such as to command a view of the -sea from behind, and of the Propylaea and -Parthenon in front, and we may be sure that -the Athenian orators would often rouse the -national feelings of their hearers by pointing -to the assemblage of magnificent edifices, -“monuments of Athenian gratitude and -glory,” which they had in view from the -Pnyx.—The right of convening the people -was generally vested in the prytanes or presidents -of the council of Five Hundred [see -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boulé</a></span>], but in cases of sudden emergency, -and especially during wars, the strategi also -had the power of calling extraordinary -meetings, for which, however, the consent of -the senate appears to have been necessary. -The prytanes not only gave a previous notice<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span> -of the day of assembly, and published a programme -of the subjects to be discussed, but -also, it appears, sent a crier round to collect -the citizens. All persons who did not obey -the call were subject to a fine, and six magistrates -called lexiarchs were appointed, -whose duty it was to take care that the -people attended the meetings, and to levy -fines on those who refused to do so. With a -view to this, whenever an assembly was to -be held, certain public slaves (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκύθαι</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοξόται</span>) were sent round to sweep the agora, -and other places of public resort, with a rope -coloured with vermilion. The different persons -whom these ropemen met, were driven -by them towards the ecclesia, and those who -refused to go were marked by the rope and -fined. An additional inducement to attend, -with the poorer classes, was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισθὸς -ἐκκλησιαστικός</span>, or pay which they received -for it. The payment was originally an obolus, -but was afterwards raised to three. The -right of attending was enjoyed by all legitimate -citizens who were of the proper age -(generally supposed to be twenty, certainly -not less than eighteen), and not labouring -under any <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i>, or loss of civil rights.—In -the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boulé</a></span> it is explained who the -prytanes and the proedri were; and we may -here remark, that it was the duty of the -proedri of the same tribe, under the presidency -of their chairman (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ ἐπιστάτης</span>), to lay -before the people the subjects to be discussed; -to read, or cause to be read, the previous bill -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ προβούλευμα</span>) of the senate, without which -no measure could be brought before the -ecclesia, and to give permission to the -speakers to address the people. The officers -who acted under them, were the crier -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ κήρυξ</span>), and the Scythian bowmen.—Previous, -however, to the commencement of any -business, the place was purified by the offering -of sacrifices, and then the gods were -implored in a prayer to bless the proceedings -of the meeting. The privilege of addressing -the assembly was not confined to any class or -age among those who had the right to be -present: all, without any distinction, were -invited to do so by the proclamation, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τίς -ἀγορεύειν βούλεται</span>, which was made by the -crier after the proedri had gone through the -necessary preliminaries, and laid the subject -of discussion before the meeting; for though, -according to the institutions of Solon, those -persons who were above fifty years of age -ought to have been called upon to speak first, -this regulation had in later times become -quite obsolete. The speakers are sometimes -simply called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ παρίοντες</span>, and appear to have -worn a crown of myrtle on their heads while -addressing the assembly. The most influential -and practised speakers of the assembly -were generally distinguished by the name of -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥήτορες</span>. After the speakers had concluded, -any one was at liberty to propose a decree, -whether drawn up beforehand or framed in -the meeting, which, however, it was necessary -to present to the proedri, that they -might see, in conjunction with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomophylaces</i>, -whether there was contained in it -anything injurious to the state, or contrary -to the existing laws. If not, it was read by -the crier; though, even after the reading, -the chairman could prevent it being put to -the vote, unless his opposition was overborne -by threats and clamours. Private individuals -also could do the same, by engaging upon -oath (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπωμοσία</span>) to bring against the author -of any measure they might object to, an accusation -called a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφὴ παράνομων</span>. If, however, -the chairman refused to submit any -question to the decision of the people, he -might be proceeded against by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">endeixis</i>; and -if he allowed the people to vote upon a proposal -which was contrary to existing constitutional -laws, he was in some cases liable to -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i>. If, on the contrary, no opposition -of this sort was offered to a proposed decree, -the votes of the people were taken, by the -permission of the chairman and with the -consent of the rest of the proedri. The -decision of the people was given either by -show of hands, or by ballot, <em>i.e.</em> by casting -pebbles into urns (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καδίσκοι</span>); the former was -expressed by the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονεῖν</span>, the latter -by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψηφίζεσθαι</span>, although the two terms are -frequently confounded. The more usual method -of voting was by show of hands, as being -more expeditious and convenient (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>). -Vote by ballot, on the other hand, was only -used in a few special cases determined by -law; as, for instance, when a proposition -was made for allowing those who had suffered -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i> to appeal to the people for restitution -of their former rights; or for inflicting -extraordinary punishments on atrocious -offenders, and generally, upon any matter -which affected private persons. In cases of -this sort it was settled by law, that a decree -should not be valid unless six thousand -citizens at least voted in favour of it. This -was by far the majority of those citizens who -were in the habit of attending; for, in time -of war, the number never amounted to five -thousand, and in time of peace seldom to ten -thousand.—The determination or decree of -the people was called a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψήφισμα</span>, which properly -signifies a law proposed to an assembly, -and approved of by the people. Respecting -the form for drawing up a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψήφισμα</span>, -see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boulé</a></span>.—When the business was over, -the order for the dismissal of the assembly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span> -was given by the prytanes, through the proclamation -of the crier; and as it was not customary -to continue meetings, which usually -began early in the morning, till after sunset, -if one day were not sufficient for the completion -of any business, it was adjourned to -the next. But an assembly was sometimes -broken up, if any one, whether a magistrate -or private individual, declared that he saw -an unfavourable omen, or perceived thunder -and lightning. The sudden appearance of -rain also, or the shock of an earthquake, or -any natural phenomenon of the kind called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διοσημίαι</span>, was a sufficient reason for the -hasty adjournment of an assembly.</p> - - -<p id="Eccleti">ECCLETI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Homoei">Homoei</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ecdicus">ECDĬCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔκδικος</span>), the name of an officer -in many of the towns of Asia Minor during -the Roman dominion, whose principal duty -was the care of the public money, and the -prosecution of all parties who owed money -to the state.</p> - - -<p id="Ecmartyria">ECMARTȲRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκμαρτυρία</span>), signifies the -deposition of a witness at Athens, who, by -reason of absence abroad, or illness, was -unable to attend in court. His statement -was taken down in writing, in the presence -of persons expressly appointed to receive it, -and afterwards, upon their swearing to its -identity, was read as evidence in the cause.</p> - - -<p id="Edictum">ĒDICTUM. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Edicendi</i>, or power of -making edicts, belonged to the higher <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magistratus -populi Romani</i>, but it was principally -exercised by the two praetors, the praetor -urbanus, and the praetor peregrinus, whose -jurisdiction was exercised in the provinces -by the praeses. The curule aediles likewise -made many edicts; and tribunes, censors, -and pontifices also promulgated edicts relating -to the matters of their respective jurisdictions. -The edicta were among the sources -of Roman law. The edictum may be described -generally as a rule promulgated by a -magistratus on entering on his office, which -was done by writing it on an album and -exhibiting it in a conspicuous place. As the -office of a magistratus was annual, the rules -promulgated by a predecessor were not binding -on a successor, but he might confirm or -adopt the rules of his predecessor, and introduce -them into his own edict, and hence -such adopted rules were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edictum ralatitium</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vetus</i>, as opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edictum novum</i>. -A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repentinum edictum</i> was that rule which -was made (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prout res incidit</i>) for the occasion. -A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perpetuum edictum</i> was that rule which -was made by the magistratus on entering -upon office, and which was intended to apply -to all cases to which it was applicable during -the year of his office: hence it was sometimes -called also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annua lex</i>. Until it became the -practice for magistratus to adopt the edicta -of their predecessors, the edicta could not -form a body of permanent binding rules; -but when this practice became common, the -edicta (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edictum tralatitium</i>) soon constituted -a large body of law, which was practically of as -much importance as any other part of the law.</p> - - -<p id="Eicoste">EICOSTĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰκοστή</span>), a tax or duty of one-twentieth -(five per cent.) upon all commodities -exported or imported by sea in the -states of the allies subject to Athens. This -tax was first imposed <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 413, in the place -of the direct tribute which had up to this -time been paid by the subject allies; and the -change was made with the hope of raising a -greater revenue. This tax, like all others, -was farmed, and the farmers of it were -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰκοστολόγοι</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Eiren">EIRĒN or ĪRĒN (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἴρην</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴρην</span>), the name -given to the Spartan youth when he attained -the age of twenty. At the age of eighteen -he emerged from childhood, and was called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μελλείρην</span>. When he had attained his twentieth -year, he began to exercise a direct influence -over his juniors, and was entrusted -with the command of troops in battle. The -word appears to have originally signified a -commander. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰρένες</span> mentioned in Herodotus, -in connection with the battle of Plataeae, -were certainly not youths, but commanders.</p> - - -<p id="Eisangelia">EISANGĔLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσαγγελία</span>), signifies, in its -primary and most general sense, a denunciation -of any kind, but, much more usually, an -information laid before the council or the -assembly of the people, and the consequent -impeachment and trial of state criminals at -Athens under novel or extraordinary circumstances. -Among these were the occasions -upon which manifest crimes were alleged to -have been committed, and yet of such a -nature as the existing laws had failed to -anticipate, or at least describe specifically -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγραφα ἀδικήματα</span>), the result of which omission -would have been, but for the enactment -by which the accusations in question might -be preferred (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμος εἰσαγγελτικός</span>), that a prosecutor -would not have known to what magistrate -to apply; that a magistrate, if -applied to, could not with safety have accepted -the indictment or brought it into -court; and that, in short, there would have -been a total failure of justice.</p> - - -<p id="Eisiteria">EISITĒRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσιτήρια</span>, <em>scil.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερά</span>), sacrifices -offered at Athens by the senate before the -session began, in honour of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεοὶ Βουλαῖοι</span>, -<em>i.e.</em> Zeus and Athena.</p> - - -<p id="Eisphora">EISPHŎRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφορά</span>), an extraordinary -tax on property, raised at Athens, whenever -the means of the state were not sufficient to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span> -carry on a war. It is not quite certain when -this property-tax was introduced; but it -seems to have come first into general use -about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 428. It could never be raised -without a decree of the people, who also -assigned the amount required; and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strategi</i>, -or generals, superintended its collection, -and presided in the courts where disputes -connected with, or arising from, the levying -of the tax were settled. The usual expressions -for paying this property-tax are: -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφέρειν χρήματα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφέρειν εἰς τὸν πόλεμον</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰς τὴν σωτηρίαν τῆς πόλεως</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφορὰς εἰσφέρειν</span>, -and those who paid it were called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ εἰσφέροντες</span>. The census of Solon was at -first the standard according to which the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">eisphora</i> was raised, until in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 377 a new -census was instituted, in which the people, -for the purpose of fixing the rates of the property-tax, -were divided into a number of -symmoriae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμμορίαι</span>) or classes, similar to -those which were afterwards made for the -trierarchy. Each of the ten tribes or phylae, -appointed 120 of its wealthier citizens; and -the whole number of persons included in the -symmoriae was thus 1200, who were considered -as the representatives of the whole -republic. This body of 1200 was divided -into four classes, each consisting of 300. The -first class, or the richest, were the leaders of -the symmoriae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡγεμόνες συμμοριῶν</span>), and are -often called the three hundred. They probably -conducted the proceedings of the symmoriae, -and they, or, which is more likely, -the demarchs, had to value the taxable property. -Other officers were appointed to make -out the lists of the rates, and were called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιγραφεῖς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαγραφεῖς</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκλογεῖς</span>. When the -wants of the state were pressing, the 300 -leaders advanced the money to the others, -who paid it back to the 300 at the regular -time. The first class probably consisted of -persons who possessed property from 12 -talents upwards; the second class, of persons -who possessed property from 6 talents and -upwards, but under 12; the third class, of -persons who possessed property from 2 -talents upwards, but under 6; the fourth class, -of persons who possessed property from 25 -minae upwards, but under 2 talents. The -rate of taxation was higher or lower according -to the wants of the republic at the time; -we have accounts of rates of a 12th, a 50th, -a 100th, and a 500th part of the taxable property. -If any one thought that his property -was taxed higher than that of another man -on whom juster claims could be made, he had -the right to call upon this person to take the -office in his stead, or to submit to a complete -exchange of property. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Antidosis">Antidosis</a>.</span>] No -Athenian, on the other hand, if belonging to -the tax-paying classes, could be exempt from -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">eisphora</i>, not even the descendants of -Harmodius and Aristogeiton.</p> - - -<p id="Electrum">ĒLECTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἤλεκτρος</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἤλεκτρον</span>), is -used by the ancient writers in two different -senses, either for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amber</i> or for a mixture of -metals composed of gold and silver. In Homer -and Hesiod, it has, in all probability, the -former meaning. The earliest passage of any -Greek writer, in which the word is <em>certainly</em> -used for the metal, is in the <cite>Antigone</cite> of -Sophocles (1038). This alludes to <em>native -electrum</em>; but the compound was also made -artificially. Pliny states that when gold -contains a fifth part of silver, it is called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">electrum</i>; that it is found in veins of gold; -and that it is also made by art: if, he adds, -it contains more than a fifth of silver, it becomes -too brittle to be malleable. But Isidorus -mentions electrum composed of <em>three</em> -parts gold, and <em>one</em> of silver. Electrum was -used for plate, and the other similar purposes -for which gold and silver were employed. -It was also used as a material for money. -Lampridius tells us, that Alexander Severus -struck coins of it; and coins are in existence, -of this metal, struck by the kings of Bosporus, -by Syracuse, and by other Greek states.</p> - - -<p id="Eleusinia">ĔLEUSĪNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλευσίνια</span>), a festival and -mysteries, originally celebrated only at Eleusis -in Attica, in honour of Demeter and Persephone. -The Eleusinian mysteries, or <em>the</em> -mysteries, as they were sometimes called, -were the holiest and most venerable of all -that were celebrated in Greece. Various -traditions were current among the Greeks -respecting the author of these mysteries: -for, while some considered Eumolpus or -Musaeus to be their founder, others stated -that they had been introduced from Egypt -by Erechtheus, who at a time of scarcity provided -his country with corn from Egypt, and -imported from the same quarter the sacred -rites and mysteries of Eleusis. A third tradition -attributed the institution to Demeter -herself, who, when wandering about in search -of her daughter, Persephone, was believed to -have come to Attica, in the reign of Erechtheus, -to have supplied its inhabitants with -corn, and to have instituted the mysteries at -Eleusis. This last opinion seems to have -been the most common among the ancients, -and in subsequent times a stone was shown -near the well Callichoros at Eleusis, on which -the goddess, overwhelmed with grief and -fatigue, was believed to have rested on her -arrival in Attica. All the accounts and allusions -in ancient writers seem to warrant the -conclusion, that the legends concerning the -introduction of the Eleusinia are descriptions -of a period when the inhabitants of Attica<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span> -were becoming acquainted with the benefits -of agriculture, and of a regularly constituted -form of society.—In the reign of Erechtheus -a war is said to have broken out between the -Athenians and Eleusinians; and when the -latter were defeated, they acknowledged the -supremacy of Athens in everything except -the mysteries, which they wished to conduct -and regulate for themselves. Thus the superintendence -remained with the descendants -of Eumolpus [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Eumolpidae">Eumolpidae</a></span>], the daughters of -the Eleusinian king Celeus, and a third class -of priests, the Ceryces, who seem likewise to -have been connected with the family of Eumolpus, -though they themselves traced their -origin to Hermes and Aglauros.—At the -time when the local governments of the -several townships of Attica were concentrated -at Athens, the capital became also the centre -of religion, and several deities who had -hitherto only enjoyed a local worship, were -now raised to the rank of national gods. This -seems also to have been the case with the -Eleusinian goddess, for in the reign of Theseus -we find mention of a temple at Athens, -called Eleusinion, probably the new and national -sanctuary of Demeter. Her priests -and priestesses now became naturally attached -to the national temple of the capital, -though her original place of worship at Eleusis, -with which so many sacred associations -were connected, still retained its importance -and its special share in the celebration of the -national solemnities.—We must distinguish -between the greater Eleusinia, which were -celebrated at Athens and Eleusis, and the -lesser, which were held at Agrae on the -Ilissus. The lesser Eleusinia were only a -preparation (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προκάθαρσις</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προάγνευσις</span>) for -the real mysteries. They were held every -year in the month of Anthesterion, and, according -to some accounts, in honour of Persephone -alone. Those who were initiated -in them bore the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mystae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύσται</span>), -and had to wait at least another year before -they could be admitted to the great mysteries. -The principal rites of this first stage -of initiation consisted in the sacrifice of a -sow, which the mystae seem to have first -washed in the Cantharus, and in the purification -by a priest, who bore the name of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hydranos</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδρανός</span>). The mystae had also -to take an <ins class="corr" id="tn-150" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'oath of secresy'"> -oath of secrecy</ins>, which was administered -to them by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mystagogus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυσταγωγός</span>, -also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροφάντης</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προφήτης</span>), and -they received some kind of preparatory instruction, -which enabled them afterwards to -understand the mysteries which were revealed -to them in the great Eleusinia.—The great -mysteries were celebrated every year in the -month of Boedromion, during nine days, -from the 15th to the 23rd, both at Athens -and Eleusis. The initiated were called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπόπται</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφυροι</span>. On the first day, those -who had been initiated in the lesser Eleusinia, -assembled at Athens. On the second -day the mystae went in solemn procession -to the sea-coast, where they underwent a -purification. Of the third day scarcely anything -is known with certainty; we are only -told that it was a day of fasting, and that in -the evening a frugal meal was taken, which -consisted of cakes made of sesame and honey. -On the fourth day the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλάθος κάθοδος</span> seems -to have taken place. This was a procession -with a basket containing pomegranates and -poppy-seeds; it was carried on a waggon -drawn by oxen, and women followed with -small mystic cases in their hands. On the -fifth day, which appears to have been called -the torch day (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ τῶν λαμπάδων ἡμέρα</span>), the -mystae, led by the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δᾳδοῦχος</span>, went in the evening -with torches to the temple of Demeter at -Eleusis, where they seem to have remained -during the following night. This rite was -probably a symbolical representation of Demeter -wandering about in search of Persephone. -The sixth day, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Iacchos</i>, was -the most solemn of all. The statue of Iacchos, -son of Demeter, adorned with a garland of -myrtle and bearing a torch in his hand, was -carried along the sacred road amidst joyous -shouts and songs, from the Cerameicus to -Eleusis. This solemn procession was accompanied -by great numbers of followers and -spectators. During the night from the sixth -to the seventh day the mystae remained at -Eleusis, and were initiated into the last mysteries -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐποπτεία</span>). Those who were neither -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπόπται</span> nor <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύσται</span> were sent away by a -herald. The mystae now repeated the oath -of secrecy which had been administered to -them at the lesser Eleusinia, underwent a -new purification, and then they were led by -the mystagogus in the darkness of night into -the lighted interior of the sanctuary (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φωταγωγία</span>), -and were allowed to see (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐτοψία</span>) -what none except the epoptae ever beheld. -The awful and horrible manner in which the -initiation is described by later, especially -Christian writers, seems partly to proceed -from their ignorance of its real character, -partly from their horror of and aversion to -these pagan rites. The more ancient writers -always abstained from entering upon any -description of the subject. Each individual, -after his initiation, is said to have been dismissed -by the words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόγξ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄμπαξ</span>, in order to -make room for other mystae. On the seventh -day the initiated returned to Athens -amid various kinds of raillery and jests, especially -at the bridge over the Cephisus,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span> -where they sat down to rest, and poured -forth their ridicule on those who passed by. -Hence the words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γεφυρίζειν</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γεφυρισμός</span>. -These <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκώμματα</span> seem, like the procession -with torches to Eleusis, to have been dramatical -and symbolical representations of the -jests by which, according to the ancient -legend, Iambe or Baubo had dispelled the -grief of the goddess and made her smile. We -may here observe, that probably the whole -history of Demeter and Persephone was in -some way or other symbolically represented -at the Eleusinia. The eighth day, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epidauria</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιδαύρια</span>), was a kind of additional -day for those who by some accident -had come too late, or had been prevented -from being initiated on the sixth day. It -was said to have been added to the original -number of days, when Asclepius, coming over -from Epidaurus to be initiated, arrived too -late, and the Athenians, not to disappoint -the god, added an eighth day. The ninth -and last day bore the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλημοχοαί</span>, -from a peculiar kind of vessel called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλημοχοή</span>, -which is described as a small kind of -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κότυλος</span>. Two of these vessels were on this -day filled with water or wine, and the contents -of the one thrown to the east, and those -of the other to the west, while those who -performed this rite uttered some mystical -words.—The Eleusinian mysteries long survived -the independence of Greece. Attempts -to suppress them were made by the emperor -Valentinian, but he met with strong opposition, -and they seem to have continued down -to the time of the elder Theodosius. Respecting -the secret doctrines which were revealed -in them to the initiated, nothing certain is -known. The general belief of the ancients -was, that they opened to man a comforting -prospect of a future state. But this feature -does not seem to have been originally connected -with these mysteries, and was probably -added to them at the period which followed -the opening of a regular intercourse -between Greece and Egypt, when some of -the speculative doctrines of the latter country, -and of the East, may have been introduced -into the mysteries, and hallowed by the -names of the venerable bards of the mythical -age. This supposition would also account, in -some measure, for the legend of their introduction -from Egypt. In modern times many -attempts have been made to discover the -nature of the mysteries revealed to the initiated, -but the results have been as various -and as fanciful as might be expected. The -most sober and probable view is that, according -to which, “they were the remains of a -worship which preceded the rise of the Hellenic -mythology and its attendant rites, -grounded on a view of nature, less fanciful, -more earnest, and better fitted to awaken -both philosophical thought and religious -feeling.”</p> - - -<p id="Eleutheria">ĔLEUTHĔRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλευθέρια</span>), the feast of -liberty, a festival which the Greeks, after the -battle of Plataeae (479 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), instituted in -honour of Zeus Eleutherios (the deliverer). -It was intended not merely to be a token of -their gratitude to the god to whom they believed -themselves to be indebted for their -victory over the barbarians, but also as a -bond of union among themselves; for, in an -assembly of all the Greeks, Aristeides carried -a decree that delegates (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόβουλοι καὶ θεωροί</span>) -from all the Greek states should assemble -every year at Plataeae for the celebration of -the Eleutheria. The town itself was at the -same time declared sacred and inviolable, as -long as its citizens offered the annual sacrifices -which were then instituted on behalf of -Greece. Every fifth year these solemnities -were celebrated with contests, in which the -victors were rewarded with chaplets.</p> - - -<p id="Ellotia">ELLŌTĬA or HELLŌTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλλώτια</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑλλώτια</span>), a festival with a torch race celebrated -at Corinth in honour of Athena as a -goddess of fire.</p> - - -<p id="Emancipatio">ĒMANCĬPĀTĬO, was an act by which the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patria potestas</i> was dissolved in the lifetime -of the parent, and it was so called because it -was in the form of a sale (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipatio</i>). By -the laws of the Twelve Tables it was necessary -that a son should be sold three times in -order to be released from the paternal power, -or to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sui juris</i>. In the case of daughters -and grandchildren, one sale was sufficient. -The father transferred the son by the form -of a sale to another person, who manumitted -him, upon which he returned into the power -of the father. This was repeated, and with -the like result. After a third sale, the paternal -power was extinguished, but the son -was re-sold to the parent, who then manumitted -him, and so acquired the rights of a -patron over his emancipated son, which would -otherwise have belonged to the purchaser -who gave him his final manumission.</p> - - -<p id="Embas">EMBAS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβάς</span>), a shoe worn by men, and -which appears to have been the most common -kind of shoe worn at Athens. Pollux says -that it was invented by the Thracians, and -that it was like the low cothurnus. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">embas</i> -was also worn by the Boeotians, and probably -in other parts of Greece.</p> - - -<p id="Embateia">EMBĂTEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβατεία</span>). In Attic law this -word (like the corresponding English one, -<em>entry</em>), was used to denote a formal taking -possession of real property. Thus, when a -son entered upon the land left him by his -father, he was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβατεύειν</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βαδίζειν εἰς<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[152</span></span> -τὰ πατρῳα, and thereupon he became <em>seised</em>, -or possessed of his inheritance. If any one -disturbed him in the enjoyment of this property, -with an intention to dispute the title, -he might maintain an action of ejectment, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξούλης δίκη</span>. Before entry he could not -maintain such action.</p> - - -<p id="Emblema">EMBLĒMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμβλημα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμπαισμα</span>), an inlaid -ornament. The art of inlaying was employed -in producing beautiful works of two -descriptions, viz.;—1st, those which resembled -our marquetry, buhl, and Florentine -mosaics; and 2dly, those in which crusts -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crustae</i>), exquisitely wrought in bas-relief -and of precious materials, were fastened upon -the surface of vessels or other pieces of furniture. -To the latter class of productions -belonged the cups and plates which Verres -obtained by violence from the Sicilians, and -from which he removed the emblems for the -purpose of having them set in gold instead -of silver.</p> - - -<p id="Emeriti">ĒMĔRĬTI, the name given to those Roman -soldiers who had served out their time, and -had exemption (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vacatio</i>) from military service. -The usual time of service was twenty -years for the legionary soldiers, and sixteen -for the praetorians. At the end of their -period of service they received a bounty or -reward (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emeritum</i>), either in lands or money, -or in both.</p> - - -<p id="Emissarium">ĒMISSĀRĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόνομος</span>), a channel, -natural or artificial, by which an outlet is -formed to carry off any stagnant body of -water. Such channels may be either open or -underground; but the most remarkable works -of the kind are of the latter description, as -they carry off the waters of lakes surrounded -by hills. In Greece, the most striking -example is presented by the subterraneous -channels which carry off the waters of the -lake Copais in Boeotia, which were partly -natural and partly artificial. Some works of -this kind are among the most remarkable -efforts of Roman ingenuity. Remains still -exist to show that the lakes Trasimene, Albano, -Nemi, and Fucino, were all drained by -means of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emissaria</i>, the last of which is still -nearly perfect, and open to inspection, having -been partially cleared by the present king of -Naples. Julius Caesar is said to have first -conceived the idea of this stupendous undertaking, -which was carried into effect by the -Emperor Claudius.</p> - - -<p id="Emmeni">EMMĒNI DĬKAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμμηνοι δίκαι</span>), suits in -the Athenian courts, which were not allowed -to be pending above a month. This regulation -was confined to those subjects which required -a speedy decision; and of these the -most important were disputes respecting -commerce (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμπορικαὶ δίκαι</span>). All causes relating -to mines (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεταλλικαὶ δίκαι</span>) were also -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμμηνοι δίκαι</span>, as well as those relating to -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔρανοι</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Erani">Erani</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Emporium">EMPŎRĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἐμπόριον</span>), a place for -wholesale trade in commodities carried by -sea. The name is sometimes applied to a -sea-port town, but it properly signifies only -a particular place in such a town. The word -is derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμπορος</span>, which signifies in -Homer a person who sails as a passenger in -a ship belonging to another person; but in -later writers it signifies the merchant or -wholesale dealer, and differs from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάπηλος</span>, -the retail dealer. The emporium at Athens -was under the inspection of certain officers, -who were elected annually (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμεληταὶ τοῦ -ἐμπορίου</span>).</p> - - -<p id="Encaustica">ENCAUSTĬCA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Enctesis">ENCTĒSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγκτησις</span>), the right of possessing -landed property and houses (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγκτησις γῆς -καὶ οἰκίας</span>) in a foreign country, which was -frequently granted by one Greek state to -another, or to separate individuals of another -state. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐγκτήματα</span> were such possessions in -a foreign country, or in a different <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span> from -that to which an Athenian belonged by birth.</p> - - -<p id="Endeixis">ENDEIXIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνδειξις</span>), properly denotes a -prosecution instituted against such persons -as were alleged to have exercised rights or -held offices while labouring under a peculiar -disqualification. The same form of action -was available against the chairman of the -proedri (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστάτης</span>), who wrongly refused to -take the votes of the people in the assembly; -against malefactors, especially murderers; -traitors, ambassadors accused of malversation, -and persons who furnished supplies to -the enemy during war. The first step taken -by the prosecutor was to lay his information -in writing, also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">endeixis</i>, before the -proper magistrate, who then arrested, or held -to bail, the person criminated, and took the -usual steps for bringing him to trial. There -is great obscurity with respect to the punishment -which followed condemnation. The -accuser, if unsuccessful, was responsible for -bringing a malicious charge (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψευδοῦς ἐνδείξεως -ὑπεύθυνος</span>).</p> - - -<p id="Endromis">ENDRŎMIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνδρομίς</span>), a thick, coarse -blanket, manufactured in Gaul, and called -“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">endromis</span>” because those who had been -exercising in the stadium (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐν δρόμῳ</span>) threw it -over them to obviate the effects of sudden -exposure when they were heated. Notwithstanding -its coarse and shaggy appearance, -it was worn on other occasions as a protection -from the cold by rich and fashionable -persons at Rome.</p> - - -<p id="Ensis">ENSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladius">Gladius</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Entasis">ENTĂSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔντασις</span>). The most ancient -columns now existing, diminish immediately<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span> -and regularly from the base to the neck, so -that the edge forms a straight line—a mode -of construction which is wanting in grace -and apparent solidity. To correct this, a -swelling outline, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">entasis</i>, was given to -the shaft, which seems to have been the first -step towards combining grace and grandeur -in the Doric column.</p> - - -<p id="Epangelia">EPANGĔLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπαγγελία</span>). If a citizen of -Athens had incurred <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i>, the privilege of -taking part or speaking in the public assembly -was forfeited. But as it sometimes might -happen that a person, though not formally -declared <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimus</i>, had committed such crimes -as would, on accusation, draw upon him this -punishment, it was of course desirable that -such individuals, like real <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimi</i>, should be -excluded from the exercise of the rights of -citizens. Whenever, therefore, such a person -ventured to speak in the assembly, any -Athenian citizen had the right to come forward -in the assembly itself and demand of -him to establish his right to speak by a trial -or examination of his conduct (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοκιμασία τοῦ -βίου</span>), and this demand, denouncement, or -threat, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epangelia</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epangelia -docimasias</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπαγγελία δοκιμασίας</span>). The impeached -individual was then compelled to -desist from speaking, and to submit to a -scrutiny into his conduct, and, if he was -convicted, a formal declaration of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimia</i> followed.</p> - - -<p id="Epariti">EPARITI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπάριτοι</span>), the name of the -standing army in Arcadia, which was formed -to preserve the independence of the Arcadian -towns, when they became united as one state -after the defeat of the Spartans at Leuctra. -They were 5000 in number, and were paid -by the state.</p> - - -<p id="Ephebus">EPHĒBUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφηβος</span>), the name of Athenian -youths after they had attained the age -of 18. The state of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ephebeia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφηβεία</span>) lasted -for two years, till the youths had attained the -age of 20, when they became men, and were -admitted to share all the rights and duties of -citizens, for which the law did not prescribe -a more advanced age. Before a youth was -enrolled among the ephebi, he had to undergo -a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοκιμασία</span>), the object of which -was partly to ascertain whether he was the -son of Athenian citizens, or adopted by a -citizen, and partly whether his body was -sufficiently developed and strong to undertake -the duties which now devolved upon -him. After the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i> the young men -received in the assembly a shield and a lance; -but those whose fathers had fallen in the -defence of their country received a complete -suit of armour in the theatre. It seems to -have been on this occasion that the ephebi -took an oath in the temple of Artemis Aglauros, -by which they pledged themselves -never to disgrace their arms or to desert -their comrades; to fight to the last in the -defence of their country, its altars and hearths; -to leave their country not in a worse but in -a better state than they found it; to obey -the magistrates and the laws; to resist all -attempts to subvert the institutions of Attica; -and finally, to respect the religion of -their forefathers. This solemnity took place -towards the close of the year, and the festive -season bore the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ephebia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφήβια</span>). -The external distinction of the ephebi consisted -in the chlamys and the petasus. During -the two years of the ephebeia, which -may be considered as a kind of apprenticeship -in arms, and in which the young men -prepared themselves for the higher duties of -full citizens, they were generally sent into -the country, under the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peripoli</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίπολοι</span>), to keep watch in the towns and -fortresses, on the coast and frontier, and to -perform other duties which might be necessary -for the protection of Attica.</p> - - -<p id="Ephegesis">ĔPHĒGĒSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφήγησις</span>), denotes the method -of proceeding against such criminals as -were liable to be summarily arrested by a -private citizen [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apagoge">Apagoge</a></span>] when the prosecutor -was unwilling to expose himself to -personal risk in apprehending the offender. -Under these circumstances he made an application -to the proper magistrate, and conducted -him and his officers to the spot where -the capture was to be effected.</p> - - -<p id="Ephetae">ĔPHĔTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφέται</span>), the name of certain -judges at Athens, who tried cases of homicide. -They were fifty-one in number, selected -from noble families, and more than -fifty years of age. They formed a tribunal -of great antiquity, and were in existence -before the legislation of Solon, but, as the -state became more and more democratical, -their duties became unimportant and almost -antiquated. The Ephetae once sat in one or -other of the five courts, according to the -nature of the causes they had to try. In -historical times, however, they sat in <em>four</em> -only, called respectively the court by the -Palladium (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἐπὶ Παλλαδίῳ</span>), by the Delphinium -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἐπὶ Δελφινίῳ</span>), by the Prytaneium -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἐπὶ Πρυτανείῳ</span>), and the court at Phreatto -or Zea (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἐν Φρεαττοῖ</span>). At the first of these -courts they tried cases of unintentional, at -the second, of intentional but justifiable homicide. -At the Prytaneium, by a strange -custom, somewhat analogous to the imposition -of a deodand, they passed sentence upon -the instrument of murder when the perpetrator -of the act was not known. In the -court at Phreatto, on the sea shore at the -Peiraeeus, they tried such persons as were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span> -charged with wilful murder during a temporary -exile for unintentional homicide.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill154" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill154.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ephippium, Saddle. (Coin of Labienus.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Ephippium">ĔPHIPPĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστράβη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφίππιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφίππειον</span>), -a saddle. Although the Greeks occasionally -rode without any saddle, yet they commonly -used one, and from them the name, together -with the thing, was borrowed by the Romans. -The ancient saddles appear, indeed, to have -been thus far different from ours, that the -cover stretched upon the hard frame was -probably of stuffed or padded cloth rather -than leather, and that the saddle was, as it -were, a cushion fitted to the horse’s back. -Pendent cloths (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-154" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'στρῶματα'"> -στρώματα</ins></span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strata</i>) were always -attached to it so as to cover the sides of the -animal; but it was not provided with stirrups. -The saddle with the pendent cloths is -exhibited in the annexed coin. The term -“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ephippium</span>” was in later times in part -supplanted by the word “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella</span>,” and the -more specific expression “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella equestris</span>.”</p> - - -<p id="Ephori">ĔPHŎRI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφοροι</span>). Magistrates called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ephori</i> or overseers were common to many -Dorian constitutions in times of remote antiquity; -but the Ephori of Sparta are the most -celebrated of them all. The origin of the -Spartan ephori is quite uncertain, but their -office in the historical times was a kind of -counterpoise to the kings and council, and in -that respect peculiar to Sparta alone of the -Dorian states. Their number, five, appears -to have been always the same, and was probably -connected with the five divisions of the -town of Sparta, namely, the four <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῶμαι</span>, Limnae, -Mesoa, Pitana, Cynosura, and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόλις</span> -or city properly so called, around which the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῶμαι</span> lay. They were elected from and by -the people, without any qualification of age -or property, and without undergoing any -scrutiny; so that the people enjoyed through -them a participation in the highest magistracy -of the state. They entered upon office -at the autumnal solstice, and the first in rank -of the five gave his name to the year, which -was called after him in all civil transactions. -They possessed judicial authority in civil -suits, and also a general superintendence -over the morals and domestic economy of the -nation, which in the hands of able men would -soon prove an instrument of unlimited power. -Their jurisdiction and power were still further -increased by the privilege of instituting -scrutinies (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὔθυναι</span>) into the conduct of all the -magistrates. Even the kings themselves -could be brought before their tribunal (as -Cleomenes was for bribery). In extreme -cases, the ephors were also competent to lay -an accusation against the kings as well as the -other magistrates, and bring them to a capital -trial before the great court of justice. In -later times the power of the ephors was -greatly increased; and this increase appears -to have been principally owing to the fact, -that they put themselves in connection with -the assembly of the people, convened its -meetings, laid measures before it, and were -constituted its agents and representatives. -When this connection arose is matter of conjecture. -The power which such a connection -gave would, more than anything else, enable -them to encroach on the royal authority, and -make themselves virtually supreme in the -state. Accordingly, we find that they transacted -business with foreign ambassadors; -dismissed them from the state; decided upon -the government of dependent cities; subscribed -in the presence of other persons to -treaties of peace; and in time of war sent -out troops when they thought necessary. In -all these capacities the ephors acted as the -representatives of the nation, and the agents -of the public assembly, being in fact the executive -of the state. In course of time the -kings became completely under their control. -For example, they fined Agesilaus on the -vague charge of trying to make himself popular, -and interfered even with the domestic -arrangements of other kings. In the field -the kings were followed by two ephors, who -belonged to the council of war; the three -who remained at home received the booty in -charge, and paid it into the treasury, which -was under the superintendence of the whole -College of Five. But the ephors had still -another prerogative, based on a religious -foundation, which enabled them to effect a -temporary deposition of the kings. Once in -eight years, as we are told, they chose a calm -and cloudless night to observe the heavens, -and if there was any appearance of a falling -meteor, it was believed to be a sign that the -gods were displeased with the kings, who -were accordingly suspended from their functions -until an oracle allowed of their restoration. -The outward symbols of supreme -authority also were assumed by the ephors; -and they alone kept their seats while the -kings passed; whereas it was not considered -below the dignity of the kings to rise in -honour of the ephors. When Agis and Cleomenes -undertook to restore the old constitution, -it was necessary for them to overthrow<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span> -the ephoralty, and accordingly Cleomenes -murdered the ephors for the time being, and -abolished the office (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 225); it was, however, -restored under the Romans.</p> - - -<p id="Epibatae">ĔPĬBĂTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιβάται</span>), were soldiers or -marines appointed to defend the vessels in -the Athenian navy, and were entirely distinct -from the rowers, and also from the land soldiers, -such as hoplitae, peltasts, and cavalry. -It appears that the ordinary number of epibatae -on board a trireme was ten. The epibatae -were usually taken from the thetes, or -fourth class of Athenian citizens. The term -is sometimes also applied by the Roman -writers to the marines, but they are more -usually called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">classiarii milites</i>. The latter -term, however, is also applied to the rowers -or sailors as well as the marines.</p> - - -<p id="Epibole">ĔPĬBŎLĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιβολή</span>), a fine imposed by a -magistrate, or other official person or body, -for a misdemeanour. The various magistrates -at Athens had (each in his own department) -a summary penal jurisdiction; <em>i.e.</em> for certain -offences they might inflict a pecuniary mulct -or fine, not exceeding a fixed amount; if the -offender deserved further punishment, it was -their duty to bring him before a judicial tribunal. -These <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epibolae</i> are to be distinguished -from the penalties awarded by a jury or -court of law (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμήματα</span>) upon a formal prosecution.</p> - - -<p id="Epiclerus">ĔPĬCLĒRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίκληρος</span>, heiress), the name -given to the daughter of an Athenian citizen, -who had no son to inherit his estate. It was -deemed an object of importance at Athens to -preserve the family name and property of -every citizen. This was effected, where a -man had no child, by adoption (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσποίησις</span>); -if he had a daughter, the inheritance was -transmitted through her to a grandson, who -would take the name of the maternal ancestor. -If the father died intestate, the heiress -had not the choice of a husband, but was -bound to marry her nearest relation, not in -the ascending line. When there was but one -daughter, she was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίκληρος ἐπὶ παντὶ -τῷ οἴκῳ</span>. If there were more, they inherited -equally, like our co-parceners; and were severally -married to relatives, the nearest having -the first choice.</p> - - -<p id="Epidoseis">ĔPĬDŎSEIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιδόσεις</span>), voluntary contributions, -either in money, arms, or ships, -which were made by the Athenian citizens in -order to meet the extraordinary demands of -the state. When the expenses of the state -were greater than its revenue, it was usual -for the prytaneis to summon an assembly of -the people, and after explaining the necessities -of the state, to call upon the citizens to -contribute according to their means. Those -who were willing to contribute then rose and -mentioned what they would give; while -those who were unwilling to give any thing -remained silent, or retired privately from the -assembly.</p> - - -<p id="Epimeletae">ĔPĬMĔLĒTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμεληταί</span>), the names of -various magistrates and functionaries at -Athens.—(1) <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμελητὴς τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου</span>, -more usually called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίας</span>, the treasurer or -manager of the public revenue. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tamiae">Tamias</a>.</span>]—(2) -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν μοριῶν Ἐλαιῶν</span>, were persons -chosen from among the Areopagites to -take care of the sacred olive trees.—(3) <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμεληταὶ -τοῦ Ἐμπορίου</span>, were the overseers of -the emporium. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Emporium">Emporium</a>.</span>] They were ten -in number, and were elected yearly by lot. -They had the entire management of the emporium, -and had jurisdiction in all breaches -of the commercial laws.—(4) <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν -Μυστηρίων</span>, were, in connection with the king -archon, the managers of the Eleusinian mysteries. -They were elected by open vote, and -were four in number.—(5) <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν -νεωρίων</span>, the inspectors of the dockyards, -were ten in number.—(6) <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν -φυλῶν</span>, the inspectors of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλαὶ</span> or tribes. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Episcopi">ĔPISCŎPI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίσκοποι</span>), inspectors, who -were sometimes sent by the Athenians to -subject states. They were also called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φύλακες</span>. It appears that these Episcopi received -a salary at the cost of the cities over -which they presided.</p> - - -<p id="Epistates">ĔPISTĂTĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστάτης</span>).—(1) The chairman -of the senate and assembly of the people, -respecting whose duties see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boulé</a></span> and -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ecclesia">Ecclesia</a></span>.—(2) The name of the directors of -the public works. (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπισταταὶ τῶν δημοσίων -ἔργων</span>).</p> - - -<p id="Epistoleus">ĔPISTŎLEUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστολεύς</span>), the officer second -in rank in the Spartan fleet, who succeeded -to the command if any thing happened -to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">navarchus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναυάρχος</span>) or admiral. -When the Chians and the other allies of Sparta -on the Asiatic coast sent to Sparta to request -that Lysander might be again appointed to -the command of the navy, he was sent with -the title of epistoleus, because the laws of -Sparta did not permit the same person to hold -the office of navarchus twice.</p> - - -<p id="Epistylium">ĔPISTȲLĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστύλιον</span>), properly, as the -name implies, the architrave, or lower member -of an entablature, which lies immediately -over the columns. The word is sometimes -also used for the whole of the entablature.</p> - - -<p id="Epitropus">ĔPĬTRŎPUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίτροπος</span>), the name at -Athens of a guardian of orphan children. Of -such guardians there were at Athens three -kinds: first, those appointed in the will of -the deceased father; secondly, the next of -kin, whom the law designated as tutores legitimi -in default of such appointment, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span> -who required the authorization of the archon -to enable them to act; and lastly, such persons -as the archon selected if there were no -next of kin living to undertake the office. -The duties of the guardian comprehended the -education, maintenance, and protection of -the ward, the assertion of his rights, and -the safe custody and profitable disposition -of his inheritance during his minority, besides -making a proper provision for the widow -if she remained in the house of her late -husband.</p> - - -<p id="Epobelia">ĔPŌBĔLIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπωβελία</span>), as its etymology -implies, at the rate of one obolus for a drachma, -or one in six, was payable on the assessment -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τίμημα</span>) of several private causes, and -sometimes in a case of phasis, by the litigant -that failed to obtain the votes of one-fifth of -the dicasts.</p> - - -<p id="Eponymus">ĔPŌNỸMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Archon">Archon</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Epoptae">ĔPOPTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπόπται</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Eleusinia">Eleusinia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Epulones">ĔPŬLŌNES, who were originally three in -number (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triumviri epulones</i>), were first created -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 196, to attend to the Epulum -Jovis, and the banquets given in honour of -the other gods; which duty had originally -belonged to the pontifices. Their number -was afterwards increased to seven, and they -were called septemviri epulones or septemviri -epulonum. The epulones formed a collegium, -and were one of the four great religious corporations -at Rome; the other three were -those of the Pontifices, Augures, and Quindecemviri.</p> - - -<p id="Epulum">ĔPŬLUM JŎVIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epulones">Epulones</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Equiria">ĔQUĪRĬA, horse-races, which are said -to have been instituted by Romulus in honour -of Mars, and were celebrated in the -Campus Martius. There were two festivals -of this name; of which one was celebrated -<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> III. Cal. Mart., and the other prid. Id. -Mart.</p> - - -<p id="Equites">ĔQUĬTES, horsemen. Romulus is said to -have formed three centuries of equites; and -these were the same as the 300 Celeres, whom -he kept about his person in peace and war. -A century was taken from each of the three -tribes, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ramnes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Titienses</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Luceres</i>. -Tarquinius Priscus added three more, under -the title of Ramnes, Titienses, and Luceres -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">posteriores</i>. These were the six patrician -centuries of equites, often referred to under -the name of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sex suffragia</i>. To these Servius -Tullius added twelve more centuries, for -admission into which, property and not birth -was the qualification. These twelve centuries -might therefore contain plebeians, but -they do not appear to have been restricted to -plebeians, since we have no reason for believing -that the six old centuries contained -the <em>whole</em> body of patricians. A property -qualification was apparently also necessary -by the Servian constitution for admission into -the six centuries. We may therefore suppose -that those patricians who were included -in the six old centuries were allowed by the -Servian constitution to continue in them, if -they possessed the requisite property; and -that all other persons in the state, whether -patricians or plebeians, who possessed the -requisite property, were admitted into the -twelve new centuries. We are not told the -amount of property necessary to entitle a -person to a place among the equites, but it -was probably the same as in the latter times -of the republic, that is, four times that of -the first class. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_105">p. 105</a>.] Property, -however, was not the only qualification; for -in the ancient times of the republic no one -was admitted among the equestrian centuries -unless his character was unblemished, and -his father and grandfather had been born -freemen. Each of the equites received a -horse from the state (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equus publicus</i>), or -money to purchase one, as well as a sum of -money for its annual support; the expense -of its support was defrayed by the orphans -and unmarried females; since, in a military -state, it could not be esteemed unjust, that the -women and the children were to contribute -largely for those who fought in behalf of -them and of the commonwealth. The purchase-money -for a knight’s horse was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes equestre</i>, and its annual provision <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes -hordearium</i>. The former amounted, according -to Livy, to 10,000 asses, and the latter -to 2000.—All the equites, of whom we have -been speaking, received a horse from the -state, and were included in the 18 equestrian -centuries of the Servian constitution; but in -course of time, we read of another class of -equites in Roman history, who did not receive -a horse from the state, and who were -not included in the 18 centuries. This latter -class is first mentioned by Livy, in his account -of the siege of Veii, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 403. He says -that during the siege, when the Romans had -at one time suffered great disasters, all those -citizens who had an equestrian fortune, and -no horse allotted to them, volunteered to -serve with their own horses; and he adds, -that from this time equites first began to -serve with their own horses. The state paid -them, as a kind of compensation for serving -with their own horses. The foot soldiers -had received pay a few years before; and -two years afterwards, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 401, the pay of -the equites was made three-fold that of the -infantry. From the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 403, there -were therefore two classes of Roman knights: -one who received horses from the state, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span> -are therefore frequently called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equites equo -publico</i>, and sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flexumines</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Trossuli</i>, -and another class, who served, when -they were required, with their own horses, -but were not classed among the 18 centuries. -As they served on horseback they were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equites</i>; and when spoken of in opposition -to cavalry, which did not consist of Roman -citizens, they were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equites Romani</i>; -but they had no legal claim to the -name of equites, since in ancient times this -title was strictly confined to those who received -horses from the state.—The reason of -this distinction of two classes arose from the -fact, that the number of equites in the 18 -centuries was fixed from the time of Servius -Tullius. As vacancies occurred in them, the -descendants of those who were originally enrolled -succeeded to their places, provided -they had not dissipated their property. But -in course of time, as population and wealth -increased, the number of persons who possessed -an equestrian fortune, also increased -greatly; and as the ancestors of these persons -had not been enrolled in the 18 centuries, -they could not receive horses from the -state, and were therefore allowed the privilege -of serving with their own horses among -the cavalry, instead of the infantry, as they -would otherwise have been obliged to have -done.—The inspection of the equites who -received horses from the state belonged to -the censors, who had the power of depriving -an eques of his horse, and reducing him to -the condition of an aerarian, and also of -giving the vacant horse to the most distinguished -of the equites who had previously -served at their own expense. For these -purposes they made during their censorship -a public inspection, in the forum, of all the -knights who possessed public horses (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equitatum -recognoscere</i>). The tribes were taken in -order, and each knight was summoned by -name. Every one, as his name was called, -walked past the censors, leading his horse. -If the censors had no fault to find either with -the character of the knight or the equipments -of his horse, they ordered him to pass on -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la"><ins class="corr" id="tn-157" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'traduc equum'">traducere equum</ins></i>); -but if on the contrary they -considered him unworthy of his rank, they -struck him out of the list of knights, and -deprived him of his horse, or ordered him to -sell it, with the intention no doubt that the -person thus degraded should refund to the -state the money which had been advanced to -him for its purchase.—This review of the -equites by the censors must not be confounded -with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Equitum Transvectio</i>, which was a -solemn procession of the body every year on -the Ides of Quintilis (July). The procession -started from the temple of Mars outside the -city, and passed through the city over the -forum, and by the temple of the Dioscuri. -On this occasion the equites were always -crowned with olive chaplets, and wore their -state dress, the trabea, with all the honourable -distinctions which they had gained in -battle. According to Livy, this annual procession -was first established by the censors -Q. Fabius and P. Decius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304; but according -to Dionysius it was instituted after -the defeat of the Latins near the lake Regillus, -of which an account was brought to -Rome by the Dioscuri.—It may be asked how -long did the knight retain his public horse, -and a vote in the equestrian century to which -he belonged? On this subject we have no -positive information; but as those equites, -who served with their own horses, were only -obliged to serve for ten years (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendia</i>) -under the age of 46, we may presume that -the same rule extended to those who served -with the public horses, provided they <em>wished</em> -to give up the service. For it is certain that -in the ancient times of the republic a knight -might retain his horse as long as he pleased, -even after he had entered the senate, provided -he continued able to discharge the duties of -a knight. Thus the two censors, M. Livius -Salinator and C. Claudius Nero, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 204, -were also equites, and L. Scipio Asiaticus, who -was deprived of his horse by the censors in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 185, had himself been censor in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 191. -But during the later times of the republic the -knights were obliged to give up their horses -on entering the senate, and consequently -ceased to belong to the equestrian centuries. -It thus naturally came to pass, that the -greater number of the equites equo publico, -after the exclusion of senators from the -equestrian centuries, were young men.—The -equestrian centuries, of which we have -hitherto been treating, were only regarded -as a division of the army: they did not form -a distinct class or ordo in the constitution. -The community, in a political point of view, -was divided only into patricians and plebeians, -and the equestrian centuries were composed -of both. But in the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123, a new -class, called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ordo Equestris</i>, was formed -in the state by the Lex Sempronia, which was -introduced by C. Gracchus. By this law, or -one passed a few years afterwards, every person -who was to be chosen judex was required to be -above 30 and under 60 years of age, to have -either an equus publicus, or to be qualified -by his fortune to possess one, and <em>not</em> to be -a senator. The number of judices, who were -required yearly, was chosen from this class -by the praetor urbanus. As the name of -equites had been originally extended from -those who possessed the public horses to those -who served with their own horses, it now<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span> -came to be applied to all those persons who -were qualified by their fortune to act as -judices, in which sense the word is usually -used by Cicero. After the reform of Sulla, -which entirely deprived the equestrian order -of the right of being chosen as judices, and -the passing of the Lex Aurelia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 70), -which ordained that the judices should be -chosen from the senators, equites, and tribuni -aerarii, the influence of the order, says Pliny, -was still maintained by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">publicani</i>, or -farmers of the public taxes. We find that the -publicani were almost always called equites, -not because any particular rank was necessary -in order to obtain from the state the farming -of the taxes, but because the state was not -accustomed to let them to any one who did -not possess a considerable fortune. Thus the -publicani are frequently spoken of by Cicero -as identical with the equestrian order. The -consulship of Cicero, and the active part which -the knights then took in suppressing the conspiracy -of Catiline, tended still further to -increase the power and influence of the -equestrian order; and “from that time,” -says Pliny, “it became a third body (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corpus</i>) -in the state, and, to the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Senatus Populusque -Romanus</i>, there began to be added -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Et Equestris Ordo</i>.” In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63, a distinction -was conferred upon them, which tended -to separate them still further from the plebs. -By the Lex Roscia Othonis, passed in that -year, the first fourteen seats in the theatre -behind the orchestra were given to the -equites. They also possessed the right of -wearing the Clavus Angustus [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus">Clavus</a></span>], and -subsequently obtained the privilege of wearing -a gold ring, which was originally confined -to the equites equo publico. The number -of equites increased greatly under the -early emperors, and all persons were admitted -into the order, provided they possessed the -requisite property, without any inquiry into -their character, or into the free birth of their -father and grandfather. The order in consequence -gradually began to lose all the consideration -which it had acquired during the -later times of the republic.—Augustus formed -a select class of equites, consisting of those -equites who possessed the property of a -senator, and the old requirement of free -birth up to the grandfather. He permitted -this class to wear the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">latus clavus</i>; and also -allowed the tribunes of the plebs to be chosen -from them, as well as the senators, and gave -them the option, at the termination of their -office, to remain in the senate or return to -the equestrian order. This class of knights -was distinguished by the special title <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">illustres</i> -(sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">insignes</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">splendidi</i>) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equites -Romani</i>. The formation of this distinct class -tended to lower the others still more in public -estimation. In the ninth year of the reign -of Tiberius, an attempt was made to improve -the order by requiring the old qualifications -of free birth up to the grandfather, and by -strictly forbidding any one to wear the gold -ring unless he possessed this qualification. -This regulation, however, was of little avail, -as the emperors frequently admitted freedmen -into the equestrian order. When private -persons were no longer appointed judices, -the necessity for a distinct class in the community, -like the equestrian order, ceased -entirely; and the gold ring came at length -to be worn by all free citizens. Even slaves, -after their manumission, were allowed to -wear it by special permission from the emperor, -which appears to have been usually -granted provided the patronus consented.—Having -thus traced the history of the equestrian -order to its final extinction as a distinct -class in the community, we must now return -to the equites equo publico, who formed the -18 equestrian centuries. This class still -existed during the latter years of the republic, -but had entirely ceased to serve as horse-soldiers -in the army. The cavalry of the -Roman legions no longer consisted, as in the -time of Polybius, of Roman equites, but their -place was supplied by the cavalry of the -allied states. It is evident that Caesar in his -Gallic wars possessed no Roman cavalry. -When he went to an interview with Ariovistus, -and was obliged to take cavalry with -him, we are told that he did not dare to trust -his safety to the Gallic cavalry, and therefore -mounted his legionary soldiers upon their -horses. The Roman equites are, however, -frequently mentioned in the Gallic and civil -wars, but never as common soldiers; they -were officers attached to the staff of the -general, or commanded the cavalry of the -allies, or sometimes the legions.—After the -year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 50, there were no censors in the -state, and it would therefore follow that for -some years no review of the body took place, -and that the vacancies were not filled up. -When Augustus, however, took upon himself, -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 29, the praefectura morum, he -frequently reviewed the troops of equites, -and restored the long neglected custom of -the solemn procession (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">transvectio</i>). From this -time these equites formed an honourable corps, -from which all the higher officers in the army -and the chief magistrates in the state were -chosen. Admission into this body was equivalent -to an introduction into public life, and -was therefore esteemed a great privilege. If -a young man was not admitted into this -body, he was excluded from all civil offices of -any importance, except in municipal towns;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span> -and also from all rank in the army, with the -exception of centurion. All those equites, -who were not employed in actual service, -were obliged to reside at Rome, where they -were allowed to fill the lower magistracies, -which entitled a person to admission into the -senate. They were divided into six turmae, -each of which was commanded by an officer, -who is frequently mentioned in inscriptions -as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sevir equitum Rom. turmae</i> <span class="allsmcap">I. II.</span>, &c., or -commonly <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sevir turmae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sevir turmarum -equitum Romanorum</i>. From the time that -the equites bestowed the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">principes -juventutis</i> upon Caius and Lucius Caesar, the -grandsons of Augustus, it became the custom -to confer this title, as well as that of -sevir, upon the probable successor to the -throne, when he first entered into public -life, and was presented with an equus publicus. -The practice of filling all the higher -offices in the state from these equites appears -to have continued as long as Rome was the -centre of the government and the residence -of the emperor. After the time of Diocletian, -the equites became only a city guard, -under the command of the praefectus vigilum; -but they still retained, in the time of -Valentinianus and Valens, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 364, the second -rank in the city, and were not subject -to corporal punishment. Respecting the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Magister Equitum</i>, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Dictator">Dictator</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Equuleus">ĔQUŬLĔUS or ĔCŬLĔUS, an instrument -of torture, which is supposed to have been -so called because it was in the form of a -horse.</p> - - -<p id="Erani">ĔRĂNI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔρανοι</span>), were clubs or societies, -established for charitable, convivial, commercial, -or political purposes. Unions of -this kind were called by the general name -of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑταιρίαι</span>, and were often converted to mischievous -ends, such as bribery, overawing -the public assembly, or influencing courts of -justice. In the days of the Roman empire -friendly societies, under the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">erani</i>, -were frequent among the Greek cities, but -were looked on with suspicion by the emperors, -as leading to political combinations. -The <em>gilds</em>, or fraternities for mutual aid, -among the ancient Saxons, resembled the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">erani</i> of the Greeks.</p> - - -<p id="Ergastulum">ERGASTŬLUM, a private prison attached -to most Roman farms, where the slaves were -made to work in chains. The slaves confined -in an ergastulum were also employed to cultivate -the fields in chains. Slaves who had -displeased their masters were punished by -imprisonment in the ergastulum; and in the -same place all slaves, who could not be depended -upon or were barbarous in their -habits, were regularly kept.</p> - - -<p id="Ericius">ĒRĪCĬUS, a military engine full of sharp -spikes, which was placed by the gate of the -camp to prevent the approach of the enemy.</p> - - -<p id="Erotia">ĔRŌTĬA or ĔRŌTĬDĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρώτια</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρωτίδια</span>), -the most solemn of all the festivals -celebrated in the Boeotian town of Thespiae. -It took place every fifth year, and in honour -of Eros, the principal divinity of the Thespians. -Respecting the particulars nothing is -known, except that it was solemnised with -contests in music and gymnastics.</p> - - -<p id="Essedarii">ESSĔDĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Esseda">Essedum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Esseda">ESSĔDA, or ESSĔDUM (from the Celtic -<em>Ess</em>, a carriage), the name of a chariot used, -especially in war, by the Britons, the Gauls, -and the Germans. It was built very strongly, -was open before instead of behind, like the -Greek war-chariot, and had a wide pole, so -that the owner was able, whenever he pleased, -to run along the pole, and even to raise himself -upon the yoke, and then to retreat with -the greatest speed into the body of the car, -which he drove with extraordinary swiftness -and skill. It appears also that these cars -were purposely made as noisy as possible, -probably by the creaking and clanging of the -wheels; and that this was done in order to -strike dismay into the enemy. The warriors -who drove these chariots were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">essedarii</i>. -Having been captured, they were sometimes -exhibited in the gladiatorial shows at Rome, -and seem to have been great favourites with -the people. The essedum was adopted for -purposes of convenience and luxury among -the Romans. As used by the Romans, the -essedum may have differed from the cisium -in this; that the cisium was drawn by one -horse (see cut, <a href="#ill090a">p. 90</a>), the essedum always by -a pair.</p> - - -<p id="Eumolpidae">EUMOLPĬDAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐμολπίδαι</span>), the most distinguished -and venerable among the priestly -families in Attica. They were devoted to the -service of Demeter at Athens and Eleusis, -and were said to be the descendants of the -Thracian bard Eumolpus, who, according to -some legends, had introduced the Eleusinian -mysteries into Attica. The high priest of the -Eleusinian goddess (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροφάντης</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυσταγωγός</span>), -who conducted the celebration of her mysteries -and the initiation of the mystae, was -always a member of the family of the Eumolpidae, -as Eumolpus himself was believed to -have been the first hierophant. The hierophant -was attended by four <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epimeletae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμεληταί</span>), -one of whom likewise belonged to the -family of the Eumolpidae. The Eumolpidae -had on certain occasions to offer up prayers -for the welfare of the state. They had likewise -judicial power in cases where religion -was violated. The law according to which -they pronounced their sentence, and of which -they had the exclusive possession, was not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span> -written, but handed down by tradition; and -the Eumolpidae alone had the right to interpret -it, whence they are sometimes called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Exegetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξηγηταί</span>). In cases for which the -law had made no provisions, they acted according -to their own discretion. In some -cases, when a person was convicted of gross -violation of the public institutions of his -country, the people, besides sending the -offender into exile, added a clause in their -verdict that a curse should be pronounced -upon him by the Eumolpidae. But the Eumolpidae -could pronounce such a curse only -at the command of the people, and might -afterwards be compelled by the people to -revoke it, and purify the person whom they -had cursed before.</p> - - -<p id="Eupatridae">EUPATRĬDAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐπατρίδαι</span>), descended -from noble ancestors, is the name by which -in early times the nobility of Attica was designated. -In the division of the inhabitants -of Attica into three classes, which is ascribed -to Theseus, the Eupatridae were the first -class, and thus formed a compact order of -nobles, united by their interests, rights, and -privileges. They were in the exclusive possession -of all the civil and religious offices in -the state, ordered the affairs of religion, and -interpreted the laws human and divine. The -king was thus only the first among his equals, -and only distinguished from them by the duration -of his office. By the legislation of -Solon, the political power and influence of -the Eupatridae as an order was broken, and -property instead of birth was made the -standard of political rights. But as Solon, -like all ancient legislators, abstained from -abolishing any of the religious institutions, -those families of the Eupatridae, in which -certain priestly offices and functions were -hereditary, retained these distinctions down -to a very late period of Grecian history.</p> - - -<p id="Euripus">EURĪPUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Euthyne" >EUTHȲNĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐθύνη</span>). All public officers at -Athens were accountable for their conduct -and the manner in which they acquitted -themselves of their official duties. The -judges in the popular court seem to have -been the only authorities who were not responsible, -for they were themselves the -representatives of the people, and would -therefore, in theory, have been responsible -to themselves. This account, which officers -had to give after the time of their office was -over, was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐθύνη</span>, and the officers subject -to it, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπεύθυνοι</span>, and after they had gone -through the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">euthyne</i>, they became <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνεύθυνοι</span>. -Every public officer had to render his account -within thirty days after the expiration of his -office, and at the time when he submitted to -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">euthyne</i> any citizen had the right to come -forward and impeach him. The officers -before whom the accounts were given were -at Athens ten in number, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὔθυνοι</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λογισταί</span>, in other places <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξετασταί</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγοροι</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Evocati">ĒVŎCĀTI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Exauctoritas">EXAUCTŌRĬTAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Exauguratio">EXAUGŬRĀTĬO, the act of changing a -sacred thing into a profane one, or of taking -away from it the sacred character which it -had received by inauguratio, consecratio, or -dedicatio. Such an act was performed by -the augurs, and never without consulting the -pleasure of the gods, by augurium.</p> - - -<p id="Excubiae">EXCŬBĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Excubitores">EXCŬBĬTŌRES, which properly means -watchmen or sentinels of any kind, was the -name more particularly given to the soldiers -of the cohort who guarded the palace of the -Roman emperor.</p> - - -<p id="Exedra">EXEDRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξέδρα</span>), which properly signifies -a seat out of doors, came to be used for a chamber -furnished with seats, and opening into a -portico, where people met to enjoy conversation; -such as the rooms attached to a gymnasium, -which were used for the lectures -and disputations of the rhetoricians and philosophers. -In old Greek the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λέσχη</span> -appears to have had a similar meaning; but -the ordinary use of the word is for a larger -and more public place of resort than the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξέδρα</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lesche">Lesche</a>.</span>] Among the Romans the -word had a wider meaning, answering to -both the Greek terms, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξέδρα</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λέσχη</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Exegetae">EXĒGĒTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξηγηταί</span>, interpreters) is the -name of the Eumolpidae, by which they were -designated as the interpreters of the laws -relating to religion and of the sacred rites. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Eumolpidae">Eumolpidae</a>.</span>] The name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξηγητής</span> was also -applied to those persons who served as guides -(ciceroni) to the visitors in the most remarkable -towns and places of Greece.</p> - - -<p id="Exercitoria">EXERCĬTŌRĬA ACTĬO, an action granted -by the edict against the exercitor navis. By -the term navis was understood any vessel, -whether used for the navigation of rivers, -lakes, or the sea. The exercitor navis is the -person to whom all the ship’s gains and earnings -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obventiones et reditus</i>) belong, whether -he is the owner, or has hired the ship (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per -aversionem</i>) from the owner for a time definite -or indefinite.</p> - - -<p id="Exercitus">EXERCĬTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατός</span>), army. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek</span>.</p> - -<p>1. <em>Spartan Army.</em>—In all the states of -Greece, in the earliest as in later times, the -general type of their military organisation -was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phalanx</i>, a body of troops in close -array with a long spear as their principal -weapon. It was among the Dorians, and -especially among the Spartans, that this type -was most rigidly adhered to. The strength<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span> -of their military array consisted in the heavy-armed -infantry (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁπλίται</span>). They attached -comparatively small importance to their -cavalry, which was always inferior. Indeed, -the Thessalians and Boeotians were the only -Greek people who distinguished themselves -much for their cavalry; scarcely any other -states had territories adapted for the evolutions -of cavalry. The whole life of a Spartan -was little else than either the preparation for -or the practice of war. The result was, that -in the strictness of their discipline, the precision -and facility with which they performed -their military evolutions, and the skill and -power with which they used their weapons, -the Spartans were unrivalled among the -Greeks. The heavy-armed infantry of the -Spartan armies was composed partly of -genuine Spartan citizens, partly of Perioeci. -Every Spartan citizen was liable to military -service (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμφρουρος</span>) from the age of twenty -to the age of sixty years. They were divided -into six divisions called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μόραι</span>, under the -command or superintendence of a polemarch, -each mora being subdivided into four <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόχοι</span> -(commanded by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λοχαγοί</span>), each <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόχος</span> into two -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοστύες</span> (headed by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοστῆρες</span>), each -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοστύς</span> into two <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνωμοτίαι</span> (headed by -enomotarchs). The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνωμοτίαι</span> were so called -from the men composing them being bound -together by a common oath. These were not -merely divisions of troops engaged in actual -military expeditions. The whole body of -citizens at all times formed an army, whether -they were congregated at head-quarters in -Sparta, or a portion of them were detached -on foreign service. The strength of a mora -on actual service, of course, varied, according -to circumstances. To judge by the name -pentecostys, the normal number of a mora -would have been 400; but 500, 600, and -900 are mentioned as the number of men in a -mora on different occasions. When in the -field, each mora of infantry was attended by -a mora of cavalry, consisting at the most of -100 men, and commanded by an hipparmost -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππαρμοστής</span>). Plutarch mentions squadrons -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐλαμοί</span>) of fifty, which may possibly be the -same divisions. The cavalry seems merely -to have been employed to protect the flanks, -and but little regard was paid to it. The -corps of 300 <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππεῖς</span> formed a sort of body-guard -for the king, and consisted of the flower -of the young soldiers. Though called horsemen, -they fought on foot. A Spartan army, -divided as above described, was drawn up in -the dense array of the phalanx, the depth of -which depended upon circumstances. An -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνωμοτία</span> sometimes made but a single file, -sometimes was drawn up in three or six files -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζύγα</span>). The enomotarch stood at the head of -his file (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωτοστάτης</span>), or at the head of the -right-hand file, if the enomotia was broken -up into more than one. The last man was -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐραγός</span>. It was a matter of great -importance that he, like the enomotarch, -should be a man of strength and skill, as in -certain evolutions he would have to lead the -movements. The commander-in-chief, who -was usually the king, had his station sometimes -in the centre, more commonly on the -right wing. The commands of the general -were issued in the first place to the polemarchs, -by these to the lochagi, by these -again to the pentecosteres, by the latter to -the enomotarchs, and by these last to their -respective divisions. From the orderly manner -in which this was done, commands were -transmitted with great rapidity: every soldier, -in fact, regulating the movements of the -man behind him, every two being connected -together as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωτοστάτης</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστάτης</span>. In -later times the king was usually accompanied -by two ephors, as controllers and advisers. -These, with the polemarchs, the four Pythii, -three peers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅμοιοι</span>), who had to provide for -the necessities of the king in war, the laphyropolae -and some other officers, constituted -what was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">damosia</i> of the king. -The Spartan hoplites were accompanied in -the field by helots, partly in the capacity of -attendants, partly to serve as light-armed -troops. The number attached to an army -was probably not uniform. At Plataeae each -Spartan was accompanied by seven helots; -but that was probably an extraordinary case. -One helot in particular of those attached to -each Spartan was called his <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεράπων</span>, and -performed the functions of an armourer or -shieldbearer. Xenophon calls them <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπασπισταί</span>. -In extraordinary cases, helots served -as hoplites, and in that case it was usual to -give them their liberty. A separate troop in -the Lacedaemonian army was formed by the -Sciritae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιρῖται</span>), originally, no doubt, inhabitants -of the district Sciritis. The arms -of the phalanx consisted of the long spear -and a short sword (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξυήλη</span>). The chief part -of the defensive armour was the large brazen -shield, which covered the body from the -shoulder to the knee, suspended, as in -ancient times, by a thong round the neck, -and managed by a simple handle or ring -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόρπαξ</span>). Besides this, they had the ordinary -armour of the hoplite [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arma">Arma</a></span>]. The -heavy-armed soldiers wore a scarlet uniform. -The Spartan encampments were circular. -Only the heavy-armed were stationed within -them, the cavalry being placed to look out, and -the helots being kept as much as possible outside. -Preparatory to a battle the Spartan -soldier dressed his hair and crowned himself<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span> -as others would do for a feast. The signal -for attack was given not by the trumpet, but -by the music of flutes, and sometimes also of -the lyre and cithara, to which the men sang -the battle song (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιὰν ἐμβατήριος</span>). The object -of the music was not so much to inspirit the -men, as simply to regulate the march of the -phalanx. This rhythmical regularity of movement -was a point to which the Spartans -attached great importance.</p> - -<p>2. <em>Athenian Army.</em>—In Athens, the military -system was in its leading principles the -same as among the Spartans, though differing -in detail, and carried out with less exactness; -inasmuch as when Athens became powerful, -greater attention was paid to the navy. Of -the four classes into which the citizens were -arranged by the constitution of Solon, the -citizens of the first and second served as cavalry, -or as commanders of the infantry (still -it need not be assumed that the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππεῖς</span> never -served as heavy-armed infantry), those of -the third class (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζευγῖται</span>) formed the heavy-armed -infantry. The Thetes served either -as light-armed troops on land, or on board -the ships. The same general principles remained -when the constitution was remodelled -by Cleisthenes. The cavalry service continued -to be compulsory on the wealthier -class. Every citizen was liable to service -from his eighteenth to his sixtieth year. On -reaching their eighteenth year, the young -citizens were formally enrolled <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰς τὴν ληξιαρχικὸν -γραμματεῖον</span>, and received a shield and -spear in a public assembly of the people, -binding themselves by oath to perform rightly -the duties of a citizen and a soldier. During -the first two years, they were only liable to -service in Attica itself, chiefly as garrison -soldiers in the different fortresses in the -country. During this period, they were -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίπολοι</span>. Members of the senate -during the period of their office, farmers of -the revenue, choreutae at the Dionysia during -the festival, in later times, traders by sea -also, were exempted from military service. -Any one bound to serve who attempted to -avoid doing so, was liable to a sentence of -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>. The resident aliens commonly served -as heavy-armed soldiers, especially for the -purpose of garrisoning the city. They were -prohibited from serving as cavalry. Slaves -were only employed as soldiers in cases of -great necessity. Of the details of the Athenian -military organisation, we have no distinct -accounts as we have of those of Sparta. -The heavy-armed troops, as was the universal -practice in Greece, fought in phalanx order. -They were arranged in bodies in a manner -dependent on the political divisions of the -citizens. The soldiers of each tribe (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλή</span>) -formed a separate body in the army, also -called a tribe, and these bodies stood in some -preconcerted order. It seems that the name -of one division was <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάξις</span>, and of another -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόχος</span>, but in what relations these stood to -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλή</span>, and to each other, we do not learn. -Every hoplite was accompanied by an attendant -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">(ὑπηρέτης)</span> to take charge of his baggage, -and carry his shield on a march. -Each horseman also had a servant, called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱπποκόμος</span>, to attend to his horse. For the -command of the army, there were chosen -every year ten generals [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Strategus">Strategi</a></span>], and ten -taxiarchs [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Taxiarchi">Taxiarchi</a></span>], and for the cavalry, -two hipparchs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵππαρχοι</span>) and ten phylarchs -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φύλαρχοι</span>). Respecting the military functions -of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων πολέμαρχος</span>, see the article -Archon. The number of strategi sent with -an army was not uniform. Three was a -common number. Sometimes one was invested -with the supreme command; at other -times, they either took the command in turn -(as at Marathon), or conducted their operations -by common consent (as in the Sicilian -expedition). The practice of paying the -troops when upon service was first introduced -by Pericles. The pay consisted partly -of wages (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισθός</span>), partly of provisions, or, -more commonly, provision-money (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτηρέσιον</span>). -The ordinary <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισθός</span> of a hoplite was two -obols a day. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτηρέσιον</span> amounted to two -obols more. Hence, the life of a soldier was -called, proverbially, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετρωβόλου βίος</span>. Officers -received twice as much; horsemen, three -times; generals, four times as much. The -horsemen received pay even in time of peace, -that they might always be in readiness, and -also a sum of money for their outfit (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάστασις</span>). -As regards the military strength of -the Athenians, we find 10,000 heavy-armed -soldiers at Marathon, 8,000 heavy-armed, and -as many light-armed at Plataeae; and at the -beginning of the Peloponnesian war there were -18,000 heavy-armed ready for foreign service, -and 16,000 consisting of those beyond the -limits of the ordinary military age and of -the metoeci, for garrison service. It was the -natural result of the national character of -the Athenians and their democratical constitution, -that military discipline was much less -stringent among them than among the Spartans, -and after defeat especially it was often -found extremely difficult to maintain it. The -generals had some power of punishing military -offences on the spot, but for the greater -number of such offences a species of court-martial -was held, consisting of persons who -had served in the army to which the offender -belonged, and presided over by the strategi. -Various rewards also were held out for those -who especially distinguished themselves for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span> -their courage or conduct, in the shape of -chaplets, statues, &c. The Peltastae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πελτασταί</span>), -so called from the kind of shield -which they wore [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pelta">Pelta</a></span>], were a class of -troops of which we hear very little before the -end of the Peloponnesian war. The Athenian -general Iphicrates introduced some important -improvements in the mode of arming -them, combining as far as possible the peculiar -advantages of heavy (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁπλῖται</span>) and light -armed (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψιλοί</span>) troops. He substituted a linen -corslet for the coat of mail worn by the hoplites, -and lessened the shield, while he doubled -the length of the spear and sword. He even -took the pains to introduce for them an improved -sort of shoe, called after him <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰφικρατίδες</span>. -This equipment proved very effective. -The almost total destruction of a mora of -Lacedaemonian heavy-armed troops by a body -of peltastae under the command of Iphicrates -was an exploit that became very famous. -When the use of mercenary troops became -general, Athenian citizens seldom served except -as volunteers, and then in but small -numbers. The employment of mercenaries -led to considerable alterations in the military -system of Greece. War came to be studied -as an art, and Greek generals, rising above -the old simple rules of warfare, became tacticians. -Epaminondas was the first who -adopted the method of charging in column, -concentrating his attack upon one point of -the hostile line, so as to throw the whole into -confusion by breaking through it.</p> - -<p>3. <span class="smcap">Macedonian Army.</span>—Philip, king of -Macedonia, made several improvements in -the arms and arrangement of the phalanx. -The spear (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάρισσα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάρισα</span>), with which -the soldiers of the Macedonian phalanx were -armed, was 24 feet long; but the ordinary -length was 21 feet, and the lines were arranged -at such distances that the spears of -the fifth rank projected three feet beyond the -first, so that every man in the front rank was -protected by five spears. Besides the spear -they carried a short sword. The shield was -very large and covered nearly the whole body, -so that on favourable ground an impenetrable -front was presented to the enemy. The soldiers -were also defended by helmets, coats of -mail, and greaves; so that any thing like -rapid movement was impossible. The ordinary -depth of the phalanx was sixteen files, -though depths of eight and of thirty-two are -also mentioned. Each file of sixteen was -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόχος</span>. Two lochi made a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dilochia</i>; -two dilochiae made a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετραρχία</span>, consisting of -sixty-four men; two tetrarchies made a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάξις</span>; -two <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάξεις</span> a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνταγμα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξεναγία</span>, to which -were attached five supernumeraries, a herald, -an ensign, a trumpeter, a servant, and an -officer to bring up the rear (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐραγός</span>); two -syntagmata formed a pentacosiarchia, two of -which made a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιλιαρχία</span>, containing 1024 -men; two chiliarchies made a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέλος</span>, and two -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέλη</span> made a phalangarchia or phalanx in the -narrower sense of the word, the normal number -of which would therefore be 4096. It -was commanded by a polemarch or strategus; -four such bodies formed the larger phalanx, -the normal number of which would be 16,384. -When drawn up, the two middle sections -constituted what was termed the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀμφαλός</span>, the -others being called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέρατα</span> or wings. The -phalanx soldiers in the army of Alexander -amounted to 18,000, and were divided not -into four, but into six divisions, each named -after a Macedonian province, from which it -was to derive its recruits. These bodies are -oftener called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάξεις</span> than <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάλαγγες</span> by the -historians, and their leaders taxiarchs or -strategi. The phalanx of Antiochus consisted -of 16,000 men, and was formed into ten divisions -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέρη</span>) of 1600 each, arranged 50 broad -and 32 deep. The phalanx, of course, became -all but useless, if its ranks were broken. -It required, therefore, level and open ground, -so that its operations were restricted to very -narrow limits; and being incapable of rapid -movement, it became almost helpless in the -face of an active enemy, unless accompanied -by a sufficient number of cavalry and light -troops. The light-armed troops were arranged -in files (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόχοι</span>) eight deep. Four lochi formed a -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύστασις</span>, and then larger divisions were successively -formed, each being the double of -the one below it; the largest (called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίταγμα</span>), -consisting of 8192 men. The cavalry (according -to Aelianus), were arranged in an -analogous manner, the lowest division or -squadron (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴλη</span>), containing 64 men, and the -successive larger divisions being each the -double of that below it; the highest (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίταγμα</span>) -containing 4096. Both Philip and Alexander -attached great importance to the cavalry, -which, in their armies, consisted partly of -Macedonians, and partly of Thessalians. The -Macedonian horsemen were the flower of the -young nobles. They amounted to about 1200 -in number, forming eight squadrons, and, -under the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕταιροι</span>, formed a sort of -body-guard for the king. The Thessalian -cavalry consisted chiefly of the elite of the -wealthier class of the Thessalians, but included -also a number of Grecian youth from -other states. There was also a guard of foot -soldiers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπασπισταί</span>), whom we find greatly -distinguishing themselves in the campaigns -of Alexander. They seem to be identical with -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεζέταιροι</span>, of whom we find mention. -They amounted to about 3000 men, arranged -in six battalions (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάξεις</span>). There was also a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span> -troop called Argyraspids, from the silver with -which their shields were ornamented. They -seem to have been a species of peltastae. -Alexander also organised a kind of troops -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διμάχαι</span>, who were something intermediate -between cavalry and infantry, being -designed to fight on horseback or on foot, as -circumstances required. It is in the time of -Alexander the Great, that we first meet with -artillery in the train of a Grecian army. His -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balistae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">catapeltae</i> were frequently employed -with great effect, as, for instance, at -the passage of the Jaxartes.</p> - -<p>(2) <span id="Exer_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span> <em>General Remarks on the -Legion.</em>—The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Legio</i> is coeval with the -foundation of Rome, and denoted a body of -troops, which, although subdivided into several -smaller bodies, was regarded as forming -an organised whole. It was not equivalent to -what we call a <em>regiment</em>, inasmuch as it contained -troops of all arms, infantry, cavalry, -and, when military engines were extensively -employed, artillery also; it might thus, so -far, be regarded as a complete <em>army</em>, but on -the other hand the number of soldiers in a -legion was fixed within certain limits, never -much exceeding 6000, and hence when war -was carried on upon a large scale, a single -army, under the command of one general, -frequently contained two, three, or more -legions, besides a large number of auxiliaries -of various denominations. The legion for -many centuries was composed exclusively of -Roman citizens. By the ordinances of Servius -Tullius those alone who were enrolled in -the five classes were eligible, and one of the -greatest changes introduced by Marius (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -107) was the admission of all orders of citizens, -including the lowest, into the ranks. -Up to the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 107, no one was permitted -to serve among the regular troops of the -state, except those who were regarded as -possessing a strong personal interest in the -stability of the commonwealth; but the principle -having been at this period abandoned, -the privilege was extended after the close of -the Social War (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 87) to nearly the whole -of the free population of Italy, and by the -famous edict of Caracalla (or perhaps of M. -Aurelius), to the whole Roman world. Long -before this, however, the legions were raised -chiefly in the provinces; but it does not -appear that the admission of foreigners not -subjects was ever practised upon a large -scale until the reign of the second Claudius -(<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 268-270), who incorporated a large -body of vanquished Goths, and of Probus -(<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 276-282), who distributed 16,000 -Germans among legionary and frontier battalions. -From this time forward what had -originally been the leading characteristic of -the legion was rapidly obliterated, so that -under Diocletian, Constantine, and their successors, -the best soldiers in the Roman armies -were barbarians. The practice of -granting pensions for long service in the -shape of donations of land was first introduced -upon a large scale after the Mithridatic -wars. Hence, when Augustus, in -compliance with the advice of Maecenas, -determined to provide for the security of the -distant provinces, and for tranquil submission -at home by the establishment of a powerful -standing army, he found the public -mind in a great degree prepared for such a -measure, and the distinction between soldier -and civilian unknown, or at least not recognised -before, became from this time forward -as broadly marked as in the most pure military -despotisms of ancient or modern times. -The legions were originally numbered according -to the order in which they were -raised. As they became permanent, the -same numbers remained attached to the same -corps, which were moreover distinguished by -various epithets of which we have early -examples in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Legio Martia</i>, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Legio -Quinta Alauda</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Alauda">Alauda</a>.</span>] Several legions -bore the same number: thus there were four -<em>Firsts</em>, five <em>Seconds</em>, and five <em>Thirds</em>. The -total number of legions under Augustus was -twenty-five, under Alexander Severus thirty-two, -but during the civil wars the number -was far greater.—The number of soldiers -who, at different periods, were contained in a -legion, does not appear to have been absolutely -fixed, but to have varied within moderate -limits. Under Romulus the legion -contained 3000 foot soldiers. It is highly -probable that some change may have been -introduced by Servius Tullius, but, in so far -as numbers are concerned, we have no evidence. -From the expulsion of the Kings -until the second year of the second Punic -War, the regular number may be fixed at -4000 or 4200 infantry. From the latter -period until the consulship of Marius the -ordinary number may be fixed at from 5000 -to 5200. For some centuries after Marius -the numbers varied from 5000 to 6200, generally -approaching to the higher limit. Amid -all the variations with regard to the infantry, -300 horsemen formed the regular complement -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justus equitatus</i>) of the legion. When -troops were raised for a service which required -special arrangements, the number of -horsemen was sometimes increased beyond -300. It must be observed, however, that -these remarks with regard to the cavalry -apply only to the period before Marius. We -now proceed to consider the organisation of -the legion at five different periods.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span></p> - -<p><em>First Period. Servius Tullius.</em> The legion -of Servius is so closely connected with the -Comitia Centuriata that it has already been -discussed in a former article [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>], and it -is only necessary to repeat here that it was a -phalanx equipped in the Greek fashion, the -front ranks being furnished with a complete -suit of armour, their weapons being long -spears, and their chief defence the round -Argolic shield (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clipeus</i>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill165" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill165.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> -<table class="autotable" width="90%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="pad6"> </span></td> -<td class="tdl">15 Manipuli of Hastati.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">15 Manipuli of Principes.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Triarii proper {</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">} 15 triple</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Rorarii <span class="pad2h">{</span></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">} Manipuli</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Accensi <span class="pad2h">{</span></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">} of Triarii.</td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> -</div> - -<p><em>Second Period. The Great Latin War</em>, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 340. Our authority for this period is -Livy (viii. 8). The legion in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 340 had -almost entirely discarded the tactics of the -phalanx. It was now drawn up in three, or -perhaps we ought to say, in five lines. The -soldiers of the first line, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hastati</i>, consisted -of youths in the first bloom of manhood -distributed into 15 companies or maniples -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manipuli</i>), a moderate space being left -between each. The maniple contained 60 -privates, 2 centurions (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuriones</i>), and a -standard bearer (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillarius</i>); two-thirds -were heavily armed and bore the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutum</i> or -large oblong shield, the remainder carried -only a spear (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>) and light javelins (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gaesa</i>), -The second line, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i>, was composed -of men in the full vigour of life, divided in -like manner into 15 maniples, all heavily -armed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutati omnes</i>). The two lines of -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hastati</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i> taken together -amounted to 30 maniples, and formed the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antepilani</i>. The third line, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triarii</i>, composed -of tried veterans, was also in 15 divisions, -but each of these was triple, containing -3 manipuli, 180 privates, 6 centurions, and 3 -vexillarii. In these triple manipuli the veterans -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triarii</i> proper formed the front ranks; -immediately behind them stood the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rorarii</i>, -inferior in age and prowess, while the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Accensi</i> -or supernumeraries, less trustworthy -than either, were posted in the extreme rear. -The battle array may be thus represented. -The fight was commenced by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rorarii</i>, so -called because the light missiles which they -sprinkled among the foe were like the drops -which are the forerunners of the thunder -shower, who, running forwards between the -ranks of the antepilani, acted as tirailleurs; -when they were driven in they returned to -their station behind the triarii, and the battle -began in earnest by the onset of the hastati; -if they were unable to make any impression -they retired between the ranks of the principes, -who now advanced and bore the brunt -of the combat, supported by the hastati, who -had rallied in their rear. If the principes -also failed to make an impression, they retired -through the openings between the -maniples of the triarii, who up to this time -had been crouched on the ground (hence -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subsidiarii</i>), but now arose to make -the last effort (whence the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rem ad -triarios redisse</i>). No longer retaining the -open order of the two first lines, they closed -up their ranks so as to present an unbroken -line of heavy-armed veterans in front, while -the rorarii and accensi, pressing up from -behind, gave weight and consistency to the -mass,—an arrangement bearing evidence to -a lingering predilection for the principle of -the phalanx, and exhibiting, just as we might -expect at that period, the Roman tactics in -their transition state. It must be observed -that the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manipulus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillum</i>, -although generally kept distinct, are throughout -the chapter used as synonymous. Livy -concludes by saying, that four legions were -commonly levied, each consisting of 5000 infantry -and 300 horse. We must suppose that -he speaks in round numbers in so far as the infantry -are concerned, for according to his own -calculations the numbers will stand thus:—</p> - -<table class="autotable" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Hastati</td> -<td class="tdl">15 × 60</td> -<td class="tdc">=</td> -<td class="tdr">900</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Principes</td> -<td class="tdl">15 × 60</td> -<td class="tdc">=</td> -<td class="tdr">900</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Triarii, &c.</td> -<td class="tdl">15 × 3 × 60</td> -<td class="tdc">=</td> -<td class="tdr">2700</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Centuriones</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc">=</td> -<td class="tdr">150</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Vexillarii</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc">=</td> -<td class="tdr">75</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -<td class="tdr"> ——</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdc"></td> -<td class="tdr">4725</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span></p> - -<p><em>Third Period. During the wars of the -younger Scipio.</em> Polybius describes minutely -the method pursued in raising the four -legions during this period. Under ordinary -circumstances they were levied yearly, two -being assigned to each consul. It must be -observed that a regular consular army (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justus -consularis exercitus</i>) no longer consisted of -Roman legions only, but as Italy became -gradually subjugated, the various states under -the dominion of Rome were bound to furnish -a contingent, and the number of allies (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socii</i>) -usually exceeded that of citizens. They were, -however, kept perfectly distinct, both in the -camp and in the battle field. After the election -of consuls was concluded, the first step -was to choose the 24 chief officers of the -legions, named <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni militum</i>. The consuls -then summoned to the Capitol all citizens -eligible for military service. They first -divided the 24 tribunes into 4 parties of 6, -and the tribes were next summoned in succession -by lot. The tribe whose lot came out -first being called up, they picked out from it -four youths, as nearly matched as possible in -age and form; out of these four, the tribunes -of the first legion chose one, the tribunes of -the second legion one of the remaining three; -the tribunes of the third legion, one of the -remaining two, and the last fell to the fourth -legion. Upon the next tribe being called up, -the first choice was given to the tribunes of -the second legion, the second choice to those -of the third, and the last man fell to the first -legion. On the next tribe being called up, -the tribunes of the third legion had the first -choice, and so on in succession, the object in -view being that the four legions should be as -nearly alike as possible, not in the number -only, but in the quality of the soldiers. This -process was continued until the ranks were -complete. In ancient times, the cavalry -were not chosen until after the infantry levy -was concluded, but when Polybius wrote, the -cavalry were picked in the first place from -the list on which they were enrolled by the -censor according to their fortune, and 300 -were apportioned to each legion. The levy -being completed, the tribunes collected the -men belonging to their respective legions, -and making one individual stand out from -the rest administered to him an oath -“that he would obey orders and execute to -the best of his ability the command of his -officers.” (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sacramento milites adigere s. rogare, -sacramentum s. sacramento dicere.</i>) The -rest of the soldiers then came forward one by -one, and swore to do what the first had -bound himself to perform. At the same time -the consuls gave notice to the magistrates of -those towns in Italy in alliance with Rome, -from whom they desired to receive a contingent, -of the number which each would be -required to furnish, and of the day and place -of gathering. The allied cities levied their -troops and administered the oath much in -the same manner as the Romans, and then -sent them forth after appointing a commander -and a paymaster. The soldiers having again -assembled, the men belonging to each legion -were separated into four divisions. 1. 1000 -of the youngest and poorest were set apart -to form the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Velites</i>, the light-armed troops, -or skirmishers of the legion. 2. 1200 who -came next in age (or who were of the same -age with the preceding but more wealthy), -formed the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hastati</i>. 3. 1200, consisting of -those in the full vigour of manhood, formed -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i>. 4. 600, consisting of the -oldest and most experienced, formed the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triarii</i>. When the number of soldiers in -the legion exceeded 4000, the first three -divisions were increased proportionally, but -the number of the Triarii remained always -the same. The Hastati, Principes, and Triarii -were each divided into ten companies, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Manipuli</i>. The Velites were not divided -into companies, but were distributed equally -among the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii. -Before the division of the three classes into -maniples, officers were appointed inferior to -the tribunes. 30 men were chosen by merit, -10 from the Hastati, 10 from the Principes, -and 10 from the Triarii; and this first choice -being completed, 30 more in like manner. -These 60 officers, of whom 20 were assigned -to each of the three classes, and distributed -equally among the maniples, were named -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuriones</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordinum ductores</i>, and each of -the 60 chose for himself a Lieutenant (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">optio</i>), -who, being posted in the rear of the company -while the centurion was at the head, was -named <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐραγός</span> (i.e. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tergiductor</i>) by the -Greeks, so that in each maniple there were -two centurions and two optiones. Further, -the centurions selected out of each maniple -two of the bravest and most vigorous men as -standard bearers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillarii, signiferi</i>). The -first elected centurion of the whole had a -seat in the military council, and in each -maniple the first chosen commanded the -right division of the maniple, and the other -the left. Each of these subdivisions of the -maniple was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuria</i>. The cavalry -were divided into 10 troops (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">turmae</i>), and -out of each of these 3 officers were chosen, -named <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decuriones</i>, who named 3 lieutenants -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">optiones</i>). In each troop the decurio first -chosen commanded the whole troop, and -failing him, the second. The infantry furnished -by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socii</i> was for the most part -equal in number to the Roman legions, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span> -cavalry twice or thrice as numerous, and the -whole were divided equally between the two -consular armies. Each consul named twelve -superior officers, who were termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praefecti -Sociorum</i>, and corresponded to the legionary -tribunes. A selection was then made of the -best men, to the extent of one-fifth of the -infantry and one-third of the cavalry; these -were formed into a separate corps under the -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">extraordinarii</i>, and on the march -and in the camp were always near the person -of the consul. The remainder were divided -into two equal portions, and were styled -respectively the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dextera Ala</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sinistra -Ala</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ala_a">Ala</a></span>].—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agmen</i> or <em>Line of March</em>. The -Extraordinarii Pedites led the van followed -by the right wing of the infantry of the allies -and the baggage of these two divisions; next -came one of the Roman legions with its baggage -following; next the other Roman legion -with its own baggage, and that of the left -wing of the allies, who brought up the rear. -The different corps of cavalry sometimes followed -immediately behind the infantry to -which they were attached, sometimes rode on -the flanks of the beasts of burden, at once -protecting them and preventing them from -straggling. Generally, when advancing -through a country in which it was necessary -to guard against a sudden onset, the troops, -instead of proceeding in a loose straggling -column, were kept together in close compact -bodies ready to act in any direction at a -moment’s warning, and hence an army under -these circumstances was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agmine quadrato -incedere</i>. Some doubt exists with regard -to the force of the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agmen Pilatum</i> -as distinguished from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Agmen Quadratum</i>. -Varro defines the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agmen pilatum</i> as a compact -body marching without beasts of burthen. -Where the phrase occurs in poetry, it -probably denotes merely “columns bristling -with spears.” To the preceding particulars -from Polybius, the following may be added.</p> - -<p>1. <em>The levy (delectus.)</em> According to the -principles of the constitution, none were -enrolled in the legion, except freeborn citizens -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ingenui</i>) above the age of 17, and -under the age of 60, possessing not less than -4000 asses: but in times of peculiar difficulty, -these conditions were not insisted -upon. In such times all formalities were -dispensed with, and every man capable of -bearing arms was summoned to join in warding -off the threatened danger, a force raised -under such circumstances being termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subitarius</i> -s. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tumultuarius exercitus</i>. If citizens -between the ages of 17 and 46 did not appear -and answer to their names, they might be -punished in various ways,—by fine, by imprisonment, -by stripes, by confiscation of -their property, and even, in extreme cases, -by being sold as slaves. At the same time, -causes might be alleged which were recognised -as forming a legitimate ground for exemption -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vacatio justa militiae</i>). Thus, all -who had served for the full period of 20 -years were relieved from further service, -although they might still be within the regular -age; and so, in like manner, when they -were afflicted by any grievous malady, or -disabled by any personal defect, or engaged -in any sacred or civil offices which required -their constant attendance; but these and -similar pleas, although sustained under ordinary -circumstances, might be rendered void -by a decree of the senate “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ne vacationes -valerent</span>.” While those who had served for -the stipulated period were entitled to immunity -for the future, even although within the -legal age, and were styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Emeriti</i>, so on the -other hand, it appears from some passages in -the classics, that persons who had not completed -their regular term within the usual -limits, might be forced, if required, to serve -between the ages of 45 and 50. Towards -the close of the republic, and under the empire, -when the legions became permanent, -the soldier who had served his full time received -a regular discharge (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">missio</i>), together -with a bounty (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praemium</i>) in money or an -allotment of land. The jurists distinguish -three kinds of discharge:—1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Missio honesta</i>, -granted for length of service. 2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Missio -causaria</i>, in consequence of bad health. 3. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Missio ignominiosa</i>, when a man was drummed -out for bad conduct. It frequently -happened that <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emeriti</i> were induced to continue -in the ranks, either from attachment to -the person of the general, or from hopes of -profit or promotion, and were then called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">veterani</i>, or when they joined an army, in -consequence of a special invitation, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">evocati</i>.</p> - -<p>2. The division of the legion into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Manipuli</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centuriae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Signa</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ordines</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Contubernia</i>.—(i.) -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes.</i> Polybius takes no notice -of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohort</i>, a division of the legion often -mentioned in the Roman writers. When the -soldiers of the legion were classified as Velites, -Hastati, Principes and Triarii, the cohort -contained one maniple of each of the -three latter denominations, together with -their complement of Velites, so that when -the legion contained 4000, each cohort would -consist of 60 Triarii, 120 Principes, 120 -Hastati, and 100 Velites, in all 400 men. -The number of cohorts in a legion being -always 10, and the cohorts, during the -republic, being all equal to each other, the -strength of the cohort varied from time to -time with the strength of the legion, and -thus at different periods ranged between the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span> -limits of 300 and 600. They were regularly -numbered from 1 to 10, the centurion of the first -century of the first maniple of the first cohort -was the guardian of the eagle, and hence the -first cohort seems always to have been regarded -as superior in dignity to the rest. Late -writers, instead of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cohortes</i>, prefer the somewhat -vague term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">numeri</i>, which appears in -Tacitus and Suetonius, and perhaps even in -Cicero. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Numeri</i> seems to have signified -strictly the muster roll, whence the phrases -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">referre in numeros</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">distribuere in numeros</i>, -and thus served to denote any body of -legionaries. Whenever <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohors</i> occurs in -the Latin classics in connection with the -legion, it always signifies a specific division -of the legion; but it is very frequently found, -in the general sense of <em>battalion</em>, to denote -troops altogether distinct from the legion.—(ii.) -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Manipulus.</i> The original meaning of -this word, which is derived from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manus</i>, was -<em>a handful or wisp of hay</em>, <em>straw</em>, <em>fern</em>, <em>or the -like</em>, and this, according to Roman tradition, -affixed to the end of a pole, formed the primitive -military standard in the days of Romulus. -Hence it was applied to a body of -soldiers serving under the same ensign. When -the phalanx was resolved into small companies -marshalled in open order, these were -termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manipuli</i>, and down to a very late -period the common soldiers of the legion -were designated as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manipulares</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manipularii</i>, -terms equivalent to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gregarii milites</i>. -When the phalanx was first broken -up, it appears that each of the three classes -of Hastati, Principes, and Triarii, contained -15 maniples; but before the second -Punic war the number of maniples in -each of these classes was reduced to 10. -Hence it is easy to calculate the number -of soldiers in each maniple, according -to the varying numbers in the legion, it -being always borne in mind that the Triarii -never exceeded 600, and that the Velites -were not divided into maniples, but distributed -equally among the heavy-armed companies.—(iii.) -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centuriae.</i> The distribution of -soldiers into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuriae</i> must be regarded as coeval -with the origin of Rome. Plutarch speaks -of the force led by Romulus against Amulius -as formed of centuries; and from the close -connections between the centuries of Servius -Tullius, and the organization of the military -force, we cannot hesitate to believe that the -term was communicated to the ranks of the -phalanx. For a long period after the establishment -of the manipular constitution, the -legion contained 60 centuries.—(iv.) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Signum.</i> -This word is used to denote a division of the -legion, but it is doubtful whether it signifies a -maniple or a century.—(v.) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ordo</i> generally -signifies a century, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordinum ductor</i> is synonymous -with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centurio</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ducere honestum -ordinem</i> means to be one of the principal -centurions in a legion.—(vi.) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Contubernium.</i> -This was the name given under the empire -to the body of soldiers who were quartered -together in the same tent.</p> - -<p>3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hastati</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pilani</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antepilani</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antesignani</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principia</i>.—The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hastati</i> were so called, from having been -armed with a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i> from having -occupied the front line, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triarii</i>, -otherwise named <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pilani</i>, from having been -ranged behind the first two lines as a body -of reserve and armed with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pilum</i>, while -the first two lines were termed collectively -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antepilani</i>, from standing in front of the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pilani</i>. In process of time, it came to pass, -that these designations no longer expressed -the actual condition of the troops to which -they were attached. When Polybius wrote, -and long before that period, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hastati</i> were -not armed with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hastae</i>, but in common with -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i> bore the heavy <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pilum</i>: on the -other hand, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pilani</i> carried <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hastae</i> and not -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pila</i>, while the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principes</i> were not drawn up -in the front, but formed the second line.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antesignani</i>. -While the Hastati and Principes, -taken together, were sometimes termed -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antepilani</i>, in contradistinction to the Triarii, -so the Hastati alone were sometimes termed -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antesignani</i>, in contradistinction to the Principes -and Triarii taken together. The term -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antesignani</i> having become established as -denoting the front ranks in a line of battle, -was retained in this general sense long after -the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii had disappeared.—Another -term employed to denote -the front ranks of an army in battle array is -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principia</i>, and in this sense must be carefully -distinguished from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principia</i> or -chief street in the camp, and from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Principia</i>, -which in the later writers, such as -Ammianus and Vegetius, is equivalent to -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">principales milites</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Postsignani</i> does not -occur in any author earlier than Ammianus -Marcellinus, and therefore need not be illustrated -here; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Subsignanus miles</i> of Tacitus -seems to be the same with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vexillarii</i>.</p> - -<p>4. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rorarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Accensi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ferentarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Velites</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Procubitores</i>.—When the Hastati had, in a -great measure, ceased to act as tirailleurs, -their place was supplied by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rorarii</i>, -whose method of fighting has been described -above (<a href="#Page_165">p. 165</a>). The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Accensi</i>, as described by -Livy, were inferior in equipment to the rorarii, -although employed in a similar manner, -and seem to have been camp-followers or -servants, and hence the name is given to -those also who attended upon magistrates or -other officials. At a later period the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accensi</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span> -were supernumeraries, who served to fill up -any vacancies which occurred in the course -of a campaign. Another ancient term for -light-armed soldiers was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ferentarii</i>. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Velites</i>, called also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Procubitores</i>, because they -were employed on outpost duty when the -Romans were encamped before an enemy, -were first formed into a corps at the siege of -Capua, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 211.</p> - -<p>5. <em>Officers of the Legion.</em>—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tribuni Militum</i> -were the chief officers of the legion. Their -number (six) did not vary for many centuries. -They were originally chosen by the commanders-in-chief, -that is, by the kings in the -first instance, and afterwards by the consuls, -or a dictator, as the case might be. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -361 the people assumed to themselves the -right of electing either the whole or a certain -number; and in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 311 it was ordained -that they should choose sixteen for the four -legions. In subsequent times the choice of -the tribunes was divided between the consuls -and the people; but the proportion chosen -by each differed at various periods. No one -was eligible to the office of tribune who had -not served for ten years in the infantry or -five in the cavalry; but this rule admitted -of exceptions. Augustus introduced certain -regulations altogether new. He permitted -the sons of senators to wear the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tunica laticlavia</i> -as soon as they assumed the manly -gown, and to commence their military career -as tribunes, or as commanders (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefecti</i>) of -cavalry. Such persons were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tribuni -Laticlavii</i>.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centuriones.</i> Next in rank to -the Tribunus was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centurio</i>, who, as the -name implies, commanded a century; and -the century, being termed also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo</i>, the centurions -were frequently designated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordinum -ductores</i> (hence, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adimere ordines</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">offerre ordines</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordines impetrare</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ducere honestum -ordinem</i>, to be one of the principal centurions, -&c.). The chief ordinary duties of -the centurions were to drill the soldiers, to -inspect their arms, clothing, and food, to -watch the execution of the toils imposed, to -visit the centinels, and to regulate the conduct -of their men, both in the camp and in the -field. They also sat as judges in minor offences, -and had the power of inflicting corporal -punishment, whence their badge of office -was a vine sapling, and thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitis</i> is frequently -used to denote the office itself. -Of the two centurions in each maniple the -one first chosen took the command of the -right division, the other of the left. The -century to the right was considered as the -first century of the maniple, and its commander -took precedence probably with the title -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Prior</i>, his companion to the left being called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Posterior</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">priores</i> in each of the three -divisions of Triarii, Principes, and Hastati -being the ten centurions first chosen. So -long as these divisions were recognised, all -the centurions of the Triarii appear to have -ranked before those of the Principes, and all -the centurions of the Principes before those -of the Hastati. Moreover, since the maniples -were numbered in each division from 1 -to 10, there was probably a regular progression -from the first centurion of the first -maniple down to the second centurion of the -tenth maniple. The first centurion of the -first maniple of the Triarii, originally named -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centurio Primus</i>, and afterwards <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Centurio -Primipili</i>, or simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Primipilus</i>, occupied a -very conspicuous position. He stood next -in rank to the Tribuni militum; he had a -seat in the military council; to his charge -was committed the eagle of the legion, whence -he is sometimes styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aquilifer</i>, and, under -the empire at least, his office was very lucrative. -A series of terms connected with these -arrangements are furnished by the narrative -which Sp. Ligustinus gives of his own career -(Liv. xlii. 34). He thus enumerates the -various steps of his promotion:—“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mihi T. -Quinctius Flamininus <em>decumum ordinem hastatum</em> -adsignavit ... me imperator dignum -judicavit cui <em>primum hastatum prioris centuriae</em> -adsignaret ... a M’. Acilio mihi <em>primus -princeps prioris centuriae</em> est adsignatus ... quater -intra paucos annos <em>primum pilum -duxi</em></span>.” The gradual ascent from the ranks -being to the post of centurion:—1. In the -tenth maniple of the Hastati. 2. In the first -century of the first maniple of the Hastati. -3. In the first century of the first maniple of -the Principes. 4. In the first century of the -first maniple of the Triarii.—But even after -the distinction between Hastati, Principes, -and Triarii was altogether abolished, and -they were all blended together in the cohorts, -the same nomenclature with regard to the -centuries and their commanders was retained, -although it is by no means easy to perceive -how it was applied. That great differences -of rank existed among the centurions is evident -from the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">primores centurionum</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">primi ordines</i> (<em>i.e.</em> chief centurions), as opposed -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inferiores ordines</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">infimi ordines</i>, -and that promotion from a lower to a higher -grade frequently took place, is evident from -many passages in ancient authors. The -election of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">optiones</i>, or lieutenants, by the -centurions, has been already described.</p> - -<p><em>Fourth Period. From the times of the Gracchi -until the downfall of the Republic.</em> After -the times of the Gracchi the following changes -in military affairs may be noticed:—In the -first consulship of Marius the legions were -thrown open to citizens of all grades, without<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span> -distinction of fortune. The whole of the -legionaries were armed and equipped in the -same manner, all being now furnished with -the pilum; and hence we see in Tacitus the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pila</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gladii</i> of the legionaries, opposed to -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hastae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spathae</i> of the auxiliaries. -The legionaries when in battle order were no -longer arranged in three lines, each consisting -of ten maniples, with an open space between -each maniple, but in two lines, each -consisting of five cohorts, with a space between -each cohort. The younger soldiers -were no longer placed in the front, but in -reserve, the van being composed of veterans, -as may be seen from various passages in -Caesar. As a necessary result of the above -arrangements, the distinction between Hastati, -Principes, and Triarii ceased to exist. -These names, as applied to particular classes -of soldiers, are not found in Caesar, in Tacitus, -nor in any writer upon military affairs -after the time of Marius. The Velites disappeared. -The skirmishers, included under -the general term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">levis armatura</i>, consisted -for the most part of foreign mercenaries possessing -peculiar skill in the use of some national -weapon, such as the Balearic slingers, -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funditores</i>), the Cretan archers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sagittarii</i>), -and the Moorish dartmen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jaculatores</i>). -Troops of this description had, it is true, -been employed by the Romans even before -the second Punic war, and were denominated -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">levium armatorum</i> (s. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">armorum</i>) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxilia</i>; but -now the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">levis armatura</i> consisted exclusively -of foreigners, were formed into a regular -corps under their own officers, and no longer -entered into the constitution of the legion. -When operations requiring great activity -were undertaken, such as could not be performed -by mere skirmishers, detachments of -legionaries were lightly equipped, and marched -without baggage, for these special services; -and hence the frequent occurrence of such -phrases as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">expediti</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">expediti milites</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">expeditae -cohortes</i>, and even <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">expeditae legiones</i>. The -cavalry of the legion underwent a change in -every respect analogous to that which took -place in regard of the light-armed troops. It -is evident, from the history of Caesar’s campaigns -in Gaul, that the number of Roman -equites attached to his army was very small, -and that they were chiefly employed as aides-de-camp, -and on confidential missions. The -bulk of Caesar’s cavalry consisted of foreigners, -a fact which becomes strikingly apparent -when we read that Ariovistus having stipulated -that the Roman general should come -to their conference attended by cavalry alone, -Caesar, feeling no confidence in his Gaulish -horse, dismounted them, and supplied their -place by soldiers of the tenth legion. In -like manner they ceased to form part of the -legion, and from this time forward we find -the legions and the cavalry spoken of as -completely distinct from each other. After -the termination of the Social War, when -most of the inhabitants of Italy became -Roman citizens, the ancient distinction between -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Legiones</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii</i> disappeared, -and all who had served as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii</i> became incorporated -with the legiones. An army -during the last years of the republic and -under the earlier emperors consisted of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Romanae -Legiones et Auxilia s. Auxiliares</i>, the -latter term comprehending troops of all -kinds, except the legions. Whenever the -word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socii</i> is applied to troops after the date -of the Social War, it is generally to be regarded -as equivalent to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxiliares</i>. But the -most important change of all was the establishment -of the military <em>profession</em>, and the -distinction now first introduced between the -civilian and the soldier.</p> - -<p><em>Fifth Period. From the establishment of -the empire until the age of the Antonines</em>, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -31–<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 150. Under the empire a regular -army consisted of a certain number of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Legiones</i> -and of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Supplementa</i>, the Supplementa -being again divided into the imperial guards, -which appear under several different forms, -distinguished by different names; and the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Auxilia</i>, which were subdivided into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sociae -Cohortes</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nationes</i>, the latter being for -the most part barbarians. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Legiones</i>, as -already remarked, although still composed of -persons who enjoyed the privileges of Roman -citizens, were now raised almost exclusively -in the provinces. The legion was divided -into 10 cohorts, and each cohort into 6 centuries; -the first cohort, which had the custody -of the eagle, was double the size of the -others, and contained 960 men, the remaining -cohorts contained each 480 men; and -consequently each ordinary century 80 men, -the total strength of the legion being thus -5280 men.—It is during this period that we -first meet with the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vexillarii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vexilla</i>, -which occurs repeatedly in Tacitus. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillarii</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexilla legionum</i>, were those -soldiers who, after having served in the -legion for sixteen years, became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exauctorati</i>, -but continued to serve in company with that -legion, under a vexillum of their own, until -they received their full discharge. The -number attached to each legion was usually -about five or six hundred.—The term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exauctorare</i> -also meant <em>to discharge from military -service</em>, but does not appear to have been in -use before the Augustan period. It signified -both a simple discharge, and a cashiering on -account of some crime. During the later -period of the empire the latter signification<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span> -began almost exclusively to prevail.—As -to the Praetorian troops, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetoriani">Praetoriani</a></span>.—From -the time when the cavalry were separated -from the legion they were formed into -bodies called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">alae</i>, which varied in number -according to circumstances. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alae</i> were -raised in the Roman provinces and consisted, -probably, for the most part, of citizens, or at -least subjects. But in addition to these every -army at this period was attended by squadrons -of light horse composed entirely of barbarians; -and the chief duty performed by -those named above was guiding the pioneers -as they performed their labours in advance -of the army.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes peditatae</i>, were battalions -raised chiefly in the provinces, composed -of Roman citizens, of subjects and -allies, or of citizens, allies, and subjects -indiscriminately. To this class of troops -belonged the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cohortes auxiliares</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxilia -cohortium</i>, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sociorum cohortes</i>, of whom -we read in Tacitus, together with a multitude -of others recorded in inscriptions and named -for the most part from the nations of which -they were composed. These cohorts were -numbered regularly like the legions.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes -Equitatae</i> differed from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Peditatae</i> -in this only, that they were made up of infantry -combined with cavalry.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Classici</i>, -which we may fairly render <em>Marines</em>, were -employed, according to Hyginus, as pioneers. -They corresponded to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Navales Socii</i>, under -the republic, who were always regarded -as inferior to regular soldiers. After the -establishment by Augustus of regular permanent -fleets at Misenum, Ravenna, and on the -coast of Gaul, a large body of men must have -been required to man them, who were sometimes -called upon to serve as ordinary soldiers.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nationes</i> -were battalions composed entirely -of barbarians, or of the most uncivilised -among the subjects of Rome, and were probably -chiefly employed upon outpost duties.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Urbanae -Cohortes.</i> Augustus, in addition -to the praetorian cohorts, instituted a force -of city guards, amounting to 6000 men divided -into four battalions. They are usually -distinguished as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes Urbanae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Urbana -militia</i>, their quarters, which were within -the city, being the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Urbana Castra</i>.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes -Vigilum.</i> Augustus also organised a large -body of night-watchers, whose chief duty was -to act as firemen. They were divided into -seven cohorts, in the proportion of one cohort -to each two <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Regiones</i>, were stationed in -fourteen guardhouses (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excubitoria</i>), and called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cohortes Vigilum</i>. They were commanded -by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praefectus</i>, who was of equestrian -rank.</p> - - -<p id="Exilium">EXĬLĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Exodia">EXŎDĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξόδια</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξ</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁδός</span>) were -old-fashioned and laughable interludes in -verse, inserted in other plays, but chiefly in -the Atellanae. The exodium seems to have -been introduced among the Romans from -Italian Greece; but after its introduction it -became very popular among the Romans, and -continued to be played down to a very late -period.</p> - - -<p id="Exomis">EXŌMIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξωμίς</span>), a dress which had only -a sleeve for the left arm, leaving the right -with the shoulder and a part of the breast -free, and was for this reason called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exomis</i>. -The exomis was usually worn by slaves and -working people.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp69" id="ill171" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill171.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Exomis (Bronze in British Museum).</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Exomosia">EXŌMŎSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξωμοσία</span>). Any Athenian -citizen when called upon to appear as a witness -in a court of justice (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλητεύειν</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκκλητεύειν</span>), -was obliged by law to obey the summons, -unless he could establish by oath that -he was unacquainted with the case in question. -This oath was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξωμοσία</span>, and the -act of taking it was expressed by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξόμνυσθαι</span>. -A person appointed to a public office was at -liberty to decline it, if he could take an oath -that the state of his health or other circumstances -rendered it impossible for him to -fulfil the duties connected with it (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξόμνυσθαι -τὴν ἀρχὴν</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὴν χειροτονίαν</span>): and this oath -was likewise called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξωμοσία</span>, or sometimes -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπωμοσία</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Exostra">EXOSTRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξώστρα</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξωθέω</span>), a theatrical -machine, by means of which things -which had been concealed behind the curtain -on the stage were pushed or rolled forward -from behind it, and thus became visible to the -spectators.</p> - - -<p id="Expeditus">EXPĔDĪTUS is opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impeditus</i>, and -signifies unincumbered with armour or with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span> -baggage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impedimenta</i>). Hence the epithet -was often applied to any portion of the Roman -army, when the necessity for haste, or -the desire to conduct it with the greatest facility -from place to place, made it desirable -to leave behind every weight that could be -spared.</p> - - -<p id="Exploratores">EXPLŌRĀTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Speculatores">Speculatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Exsequiae">EXSĔQUĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Exsilium">EXSĬLĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυγή</span>), banishment. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> -Banishment among the Greek states seldom, -if ever, appears as a punishment appointed -by law for particular offences. We -might, indeed, expect this, for the division of -Greece into a number of independent states -would neither admit of the establishment of -penal colonies, as among us, nor of the various -kinds of exile which we read of under -the Roman emperors. The general term -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυγή</span> (flight) was for the most part applied -in the case of those who, in order to avoid -some punishment or danger, removed from -their own country to another. At Athens it -took place chiefly in cases of homicide, or -murder. An action for wilful murder was -brought before the Areiopagus, and for manslaughter -before the court of the Ephetae. -The accused might, in either case, withdraw -himself (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φεύγειν</span>) before sentence was passed; -but when a criminal evaded the punishment -to which an act of murder would have exposed -him had he remained in his own -land, he was then banished for ever (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φεύγει -ἀειφυγίαν</span>), and not allowed to return home -even when other exiles were restored upon a -general amnesty. Demosthenes says, that -the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φεύγειν</span> was properly applied to the -exile of those who committed murder with -malice aforethought, whereas the term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεθίστασθαι</span> -was used where the act was not intentional. -The property also was confiscated -in the former case, but not in the latter. -When a verdict of manslaughter was returned, -it was usual for the convicted party -to leave his country by a certain road, and -to remain in exile till he induced some one -of the relatives of the slain man to take compassion -on him. We are not informed what -were the consequences if the relatives of the -slain man refused to make a reconciliation; -supposing that there was no compulsion, it -is reasonable to conclude that the exile was -allowed to return after a fixed time. Plato, -who is believed to have copied many of his -laws from the constitution of Athens, fixes -the period of banishment for manslaughter at -one year.—Under <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυγή</span>, or banishment, as a -general term, is comprehended <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ostracism</i>, (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀστρακισμός</span>). -Those that were ostracised did -not lose their property, and the time, as well -as place of their banishment, was fixed. -This ostracism is supposed by some to have -been instituted by Cleisthenes, after the expulsion -of the Peisistratidae; its nature and -object are thus explained by Aristotle:—“Democratical -states (he observes) used to -ostracise, and remove from the city for a definite -time, those who appeared to be preeminent -above their fellow-citizens, by reason -of their wealth, the number of their -friends, or any other means of influence.” -Ostracism, therefore, was not a punishment -for any crime, but rather a precautionary removal -of those who possessed sufficient power -in the state to excite either envy or fear. -Thus Plutarch says, it was a good-natured -way of allaying envy by the humiliation of -superior dignity and power. The manner of -effecting it at Athens was as follows:—A -space in the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agora</i> was enclosed by barriers, -with ten entrances for the ten tribes. By -these the tribesmen entered, each with his -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostracon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄστρακον</span>), or piece of tile (whence -the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostracism</i>), on which was written -the name of the individual whom he wished -to be ostracised. The nine archons and the -senate, <em>i.e.</em> the presidents of that body, superintended -the proceedings, and the party -who had the greatest number of votes against -him, supposing that this number amounted -to 6000, was obliged to withdraw (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεταστῆναι</span>) -from the city within ten days; if the -number of votes did not amount to 6000, nothing -was done. Some of the most distinguished -men at Athens were removed by -ostracism, but recalled when the city found -their services indispensable. Among these -were Themistocles, Aristeides, and Cimon, son -of Miltiades. The last person against whom it -was used at Athens was Hyperbolus, a demagogue -of low birth and character; but the -Athenians thought their own dignity compromised, -and ostracism degraded by such an -application of it, and accordingly discontinued -the practice.—From the ostracism of Athens -was copied the <em>Petalism</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεταλισμός</span>) of the -Syracusans, so called from the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέταλον</span>, or -leaf of the olive, on which was written the -name of the person whom they wished to remove -from the city. The removal, however, -was only for five years; a sufficient time, as -they thought, to humble the pride and hopes -of the exile. In connection with petalism it -may be remarked, that if any one were -falsely registered in a demus, or ward, at -Athens, his expulsion was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκφυλλοφορία</span>, -from the votes being given by leaves. -Besides those exiled by law, or ostracised, -there was frequently a great number of political -exiles in Greece; men who, having -distinguished themselves as the leaders of -one party, were expelled, or obliged to remove<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span> -from their native city, when the opposite -faction became predominant. They are -spoken of as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ φεύγοντες</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ ἐκπεσόντες</span>, and -as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ κατελθόντες</span> after their return (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ κάθοδος</span>) -the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάγειν</span> being applied to those who -were instrumental in effecting it.—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> -Banishment as a punishment did not -exist in the old Roman state. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquae et -ignis interdictio</i>, which we so frequently read -of in the republican period, was in reality -not banishment, for it was only a ban, pronounced -by the people (by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex</i>), or by a -magistrate in a criminal court, by which a -person was deprived of water and of fire; -that is, of the first necessaries of life; and -its effect was to incapacitate a person from -exercising the rights of a citizen; in other -words, to deprive him of his citizenship. -Such a person might, if he chose, remain at -Rome, and submit to the penalty of being an -outcast, incapacitated from doing any legal -act, and liable to be killed by any one with -impunity. To avoid these dangers, a person -suffering under such an interdict would naturally -withdraw from Rome, and in the -earlier republican period, if he withdrew to -a state between which and Rome isopolitical -relations existed, he would become a citizen -of that state. This right was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus -exsulandi</i> with reference to the state to which -the person came; with respect to his own -state, which he left, he was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsul</i>, and his -condition was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsilium</i>; and with respect to -the state which he entered, he was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inquilinus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> -In the same way a citizen of such a -state had a right of going into exsilium at -Rome; and at Rome he might attach himself -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">applicare se</i>) to a quasi-patronus. Exsilium, -instead of being a punishment, would thus -rather be a mode of evading punishment; -but towards the end of the republic the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquae et ignis interdictio</i> became a regular -banishment, since the sentence usually specified -certain limits, within which a person was -interdicted from fire and water. Thus Cicero -was interdicted from fire and water -within 400 miles from the city. The punishment -was inflicted for various crimes, as -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vis publica</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peculatus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">veneficium</i>, &c. Under -the empire there were two kinds of exsilium; -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsilium</i> properly so called, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegatio</i>; -the great distinction between the two -was, that the former deprived a person of his -citizenship, while the latter did not. The -distinction between <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsilium</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegatio</i> -existed under the republic. Ovid also describes -himself, not as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsul</i>, which he considers -a term of reproach, but as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegatus</i>. -The chief species of exsilium was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deportatio -in insulam</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deportatio</i> simply, which -was introduced under the emperors in place -of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquae et ignis interdictio</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegatio</i> -merely confined the person within, or -excluded him from particular places. In the -latter case it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fuga lata</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fuga libera</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberum exsilium</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegatus</i> -went into banishment; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deportatus</i> was -conducted to his place of banishment, sometimes -in chains.</p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> This word appears, by its termination <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inus</i>, to denote a -person who was one of a class, like the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertinus</i>. -The prefix <em>in</em> appears to be the correlative of <em>ex</em> in <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsul</i>, -and the remaining part <em>quil</em> is probably related to <em>col</em> in -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">incola</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colonus</i>.</p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Extispex">EXTISPEX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Haruspices">Haruspex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Extraordinarii">EXTRĂORDĬNĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_167">p. 167</a>.]</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="F_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">F</span></h2> - -<p id="Fabri" class="drop-capy">FABRI are workmen who make anything -out of hard materials, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabri tignarii</i>, -carpenters, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabri aerarii</i>, smiths, &c. The different -trades were divided by Numa into nine -collegia, which correspond to our companies -or guilds. In the constitution of Servius -Tullius, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabri tignarii</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabri -aerarii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ferrarii</i> were formed into two centuries, -which were called the centuriae <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabrum</i> -(not <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabrorum</i>). They did not belong -to any of the five classes into which Servius -divided the people; but the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabri tign.</i> probably -voted with the first class, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fabri -aer.</i> with the second. The fabri in the army -were under the command of an officer called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefectus fabrûm</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Fabula">FĂBŬLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comoedia">Comoedia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Falarica">FĂLĀRĬCA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Falsum">FALSUM. The oldest legislative provision -at Rome against Falsum was that of the -Twelve Tables against false testimony. The -next legislation on Falsum, so far as we -know, was a Lex Cornelia, passed in the time -of the Dictator Sulla against forging, concealing, -destroying, or committing any other -fraudulent act respecting a will or other -instrument. The offence was a <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Crimen -Publicum</span>, and, under the emperors, the punishment -was <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">deportatio in insulam for the -“honestiores</span>;” and the mines or crucifixion -for the “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">humiliores</span>.”</p> - - -<p id="Falx">FALX, <em>dim.</em> FALCŬLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅρπη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρέπανον</span>, -<em>poet.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρεπάνη</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρεπάνιον</span>), a sickle; a -scythe; a pruning-knife; a falchion, &c. -As <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Culter</i> denoted a knife with one straight -edge, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">falx</i> signified any similar instrument, -the single edge of which was curved. Some -of its forms are given in the annexed cut. -One represents Perseus with the falchion in -his right hand, and the head of Medusa in -his left. The two smaller figures are heads<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span> -of Saturn with the falx in its original form; -and the fourth represents the same divinity -at full length.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp73" id="ill174" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill174.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Falx. (From ancient Cameos.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Familia">FĂMĬLĬA. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i> contains -the same element as the word famulus, a -slave, and the verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">famulari</i>. In its widest -sense it signifies the totality of that which belongs -to a Roman citizen who is sui juris, -and therefore a paterfamilias. Thus, in certain -cases of testamentary disposition, the -word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i> is explained by the equivalent -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patrimonium</i>; and the person who received -the familia from the testator was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familiae -emptor</i>. But the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i> is -sometimes limited to signify “persons,” that -is, all those who are in the power of a paterfamilias, -such as his sons (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">filii-familias</i>), -daughters, grandchildren, and slaves. Sometimes -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i> is used to signify the slaves belonging -to a person, or to a body of persons -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">societas</i>).</p> - - -<p id="Fanum">FĀNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fartor">FARTOR, a slave who fattened poultry.</p> - - -<p id="Fasces">FASCES, rods bound in the form of a -bundle, and containing an axe (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">securis</i>) in -the middle, the iron of which projected from -them. They were usually made of birch, -but sometimes also of the twigs of the elm. -They are said to have been derived from Vetulonia, -a city of Etruria. Twelve were carried -before each of the kings by twelve lictors; -and on the expulsion of the Tarquins, -one of the consuls was preceded by twelve -lictors with the fasces and secures, and the -other by the same number of lictors with the -fasces only, or, according to some accounts, -with crowns around them. But P. Valerius -Publicola, who gave to the people the right -of provocatio, ordained that the secures -should be removed from the fasces, and allowed -only one of the consuls to be preceded -by the lictors while they were at Rome. -The other consul was attended only by a single -accensus [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Accensus">Accensus</a></span>]. When they were -out of Rome, and at the head of the army, each -of the consuls retained the axe in the fasces, -and was preceded by his own lictors, as before -the time of Valerius. The fasces and -secures were, however, carried before the -dictator even in the city, and he was also -preceded by twenty-four lictors, and the magister -equitum by six. The praetors were -preceded in the city by two lictors with the -fasces; but out of Rome and at the head of -an army by six, with the fasces and secures. -The tribunes of the plebs, the aediles and -quaestors, had no lictors in the city, but in -the provinces the quaestors were permitted to -have the fasces. The lictors carried the -fasces on their shoulders; and when an inferior -magistrate met one who was higher in -rank, the lictors lowered their fasces to him. -This was done by Valerius Publicola, when -he addressed the people, and hence came -the expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">submittere fasces</i> in the sense -of to yield, to confess one’s self inferior to -another. When a general had gained a victory, -and had been saluted as Imperator by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span> -his soldiers, he usually crowned his fasces -with laurel.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp41" id="ill175" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill175.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fasces. (From the original in the Capitol at Rome.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Fascia">FASCĬA, a band or fillet of cloth, worn, -(1) round the head as an ensign of royalty;—(2) -by women over the breast;—(3) round -the legs and feet, especially by women. -When the toga had fallen into disuse, and -the shorter pallium was worn in its stead, so -that the legs were naked and exposed, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasciae -crurales</i> became common even with the male -sex.</p> - - -<p id="Fascinum">FASCĬNUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασκανία</span>), fascination, enchantment. -The belief that some persons had -the power of injuring others by their looks, -was prevalent among the Greeks and Romans. -The evil eye was supposed to injure -children particularly, but sometimes cattle -also; whence Virgil (<cite>Ecl.</cite> iii. 103) says,</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Nescio quis teneros oculos mihi fascinat agnum.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Various amulets were used to avert its influence.</p> - - -<p id="Fasti">FASTI. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fas</i> signifies <em>divine law</em>: the epithet -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fastus</i> is properly applied to anything -in accordance with divine law; and hence -those days upon which legal business might, -without impiety (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sine piaculo</i>), be transacted -before the praetor, were technically denominated -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti dies</i>, i.e. <em>lawful days</em>. The sacred -books in which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti dies</i> of the year -were marked were themselves denominated -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti</i>; the term, however, was employed to -denote registers of various descriptions. Of -these the two principal are the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti Sacri</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti Kalendares</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti Annales</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti -Historici</i>.—I. <span class="smcap">Fasti Sacri</span> or <span class="smcap">Kalendares</span>. -For nearly four centuries and a half after the -foundation of the city a knowledge of the -calendar was possessed exclusively by the -priests. One of the pontifices regularly proclaimed -the appearance of the new moon, -and at the same time announced the period -which would intervene between the Kalends -and the Nones. On the Nones the country -people assembled for the purpose of learning -from the rex sacrorum the various festivals -to be celebrated during the month, and the -days on which they would fall. In like -manner all who wished to go to law were -obliged to inquire of the privileged few on -what day they might bring their suit, and -received the reply as if from the lips of an -astrologer. The whole of this lore, so long -a source of power and profit, and therefore -jealously enveloped in mystery, was at length -made public by a certain Cn. Flavius, scribe -to App. Claudius; who, having gained access -to the pontifical books, copied out all the -requisite information, and exhibited it in the -forum for the use of the people at large. -From this time forward such tables became -common, and were known by the name of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti</i>. They usually contained an enumeration -of the months and days of the year; the -Nones, Ides, Nundinae, Dies Fasti, Nefasti, -Comitiales, Atri, &c., together with the different -festivals, were marked in their proper -places: astronomical observations on the -risings and settings of the fixed stars, and the -commencement of the seasons were frequently -inserted. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>; <a href="#Dies">Dies</a>.</span>]—II. <span class="smcap">Fasti -Annales</span> or <span class="smcap">Historici</span>. Chronicles such as -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Annales Maximi</i>, containing the names of -the chief magistrates for each year, and a -short account of the most remarkable events -noted down opposite to the days on which -they occurred, were, from the resemblance -which they bore in arrangement to the -sacred calendars, denominated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti</i>; and -hence this word is used, especially by the -poets, in the general sense of <em>historical records</em>. -In prose writers <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti</i> is commonly -employed as the technical term for the registers -of consuls, dictators, censors, and other -magistrates, which formed part of the public -archives. Some most important <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasti</i> belonging -to this class, executed probably at the -beginning of the reign of Tiberius, have been -partially preserved, and are deposited in the -Capitol in Rome, where they are known by -the name of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fasti Capitolini</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Fastigium">FASTĬGĬUM. An ancient Greek or Roman<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span> -temple, of rectangular construction, is -terminated at its upper extremity by a triangular -figure, both in front and rear, which -rests upon the cornice of the entablature as -a base, and has its sides formed by the cornices -which terminate the roof. The whole -of this triangle above the trabeation is implied -in the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fastigium</i>, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀέτωμα</span> -by the Greeks, pediment by our architects. -The dwelling-houses of the Romans had no -gable ends; consequently when the word is -applied to them, it is not in its strictly technical -sense, but designates the roof simply, -and is to be understood of one which rises -to an apex, as distinguished from a flat one. -The fastigium, properly so called, was appropriated -to the temples of the gods; therefore, -when the Romans began to bestow divine -honours upon Julius Caesar, amongst -other privileges which they decreed to him, -was the liberty of erecting a fastigium to his -house, that is, a portico and pediment towards -the street, like that of a temple.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp71" id="ill176" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill176.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fastigium. (From a Coin.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Fax">FAX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φανός</span>), a torch. As the principal -use of torches was to give light to those who -went abroad after sunset, the portion of the -Roman day immediately succeeding sun-set -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fax</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prima fax</i>. The use of -torches after sun-set, and the practice of celebrating -marriages at that time, probably led -to the consideration of the torch as one of -the necessary accompaniments and symbols -of marriage. Among the Romans the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fax -nuptialis</i> having been lighted at the parental -hearth, was carried before the bride by a boy -whose parents were alive. The torch was also -carried at funerals (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fax sepulchralis</i>), both because -these were often nocturnal ceremonies, -and because it was used to set fire to the pile.</p> - - -<p id="Feciales">FĒCIĀLES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fetiales">Fetiales</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Feminalia">FĔMĬNĀLĬA, worn in winter by Augustus -Caesar, who was very susceptible of cold. It -seems probable that they were breeches resembling -ours.</p> - - -<p id="Fenestra">FĔNESTRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fenus">FĒNUS or FOENUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόκος</span>), interest of -money.—(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> At Athens there was -no restriction upon the rate of interest. A -rate might be expressed or represented in -two different ways: (1.) by the number of -oboli or drachmae paid by the <em>month</em> for every -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mina</i>; (2) by the part of the principal (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ -ἀρχαῖον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεφάλαιον</span>) paid as interest either -annually or for the whole period of the loan. -According to the former method, which was -generally used when money was lent upon -real security (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόκοι ἔγγυοι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγγειοι</span>), different -rates were expressed as follows:—10 -per cent. by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ πέντε ὀβολοῖς</span>, <em>i.e.</em> 5 oboli per -month for every mina, or 60 oboli a year = -10 drachmae = <sup>1</sup>/<sub>10</sub> of a mina. Similarly,</p> - -<table class="autotable" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">12 per cent.</td> -<td class="tdl">by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ δραχμῇ</span></td> -<td class="tdc">per month.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">16 per cent.</td> -<td class="tdl"> ” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπ’ ὀκτὼ ὀβολοῖς</span></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">18 per cent.</td> -<td class="tdl"> ” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπ’ ἐννέα ὀβολοῖς</span></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">24 per cent.</td> -<td class="tdl"> ” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ δυσὶ δραχμαῖς</span></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">36 per cent.</td> -<td class="tdl"> ” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ τρισὶ δρακμαῖς</span></td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> 5 per cent.</td> -<td class="tdl"> ” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ τρίτῳ ἡμιοβολίῳ</span>,</td> -<td class="tdc">probably.</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>Another method was generally adopted in -cases of bottomry (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ναυτικόν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόκοι ναυτικοί</span>, -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔκδοσις</span>), where money was lent upon -the ship’s cargo or freightage (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ τῷ ναύλῳ</span>), -or the ship itself, for a specified time, commonly -that of the voyage. By this method -the following rates were thus represented:—10 -per cent. by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόκοι ἐπιδέκατοι</span>, i.e. interest -at the rate of a tenth; 12½, 16⅔, 20, 33⅓, -by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόκοι ἐπόγδοοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφεκτοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίπεμπτοι</span>, and -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίτριτοι</span>, respectively. The usual rates of -interest at Athens about the time of Demosthenes -varied from 12 to 18 per cent.—(2) -<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> Towards the close of the republic, -and also under the emperors, 12 per cent. -was the legal rate of interest. The interest -became due on the first of every month: -hence the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tristes</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">celeres calendae</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calendarium</i>, the latter meaning a debt-book -or book of accounts. The rate of interest -was expressed in the time of Cicero, and -afterwards, by means of the as and its divisions, -according to the following table:—</p> - - -<table class="autotable" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Asses usurae, or one as per<br />month for the use of one<br />hundred</td> -<td class="tdr">= 12</td> -<td class="tdc">per cent.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Deunces usurae</td> -<td class="tdr">11</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Dextantes</td> -<td class="tdl">” <span class="pad6"> </span></td> -<td class="tdr">10</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Dodrantes</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdr">9</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Besses</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdr">8</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Septunces</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdr">7</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Semisses</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdr">6</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Quincunces</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdr">5</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Trientes</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdr">4</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Quadrantes</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdr">3</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sextantes</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdr">2</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Unciae</td> -<td class="tdl">”</td> -<td class="tdr">1</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>Instead of the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">asses usurae</i>, a synonyme -was used, viz. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centesimae usurae</i>, inasmuch<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span> -as at this rate of interest there was -paid in a hundred months a sum equal to the -whole principal. Hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">binae centesimae</i> = -24 per cent., and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quaternae centesimae</i> = -48 per cent. The monthly rate of the centesimae -was of foreign origin, and first -adopted at Rome in the time of Sulla. The -old <em>yearly</em> rate established by the Twelve -Tables (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 450) was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unciarium fenus</i>. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uncia</i> was the twelfth part of the as, -and since the full (12 oz.) copper coinage was -still in use at Rome when the Twelve Tables -became law, the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unciarium</i> fenus -would be a natural expression for interest of -one ounce in the pound; <em>i.e.</em> a twelfth part -of the sum borrowed, or 8⅓ per cent., not per -month, but per year. This rate, if calculated -for the old Roman year of ten months, would -give 10 per cent. for the civil year of twelve -months, which was in common use in the -time of the decemvirs. If a debtor could -not pay the principal and interest at the end -of the year, he used to borrow money from a -fresh creditor, to pay off his old debt. This -proceeding was very frequent, and called a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">versura</i>. It amounted to little short of paying -compound interest, or an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anatocismus -anniversarius</i>, another phrase for which was -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">usurae renovatae</i>; <em>e.g.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centesimae renovatae</i> -is 12 per cent. compound interest, to which -Cicero opposes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centesimae perpetuo fenore</i> = -12 per cent. simple interest. The following -phrases are of common occurrence in connection -with borrowing and lending money -at interest:—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pecuniam apud aliquem collocare</i>, -to lend money at interest; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relegere</i>, to -call it in again; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavere</i>, to give security for -it; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opponere</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opponere pignori</i>, to give as a -pledge or mortgage. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen</i> is -also of extensive use in money transactions. -Properly it denoted the name of a debtor, -registered in a banker’s or any other account-book: -hence it came to signify the articles of -an account, a debtor, or a debt itself. Thus -we have <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bonum nomen</i>, a good debt; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomina -facere</i>, to lend monies, and also to borrow -money.</p> - - -<p id="Feralia">FĒRĀLIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_191">p. 191</a>, a.]</p> - - -<p id="Ferculum">FERCŬLUM (from <em>fer-o</em>) is applied to any -kind of tray or platform used for carrying -anything. Thus it is used to signify the -tray or frame on which several dishes were -brought in at once at dinner; and hence -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fercula</i> came to mean the number of courses -at dinner, and even the dishes themselves. -The ferculum was also used for carrying the -images of the gods in the procession of the -circus, the ashes of the dead in a funeral, -and the spoils in a triumph; in all which -cases it appears to have been carried on the -shoulders or in the hands of men.</p> - - -<p id="Feretrum">FĔRĔTRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Feriae">FĒRĬAE, holidays, were, generally speaking, -days or seasons during which free-born -Romans suspended their political transactions -and their law-suits, and during which slaves -enjoyed a cessation from labour. All feriae -were thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies nefasti</i>. The feriae included -all days consecrated to any deity; consequently -all days on which public festivals -were celebrated were feriae or dies feriati. -But some of them, such as the feria vindemialis, -and the feriae aestivae, seem to have -had no direct connection with the worship -of the gods. The nundinae, however, during -the time of the kings and the early period of -the republic, were feriae only for the populus, -and days of business for the plebeians, -until, by the Hortensian law, they became -fasti or days of business for both orders. All -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriae publicae</i>, <em>i.e.</em> those which were observed -by the whole nation, were divided -into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriae stativae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriae conceptivae</i>, and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feriae imperativae</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Feriae stativae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">statae</i> -were those which were held regularly, and -on certain days marked in the calendar. To -these belonged some of the great festivals, -such as the Agonalia, Carmentalia, Lupercalia, -&c. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Feriae conceptivae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conceptae</i> -were held every year, but not on certain or -fixed days, the time being every year appointed -by the magistrates or priests. Among -these we may mention the feriae Latinae, -feriae Sementivae, Paganalia, and Compitalia. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Feriae imperativae</i> were those which -were held on certain emergencies at the -command of the consuls, praetors, or of a -dictator. The manner in which all public -feriae were kept bears great analogy to the -observance of our Sunday. The people visited -the temples of the gods, and offered up their -prayers and sacrifices. The most serious and -solemn seem to have been the feriae imperativae, -but all the others were generally attended -with rejoicings and feasting. All -kinds of business, especially law-suits, were -suspended during the public feriae, as they -were considered to pollute the sacred season. -The most important of the holidays designated -by the name of feriae, are the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Feriae Latinae</i>, -or simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latinae</i> (the original name was -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latiar</i>), which were said to have been instituted -by the last Tarquin in commemoration -of the alliance between the Romans and Latins. -This festival, however, was of much -higher antiquity; it was a panegyris, or a -festival, of the whole Latin nation, celebrated -on the Alban mount; and all that the last -Tarquin did was to convert the original Latin -festival into a Roman one, and to make -it the means of hallowing and cementing the -alliance between the two nations. Before<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span> -the union, the chief magistrate of the Latins -had presided at the festival; but Tarquin -now assumed this distinction, which subsequently, -after the destruction of the Latin -commonwealth, remained with the chief -magistrates of Rome. The object of this -panegyris on the Alban mount was the worship -of Jupiter Latiaris, and, at least as long -as the Latin republic existed, to deliberate -and decide on matters of the confederacy, -and to settle any disputes which might have -arisen among its members. As the feriae -Latinae belonged to the conceptivae, the -time of their celebration greatly depended on -the state of affairs at Rome, since the consuls -were never allowed to take the field until -they had held the Latinae. This festival -was a great engine in the hands of the magistrates, -who had to appoint the time of its -celebration (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">concipere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edicere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">indicere -Latinas</i>); as it might often suit their purpose -either to hold the festival at a particular -time or to delay it, in order to prevent or -delay such public proceedings as seemed -injurious and pernicious, and to promote -others to which they were favourably disposed. -The festival lasted six days.</p> - - -<p id="Fescennina">FESCENNINA, scil. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carmina</i>, one of the -earliest kinds of Italian poetry, which consisted -of rude and jocose verses, or rather -dialogues of extempore verses, in which the -merry country folks assailed and ridiculed -one another. This amusement seems originally -to have been peculiar to country people, -but it was also introduced into the towns -of Italy and at Rome, where we find it mentioned -as one of those in which young people -indulged at weddings.</p> - - -<p id="Fetiales">FĒTĬĀLES or FĒCĬĀLES, a college of -Roman priests, who acted as the guardians -of the public faith. It was their province, -when any dispute arose with a foreign state, -to demand satisfaction, to determine the circumstances -under which hostilities might be -commenced, to perform the various religious -rites attendant on the solemn declaration of -war, and to preside at the formal ratification -of peace. When an injury had been received -from a foreign state, four fetiales were deputed -to seek redress, who again elected one -of their number to act as their representative. -This individual was styled the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pater patratus -populi Romani</i>. A fillet of white wool was -bound round his head, together with a wreath -of sacred herbs gathered within the inclosure -of the Capitoline hill (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Verbenae</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sagmina</i>), -whence he was sometimes named <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Verbenarius</i>. -Thus equipped, he proceeded to the confines -of the offending tribe, where he halted, and -addressed a prayer to Jupiter, calling the -god to witness, with heavy imprecations, that -his complaints were well founded and his -demands reasonable. He then crossed the -border, and the same form was repeated in -nearly the same words to the first native of -the soil whom he might chance to meet; -again a third time to the sentinel or any -citizen whom he encountered at the gate of -the chief town; and a fourth time to the -magistrates in the forum in presence of the -people. If a satisfactory answer was not -returned within thirty days, after publicly -delivering a solemn denunciation of what -might be expected to follow, he returned to -Rome, and, accompanied by the rest of the -fetiales, made a report of his mission to the -senate. If the people, as well as the senate, -decided for war, the pater patratus again set -forth to the border of the hostile territory, -and launched a spear tipped with iron, or -charred at the extremity and smeared with -blood (emblematic doubtless of fire and -slaughter), across the boundary, pronouncing -at the same time a solemn declaration of war. -The demand for redress, and the proclamation -of hostilities, were alike termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clarigatio</i>. -The whole system is said to have -been borrowed from the Aequicolae or the -Ardeates, and similar usages undoubtedly -prevailed among the Latin states. The number -of the fetiales cannot be ascertained with -certainty, but they were probably twenty. -They were originally selected from the most -noble families, and their office lasted for life.</p> - - -<p id="Fibula">FĪBŬLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περόνη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόρπη</span>), a brooch or -buckle, consisting of a pin (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acus</i>), and of a -curved portion furnished with a hook (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλείς</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill178" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill178.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fibulae, brooches or buckles. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Fictile">FICTĬLE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεράμος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεράμιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄστρακον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀστράκινον</span>), -earthenware, a vessel or other article -made of baked clay. The instruments -used in pottery (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ars figulina</i>) were the following:—1. -The wheel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροχός</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">orbis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rota</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rota figularis</i>). 2. Pieces of wood or bone, -which the potter (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεραμεύς</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">figulus</i>) held in -his right hand, and applied occasionally to -the surface of the clay during its revolution. -3. <span id="Forma">Moulds</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">formae</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τύποι</span>), used either to -decorate with figures in relief vessels which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span> -had been thrown on the wheel, or to produce -foliage, animals, or any other appearances, -on Antefixa, on cornices of terra cotta, and -imitative or ornamental pottery of all other -kinds, in which the wheel was not adapted -to give the first shape. 4. Gravers or scalpels, -used by skilful modellers in giving to -figures of all kinds a more perfect finish and -a higher relief than could be produced by the -use of moulds. The earth used for making -pottery (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεράμικη γῆ</span>), was commonly red, and -often of so lively a colour as to resemble -coral. Other pottery is brown or cream-coloured, -and sometimes white. Some of the -ancient earthenware is throughout its substance -black, an effect produced by mixing the -earth with comminuted asphaltum (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gagates</i>), -or with some other bituminous or oleaginous -substance. It appears also that asphaltum, -with pitch and tar, both mineral and vegetable, -was used to cover the surface like a -varnish. The best pottery was manufactured -at Athens, in the island of Samos, and in -Etruria. A quarter of Athens was called -Cerameicus, because it was inhabited by -potters. Vessels, before being sent for the -last time to the furnace, were sometimes immersed -in that finely prepared mud, now -technically called “slip,” by which the surface -is both smoothed and glazed, and at the -same time receives a fresh colour. Ruddle, -or red ochre (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίλτος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rubrica</i>), was principally -employed for this purpose. To produce -a further variety in the paintings upon vases -the artists employed a few brightly coloured -earths and metallic ores. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fideicommissum">FĬDEICOMMISSUM may be defined to be -a testamentary disposition, by which a person -who gives a thing to another imposes on him -the obligation of transferring it to a third -person. The obligation was not created by -words of legal binding force (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civilia verba</i>), -but by words of request (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">precativè</i>), such as -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fideicommitto</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peto</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">volo dari</i>, and the like; -which were the operative words (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verba utilia</i>).</p> - - -<p id="Fiducia">FĪDŪCĬA. If a man transferred his property -to another, on condition that it should -be restored to him, this contract was called -Fiducia, and the person to whom the property -was so transferred was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fiduciam -accipere</i>. The trustee was bound to discharge -his trust by restoring the thing: if he did -not, he was liable to an actio fiduciae or fiduciaria, -which was an actio bonae fidei. If -the trustee was condemned in the action, the -consequence was infamia.</p> - - -<p id="Fiscus">FISCUS, the imperial treasury. Under -the republic the public treasury was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aerarium</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a>.</span>] On the establishment -of the imperial power, there was a -division of the provinces between the senate, -as the representative of the old republic, and -the Caesar or emperor; and there was consequently -a division of the most important -branches of public income and expenditure. -The property of the senate retained the name -of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aerarium</i>, and that of the Caesar, as such, -received the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fiscus</i>. The private -property of the Caesar (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">res privata principis, -ratio Caesaris</i>) was quite distinct from that -of the fiscus. The word fiscus signified a -wicker-basket, or pannier, in which the Romans -were accustomed to keep and carry -about large sums of money; and hence fiscus -came to signify any person’s treasure or -money chest. The importance of the imperial -fiscus soon led to the practice of appropriating -the name to that property which the -Caesar claimed as Caesar, and the word fiscus, -without any adjunct, was used in this -sense. Ultimately the word came to signify -generally the property of the state, the Caesar -having concentrated in himself all the sovereign -power, and thus the word fiscus finally -had the same signification as aerarium in the -republican period. Various officers, as Procuratores, -Advocati, Patroni, and Praefecti, -were employed in the administration of the -fiscus.</p> - - -<p id="Flabellum">FLĀBELLUM, <em>dim.</em> FLĀBELLŬLUM, -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥιπίς</span>), a fan. Fans were of elegant forms, -of delicate colours, and sometimes of costly -and splendid materials, such as peacock’s -feathers; but they were stiff and of a fixed -shape, and were held by female slaves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flabelliferae</i>), -by beautiful boys, or by eunuchs, -whose duty it was to wave them so as to -produce a cooling breeze. Besides separate -feathers the ancient fan was sometimes made -of linen, extended upon a light frame.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill179" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill179.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Flagellum, Scourge. (From a Bas-relief at Rome, and -from a Coin.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Flagrum">FLAGRUM, <em>dim.</em> FLĂGELLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάστιξ</span>), -a whip, a scourge, to the handle of which -was fixed a lash made of cords (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funibus</i>), or -thongs of leather (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">loris</i>), especially thongs -made from the ox’s hide (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bubulis exuviis</i>). -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flagellum</i> properly so called was a dreadful<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span> -instrument, and is thus put in opposition -to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutica</i>, which was a simple whip. -(Hor. <cite>Sat.</cite> i. 3. 119.) Cicero in like manner -contrasts the severe <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flagella</i> with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">virgae</i>. -The flagellum was chiefly used in the punishment -of slaves. It was knotted with bones -or heavy indented circles of bronze or terminated -by hooks, in which case it was aptly -denominated a <em>scorpion</em>. We likewise find -that some gladiators fought with the flagella, -as in the coin here introduced.</p> - - -<p id="Flamen">FLĀMEN, the name for any Roman priest -who was devoted to the service of one particular -god, and who received a distinguishing -epithet from the deity to whom he ministered. -The most dignified were those attached to -Dijovis, Mars, and Quirinus, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flamen Dialis</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flamen Martialis</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flamen Quirinalis</i>. -They are said to have been established -by Numa. The number was eventually increased -to fifteen: the three original flamens -were always chosen from among the patricians, -and styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Majores</i>; the rest from the -plebeians, with the epithet <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Minores</i>. Among -the minores, we read of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flamen Floralis</i>, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flamen Carmentalis</i>, &c. The flamens -were elected originally at the Comitia Curiata, -but it is conjectured that subsequently to the -passing of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Domitia</i> (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 104) they -were chosen in the Comitia Tributa. After -being nominated by the people, they were -received (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capti</i>) and installed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inaugurabantur</i>) -by the pontifex maximus, to whose -authority they were at all times subject. -The office was understood to last for life; -but a flamen might be compelled to resign -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flaminio abire</i>) for a breach of duty, or even -on account of the occurrence of an ill-omened -accident while discharging his functions. -Their characteristic dress was the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apex</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apex">Apex</a></span>], the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">laena</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Laena">Laena</a></span>], and a laurel -wreath. The most distinguished of all the -flamens was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dialis</i>; the lowest in rank -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pomonalis</i>. The former enjoyed many -peculiar honours. When a vacancy occurred, -three persons of patrician descent, whose -parents had been married according to the -ceremonies of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">confarreatio</i>, were nominated -by the Comitia, one of whom was selected -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">captus</i>), and consecrated (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inaugurabatur</i>) by -the pontifex maximus. From that time -forward he was emancipated from the control -of his father, and became sui juris. He -alone of all priests wore the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">albogalerus</i>; he -had a right to a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lictor</i>, to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga praetexta</i>, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella curulis</i>, and to a seat in the senate -in virtue of his office. If one in bonds took -refuge in his house, his chains were immediately -struck off. To counterbalance these -high honours, the dialis was subjected to a -multitude of restrictions. It was unlawful -for him to be out of the city for a single -night; and he was forbidden to sleep out of -his own bed for three nights consecutively. -He might not mount upon horseback, nor -even touch a horse, nor look upon an army -marshalled without the pomoerium, and -hence was seldom elected to the consulship. -The object of the above rules was manifestly -to make him literally <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jovi adsiduum sacerdotem</i>; -to compel constant attention to the -duties of the priesthood. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Flaminica</i> was -the name given to the wife of the dialis. He -was required to wed a virgin according to -the ceremonies of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">confarreatio</i>, which regulation -also applied to the two other flamines -majores; and he could not marry a second -time. Hence, since her assistance was essential -in the performance of certain ordinances, -a divorce was not permitted, and if she died, -the dialis was obliged to resign. The municipal -towns also had their flamens. Thus -the celebrated affray between Milo and Clodius -took place while the former was on his -way to Lanuvium, of which he was then -dictator, to declare the election of a flamen -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad flaminem prodendum</i>).</p> - - -<p id="Flammeum">FLAMMEUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Floralia">FLŌRĀLĬA, or Florales Ludi, a festival -which was celebrated at Rome in honour of -Flora or Chloris, during five days, beginning -on the 28th of April and ending on the 2nd -of May. It was said to have been instituted -at Rome in 238 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, at the command of an -oracle in the Sibylline books, for the purpose -of obtaining from the goddess the protection -of the blossoms. The celebration was, as -usual, conducted by the aediles, and was carried -on with excessive merriment, drinking, -and lascivious games.</p> - - -<p id="Focale">FŌCĀLĔ, a covering for the ears and -neck, made of wool, and worn by infirm, and -delicate persons.</p> - - -<p id="Focus">FŎCUS, <em>dim.</em> FOCŬLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-180" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'εστια'"> -ἑστία</ins></span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐσχάρα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐσχαρίς</span>), -a fire-place; a hearth; a brazier. The -fire-place possessed a sacred character, and was -dedicated among the Romans to the Lares of -each family. Moveable hearths, or braziers, -properly called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foculi</i>, were frequently used.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill180" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill180.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Foculus, Moveable Hearth. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span></p> - - -<p id="Foederatae">FOEDĔRĀTAE CĪVĬTĀTES, FOEDĔRĀTI, -SŎCĬI. In the seventh century of -Rome these names expressed those Italian -states which were connected with Rome by -a treaty (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foedus</i>). These names did not -include Roman colonies or Latin colonies, or -any place which had obtained the Roman -civitas or citizenship. Among the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foederati</i> -were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latini</i>, who were the most nearly -related to the Romans, and were designated -by this distinctive name; the rest of the -foederati were comprised under the collective -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Foederati</i>. They -were independent states, yet under a general -liability to furnish a contingent to the Roman -army. Thus they contributed to increase -the power of Rome, but they had not the -privileges of Roman citizens. The discontent -among the foederati, and their claims to -be admitted to the privileges of Roman citizens, -led to the Social War. The Julia Lex -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 90) gave the civitas to the Socii and -Latini; and a lex of the following year contained, -among other provisions, one for the -admission to the Roman civitas of those -peregrini who were entered on the lists of -the citizens of federate states, and who complied -with the provisions of the lex. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Foenus">FOENUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill181a" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill181a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Folles, Bellows. (From a Roman Lamp.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Follis">FOLLIS—(1) An inflated ball of leather, -which boys and old men among the Romans -threw from one to another as a gentle exercise -of the body.—(2) A leather purse or -bag.—(3) A pair of bellows, consisting of -two inflated skins, and having valves adjusted -to the natural apertures at one part -for admitting the air, and a pipe inserted -into another part for its emission.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill181b" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill181b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fountain of Peirene at Corinth.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Fons">FONS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρήνη</span>), a spring of water, and also -an artificial fountain, made either by covering -and decorating a spring with buildings and -sculpture, or by making a jet or stream of -water, supplied by an elevated cistern, play -into an artificial basin. Such fountains -served the double purpose of use and ornament. -They were covered to keep them pure -and cool, and the covering was frequently in -the form of a monopteral temple: there were -also statues, the subjects of which were suggested -by the circumstance that every fountain -was sacred to some divinity, or they -were taken from the whole range of mythological -legends. A very large proportion of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span> -the immense supply of water brought to -Rome by the aqueducts was devoted to the -public fountains, which were divided into -two classes; namely, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lacus</i>, ponds or reservoirs, -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salientes</i>, jets of water, besides -which many of the castella were so constructed -as to be also fountains. There were -also many small private fountains in the -houses and villas of the wealthy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp65" id="ill182a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill182a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fountain. (From a Painting at Pompeii.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Fores">FŎRES. [DOMUS.]</p> - - -<p id="Fornacalia">FORNĀCĀLĬA, a festival in honour of -Fornax, the goddess of furnaces, in order -that the corn might be properly baked. -This ancient festival is said to have been -instituted by Numa. The time for its celebration -was proclaimed every year by the -curio maximus, who announced in tablets, -which were placed in the forum, the different -part which each curia had to take in the -celebration of the festival. Those persons -who did not know to what curia they belonged -performed the sacred rites on the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quirinalia</i>, called from this circumstance the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Stultorum feriae</i>, which fell on the last day -of the Fornacalia.</p> - - -<p id="Fornix">FORNIX, in its primary sense, is synonymous -with <span class="smcap"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus</a></span>, but more commonly -implies an arched vault, constituting both -roof and ceiling to the apartment which it -encloses.</p> - - -<p id="Forum">FŎRUM. [See <span class="smcap">Classical Dict.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Framea">FRĂMĔA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fratres">FRĀTRES ARVĀLES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arvales">Arvales Fratres</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Frenum">FRĒNUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλινός</span>), a bridle. That Bellerophon -might be enabled to perform the exploits -required of him by the king of Lycia, -he was presented by Athena with a bridle as -the means of subduing the winged horse Pegasus, -who submitted to receive it whilst he -was slaking his thirst at the fountain Peirene. -Such was the Grecian account of the -invention of the bridle, and in reference to it -Athena was worshipped at Corinth, under the -titles <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἵππια</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλινῖτις</span>. The bit (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">orea</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆγμα</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στόμιον</span>), was commonly made of several -pieces, and flexible, so as not to hurt the -horse’s mouth; although there was likewise -a bit which was armed with protuberances -resembling wolves’ teeth, and therefore called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lupatum</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill182b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill182b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Pegasus receiving the Bridle.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Frigidarium">FRĪGĬDĀRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fritillus">FRĬTILLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φιμός</span>), a dice-box of a cylindrical -form, and therefore called also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">turricula</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pyrgus</i>, and formed with parallel -indentations (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gradus</i>) on the inside, so as to -make a rattling noise when the dice were -shaken in it.</p> - - -<p id="Frumentariae">FRŪMENTĀRĬAE LEGES. The supply -of corn at Rome was considered one of the -duties of the government. The superintendence -of the corn-market belonged in ordinary -times to the aediles, but when great scarcity -prevailed, an extraordinary officer was appointed -for the purpose under the title of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praefectus Annonae</i>. Even in early times it -had been usual for the state on certain occasions, -and for wealthy individuals, to make -occasional donations of corn to the people -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">donatio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">largitio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">divisio</i>; subsequently called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">frumentatio</i>). But such donations were only -casual; and it was not till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123, that the -first legal provision was made for supplying the -poor at Rome with corn at a price much below -its market value. In that year C. Sempronius -Gracchus brought forward the first <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Frumentaria</i>, -by which each citizen was entitled -to receive every month a certain quantity of -wheat (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triticum</i>) at the price of 6⅓ asses for -the modius, which was equal to 1 gallon and -nearly 8 pints English. This was only a -trifle more than half the market price. Each -person probably received five modii monthly, -as in later times. About <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 91, the tribune -M. Octavius brought forward the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Octavia</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span> -which modified the law of Gracchus to some -extent, so that the public treasury did not -suffer so much. Sulla went still further, and -by his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Cornelia</i>, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 82, did away altogether -with these distributions of corn; but -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 73, the Lex Sempronia was renewed -by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Terentia Cassia</i>, which enacted -that each Roman citizen should receive 5 -modii a month at the price of 6⅓ asses for -each modius. The Leges Frumentariae had -<em>sold</em> corn to the people; but by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex -Clodia</i> of the tribune Clodius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58, the -corn was distributed without any payment; -the abolition of the payment cost the state a -fifth part of its revenues. When Caesar became -master of the Roman world, he resolved -to remedy the evils attending the -system, so far as he was able. He did not -venture to abolish altogether these distributions -of corn, but he did the next best thing -in his power, which was reducing the number -of the recipients. During the civil wars -numbers of persons, who had no claim to the -Roman franchise, had settled at Rome in -order to obtain a share in the distributions. -Caesar excluded from this privilege every -person who could not prove that he was a -Roman citizen; and thus the 320,000 persons, -who had previously received the corn, -were at once reduced to 150,000. The useful -regulations of Caesar fell into neglect -after his death; and in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 5, the number -of recipients had amounted to 320,000. But -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 2, Augustus reduced the number of -recipients to 200,000, and renewed many of -Caesar’s regulations. The chief of them -seem to have been: 1. That every citizen -should receive monthly a certain quantity of -corn (probably 5 modii) on the payment of a -certain small sum. Occasionally, in seasons of -scarcity, or in order to confer a particular -favour, Augustus made these distributions -quite gratuitous; they then became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congiaria</i>. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Congiarium">Congiarium</a>.</span>] 2. That those who -were completely indigent should receive the -corn gratuitously, and should be furnished -for the purpose with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tesserae nummariae</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">frumentariae</i>, which entitled them to the corn -without payment. The system which had -been established by Augustus, was followed -by his successors; but as it was always one -of the first maxims of the state policy of the -Roman emperors to prevent any disturbance -in the capital, they frequently lowered the -price of the public corn, and also distributed it -gratuitously as a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">congiarium</i>. Hence, the cry -of the populace <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">panem et circenses</i>. In course -of time, the sale of the corn by the state -seems to have ceased altogether, and the distribution -became altogether gratuitous. Every -corn-receiver was therefore now provided -with a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tessera</i>, and this tessera, when once -granted to him, became his property. Hence -it came to pass, that he was not only allowed -to keep the tessera for life, but even to dispose -of it by sale, and bequeath it by will. -Every citizen was competent to hold a tessera, -with the exception of senators. Further, -as the corn had been originally distributed -to the people according to the thirty-five -tribes into which they were divided, the -corn-receivers in each tribe formed a kind of -corporation, which came eventually to be -looked upon as the tribe, when the tribes had -lost all political significance. Hence, the -purchase of a tessera became equivalent to -the purchase of a place in a tribe; and, accordingly, -we find in the Digest the expressions -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emere tribum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emere tesseram</i> used -as synonymous. Another change was also introduced -at a later period, which rendered the -bounty still more acceptable to the people. -Instead of distributing the corn every month, -wheaten bread, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annona civica</i>, was -given to the people. It is uncertain at what -time this change was introduced, but it seems -to have been the custom before the reign of -Aurelian (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 270-275).</p> - - -<p id="Frumentarii">FRŪMENTĀRĬI, officers under the Roman -empire, who acted as spies in the provinces, -and reported to the emperors anything -which they considered of importance. -They appear to have been called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Frumentarii</i> -because it was their duty to collect information -in the same way as it was the duty of other -officers, called by the same name, to collect corn.</p> - - -<p id="Fucus">FŪCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φῦκος</span>), the paint which the Greek -and Roman ladies employed in painting their -cheeks, eye-brows, and other parts of their -faces. The practice of painting the face was -very general among the Greek ladies, and -probably came into fashion in consequence of -their sedentary mode of life, which robbed -their complexions of their natural freshness, -and induced them to have recourse to artificial -means for restoring the red and white -of nature. The eye-brows and eye-lids were -stained black with <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στίμμι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στίμμις</span>, a sulphuret -of antimony, which is still employed -by the Turkish ladies for the same purpose. -The eye-brows were likewise stained with -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄσβολος</span>, a preparation of soot. Among the -Romans the art of painting the complexion -was carried to a still greater extent than -among the Greeks, and even Ovid did not -disdain to write a poem on the subject, which -he calls (<cite>de Art. Am.</cite> iii. 206) “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">parvus, sed -cura grande, libellus, opus</span>;” though the -genuineness of the fragment of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Medicamina -faciei</i>, ascribed to this poet, is doubtful. -The Roman ladies even went so far as to -paint with blue the veins on the temples.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span> -The ridiculous use of patches (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">splenia</i>), which -were common among the English ladies in -the reign of Queen Anne and the first -Georges, was not unknown to the Roman -ladies. The more effeminate of the male sex -at Rome, and likewise in Greece, also employed -paint.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp58" id="ill184a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill184a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Girl painting herself. (From a Gem.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Fuga">FŬGA LĀTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fuga_l">FŬGA LĪBĔRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fugitivus">FŬGĬTĪVUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Servus">Servus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fullo">FULLO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κναφεύς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γναφεύς</span>), also called -NACCA, a fuller, a washer or scourer of -cloth and linen. The fullones not only received -the cloth as it came from the loom in -order to scour and smooth it, but also washed -and cleansed garments which had been already -worn. The clothes were first washed, -which was done in tubs or vats, where they -were trodden upon and stamped by the feet of -the fullones, whence Seneca speaks of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltus -fullonicus</i>. The ancients were not acquainted -with soap, but they used in its stead different -kinds of alkali, by which the dirt was more -easily separated from the clothes. Of these, by -far the most common was the urine of men and -animals, which was mixed with the water in -which the clothes were washed. When the -clothes were dry, the wool was brushed and -carded to raise the nap, sometimes with the -skin of a hedgehog, and sometimes with some -plants of the thistle kind. The clothes were -then hung on a vessel of basket-work (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viminea -cavea</i>), under which sulphur was placed -in order to whiten the cloth. A fine white -earth, called Cimolian by Pliny, was often -rubbed into the cloth to increase its whiteness. -The establishment or workshop of the -fullers was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fullonica</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fullonicum</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fullonimn</i>. The Greeks were also accustomed -to send their garments to fullers to be -washed and scoured. The word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλύνειν</span> -denoted the washing of linen, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κναφεύειν</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γναφεύειν</span> the washing of woollen clothes.</p> - - -<p id="Funambulus">FŪNAMBŬLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλοβάτης σχοινοβάτης</span>), -a rope-dancer. The art of dancing on the -tight-rope was carried to as great perfection -among the Romans as it is with us. The -performers placed themselves in an endless -variety of graceful and sportive attitudes, -and represented the characters of bacchanals, -satyrs, and other imaginary beings. One of -the most difficult exploits was running down -the rope at the conclusion of the performance. -It was a strange attempt of Germanicus and -of the emperor Galba to exhibit elephants -walking on the rope.</p> - - -<p id="Funda">FUNDA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφενδόνη</span>), a sling. Slingers are -not mentioned in the Iliad; but the light -troops of the Greek and Roman armies consisted -in great part of slingers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funditores</i>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφενδονήται</span>). The most celebrated slingers -were the inhabitants of the Balearic islands. -Besides stones, plummets, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">glandes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μολυβδίδες</span>), -of a form between acorns and almonds, -were cast in moulds to be thrown with slings. -The manner in which the sling was wielded -may be seen in the annexed figure of a soldier -with a provision of stones in the sinus -of his pallium, and with his arm extended in -order to whirl the sling about his head.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp74" id="ill184b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill184b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Funda, Sling. (Column of Trajan.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Funditores">FUNDĬTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funda">Funda</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill185" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill185.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Coffins. (Stackelberg, ‘Die Gräber der Hellenen,’ pl. 7, 8.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp54" id="ill186a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill186a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Tomb in Lycia.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Funus">FŪNUS, a funeral.—(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> The -Greeks attached great importance to the burial -of the dead. They believed that souls -could not enter the Elysian fields till their -bodies had been buried; and so strong was this -feeling among the Greeks, that it was considered -a religious duty to throw earth upon a -dead body, which a person might happen to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span> -find unburied; and among the Athenians, -those children who were released from all -other obligations to unworthy parents, were -nevertheless bound to bury them by one of -Solon’s laws. The neglect of burying one’s -relatives is frequently mentioned by the -orators as a grave charge against the moral -character of a man; in fact, the burial of the -body by the relations of the dead was considered -one of the most sacred duties by the -universal law of the Greeks. Sophocles represents -Antigone as disregarding all consequences -in order to bury the dead body of -her brother Polyneices, which Creon, the -king of Thebes, had commanded to be left -unburied. The common expressions for the -funeral rites, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰ δίκαια</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμιμα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νομιζόμενα</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσήκοντα</span>, show that the dead had, as it -were, a legal and moral claim to burial. After -a person was dead, it was the custom first to -place in his mouth an obolus, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">danace</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δανάκη</span>), with which he might pay the ferryman -in Hades. The body was then washed -and anointed with perfumed oil, the head -was crowned with the flowers which happened -to be in season, and the body dressed -in as handsome a robe as the family could -afford. These duties were not performed by -hired persons, like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pollinctores</i> among the -Romans, but by the women of the family, -upon whom the care of the corpse always devolved. -The corpse was then laid out (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόθεσις</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προτίθεσθαι</span>) on a bed, which appears to -have been of the ordinary kind, with a pillow -for supporting the head and back. By -the side of the bed there were placed -painted earthen vessels, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λήκυθοι</span>, which -were also buried with the corpse. Great -numbers of these painted vases have been -found in modern times; and they have been -of great use in explaining many matters connected -with antiquity. A honey-cake, called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μελιττοῦτα</span>, which appears to have been intended -for Cerberus, was also placed by the -side of the corpse. Before the door a vessel -of water was placed, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄστρακον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρδάλιον</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρδάνιον</span>, in order that persons who had -been in the house might purify themselves by -sprinkling water on their persons. The relatives -stood around the bed, the women -uttering great lamentations, rending their -garments, and tearing their hair. On the -day after the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόθεσις</span>, or the third day after -death, the corpse was carried out (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκφορά</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκκομιδή</span>) for burial, early in the morning and -before sunrise. A burial soon after death -was supposed to be pleasing to the dead. In -some places it appears to have been usual to -bury the dead on the day following death. -The men walked before the corpse, and the -women behind. The funeral procession was -preceded or followed by hired mourners -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θρηνῳδοί</span>), who appear to have been usually -Carian women, playing mournful tunes on -the flute. The body was either buried or -burnt. The word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θάπτειν</span> is used in connection -with either mode; it is applied to the -collection of the ashes after burning, and -accordingly we find the words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καίειν</span> and -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θάπτειν</span> used together. The proper expression -for interment in the earth is <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατορύττειν</span>. -In Homer the bodies of the dead are -burnt; but interment was also used in very -ancient times. Cicero says that the dead were -buried at Athens in the time of Cecrops; and -we also read of the bones of Orestes being -found in a coffin at Tegea. The dead were -commonly buried among the Spartans and -the Sicyonians, and the prevalence of this -practice is proved by the great number of -skeletons found in coffins in modern times, -which have evidently not been exposed to -the action of fire. Both burning and burying -appear to have been always used to a -greater or less extent at different periods; -till the spread of Christianity at length put -an end to the former practice. The dead -bodies were usually burnt on piles of wood, -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pyres</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυραί</span>). The body was placed -on the top; and in the heroic times it was -customary to burn with the corpse animals -and even captives or slaves. Oils and perfumes -were also thrown into the flames. -When the pyre was burnt down, the remains -of the fire were quenched with wine, and the -relatives and friends collected the bones. -The bones were then washed with wine and -oil, and placed in urns, which were sometimes -made of gold. The corpses which were -not burnt were buried in coffins, which were -called by various names, as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σοροί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύελοι</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ληνοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λάρνακες</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δροῖται</span>, though some of these -names are also applied to the urns in which -the bones were collected. They were made -of various materials, but were usually of -baked clay or earthenware. The following -woodcut contains two of the most ancient -kind; the figure in the middle is the section -of one. The dead were usually buried outside -the town, as it was thought that their -presence in the city brought pollution to the -living. At Athens none were allowed to be -buried within the city; but Lycurgus, in -order to remove all superstition respecting -the presence of the dead, allowed of burial in -Sparta. Persons who possessed lands in Attica -were frequently buried in them, and we -therefore read of tombs in the fields. Tombs, -however, were most frequently built by the -side of roads, and near the gates of the city. -At Athens, the most common place of burial -was outside of the Itonian gate, near the -road leading to the Peiraeeus, which gate -was for that reason called the burial gate. -Those who had fallen in battle were buried -at the public expense in the outer Cerameicus, -on the road leading to the Academia. -Tombs were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θῆκαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάφοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μνήματα</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μνημεῖα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σήματα</span>. Many of these were only -mounds of earth or stones (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χώματα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κολῶναι</span> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τύμβοι</span>). Others were built of stone, and -frequently ornamented with great taste. -Some Greek tombs were built under ground, -and called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hypogea</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόγαια</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόγεια</span>). -They correspond to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conditoria</i>. -The monuments erected over the graves of -persons were usually of four kinds: 1. -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στῆλαι</span>, pillars or upright stone tablets; 2. -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κίονες</span>, columns; 3. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναΐδια</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡρῷα</span>, small -buildings in the form of temples; and 4. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράπεζαι</span>, -flat square stones, called by Cicero -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensae</i>. The term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στῆλαι</span> is sometimes applied -to all kinds of funeral monuments, but -properly designates upright stone tablets, which -were usually terminated with an oval heading, -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίθημα</span>. The epithema was frequently -ornamented with a kind of arabesque -work, as in the preceding specimen. The -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κίονες</span>, or columns, were of various forms, as is -shown by the two specimens in the annexed cut.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp38" id="ill186b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill186b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Epithema or Heading of Tombstone. (Stackelberg, pl. 3.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp84" id="ill186c" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill186c.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Sepulchral Columns. (Paintings on Vases.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The inscriptions upon these funeral monuments -usually contain the name of the deceased -person, and that of the demus to which he -belonged, as well as frequently some account -of his life. The following example of an -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡρῷον</span> will give a general idea of monuments -of this kind.—Orations in praise of the dead -were sometimes pronounced; but Solon ordained -that such orations should be confined -to persons who were honoured with a public -funeral. In the heroic ages games were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[186]<br /><a id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span> -celebrated at the funeral of a great man, as -in the case of Patroclus; but this practice -does not seem to have been usual in the historical -times.—All persons who had been engaged -in funerals were considered polluted, -and could not enter the temples of the gods -till they had been purified. After the funeral -was over, the relatives partook of a -feast, which was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίδειπνον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεκρόδειπνον</span>. -This feast was always given at the -house of the nearest relative of the deceased.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="ill187" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill187.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Sepulchral Heroon. (Painting on Vase.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Thus the relatives of those who had fallen -at the battle of Chaeroneia partook of the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίδειπνον</span> at the house of Demosthenes, as -if he were the nearest relative to them all. -On the second day after the funeral a sacrifice -to the dead was offered, called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίτα</span>; but the principal sacrifice to the dead -was on the ninth day, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔννατα</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνατα</span>. The mourning for the dead appears -to have lasted till the thirtieth day after the -funeral, on which day sacrifices were again -offered. At Sparta the time of mourning was -limited to eleven days. During the time of -mourning it was considered indecorous for -the relatives of the deceased to appear in -public; they were accustomed to wear a -black dress, and in ancient times they cut off -their hair as a sign of grief.—The tombs were -preserved by the family to which they belonged -with the greatest care, and were -regarded as among the strongest ties which -attached a man to his native land. In the -Docimasia of the Athenian archons it was -always a subject of inquiry whether they had -kept in proper repair the tombs of their -ancestors. On certain days the tombs were -crowned with flowers, and offerings were -made to the dead, consisting of garlands of -flowers and various other things. The act -of offering these presents was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐναγίζειν</span>, -and the offerings themselves <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐναγίσματα</span>, or -more commonly <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοαί</span>. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γενέσια</span> mentioned -by Herodotus appear to have consisted in -offerings of the same kind, which were presented -on the anniversary of the birth-day of -the deceased. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεκύσια</span> were probably -offerings on the anniversary of the day of -the death; though, according to some writers, -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεκύσια</span> were the same as the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γενέσια</span>. -Certain criminals, who were put to death by -the state, were also deprived of the rights of -burial, which was considered as an additional -punishment. There were certain places, both -at Athens and Sparta, where the dead bodies -of such criminals were cast. A person who had -committed suicide was not deprived of burial, -but the hand with which he had killed himself -was cut off and buried by itself.—(2) <span id="Funus_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span> -When a Roman was at the point of death, his -nearest relation present endeavoured to catch -the last breath with his mouth. The ring was -taken off the finger of the dying person; and -as soon as he was dead his eyes and mouth -were closed by the nearest relation, who called -upon the deceased by name, exclaiming <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">have</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vale</i>. The corpse was then washed, and -anointed with oil and perfumes, by slaves, -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pollinctores</i>, who belonged to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libitinarii</i>, -or undertakers. The libitinarii -appear to have been so called because they -dwelt near the temple of Venus Libitina, -where all things requisite for funerals were -sold. Hence we find the expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitare -Libitinam</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">evadere Libitinam</i> used in the -sense of escaping death. At this temple an -account (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ratio, ephemeris</i>) was kept of those -who died, and a small sum was paid for the -registration of their names. A small coin -was then placed in the mouth of the corpse, -in order to pay the ferryman in Hades, and -the body was laid out on a couch in the -vestibule of the house, with its feet towards -the door, and dressed in the best robe which -the deceased had worn when alive. Ordinary -citizens were dressed in a white toga, and -magistrates in their official robes. If the -deceased had received a crown while alive as -a reward for his bravery, it was now placed -on his head; and the couch on which he was -laid was sometimes covered with leaves and -flowers. A branch of cypress was also usually -placed at the door of the house, if he was a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span> -person of consequence. Funerals were usually -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funera justa</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exsequiae</i>; the latter -term was generally applied to the funeral -procession (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pompa funebris</i>). There were -two kinds of funerals, public and private; -of which the former was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funus publicum</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">indictivum</i>, because the people were invited -to it by a herald; the latter <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funus tacitum</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">translatitium</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plebeium</i>. A person -appears to have usually left a certain sum of -money in his will to pay the expenses of his -funeral; but if he did not do so, nor appoint -any one to bury him, this duty devolved upon -the persons to whom the property was left, -and if he died without a will, upon his relations, -according to their order of succession -to the property. The expenses of the funeral -were in such cases decided by an arbiter, -according to the property and rank of the -deceased, whence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arbitria</i> is used to signify -the funeral expenses.—The following description -of the mode in which a funeral was conducted -only applies strictly to the funerals of -the great; the same pomp and ceremony -could not of course be observed in the case of -persons in ordinary circumstances. All -funerals in ancient times were performed at -night, but afterwards the poor only were -buried at night, because they could not afford -to have any funeral procession. The corpse -was usually carried out of the house (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">efferebatur</i>) -on the eighth day after the death. -The order of the funeral procession was regulated -by a person called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">designator</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dominus -funeris</i>, who was attended by lictors dressed -in black. It was headed by musicians of -various kinds (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornicines, siticines</i>), who -played mournful strains, and next came -mourning women, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeficae</i>, who were -hired to lament and sing the funeral song -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naenia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lessus</i>) in praise of the deceased. -These were sometimes followed by players -and buffoons (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scurrae, histriones</i>), of whom -one, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">archimimus</i>, represented the character -of the deceased, and imitated his words -and actions. Then came the slaves whom -the deceased had liberated, wearing the cap -of liberty (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pileati</i>); the number of whom was -occasionally very great, since a master sometimes -liberated all his slaves, in his will, in -order to add to the pomp of his funeral. Before -the corpse the images of the deceased -and of his ancestors were carried, and also -the crowns or military rewards which he had -gained. The corpse was carried on a couch -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lectica</i>), to which the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feretrum</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capulum</i> was usually given; but the bodies -of poor citizens and of slaves were carried on -a common kind of bier or coffin, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sandapila</i>. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sandapila</i> was carried by bearers, -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vespae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vespillones</i>, because they -carried out the corpses in the evening (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vespertino -tempore</i>). The couches on which the -corpses of the rich were carried were sometimes -made of ivory, and covered with gold -and purple. They were often carried on the -shoulders of the nearest relations of the -deceased, and sometimes on those of his -freedmen. Julius Caesar was carried by the -magistrates, and Augustus by the senators. -The relations of the deceased walked behind -the corpse in mourning; his sons with their -heads veiled, and his daughters with their -heads bare and their hair dishevelled, contrary -to the ordinary practice of both. They -often uttered loud lamentations, and the women -beat their breasts and tore their cheeks, -though this was forbidden by the Twelve -Tables. If the deceased was of illustrious -rank, the funeral procession went through -the forum, and stopped before the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rostra</i>, -where a funeral oration (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">laudatio</i>) in praise -of the deceased was delivered. This practice -was of great antiquity among the Romans, -and is said by some writers to have been first -introduced by Publicola, who pronounced a -funeral oration in honour of his colleague -Brutus. Women also were honoured by -funeral orations. From the Forum the corpse -was carried to the place of burning or burial, -which, according to a law of the Twelve -Tables, was obliged to be outside the city. -The Romans in the most ancient times buried -their dead, though they also early adopted, -to some extent, the custom of burning, which -is mentioned in the Twelve Tables. Burning, -however, does not appear to have become -general till the later times of the republic. -Marius was buried, and Sulla was the first of -the Cornelian gens whose body was burned. -Under the empire burning was almost universally -practised, but was gradually discontinued -as Christianity spread, so that it had -fallen into disuse in the fourth century. Persons -struck by lightning were not burnt, but -buried on the spot, which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bidental</i>, -and was considered sacred. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Bidental">Bidental</a>.</span>] -Children also, who had not cut their teeth, -were not burnt, but buried in a place called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Suggrundarium</i>. Those who were buried were -placed in a coffin (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arca</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">loculus</i>), which -was frequently made of stone, and sometimes -of the Assian stone, which came from Assos -in Troas, and which consumed all the body, -with the exception of the teeth, in 40 days, -whence it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sarcophagus</i>. This name -was in course of time applied to any kind of -coffin or tomb. The corpse was burnt on a -pile of wood (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pyra</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogus</i>). This pile was -built in the form of an altar, with four equal -sides, whence we find it called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ara sepulcri</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funeris ara</i>. The sides of the pile were,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span> -according to the Twelve Tables, to be left -rough and unpolished, but were frequently -covered with dark leaves. Cypress trees -were sometimes placed before the pile. On -the top of the pile the corpse was placed, -with the couch on which it had been carried, -and the nearest relation then set fire to the -pile with his face turned away. When the -flames began to rise, various perfumes were -thrown into the fire, though this practice -was forbidden by the Twelve Tables; cups -of oil, ornaments, clothes, dishes of food, and -other things, which were supposed to be -agreeable to the deceased, were also thrown -upon the flames. The place where a person -was burnt was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bustum</i>, if he was afterwards -buried on the same spot, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ustrina</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ustrinum</i> if he was buried at a different -place. Sometimes animals were slaughtered -at the pile, and in ancient times captives and -slaves, since the manes were supposed to be -fond of blood; but afterwards gladiators, -called bustuarii, were hired to fight round -the burning pile. When the pile was burnt -down, the embers were soaked with wine, -and the bones and ashes of the deceased -were gathered by the nearest relatives, -who sprinkled them with perfumes, and -placed them in a vessel called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">urna</i>, which -was made of various materials, according -to the circumstances of individuals.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp54" id="ill189" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill189.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Sepulchral Urn in British Museum</div> -</div> - -<p>The urnae were also of various shapes, -but most commonly square or round; -and upon them there was usually an -inscription or epitaph (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">titulus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epitaphium</i>), -beginning with the letters -D. M. S., or only D. M., that is, <span class="smcap">Dis -Manibus Sacrum</span>, followed by the name -of the deceased, with the length of his -life, &c. The woodcut opposite is a -representation of a sepulchral urn in -the British Museum. It is of an upright -rectangular form, richly ornamented -with foliage, and supported at -the sides with pilasters. It is to the -memory of Cossutia Prima. Its height -is 21 inches, and its width at the base -14 inches 6-8ths. Below the inscription -an infant genius is represented -driving a car drawn by four horses.—After -the bones and ashes of the deceased -had been placed in the urn, the -persons present were thrice sprinkled -by a priest with pure water from a -branch of olive or laurel for the purpose -of purification; after which they -were dismissed by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefica</i>, or some -other person, by the solemn word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ilicet</i>, -that is, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ire licet</i>. At their departure they -were accustomed to bid farewell to the -deceased by pronouncing the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vale</i>. -The urns were placed in sepulchres, which, -as already stated, were outside the city, -though in a few cases we read of the dead -being buried within the city. Thus Valerius -Publicola, Tubertus, and Fabricius, were -buried in the city; which right their descendants -also possessed, but did not use. -The vestal virgins and the emperors were -buried in the city.—The verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepelire</i>, like -the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θάπτειν</span>, was applied to every mode -of disposing of the dead; and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepulcrum</i> signified -any kind of tomb in which the body or -bones of a man were placed. The term -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">humare</i> was originally used for burial in the -earth, but was afterwards applied like <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepelire</i> -to any mode of disposing of the dead: -since it appears to have been the custom, -after the body was burnt, to throw some -earth upon the bones.—The places for burial -were either public or private. The public -places of burial were of two kinds; one for -illustrious citizens, who were buried at the -public expense, and the other for poor citizens, -who could not afford to purchase ground for -the purpose. The former was in the Campus -Martius, which was ornamented with the -tombs of the illustrious dead, and in the -Campus Esquilinus; the latter was also in -the Campus Esquilinus, and consisted of small -pits or caverns, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puticuli</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puticulae</i>;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span> -but as this place rendered the neighbourhood -unhealthy, it was given to Maecenas, who -converted it into gardens, and built a magnificent -house upon it. Private places for -burial were usually by the sides of the roads -leading to Rome; and on some of these -roads, such as the Via Appia, the tombs -formed an almost uninterrupted street for -many miles from the gates of the city. They -were frequently built by individuals during -their lifetime; thus Augustus, in his sixth -consulship, built the Mausoleum for his sepulchre -between the Via Flaminia and the -Tiber, and planted round it woods and walks -for public use. The heirs were often ordered -by the will of the deceased to build a tomb -for him; and they sometimes did it at their -own expense.—Sepulchres were originally -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">busta</i>, but this word was afterwards -employed in the manner mentioned under -Bustum. Sepulchres were also frequently -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">monumenta</i>, but this term was also -applied to a monument erected to the memory -of a person in a different place from that where -he was buried. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Conditoria</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conditiva</i> were -sepulchres under ground, in which dead -bodies were placed entire, in contradistinction -to those sepulchres which contained the -bones and ashes only.—The tombs of the rich -were commonly built of marble, and the -ground enclosed with an iron railing or wall, -and planted round with trees. The extent -of the burying-ground was marked by cippi -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cippus">Cippus</a></span>]. The name of mausoleum, which -was originally the name of the magnificent -sepulchre erected by Artemisia to the memory -of Mausolus, king of Caria, was sometimes -given to any splendid tomb. The open -space before a sepulchre was called forum, -and neither this space nor the sepulchre -itself could become the property of a -person by usucapion. Private tombs were -either built by an individual for himself and -the members of his family (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepulcra familiaria</i>), -or for himself and his heirs (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepulcra -hereditaria</i>). A tomb, which was fitted up -with niches to receive the funeral urns, was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">columbarium</i>, on account of the resemblance -of these niches to the holes of a -pigeon-house. In these tombs the ashes of -the freedmen and slaves of great families -were frequently placed in vessels made of -baked clay, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ollae</i>, which were let into -the thickness of the wall within these niches, -the lids only being seen, and the inscriptions -placed in front. Tombs were of various sizes -and forms, according to the wealth and taste -of the owner. A sepulchre, or any place in -which a person was buried, was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">religiosus</i>; -all things which were left or belonged to the -Dii Manes were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">religiosae</i>; those consecrated -to the Dii Superi were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacrae</i>. Even -the place in which a slave was buried was -considered religiosus. Whoever violated a -sepulchre was subject to an action termed -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sepulcri violati actio</i>. After the bones had -been placed in the urn at the funeral, the -friends returned home. They then underwent -a further purification, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suffitio</i>, which -consisted in being sprinkled with water and -stepping over a fire. The house itself was -also swept with a certain kind of broom; -which sweeping or purification was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exverrae</i>, and the person who did it <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">everriator</i>. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Denicales Feriae</i> were also days set apart -for the purification of the family. The mourning -and solemnities connected with the dead -lasted for nine days after the funeral, at the -end of which time a sacrifice was performed, -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novendiale</i>.—A feast was given in -honour of the dead, but it is uncertain on -what day; it sometimes appears to have been -given at the time of the funeral, sometimes -on the novendiale, and sometimes later. The -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silicernium</i> was given to this feast. -Among the tombs at Pompeii there is a funeral -triclinium for the celebration of these -feasts, which is represented in the annexed -woodcut. It is open to the sky, and the walls -are ornamented by paintings of animals in the -centre of compartments, which have borders of -flowers. The triclinium is made of stone, with -a pedestal in the centre to receive the table. -After the funeral of great men, there was, in -addition to the feast for the friends of the -deceased, a distribution of raw meat to the -people, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">visceratio</i>, and sometimes a -public banquet. Combats of gladiators and -other games were also frequently exhibited -in honour of the deceased. Thus at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span> -funeral of P. Licinius Crassus, who had been -Pontifex Maximus, raw meat was distributed -to the people, 120 gladiators fought, and -funeral games were celebrated for three -days, at the end of which a public banquet -was given in the forum. Public feasts -and funeral games were sometimes given on -the anniversary of funerals. At all banquets -in honour of the dead, the guests were -dressed in white.—The Romans, like the -Greeks, were accustomed to visit the tombs -of their relatives at certain periods, and to -offer to them sacrifices and various gifts, -which were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inferiae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parentalia</i>. -The Romans appear to have regarded the -manes or departed souls of their ancestors as -gods; whence arose the practice of presenting -to them oblations, which consisted of -victims, wine, milk, garlands of flowers, and -other things. The tombs were sometimes -illuminated on these occasions with lamps. -In the latter end of the month of February -there was a festival, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feralia</i>, in which -the Romans were accustomed to carry food -to the sepulchres for the use of the dead. -The Romans were accustomed to wear mourning -for their deceased friends, which appears -to have been black under the republic for -both sexes. Under the empire the men continued -to wear black in mourning, but the -women wore white. They laid aside all kinds -of ornaments, and did not cut either their -hair or beard. Men appear to have usually -worn their mourning for only a few days, -but women for a year when they lost a husband -or parent. In a public mourning on -account of some signal calamity, as, for instance, -the loss of a battle, or the death of an -emperor, there was a total cessation from -business, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justitium</i>, which was usually -ordained by public appointment. During -this period the courts of justice did not sit, -the shops were shut, and the soldiers freed -from military duties. In a public mourning -the senators did not wear the latus clavus -and their rings, nor the magistrates their -badges of office.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill190" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill190.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Funeral Triclinium at Pompeii. (Mazois, Pomp., 1, pl. xx.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Furca">FURCA, which properly means a fork, -was also the name of an instrument of punishment. -It was a piece of wood in the -form of the letter Λ, which was placed upon -the shoulders of the offender, whose hands -were tied to it. Slaves were frequently -punished in this way, and were obliged to -carry about the furca wherever they went; -whence the appellation of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">furcifer</i> was applied -to a man as a term of reproach. The -furca was used in the ancient mode of -capital punishment among the Romans; the -criminal was tied to it, and then scourged to -death. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patibulum</i> was also an instrument -of punishment, resembling the furca; -it appears to have been in the form of the -letter Π. Both the furca and patibulum -were also employed as crosses, to which criminals -appear to have been nailed.</p> - - -<p id="Furiosus">FURĬŌSUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Curator">Curator</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fuscina">FUSCĬNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίαινα</span>), a trident, more commonly -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tridens</i>, meaning <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tridens stimulus</i>, -because it was originally a three-pronged -goad, used to incite horses to greater swiftness. -Neptune was supposed to be armed -with it when he drove his chariot, and it -thus became his usual attribute, perhaps -with an allusion also to the use of the same -instrument in harpooning fish. It is represented -in the cut on <a href="#ill084b">p. 84</a>. In the contests of -gladiators, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">retiarius</i> was armed with a -trident. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a></span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fustuarium">FUSTŬĀRĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξυλοκοπία</span>), was a capital -punishment inflicted upon Roman soldiers -for desertion, theft, and similar crimes. It -was administered in the following manner:—When -a soldier was condemned, the tribune -touched him slightly with a stick, upon -which all the soldiers of the legion fell upon -him with sticks and stones, and generally -killed him upon the spot. If, however, he -escaped, for he was allowed to fly, he could -not return to his native country, nor did any -of his relatives dare to receive him into their -houses.</p> - - -<p id="Fusus">FŪSUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄτρακτος</span>), the spindle, was always, -when in use, accompanied by the distaff -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colus</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἠλακάτη</span>), as an indispensable part of -the same apparatus. The wool, flax, or other -material, having been prepared for spinning, -was rolled into a ball (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τολύπη</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">glomus</i>), -which was, however, sufficiently loose to -allow the fibres to be easily drawn out by -the hand of the spinner. The upper part of -the distaff was then inserted into this mass -of flax or wool, and the lower part was held -under the left arm in such a position as was -most convenient for conducting the operation. -The fibres were drawn out, and at the -same time spirally twisted, chiefly by the use -of the fore-finger and thumb of the right -hand; and the thread (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">filum, stamen</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νήμα</span>) -so produced was wound upon the spindle -until the quantity was as great as it would -carry. The spindle was a stick, 10 or 12 -inches long, having at the top a slit or catch -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dens</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγκιστρον</span>) in which the thread was -fixed, so that the weight of the spindle -might continually carry down the thread as -it was formed. Its lower extremity was -inserted into a small wheel, called the whorl -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vorticellum</i>), made of wood, stone, or metal -(see woodcut), the use of which was to keep -the spindle more steady, and to promote its -rotation. The accompanying woodcut shows<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span> -the operation of spinning, at the moment -when the woman has drawn out a sufficient -length of yarn to twist it by whirling the -spindle with her right thumb and fore-finger, -and previously to the act of taking it out of -the slit to wind it upon the bobbin (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πήνιον</span>) -already formed. It was usual to have a -basket to hold the distaff and spindle, with -the balls of wool prepared for spinning, and -the bobbins already spun. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calathus">Calathus</a>.</span>] The -distaff and spindle, with the wool and thread -upon them, were carried in bridal processions; -and, without the wool and thread, -they were often suspended by females as -offerings of religious gratitude, especially in -old age, or on relinquishing the constant use -of them. They were most frequently dedicated -to Pallas, the patroness of spinning, -and of the arts connected with it. They -were exhibited in the representations of the -three Fates, who were conceived, by their -spinning, to determine the life of every -man.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp57" id="ill192a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill192a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fusus, spindle.</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="G_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">G</span></h2> - -<p id="Gabinus" class="drop-capy">GĂBINUS CINCTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Toga">Toga</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Gaesum">GAESUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γαισός</span>), a term probably of -Celtic origin, denoting a kind of javelin -which was used by the Gauls wherever their -ramifications extended. It was a heavy -weapon, the shaft being as thick as a man -could grasp, and the iron head barbed, and -of an extraordinary length compared with -the shaft.</p> - - -<p id="Galea">GĂLĔA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κράνος</span>, <em>poet</em>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρυς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πήληξ</span>), a -helmet; a casque. The helmet was originally -made of skin or leather, whence is supposed -to have arisen its appellation, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυνέη</span>, -meaning properly a helmet of dog-skin, but -applied to caps or helmets made of the hide -of other animals, and even to those which -were entirely of bronze or iron. The leathern -basis of the helmet was also very commonly -strengthened and adorned by the addition of -either bronze or gold. Helmets which had a -metallic basis were in Latin properly called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cassides</i>, although the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">galea</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cassis</i> -are often confounded. The additions by -which the external appearance of the helmet -was varied, and which served both for ornament -and protection, were the following:—1. -Bosses or plates (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάλος</span>), proceeding either -from the top or the sides, and varying in -number from one to four (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφίφαλος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετράφαλος</span>). -The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάλος</span> was often an emblematical -figure, referring to the character of the -wearer. Thus in the colossal statue of Athena -in the Parthenon at Athens, she bore -a sphinx on the top of her helmet, and a -griffin on each side. 2. The helmet thus -adorned was very commonly surmounted by -the crest (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crista</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόφος</span>), which was often of -horse-hair. 3. The two cheek-pieces (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bucculae</i>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραγναθίδες</span>), which were attached to -the helmet by hinges, so as to be lifted up -and down. They had buttons or ties at -their extremities, for fastening the helmet -on the head. 4. The beaver, or visor, a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span> -peculiar form of which is supposed to have -been the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλῶπις τρυφάλεια</span>, <em>i.e.</em> the perforated -beaver. The gladiators wore helmets -of this kind.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill192b" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill192b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Galeae, helmets. (From ancient Gems,—size of originals.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Galerus">GĂLĒRUS or GALĒRUM, originally a -covering for the head worn by priests, especially -by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flamen dialis</i>. It appears to -have been a round cap made of leather, with -its top ending in an apex or point. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apex">Apex</a>.</span>] -In course of time the name was applied to -any kind of cap fitting close to the head like -a helmet. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Galerus</i> and its diminutive <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Galericulum</i> -are also used to signify a covering -for the head made of hair, and hence a wig.</p> - - -<p id="Galli">GALLI, the priests of Cybelé, whose worship -was introduced at Rome from Phrygia. -The Galli were, according to an ancient custom, -always castrated, and it would seem -that, impelled by religious fanaticism, they -performed this operation on themselves. In -their wild, enthusiastic, and boisterous rites -they resembled the Corybantes. They seem -to have been always chosen from a poor and -despised class of people, for, while no other -priests were allowed to beg, the Galli were -permitted to do so on certain days. The chief -priest among them was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">archigallus</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Gamelia">GĂMĒLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γαμηλία</span>). The demes and -phratries of Attica possessed various means -to prevent intruders from assuming the -rights of citizens. Among other regulations, -it was ordained that every bride, previous to -her marriage, should be introduced by her -parents or guardians to the phratria of her -husband. This introduction of the young -women was accompanied by presents to their -new phratores, which were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gamelia</i>. -The women were enrolled in the lists of the -phratries, and this enrolment was also called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gamelia</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Gausapa">GAUSĂPA, GAUSĂPE, or GAUSĂPUM, -a kind of thick cloth, which was on one side -very woolly, and was used to cover tables and -beds, and by persons to wrap themselves up -after taking a bath, or in general to protect -themselves against rain and cold. It was -worn by men as well as women. The word -gausapa is also sometimes used to designate -a thick wig, such as was made of the hair of -Germans, and worn by the fashionable people -at Rome at the time of the emperors.</p> - - -<p id="Genesia">GĔNĔSIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Genos">GĔNOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένος</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>, Greek.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Gens">GENS. According to the traditional accounts -of the old Roman constitution, the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gentes</i> were subdivisions of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiae</i>, just -as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiae</i> were subdivisions of the three -ancient tribes, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ramnes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Titienses</i>, and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Luceres</i>. There were ten gentes in each -curia, and consequently one hundred gentes -in each tribe, and three hundred in the three -tribes. Now if there is any truth in the -tradition of this original distribution of the -population into tribes, curiae, and gentes, it -follows that there was no necessary kinship -among those families which belonged to a -gens, any more than among those families -which belonged to one curia. The name of -the gens was always characterised by the -termination <em>ia</em>, as Julia, Cornelia, Valeria; -and the gentiles, or members of a gens, all -bore the name of the gens to which they -belonged. As the gentes were subdivisions -of the three ancient tribes, the populus (in -the ancient sense) alone had gentes, so that to -be a patrician and to have a gens were -synonymous; and thus we find the expressions -gens and patricii constantly united. -Yet it appears that some gentes contained -plebeian familiae, which it is conjectured had -their origin in marriages between patricians -and plebeians before there was connubium -between them. A hundred new members -were added to the senate by the first Tarquin. -These were the representatives of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Luceres</i>, -the third and inferior tribe; which is indicated -by the gentes of this tribe being called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minores</i>, by way of being distinguished from -the older gentes, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">majores</i>, of the Ramnes and -Tities, a distinction which appears to have -been more than nominal. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>] There -were certain sacred rites (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacra gentilitia</i>) -which belonged to a gens, to which all the -members of a gens, as such, were bound. It -was the duty of the pontifices to look after -the due observance of these gentile sacra, and -to see that they were not lost. Each gens -seems to have had its peculiar place (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacellum</i>) -for the celebration of these sacra, which -were performed at stated times. By the law -of the Twelve Tables the property of a person -who died intestate devolved upon the gens to -which he belonged.</p> - - -<p id="Geomori">GĔŌMŎRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>, Greek.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Gerousia">GĔROUSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γερούσια</span>), or <em>assembly of -elders</em>, was the aristocratic element of the -Spartan polity. It was not peculiar to Sparta -only, but found in other Dorian states, just -as a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Boulé</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βουλή</span>) or democratical council -was an element of most Ionian constitutions. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gerousia</i> at Sparta, including the two -kings, its presidents, consisted of thirty -members (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γέροντες</span>): a number which seems -connected with the divisions of the Spartan -people. Every Dorian state, in fact, was -divided into three tribes: the Hylleis, the -Dymanes, and the Pamphyli. The tribes at -Sparta were again subdivided into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὠβαί</span>), -which were, like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gerontes</i>, thirty in -number, so that each oba was represented by -its councillor: any inference which leads to -the conclusion that two obae at least of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span> -Hyllean tribe, must have belonged to the -royal house of the Heracleids. No one was -eligible to the council till he was sixty years -of age, and the additional qualifications were -strictly of an aristocratic nature. We are -told, for instance, that the office of a councillor -was the reward and prize of virtue, and -that it was confined to men of distinguished -character and station. The election was determined -by vote, and the mode of conducting -it was remarkable for its old-fashioned simplicity. -The competitors presented themselves -one after another to the assembly of -electors; the latter testified their esteem by -acclamations, which varied in intensity according -to the popularity of the candidates -for whom they were given. These manifestations -of esteem were noted by persons in -an adjoining building, who could judge of -the shouting, but could not tell in whose -favour it was given. The person whom -these judges thought to have been most applauded -was declared the successful candidate. -The office lasted for life. The functions -of the councillors were partly deliberative, -partly judicial, and partly executive. In the -discharge of the first, they prepared measures -and passed preliminary decrees, which were -to be laid before the popular assembly, so -that the important privilege of initiating all -changes in the government or laws was vested -in them. As a criminal court, they could -punish with death and civil degradation -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span>). They also appear to have exercised, -like the Areiopagus at Athens, a general superintendence -and inspection over the lives -and manners of the citizens, and probably -were allowed a kind of patriarchal authority, -to enforce the observance of ancient usage -and discipline. It is not, however, easy to -define with exactness the original extent of -their functions, especially as respects the last-mentioned -duty, since the ephors not only -encroached upon the prerogatives of the king -and council, but also possessed, in very early -times, a censorial power, and were not likely -to permit any diminution of its extent.</p> - - -<p id="Gerrha">GERRHA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γέῤῥα</span>), in Latin, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gerrae</i>, properly -signified any thing made of wicker-work, -and was especially used as the name of -the Persian shields, which were made of -wicker-work, and were smaller and shorter -than the Greek shields.</p> - - -<p id="Gladiatores">GLĂDĬĀTŌRES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μονομάχοι</span>) were men who -fought with swords in the amphitheatre and -other places, for the amusement of the Roman -people. They are said to have been first -exhibited by the Etrurians, and to have had -their origin from the custom of killing slaves -and captives at the funeral pyres of the -deceased. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Bustum">Bustum</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>.] A show of -gladiators was called munus, and the person -who exhibited (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edebat</i>) it, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">editor</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">munerator</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dominus</i>, who was honoured during the -day of exhibition, if a private person, with -the official signs of a magistrate. Gladiators -were first exhibited at Rome in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 264, in -the Forum Boarium, by Marcus and Decimus -Brutus, at the funeral of their father. They -were at first confined to public funerals, but -afterwards fought at the funerals of most -persons of consequence, and even at those of -women. Combats of gladiators were also -exhibited at entertainments, and especially at -public festivals by the aediles and other magistrates, -who sometimes exhibited immense -numbers, with the view of pleasing the -people. Under the empire the passion of the -Romans for this amusement rose to its greatest -height, and the number of gladiators who -fought on some occasions appears almost incredible. -After Trajan’s triumph over the -Dacians, there were more than 10,000 exhibited. -Gladiators consisted either of captives, -slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of -freeborn citizens who fought voluntarily. -Freemen, who became gladiators for hire, -were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctorati</i>, and their hire <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctoramentum</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gladiatorium</i>. Even under the -republic, free-born citizens fought as gladiators, -but they appear to have belonged only -to the lower orders. Under the empire, -however, both knights and senators fought in -the arena, and even women.—Gladiators were -kept in schools (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi</i>), where they were trained -by persons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lanistae</i>. The whole body -of gladiators under one lanista was frequently -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i>. They sometimes -were the property of the lanistae, who let -them out to persons who wished to exhibit a -show of gladiators; but at other times they -belonged to citizens, who kept them for the -purpose of exhibition, and engaged lanistae -to instruct them. Thus we read of the ludus -Aemilius at Rome, and of Caesar’s ludus at -Capua. The gladiators fought in these ludi -with wooden swords, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rudes</i>. Great -attention was paid to their diet, in order to -increase the strength of their bodies.—Gladiators -were sometimes exhibited at the funeral -pyre, and sometimes in the forum, but more -frequently in the amphitheatre. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]—The -person who was to exhibit -a show of gladiators, published some days -before the exhibition bills (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libelli</i>), containing -the number and frequently the names of -those who were to fight. When the day -came, they were led along the arena in procession, -and matched by pairs; and their -swords were examined by the editor to see if -they were sufficiently sharp. At first there -was a kind of sham battle, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praelusio</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span> -in which they fought with wooden swords, or -the like, and afterwards at the sound of the -trumpet the real battle began. When a gladiator -was wounded, the people called out -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">habet</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hoc habet</i>; and the one who was -vanquished lowered his arms in token of submission. -His fate, however, depended upon -the people, who pressed down their thumbs if -they wished him to be saved, but turned them -up if they wished him to be killed, and ordered -him to receive the sword (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ferrum recipere</i>), -which gladiators usually did with -the greatest firmness. If the life of a vanquished -gladiator was spared, he obtained his -discharge for that day, which was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">missio</i>; and hence in an exhibition of gladiators -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sine missione</i>, the lives of the conquered -were never spared. This kind of exhibition, -however, was forbidden by Augustus. Palms -were usually given to the victorious gladiators. -Old gladiators, and sometimes those -who had only fought for a short time, were -discharged from the service by the editor, at -the request of the people, who presented each -of them with a rudis or wooden sword; -whence those who were discharged were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rudiarii</i>.—Gladiators were divided -into different classes, according to their arms -and different mode of fighting, or other circumstances. -The names of the most important -of these classes are given in alphabetical -order:—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Andabatae</i> wore helmets without any -aperture for the eyes, so that they were -obliged to fight blindfold, and thus excited -the mirth of the spectators.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Catervarii</i> was -the name given to gladiators when they did -not fight in pairs, but when several fought -together.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Essedarii</i> fought from chariots, -like the Gauls and Britons. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Esseda">Esseda</a>.</span>]—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hoplomachi</i> -appear to have been those who fought -in a complete suit of armour.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Laqueatores</i> -were those who used a noose to catch their -adversaries.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Meridiani</i> were those who -fought in the middle of the day, after combats -with wild beasts had taken place in the -morning. These gladiators were very slightly -armed.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mirmillones</i> are said to have been so -called from their having the image of a fish -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mormyr</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μορμύρος</span>) on their helmets. Their -arms were like those of the Gauls, whence we -find that they were also called Galli. They -were usually matched with the Retiarii or -Thracians.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Provocatores</i> fought with the -Samnites, but we do not know any thing -respecting them except their name.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Retiarii</i> -carried only a three-pointed lance, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tridens</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fuscina</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fuscina">Fuscina</a></span>], and a net (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rete</i>), -which they endeavoured to throw over their -adversaries, and they then attacked them -with the fuscina while they were entangled. -The retiarius was dressed in a short tunic, -and wore nothing on his head. If he missed -his aim in throwing the net, he betook himself -to flight, and endeavoured to prepare his -net for a second cast, while his adversary -followed him round the arena in order to kill -him before he could make a second attempt. -His adversary was usually a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secutor</i> or a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mirmillo</i>. In the following woodcut a combat -is represented between a retiarius and a -mirmillo; the former has thrown his net over -the head of the latter, and is proceeding to -attack him with the fuscina. The lanista -stands behind the retiarius.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Samnites</i> were -so called, because they were armed in the -same way as that people, and were particularly -distinguished by the oblong <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scutum</i>.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Secutores</i> -are supposed by some writers to be -so called because the secutor in his combat -with the retiarius pursued the latter when -he failed in securing him by his net.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill195" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill195.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">A Mirmillo and a Retiarius. (Winckelmann, ‘Monum. Ined.,’ pl. 197.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Other writers think that they were the same as the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">supposititii</i>, who were gladiators substituted -in the place of those who were wearied or -were killed.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thraces</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Threces</i> were armed, -like the Thracians, with a round shield or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span> -buckler, and a short sword or dagger -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sica</i>). They were usually matched, as already -stated, with the mirmillones. The -following woodcut represents a combat between -two Thracians. A lanista stands behind -each.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill196a" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill196a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Thracians. (Winckelmann, l. c.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Gladius">GLĂDĬUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξίφος</span>, <em>poet.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄορ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάσγανον</span>), a -sword or glaive, by the Latin poets called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ensis</i>. The ancient sword had generally a -straight two-edged blade, rather broad, and -nearly of equal width from hilt to point. -The Greeks and Romans wore them on the -left side, so as to draw them out of the sheath -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vagina</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κολεός</span>) by passing the right hand -in front of the body to take hold of the -hilt with the thumb next to the blade. -The early Greeks used a very short sword. -Iphicrates, who made various improvements -in armour about 400 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, doubled its length. -The Roman sword was larger, heavier, and -more formidable than the Greek.</p> - - -<p id="Glandes">GLANDES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funda">Funda</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Graecostasis">GRAECŎSTĂSIS, a place in the Roman -forum, on the right of the Comitium, so -called because the Greek ambassadors, and -perhaps also deputies from other foreign or -allied states, were allowed to stand there to -hear the debates. When the sun was seen -from the Curia coming out between the Rostra -and the Graecostasis, it was mid-day; -and an accensus of the consul announced the -time with a clear loud voice.</p> - - -<p id="Grammateus">GRAMMĂTEUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεύς</span>), a clerk or -scribe. Among the great number of scribes -employed by the magistrates and government -of Athens, there were three of a higher -rank, who were real state-officers. One of -them was appointed by lot, by the senate, to -serve the time of the administration of each -prytany, though he always belonged to a -different prytany from that which was in -power. He was, therefore, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεὺς -κατὰ πρυτανείαν</span>. His province was to keep -the public records, and the decrees of the -people which were made during the time of -his office, and to deliver to the thesmothetae -the decrees of the senate.—The second <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">grammateus</i> -was elected by the senate, by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>, -and was entrusted with the custody of -the laws. His usual name was <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεὺς -τῆς βουλῆς</span>.—A third <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">grammateus</i> was called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεὺς τῆς πόλεως</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεὺς τῆς βουλῆς -καὶ τοῦ δήμου</span>. He was appointed by the -people, by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>, and the principal part -of his office was to read any laws or documents -which were required to be read in the assembly -or in the senate.</p> - - -<p id="Graphe">GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφή</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dice">Dice</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Graphiarium">GRĂPHĬĀRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stilus">Stilus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Graphis">GRĂPHIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Graphium">GRĂPHĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stilus">Stilus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Gubernaculum">GŬBERNĀCŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πηδάλιον</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Gustatio">GUSTĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill196b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill196b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Guttus on Coin of L. Plancus.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Guttus">GUTTUS, a vessel with a narrow mouth -or neck, from which the liquid was poured in -drops, whence its name. It was especially -used in sacrifices, and hence we find it represented -on the Roman coins struck by persons -who held any of the priestly offices. -The guttus was also used for keeping the -oil, with which persons were anointed in the -baths. [See <a href="#ill056b">p. 56</a>.]</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="ill197" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill197.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Gymnasium, after the description of Vitruvius.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Gymnasium">GYMNĀSIUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνάσιον</span>). The whole -education of a Greek youth was divided into -three parts,—grammar, music, and gymnastics -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γράμματα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μουσική</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμναστική</span>), to which -Aristotle adds a fourth, the art of drawing -or painting. Gymnastics, however, were -thought by the ancients a matter of such importance, -that this part of education alone -occupied as much time and attention as all -the others put together; and while the latter -necessarily ceased at a certain period of life, -gymnastics continued to be cultivated by persons -of all ages, though those of an advanced -age naturally took lighter and less fatiguing -exercises than boys and youths. The ancients, -and more especially the Greeks, seem -to have been thoroughly convinced that the -mind could not possibly be in a healthy state, -unless the body was likewise in perfect -health, and no means were thought, either -by philosophers or physicians, to be more -conducive to preserve or restore bodily health -than well-regulated exercise. The word -gymnastics is derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνός</span> (naked), -because the persons who performed their exercises -in public or private gymnasia were -either entirely naked, or merely covered by -the short <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">chiton</i>. Gymnastic exercises among -the Greeks seem to have been as old as -the Greek nation itself; but they were, as -might be supposed, of a rude and mostly of a -warlike character. They were generally held -in the open air, and in plains near a river, -which afforded an opportunity for swimming -and bathing. It was about the time of Solon -that the Greek towns began to build their -regular gymnasia as places of exercise for -the young, with baths, and other conveniences -for philosophers and all persons who -sought intellectual amusements. There -was probably no Greek town of any importance -which did not possess its gymnasium. -Athens possessed three great -gymnasia, the Lyceum (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λύκειον</span>), Cynosarges -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυνόσαργες</span>), and the Academia (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκαδημία</span>); -to which, in later times, several -smaller ones were added. Respecting the -superintendence and administration of the -gymnasia at Athens, we know that Solon in -his legislation thought them worthy of great -attention; and the transgression of some of -his laws relating to the gymnasia was punished -with death. His laws mention a magistrate, -called the gymnasiarch (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνασίαρχος</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνασιάρχης</span>), who was entrusted with -the whole management of the gymnasia, and -with everything connected therewith. His -office was one of the regular liturgies like the -choregia and trierarchy, and was attended -with considerable expense. He had to maintain -and pay the persons who were preparing -themselves for the games and contests in the -public festivals, to provide them with oil, -and perhaps with the wrestlers’ dust. It also -devolved upon him to adorn the gymnasium, -or the place where the agones were held. -The gymnasiarch was a real magistrate, and -invested with a kind of jurisdiction over all -those who frequented or were connected with -the gymnasia. Another part of his duties -was to conduct the solemn games at certain -great festivals, especially the torch-race -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαμπαδηφορία</span>), for which he selected the -most distinguished among the ephebi of the -gymnasia. The number of gymnasiarchs was -ten, one from every tribe. An office of very -great importance, in an educational point of -view, was that of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sophronistae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σωφρονίσται</span>). -Their province was to inspire the -youths with a love of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σωφροσύνη</span>, and to protect -this virtue against all injurious influences. -In early times their number at Athens -was ten, one from every tribe, with a salary -of one drachma per day. Their duty not -only required them to be present at all the -games of the ephebi, but to watch and correct -their conduct wherever they might meet -them, both within and without the gymnasium. -The instructions in the gymnasia -were given by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gymnastae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνασταί</span>) -and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Paedotribae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιδοτριβαί</span>); at a later -period <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hypopaedotribae</i> were added. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span> -Paedotribae were required to possess a knowledge -of all the various exercises which were -performed in the gymnasia; the Gymnastes -was the practical teacher, and was expected -to know the physiological effects and influences -on the constitution of the youths, and -therefore assigned to each of them those -exercises which he thought most suitable. -The anointing of the bodies of the youths -and strewing them with dust, before they -commenced their exercises, as well as the -regulation of their diet, was the duty of the -aliptae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aliptae">Aliptae</a>.</span>]—Among all the different -tribes of the Greeks the exercises which -were carried on in a Greek gymnasium were -either mere games, or the more important -exercises which the gymnasia had in common -with the public contests in the great -festivals. Among the former we may mention, -1. The game at ball (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαιριστική</span>), which -was in universal favour with the Greeks. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pila">Pila</a>.</span>] Every gymnasium contained one -large room for the purpose of playing at ball -in it (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαιριστήριον</span>). 2. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παίζειν ἑλκυστίνδα</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διελκυστίνδα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διὰ γραμμῆς</span>, was a game in -which one boy, holding one end of a rope, -tried to pull the boy who held its other end, -across a line marked between them on the -ground. 3. The top (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βεμβηξ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βέμβιξ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥόμβος</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρόβιλος</span>), which was as common an amusement -with Greek boys as it is with ours. -4. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντάλιθος</span>, which was a game with -five stones, which were thrown up from the -upper part of the hand and caught in the -palm. 5. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκαπέρδα</span>, which was a game in -which a rope was drawn through the upper -part of a tree or a post. Two boys, one on -each side of the post, turning their backs -towards one another, took hold of the ends -of the rope and tried to pull each other up. -This sport was also one of the amusements at -the Attic Dionysia. The more important -games, such as running (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρόμος</span>), throwing of -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίσκος</span> and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκων</span>, jumping and leaping -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅλμα</span>, with and without <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλτῆρες</span>), wrestling -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>), boxing (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμή</span>), the pancratium -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παγκράτιον</span>), <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πένταθλος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαμπαδηφορία</span>, dancing -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀρχήσις</span>), &c., are described in separate -articles. A gymnasium was not a Roman -institution. The regular training of boys in -the Greek gymnastics was foreign to Roman -manners, and even held in contempt. Towards -the end of the republic, many wealthy -Romans who had acquired a taste for Greek -manners, used to attach to their villas small -places for bodily exercise, sometimes called -gymnasia, sometimes palaestrae, and to adorn -them with beautiful works of art. The emperor -Nero was the first who built a public -gymnasium at Rome.</p> - - -<p id="Gymnesii">GYMNĒSII or GYMNĒTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνήσιοι</span>, or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνῆτες</span>), a class of bond-slaves at Argos, -who may be compared with the Helots at -Sparta. Their name shows that they attended -their masters on military service in the capacity -of light-armed troops.</p> - - -<p id="Gymnopaedia">GYMNŎPAEDĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνοπαιδία</span>), the festival -of “naked youths,” was celebrated at -Sparta every year in honour of Apollo Pythaeus, -Artemis, and Leto. The statues of -these deities stood in a part of the agora -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χορός</span>, and it was around these statues -that, at the gymnopaedia, Spartan youths -performed their choruses and dances in honour -of Apollo. The festival lasted for several, -perhaps for ten, days, and on the last day -men also performed choruses and dances in -the theatre; and during these gymnastic -exhibitions they sang the songs of Thaletas -and Alcman, and the paeans of Dionysodotus. -The leader of the chorus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χοροποιός</span>) -wore a kind of chaplet in commemoration -of the victory of the Spartans at Thyrea. -This event seems to have been closely connected -with the gymnopaedia, for those Spartans -who had fallen on that occasion were -always praised in songs at this festival. -The boys in their dances performed such -rhythmical movements as resembled the exercises -of the palaestra and the pancration, and -also imitated the wild gestures of the worship -of Dionysus. The whole season of the gymnopaedia, -during which Sparta was visited -by great numbers of strangers, was one of -great merriment and rejoicings, and old -bachelors alone seem to have been excluded -from the festivities. The introduction of the -gymnopaedia is generally assigned to the year -665 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - - -<p id="Gynaeconitis">GỸNAECONĪTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, <span class="smcap">Greek</span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Gynaeconomi">GỸNAECŎNŎMI or GỸNAECŎCOSMI -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυναικονόμοι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυναικοκόσμοι</span>), magistrates -at Athens, originally appointed to superintend -the conduct of Athenian women. Their -power was afterwards extended in such a -manner that they became a kind of police for -the purpose of preventing any excesses or -indecencies, whether committed by men or -by women. Hence they superintended the -meetings of friends even in private houses, -for instance, at weddings and on other festive -occasions.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="H_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">H</span></h2> - -<p id="Halteres" class="drop-capy">HALTĒRES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλτῆρες</span>) were certain masses -of stone or metal, which were used in -the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and -Romans. Persons who practised leaping frequently -performed their exercises with halteres -in both hands; but they were also -frequently used merely to exercise the body<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span> -in somewhat the same manner as our dumb-bells.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp59" id="ill199a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill199a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Halteres. (Tassie, ‘Catalogue,’ pl. 46.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Harmamaxa">HARMĂMAXA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁρμάμαξα</span>), a carriage for -persons, covered overhead and inclosed with -curtains. It was in general large, often -drawn by four horses, and attired with -splendid ornaments. It occupied among the -Persians the same place which the carpentum -did among the Romans, being used, especially -upon state occasions, for the conveyance -of women and children, of eunuchs, and -of the sons of the king with their tutors.</p> - - -<p id="Harmostae">HARMOSTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁρμοσταί</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁρμόζω</span>, to -fit or join together), the name of the governors -whom the Lacedaemonians, after the Peloponnesian -war, sent into their subject or -conquered towns, partly to keep them in submission, -and partly to abolish the democratical -form of government, and establish in -its stead one similar to their own. Although -in many cases they were ostensibly sent for -the purpose of abolishing the tyrannical -government of a town, and to restore the -people to freedom, yet they themselves acted -like kings or tyrants.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill199b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill199b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Flesh-hook. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Harpago">HARPĂGO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁρπάγη</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λύκος</span>: <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρεάγρα</span>), a -grappling-iron, a drag, a flesh-hook. In -war the grappling-iron, thrown at an enemy’s -ship, seized the rigging, and was then used -to drag the ship within reach, so that it -might be easily boarded or destroyed. These -instruments appear to have been much the -same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manus ferreae</i>. The flesh-hook -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρεάγρα</span>) was an instrument used in cookery, -resembling a hand with the fingers bent inwards, -used to take boiled meat out of the -caldron.</p> - - -<p id="Harpastum">HARPASTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pila">Pila</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Haruspices">HĂRUSPĬCES, or ĂRUSPĬCES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροσκόποι</span>), -soothsayers or diviners, who interpreted -the will of the gods. They originally -came to Rome from Etruria, whence haruspices -were often sent for by the Romans on -important occasions. The art of the haruspices -resembled in many respects that of the -augurs; but they never acquired that political -importance which the latter possessed, -and were regarded rather as means for -ascertaining the will of the gods than as possessing -any religious authority. They did -not in fact form any part of the ecclesiastical -polity of the Roman state during the republic; -they are never called sacerdotes, they did -not form a collegium, and had no magister -at their head. The art of the haruspices, -which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">haruspicina</i>, consisted in -explaining and interpreting the will of the -gods from the appearance of the entrails -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exta</i>) of animals offered in sacrifice, whence -they are sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">extispices</i>, and their -art <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">extispicium</i>; and also from lightning, -earthquakes, and all extraordinary phenomena -in nature, to which the general name -of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portenta</i> was given. Their art is said to -have been invented by the Etruscan Tages, -and was contained in certain books called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libri haruspicini</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fulgurales</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tonitruales</i>. -This art was considered by the Romans so -important at one time, that the senate decreed -that a certain number of young Etruscans, -belonging to the principal families in -the state, should always be instructed in it. -In later times, however, their art fell into -disrepute among well-educated Romans; and -Cicero relates a saying of Cato, that he wondered -that one haruspex did not laugh when -he saw another. The name of haruspex is -sometimes applied to any kind of soothsayer -or prophet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp60" id="ill200a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill200a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Hastae, spears.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Hasta">HASTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγχος</span>), a spear. The spear is -defined by Homer, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόρυ χαλκήρες</span>, “a pole -fitted with bronze,” and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόρυ χαλκοβάρες</span>, “a -pole heavy with bronze.” The bronze, for -which iron was afterwards substituted, was -indispensable to form the point (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰχμή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκωκή</span>, -Homer; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόγχη</span>, Xenophon; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">acies</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cuspis</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spiculum</i>) of the spear. Each of these two -essential parts is often put for the whole, so -that a spear is called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόρυ</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοράτιον</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰχμή</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόγχη</span>. Even the more especial -term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μελία</span>, meaning an ash-tree, is used in -the same manner, because the pole of the -spear was often the stem of a young ash,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span> -stripped of its bark and polished. The bottom -of the spear was often inclosed in a pointed -cap of bronze, called by the Ionic writers -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαυρωτῆρ</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐρίαχος</span>, and in Attic or common -Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στύραξ</span>. By forcing this into the -ground the spear was fixed erect. Many -of the lancers who accompanied the king of -Persia, had, instead of this spike at the bottom -of their spears, an apple or a pomegranate, -either gilt or silvered. Fig. 1. in the annexed -woodcut shows the top and bottom of -a spear, which is held by one of the king’s -guards in the sculptures at Persepolis. The -spear was used as a weapon of attack in three -different ways:—1. It was thrown from -catapults and other engines [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum</a></span>]. -2. It was thrust forward as a pike. 3. It -was commonly thrown by the hand. The -spear frequently had a leathern thong tied -to the middle of the shaft, which was called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγκύλη</span> by the Greeks, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amentum</i> by the -Romans, and which was of assistance in -throwing the spear. The annexed figure -represents the amentum attached to the spear -at the centre of gravity, a little above the -middle.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="ill200b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill200b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Hasta with Amentum. (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Under the general terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i> and -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγχος</span> were included various kinds of missiles, of -which the principal were as follow:—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lancea</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόγχη</span>), the lance, a comparatively slender -spear commonly used by the Greek horsemen. -The appendage shown in woodcut, Fig. 2, -enabled them to mount their horses with -greater facility.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pilum</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑσσός</span>), the javelin, -much thicker and stronger than the Grecian -lance. Its shaft, often made of cornel, was -4½ feet (three cubits) long, and the barbed -iron head was of the same length, but this -extended half way down the shaft, to which -it was attached with extreme care, so that -the whole length of the weapon was about -6 feet 9 inches. It was used either to throw -or to thrust with; it was peculiar to the -Romans, and gave the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pilani</i> to the -division of the army by which it was adopted.—Whilst -the heavy-armed Roman soldiers bore -the long lance and the thick and ponderous -javelin, the light-armed used smaller missiles, -which, though of different kinds, were included -under the general term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hastae velitares</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γρόσφοι</span>). The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γρόσφος</span> was a dart, with a -shaft about three feet long and an inch in -thickness: the iron head was a span long, -and so thin and acuminated as to be bent by -striking against anything, and thus rendered -unfit to be sent back against the enemy. -Fig. 3, in the preceding woodcut, shows one -which was found in a Roman entrenchment -in Gloucestershire.—The light infantry of the -Roman army used a similar weapon, called -<em>a spit</em> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">veru</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verutum</i>; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαύνιον</span>). It was -adopted by them from the Samnites and the -Volsci. Its shaft was 3½ feet long, its point -5 inches. Fig. 4, in the preceding woodcut, -represents the head of a dart in the Royal -Collection at Naples; it may be taken as a -specimen of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verutum</i>, and may be contrasted -with fig. 5, which is the head of a -lance in the same collection.—The Romans -adopted in like manner the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gaesum</i>, which -was properly a Celtic weapon; it was given -as a reward to any soldier who wounded an -enemy. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gaesum">Gaesum</a>.</span>]—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sparus</i> is evidently the -same word with the English <em>spar</em> and <em>spear</em>. -It was the rudest missile of the whole class.—Besides -the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jaculum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spiculum</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκων</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκόντιον</span>), which probably denoted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span> -darts, resembling in form the lance and -javelin, but much smaller, adapted consequently -to the light-armed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jaculatores</i>), and -used in hunting as well as in battle, we find -in classical authors the names of various -other spears, which were characteristic of -particular nations.—Thus, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sarissa</i> was -the spear peculiar to the Macedonians. This -was used both to throw and as a pike. It -exceeded in length all other missiles.—The -Thracian <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">romphea</i>, which had a very long -point, like the blade of a sword, was probably -not unlike the sarissa.—With these -weapons we may also class the Illyrian <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sibina</i>, -which resembled a hunting-pole.—The iron -head of the German spear, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">framea</i>, was -short and narrow, but very sharp. The -Germans used it with great effect either as a -lance or a pike: they gave to each youth a -framea and a shield on coming of age.—The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Falarica</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Phalarica</i> was the spear of the -Saguntines, and was impelled by the aid of -twisted ropes; it was large and ponderous, -having a head of iron a cubit in length, and -a ball of lead at its other end; it sometimes -carried flaming pitch and tow.—The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">matura</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tragula</i> were chiefly used in Gaul and -Spain: the tragula was probably barbed, as -it required to be cut out of the wound.—The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aclis</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cateia</i> were much smaller missiles.—<span id="Hasta_p">Among</span> -the decorations which the Roman -generals bestowed on their soldiers, more -especially for saving the life of a fellow-citizen, -was a spear without a head, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta pura</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">celibaris hasta</i>, having -been fixed into the body of a gladiator lying -dead on the arena, was used at marriages to -part the hair of the bride. A spear was -erected at auctions [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Auctio">Auctio</a></span>], and when tenders -were received for public offices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">locationes</i>). -It served both to announce, by a -conventional sign conspicuous at a distance, -that a sale was going on, and to show that it -was conducted under the authority of the -public functionaries. Hence an auction was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hasta</i>, and an auction-room <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hastarium</i>. -It was also the practice to set up a spear in -the court of the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Centumviri">Centumviri</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Hastati">HASTĀTI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_168">p. 168</a>, b.]</p> - - -<p id="Hecatombe">HĔCĂTOMBĒ. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacrificium">Sacrificium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Hecte">HECTĒ or HECTEUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕκτη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑκτεύς</span>), and -its half, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hemiecton</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hemiecteon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμίεκτον</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμιεκτέον</span>). In dry measures, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hecteus</i> was -the sixth part of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">medimnus</i>, and the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hemiecteon</i>, of course, the twelfth part. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hecteus</i> was equal to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">modius</i>, as -each contained 16 <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξέσται</span> or sextarii. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hecte</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hecteus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hemiecton</i> were also -the names of coins, but the accounts we have -of their value are very various. The only -consistent explanation is, that there were -different <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hectae</i>, derived from different units; -in fact, that these coins were not properly -<em>denominations</em> of money, but <em>subdivisions</em> of -the recognised denominations.</p> - - -<p id="Helepolis">HĔLĔPŎLIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑλέπολις</span>), “the taker of -cities,” a machine constructed by Demetrius -Poliorcetes, when he besieged the city of -Salamis in Cyprus. Its form was that of -a square tower, each side being 90 cubits -high and 45 wide. It rested on four -wheels, each eight cubits high. It was -divided into nine stories, the lower of which -contained machines for throwing great -stones, the middle large catapults for throwing -spears, and the highest other machines -for throwing smaller stones, together with -smaller catapults. It was manned with 200 -soldiers, besides those who moved it by pushing -the parallel beams at the bottom. At -the siege of Rhodes, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 306, Demetrius -employed an helepolis of still greater dimensions -and more complicated construction. -In subsequent ages we find the name of -“helepolis” applied to moving towers which -carried battering rams, as well as machines -for throwing spears and stones.</p> - - -<p id="Hellanodicae">HELLĀNŎDĬCAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑλλανοδίκαι</span>), the judges -in the Olympic games, of whom an account -is given under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Olympia">Olympia</a></span>. The same name -was also given to the judges or court-martial -in the Lacedaemonian army, and they were -probably first called by this name when Sparta -was at the head of the Greek confederacy.</p> - - -<p id="Hellenotamiae">HELLĒNOTĂMĬAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑλληνοταμίαι</span>), or -treasurers of the Greeks, were magistrates -appointed by the Athenians to receive the -contributions of the allied states. They -were first appointed <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 477, when Athens, -in consequence of the conduct of Pausanias, -had obtained the command of the allied -states. The money paid by the different -states, which was originally fixed at 460 -talents, was deposited in Delos, which was -the place of meeting for the discussion of all -common interests; and there can be no doubt -that the hellenotamiae not only received, but -were also the guardians of, these monies. -The office was retained after the treasury -was transferred to Athens on the proposal of -the Samians, but was of course abolished on -the conquest of Athens by the Lacedaemonians.</p> - - -<p id="Helotes">HĒLŌTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἴλωτες</span>), a class of bondsmen -peculiar to Sparta. They were Achaeans, -who had resisted the Dorian invaders to the -last, and had been reduced to slavery as the -punishment of their obstinacy. The Helots -were regarded as the property of the state, -which, while it gave their services to individuals, -reserved to itself the power of emancipating -them. They were attached to the -land, and could not be sold away from it.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span> -They cultivated the land, and paid to their -masters as rent a certain measure of corn, the -exact amount of which had been fixed at a -very early period, the raising of that amount -being forbidden under heavy imprecations. -Besides being engaged in the cultivation of -the land, the Helots attended on their masters -at the public meal, and many of them -were no doubt employed by the state in public -works. In war the Helots served as -light-armed troops (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψίλοι</span>), a certain number -of them attending every heavy-armed Spartan -to the field; at the battle of Plataeae there -were seven Helots to each Spartan. These -attendants were probably called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμπίτταρες</span> -(i.e. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφίσταντες</span>), and one of them in particular, -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεράπων</span>, or <em>servant</em>. The Helots -only served as hoplites in particular emergencies; -and on such occasions they were -generally emancipated. The first instance -of this kind was in the expedition of Brasidas, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 424. The treatment to which -the Helots were subjected was marked by the -most wanton cruelty; and they were regarded -by the Spartans with the greatest suspicion. -Occasionally the ephors selected young Spartans -for the secret service (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρυπτεία</span>) of wandering -over the country, in order to kill the -Helots. The Helots might be emancipated, -but there were several steps between them -and the free citizens, and it is doubtful -whether they were ever admitted to all the -privileges of citizenship. The following -classes of emancipated Helots are enumerated:—<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀφεταί</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀδεσπότοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρυκτῆρες</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεσποσιοναύται</span>, -and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεοδαμώδεις</span>. Of these the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀφεταί</span> were probably released from all service; -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρυκτῆρες</span> were those employed in -war; the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεσποσιοναύται</span> served on board the -fleet; and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεοδαμώδεις</span> were those who -had been possessed of freedom for some time. -Besides these, there were the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μόθωνες</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μόθακες</span>, who were domestic slaves, brought -up with the young Spartans, and then emancipated. -Upon being emancipated they -received permission to dwell where they -wished.</p> - - -<p id="Hemerodromi">HĒMĔRŎDRŎMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμεροδρόμοι</span>), couriers -in the Greek states, who could keep on running -all day, and were often employed to -carry news of important events. They were -trained for the purpose, and could perform -the longest journeys in an almost incredibly -short space of time. Such couriers were in -times of danger stationed on some eminence -in order to observe anything of importance -that might happen, and carry the intelligence -with speed to the proper quarter. Hence we -frequently find them called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hemeroscopi</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμεροσκόποι</span>).</p> - - -<p id="Hemicyclium">HĒMĬCYCLĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμικύκλιον</span>), a semicircular -seat, for the accommodation of persons -engaged in conversation; also the semicircular -seat round the tribunal in a basilica.</p> - - -<p id="Hemina">HĒMĬNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμίνα</span>), the name of a Greek -and Roman measure, seems to be nothing -more than the dialectic form used by the -Sicilian and Italian Greeks for <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμίσυ</span>. It -was therefore applied to the half of the -standard fluid measure, the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξέστης</span>, which the -other Greeks called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοτύλη</span>, and the word -passed into the Roman metrical system, -where it is used with exactly the same force, -namely for a measure which is half of the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sextarius</i>, and equal to the Greek <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cotylé</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Hendeca">HENDĔCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ ἕνδεκα</span>), the Eleven, were -magistrates at Athens of considerable importance. -They were annually chosen by lot, -one from each of the ten tribes, and a secretary -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεύς</span>), who must properly be regarded -as their servant (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπηρέτης</span>), though he -formed one of their number. The principal -duty of the Eleven was the care and management -of the public prison (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεσμωτήριον</span>), -which was entirely under their jurisdiction. -The prison, however, was seldom used by the -Athenians as a mere place of confinement, -serving generally for punishments and executions. -When a person was condemned to -death he was immediately given into the -custody of the Eleven, who were then bound -to carry the sentence into execution according -to the laws. The most common mode of -execution was by hemlock juice (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώνειον</span>), -which was drunk after sunset. The Eleven -had under them gaolers, executioners, and -torturers. When torture was inflicted in -causes affecting the state, it was either done -in the immediate presence of the Eleven, or -by their servant (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ δήμιος</span>). The Eleven -usually had only to carry into execution the -sentence passed in the courts of law and the -public assemblies; but in some cases they -possessed jurisdiction. This was the case in -those summary proceedings called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apagoge</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ephegesis</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">endeixis</i>, in which the penalty -was fixed by law, and might be inflicted by -the court on the confession or conviction of -the accused, without appealing to any of the -jury courts.</p> - -<p id="Hephaesteia">HĒPHAESTEIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lampadephoria">Lampadephoria</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Heraea">HĒRAEA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡραῖα</span>), the name of festivals -celebrated in honour of Hera in all the towns -of Greece where the worship of this divinity -was introduced. The original seat of her -worship was Argos; whence her festivals in -other places were, more or less, imitations of -those which were celebrated at Argos. Her -service was performed by the most distinguished -priestesses of the place; one of them -was the high-priestess, and the Argives -counted their years by the date of her office.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span> -The Heraea of Argos were celebrated every -fifth year. One of the great solemnities -which took place on the occasion, was a magnificent -procession to the great temple of -Hera, between Argos and Mycenae. A vast -number of young men assembled at Argos, -and marched in armour to the temple of the -goddess. They were preceded by one hundred -oxen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑκατόμβη</span>, whence the festival is -also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑκατόμβαια</span>). The high-priestess -accompanied this procession, riding in a chariot -drawn by two white oxen. The 100 -oxen were sacrificed, and their flesh distributed -among all the citizens; after which -games and contests took place. Of the Heraea -celebrated in other countries, those of -Samos, which island derived the worship of -Hera from Argos, were perhaps the most -brilliant of all the festivals of this divinity. -The Heraea of Elis, which were celebrated -in the fourth year of every Olympiad, were -also conducted with considerable splendour.</p> - - -<p id="Heres">HĒRES.—(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> To obtain the right -of inheritance as well as citizenship at Athens -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγχιστεία</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολιτεία</span>), legitimacy was a -necessary qualification. When an Athenian -died leaving legitimate sons, they shared the -inheritance, like our heirs in gavelkind; the -only advantage possessed by the eldest son -being the first choice in the division. Every -man of full age and sound mind, not under -durance or improper influence, was competent -to make a will; but if he had a son he -could not disinherit him, although his will -might take effect in case the son did not -complete his seventeenth year. If there was -but one son, he took the whole estate; but -if he had sisters, it was incumbent on him to -provide for them, and give them suitable -marriage portions; they were then called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίπροικοι</span>. On failure of sons and their issue, -daughters and daughters’ children succeeded, -and there seems to have been no limit to the -succession in the descending line. It will -assist the student to be informed, that <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνεψιός</span> -signifies a first cousin. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνεψιαδοῦς</span> is a first -cousin’s son; formed in the same manner as -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀδελφιδοῦς</span> from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀδελφός</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυγατριδοῦς</span> from -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυγατήρ</span>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλῆρος</span> is the subject-matter of -inheritance, or (in one sense of the word) -the inheritance; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κληρόνομος</span> the heir. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγχιστεία</span>, -proximity of blood in reference to -succession, and sometimes right of succession. -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συγγένεια</span>, natural consanguinity. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συγγενεῖς</span>, -collateral relations, are opposed to -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔκγονοι</span>, lineal descendants.—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> -A person might become an heres by being -named as such (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">institutus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">factus</i>) -in a will executed by a competent person, -according to the forms required by law [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Testamentum">Testamentum</a></span>]. -The testator might either name -one person as heres, or he might name -several heredes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coheredes</i>), and he might -divide the hereditas among them as he -pleased. The shares of the heredes were -generally expressed by reference to the divisions -of the As: thus, “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">heres ex asse</span>” is -heres to the whole property; “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">heres ex -dodrante</span>,” heres to three-fourths; “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">heres -ex semuncia</span>,” heir to one twenty-fourth. -If there were several heredes named, without -any definite shares being given to them, the -property belonged to them in equal shares. -As a general rule, only Roman citizens could -be named as heredes in the will of a Roman -citizen; but a slave could also be named -heres, though he had no power to make a -will, and a filius-familias could also be named -heres, though he was under the same incapacity. -Persons, not Roman citizens, who -had received the commercium, could take -hereditates, legata and fideicommissa by testament.—Heredes -were either Necessarii, Sui -et Necessarii, or Extranei. The heres necessarius -was a slave of the testator, who was -made an heres and liber at the same time; -and he was called necessarius, because of the -necessity that he was under of accepting the -hereditas. The heredes sui et necessarii -were sons and daughters, and the sons and -daughters of a son, who were in the power -of a testator. These heredes sui were called -necessarii, because of the necessity that they -were under, according to the civil law, of -taking the hereditas with its incumbrances. -But the praetor permitted such persons to -refuse the hereditas (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">abstinere se ab hereditate</i>), -and to allow the property to be sold -to pay the testator’s debts; and he gave -the same privilege to a mancipated son -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui in causa mancipii est</i>). All other -heredes are called extranei, and comprehend -all persons who are not in the power -of a testator, such as emancipated children. -A certain time was allowed to extranei -for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cretio hereditatis</i>, that is, for -them to determine whether they would take -the hereditas or not: hence the phrase, -“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cernere hereditatem</span>.”—If a man died -intestate, the hereditas came to the heredes -sui, and was then called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legitima hereditas</i>. -If an intestate had no sui heredes, the Twelve -Tables gave the hereditas to the agnati [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cognati">Cognati</a></span>], -and if there were no agnati, to the -gentiles. If a man had a son in his power, -he was bound either to make him heres, or -to exheredate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exheredare</i>) him expressly -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nominatim</i>). If he passed him over in -silence (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silentio praetericrit</i>), the will was -altogether void (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inutile</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">non jure factum</i>). -Other liberi could be passed over, and the -will would still be a valid will; but the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span> -liberi so passed over took a certain portion -of the hereditas <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adcrescendo</i>, as it was -termed, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jure adcrescendi</i>. It was necessary -either to institute as heredes, or to exheredate -posthumous children <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nominatim</i>, otherwise -the will, which was originally valid, -became invalid (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ruptum</i>); and the will became -invalid by the birth either of a posthumous -son or daughter, or, as the phrase was, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adgnascendo rumpitur testamentum</i>. The -heres represented the testator and intestate, -and had not only a claim to all his property -and all that was due to him, but was bound -by all his obligations. He succeeded to the -sacra privata, and was bound to maintain -them, but only in respect of the property, for -the obligation of the sacra privata was -attached to property and to the heres only -as the owner of it. Hence the expression -“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sine sacris hereditas</span>” meant an hereditas -unencumbered with sacra.</p> - - -<p id="Hermae">HERMAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑρμαῖ</span>), and the diminutive -Hermuli (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑρμίδια</span>), statues composed of a -head, usually that of the god Hermes, placed -on a quadrangular pillar, the height of which -corresponds to the stature of the human -body. Such statues were very numerous -at Athens. So great was the demand -for these works that the words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑρμογλύφος</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑρμογλυφικὴ τέχνη</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑρμογλυφεῖον</span>, -were used as the generic terms for a sculptor, -his art, and his studio. Houses in -Athens had one of these statues placed at -the door, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑρμῆς στροφαῖος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στροφεύς</span>; -and sometimes also in the peristyle. The -great reverence attached to them is shown -by the alarm and indignation which were -felt at Athens in consequence of the mutilation -of the whole number in a single night, -just before the sailing of the Sicilian expedition. -They were likewise placed in front -of temples, near to tombs, in the gymnasia, -palaestrae, libraries, porticoes, and public -places, at the corners of streets, on high -roads as sign-posts, with distances inscribed -upon them, and on the boundaries of lands -and states, and at the gates of cities. Small -Hermae were also used as pilasters, and as -supports for furniture and utensils. Many -statues existed of other deities, of the same -form as the Hermae; which no doubt originated -in the same manner; and which -were still called by the generic name of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermae</i>; even though the bust upon them -was that of another deity. Some statues of -this kind are described by a name compounded -of that of Hermes and another divinity: -thus we have <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermanubis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermares</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermathena</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermeracles</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermeros</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermopan</i>. -There is another class of these works, in -which the bust represented no deity at all, -but was simply the portrait of a man. Even -these statues, however, retained the names -of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hermae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Termini</i>. The Hermae were -used by the wealthy Romans for the decoration -of their houses. The following engraving exhibits -a Hermes decorated with garlands and -surrounded with the implements of his worship.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="ill204" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill204.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Hermes. (From a Bas-relief.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Hermaea">HERMAEA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕρμαια</span>), festivals of Hermes, -celebrated in various parts of Greece. As -Hermes was the tutelary deity of the gymnasia -and palaestrae, the boys at Athens celebrated -the Hermaea in the gymnasia.</p> - - -<p id="Hestiasis">HESTIĀSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑστίασις</span>), was a species of -liturgy, and consisted in giving a feast to -one of the tribes at Athens (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὴν φυλὴν ἑστιᾶν</span>). -It was provided for each tribe at the expense -of a person belonging to that tribe, who was -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑστιάτωρ</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Hieroduli">HĬĔRODŪLI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερόδουλοι</span>), persons of both -sexes, who were devoted like slaves to the -worship of the gods. They were of Eastern<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span> -origin, and are most frequently met with in -connection with the worship of the deities of -Syria, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor. They -consisted of two classes; one composed of -slaves, properly so called, who attended to -all the lower duties connected with the worship -of the gods, cultivated the sacred lands, -&c., and whose descendants continued in the -same servile condition; and the other comprising -persons who were personally free, -but had dedicated themselves as slaves to the -gods, and who were either attached to the -temples, or were dispersed throughout the -country and brought to the gods the money -they had gained. To the latter class belonged -the women, who prostituted their persons, -and presented to the gods the money they -had obtained by this means. This class was -only found in Greece, in connection with the -worship of those divinities who were of -Eastern origin, or whose religious rites were -borrowed from the East. This was the case -with Aphrodite (Venus), who was originally -an Oriental goddess.</p> - - -<p id="Hieromnemones">HĬĔRŎMNĒMŎNES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερομνήμονες</span>), the -more honourable of the two classes of representatives -who composed the Amphictyonic -council. An account of them is given under -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphictyones">Amphictyones</a></span>.—We also read of hieromnemones -in Grecian states, distinct from the -Amphictyonic representatives of this name. -Thus the priests of Poseidon, at Megara, were -called hieromnemones, and at Byzantium, -which was a colony of Megara, the chief -magistrate in the state appears to have been -called by this name.</p> - - -<p id="Hieronicae">HĬĔRŎNĪCAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Athletae">Athletae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Hieropoii">HĬĔRŎPOII (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροποιοί</span>), sacrificers at -Athens, of whom ten were appointed every -year, and conducted all the usual sacrifices, -as well as those belonging to the quinquennial -festivals, with the exception of those -of the Panathenaea.</p> - - -<p id="Hilaria">HĬLĂRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱλάρια</span>), a Roman festival, celebrated -on the 25th of March, in honour of -Cybelé, the mother of the gods.</p> - - -<p id="Hippobotae">HIPPŎBŎTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱπποβόται</span>), the feeders of -horses, the name of the nobility of Chalcis in -Euboea, corresponding to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππεῖς</span> in other -Greek states.</p> - - -<p id="Hippodromus">HIPPŎDRŎMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππόδρομος</span>), the name -by which the Greeks designated the place appropriated -to the horse-races, both of chariots -and of single horses, which formed a part of -their games. The word was also applied to -the races themselves. In Homer’s vivid description -(<cite>Il.</cite> xxiii., 262-650) the nature of -the contest and the arrangements for it are -very clearly indicated. There is no artificially -constructed hippodrome; but an existing -land-mark or monument (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σῆμα</span>) is chosen as -the goal (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέρμα</span>), round which the chariots -had to pass, leaving it on the left hand, and -so returning to the Greek ships on the sea-shore, -from which they had started. The -chariots were five in number, each with two -horses and a single driver, who stood upright -in his chariot. The critical point of the race -was to turn the goal as sharp as possible, -with the nave of the near wheel almost -grazing it, and to do this safely: very often -the driver was here thrown out, and the -chariot broken in pieces. The account in -Homer will give us an equally good idea of a -chariot-race at Olympia, or in any other of the -Greek games of later times. The general form -of the hippodrome was an oblong, with a -semicircular end. For an account of the -chariot races at Rome see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Histrio">HISTRĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποκριτής</span>), an actor.—(1) -<span class="smcap">Greek</span>. It is shown in the articles <span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a></span> -and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a></span> that the Greek drama originated -in the chorus which at the festivals of -Dionysus danced around his altar, and that -at first one person detached himself from the -chorus, and, with mimic gesticulation, related -his story either to the chorus or in conversation -with it. If the story thus acted -required more than one person, they were all -represented in succession by the same actor, -and there was never more than one person on -the stage at a time. This custom was retained -by Thespis and Phrynichus. Aeschylus -introduced a second and a third actor; -and the number of three actors was but seldom -exceeded in any Greek drama. The -three regular actors were distinguished by -the technical names of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωταγωνιστής</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δευτεραγωνιστής</span>, -and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριταγωνιστής</span>, which indicated -the more or less prominent part which an -actor had to perform in the drama. The female -characters of a play were always performed -by young men. A distinct class of persons, -who made acting on the stage their profession, -was unknown to the Greeks during the -period of their great dramatists. The earliest -and greatest dramatic poets, Thespis, Sophocles, -and probably Aeschylus also, acted in -their own plays, and in all probability as -protagonistae. It was not thought degrading -in Greece to perform on the stage. At -a later period persons began to devote themselves -exclusively to the profession of actors, -and distinguished individuals received even -as early as the time of Demosthenes exorbitant -sums for their performances.—(2) -<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">histrio</i>, by which the -Roman actor was called, is said to have been -formed from the Etruscan <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hister</i>, which signified -a ludio or dancer. In the year 364 -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Rome was visited by a plague, and as no -human means could stop it, the Romans are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span> -said to have tried to avert the anger of the -gods by scenic plays (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi scenici</i>), which, -until then, had been unknown to them; and -as there were no persons at Rome prepared -for such performances, the Romans sent to -Etruria for them. The first histriones, who -were thus introduced from Etruria, were -dancers, and performed their movements to -the accompaniment of a flute. Roman youths -afterwards not only imitated these dancers, -but also recited rude and jocose verses, -adapted to the movements of the dance and -the melody of the flute. This kind of amusement, -which was the basis of the Roman -drama, remained unaltered until the time of -Livius Andronicus, who introduced a slave -upon the stage for the purpose of singing or -reciting the recitative, while he himself performed -the appropriate dance and gesticulation. -A further step in the development of -the drama, which is likewise ascribed to -Livius, was, that the dancer and reciter -carried on a dialogue, and acted a story with -the accompaniment of the flute. The name -histrio, which originally signified a dancer, -was now applied to the actors in the drama. -The atellanae were played by freeborn Romans, -while the regular drama was left to -the histriones, who formed a distinct class of -persons. The histriones were not citizens; -they were not contained in the tribes, nor -allowed to be enlisted as soldiers in the -Roman legions; and if any citizen entered -the profession of an histrio, he, on this account, -was excluded from his tribe. The -histriones were therefore always either freedmen, -strangers, or slaves, and many passages -of Roman writers show that they were generally -held in great contempt. Towards the -close of the republic it was only such men as -Cicero, who, by their Greek education, raised -themselves above the prejudices of their -countrymen, and valued the person no less -than the talents of an Aesopus and a Roscius. -But notwithstanding this low estimation -in which actors were generally held, -distinguished individuals among them attracted -immense crowds to the theatres, and -were exorbitantly paid. Roscius alone received -every day that he performed one -thousand denarii, and Aesopus left his son a -fortune of 200,000 sesterces, which he had -acquired solely by his profession. The pay -of the actors was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lucar</i>, which word -was perhaps confined originally to the payment -made to those who took part in the -religious services celebrated in groves.</p> - - -<p id="Homoei">HŎMOEI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅμοιοι</span>), the Equals, were those -Spartans who possessed the full rights of -citizenship, and are opposed to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπομείονες</span>, -or those who had undergone some kind of -civil degradation. This distinction between -the citizens was no part of the ancient Spartan -constitution. In the institution ascribed -to Lycurgus, every citizen had a certain portion -of land; but as in course of time many -citizens lost their lands through various -causes, they were unable to contribute to the -expenses of the syssitia, and therefore ceased -to possess the full rights of Spartan citizens. -Hence the distinction appears to have arisen -between the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅμοιοι</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπομείονες</span>, the former -being those who were in the possession of -their land, and consequently able to contribute -to the syssitia, the latter those who -through having no land were unable to do so. -The Homoei were the ruling class in the -state. They filled all the public offices with -the exception of the Ephoralty, and they probably -met together to determine upon public -affairs under the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔκκλητοι</span> in an assembly -of their own, which is called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ μικρὰ -ἐκκλησία</span>, to distinguish it from the assembly -of the whole body of Spartan citizens.</p> - - -<p id="Honores">HŎNŌRES, the high offices of the state to -which qualified individuals were called by the -votes of the Roman citizens. The words -“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">magistratus</span>” and “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">honores</span>” are sometimes -coupled together. The capacity of enjoying -the honores was one of the distinguishing -marks of citizenship. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a>.</span>] <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Honor</i> was -distinguished from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">munus</i>. The latter was -an office connected with the administration of -the state, and was attended with cost (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sumptus</i>) -but not with rank (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dignitas</i>). Honor -was properly said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deferri, dari</i>; munus was -said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imponi</i>. A person who held a magistrates -might be said to discharge <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">munera</i>, -but only as incident to the office, for the -office itself was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">honor</i>. Such munera as -these were public games and other things of -the kind.</p> - - -<p id="Hoplitae">HOPLĪTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Hora">HŌRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dies">Dies</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Horologium">HŌRŎLŎGĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὡρολόγιον</span>), the name of -the various instruments by means of which -the ancients measured the time of the day -and night. The earliest and simplest horologia -of which mention is made, were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">polos</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόλος</span>) and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gnomon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γνώμων</span>). Both -divided the day into twelve equal parts, and -were a kind of sun-dial. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gnomon</i>, which -was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stoicheion</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στοιχεῖον</span>), was the -more simple of the two, and probably the -more ancient. It consisted of a staff or pillar -standing perpendicular, in a place exposed to -the sun (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκιάθηρον</span>), so that the length of its -shadow might be easily ascertained. The -shadow of the gnomon was measured by feet, -which were probably marked on the place -where the shadow fell. In later times the -name gnomon was applied to any kind of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span> -sun-dial, especially to its finger which threw -the shadow, and thus pointed to the hour. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">polos</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">heliotropion</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡλιοτρόπιον</span>), on the -other hand, seems to have been a more perfect -kind of sun-dial; but it appears, nevertheless, -not to have been much used. It -consisted of a basin (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεκανίς</span>), in the middle -of which the perpendicular staff or finger -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γνώμων</span>) was erected, and in it the twelve -parts of the day were marked by lines.—Another -kind of horologium, was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clepsydra</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλεψύδρα</span>). It derived its name from -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλέπτειν</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕδωρ</span>, as in its original and -simple form it consisted of a vessel with -several little openings (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρυπήματα</span>) at the -bottom, through which the water contained -in it escaped, as it were by stealth. This instrument -seems at first to have been used -only for the purpose of measuring the time -during which persons were allowed to speak -in the courts of justice at Athens. It was a -hollow globe, probably somewhat flat at the -top-part, where it had a short neck (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλός</span>), -like that of a bottle, through which the water -was poured into it. This opening might be -closed by a lid or stopper (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πῶμα</span>), to prevent -the water running out at the bottom. As -the time for speaking in the Athenian courts -was thus measured by water, the orators frequently -use the term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕδωρ</span> instead of the time -allowed to them. An especial officer (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ ἐφ’ -ὕδωρ</span>) was appointed in the courts for the -purpose of watching the clepsydra, and stopping -it when any documents were read, -whereby the speaker was interrupted. The -time, and consequently the quantity of water -allowed to a speaker, depended upon the importance -of the case. The clepsydra used, in -the courts of justice was, properly speaking, -no horologium; but smaller ones, made of -glass, and of the same simple structure, were -undoubtedly used very early in families for -the purposes of ordinary life, and for dividing -the day into twelve equal parts. In these -glass-clepsydrae the division into twelve -parts must have been visible, either on the -glass globe itself, or in the basin into which -the water flowed.—The first horologium with -which the Romans became acquainted was a -sun-dial (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solarium</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horologium sciothericum</i>), -and was said to have been brought to -Rome by Papirius Cursor twelve years before -the war with Pyrrhus. But as sun-dials -were useless when the sky was cloudy, P. -Scipio Nasica, in his censorship, 159 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, -established a public clepsydra, which indicated -the hours both of day and night. This -clepsydra was in after times generally called -solarium. After the time of Scipio Nasica -several horologia, chiefly solaria, seem to -have been erected in various public places at -Rome. Clepsydrae were used by the Romans -in their camps, chiefly for the purpose of -measuring accurately the four vigiliae into -which the night was divided. The custom -of using clepsydrae as a check upon the -speakers in the courts of justice at Rome, -was introduced by a law of Cn. Pompeius, in -his third consulship. Before that time the -speakers had been under no restrictions, but -spoke as long as they deemed proper. At -Rome, as at Athens, the time allowed to the -speakers depended upon the importance of -the case.</p> - - -<p id="Horreum">HORRĔUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὡρεῖον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτοφυλακεῖον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποθήκη</span>) -was, according to its etymological signification, -a place in which ripe fruits, and -especially corn, were kept, and thus answered -to our granary. During the empire -the name horreum was given to any place -destined for the safe preservation of things of -any kind. Thus we find it applied to a place -in which beautiful works of art were kept, -to cellars (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horrea subterranea</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horrea vinaria</i>), -to depôts for merchandise, and all sorts of -provisions (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horreum penarium</i>). Seneca even -calls his library a horreum. But the more -general application of the word horreum was -to places for keeping fruit and corn; and as -some kinds of fruit required to be kept more -dry than others, the ancients had besides the -horrea subterranea, or cellars, two other -kinds, one of which was built like every other -house upon the ground; but others (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horrea -pensilia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sublimia</i>) were erected above the -ground, and rested upon posts or stone -pillars, that the fruits kept in them might -remain dry.—From about the year 140 after -Christ, Rome possessed two kinds of public -horrea. The one class consisted of buildings -in which the Romans might deposit their -goods, and even their money, securities, and -other valuables. The second and more important -class of horrea, which may be termed -public granaries, were buildings in which a -plentiful supply of corn was constantly kept -at the expense of the state, and from which, -in seasons of scarcity, the corn was distributed -among the poor, or sold at a moderate -price.</p> - - -<p id="Hortus">HORTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κῆπος</span>), garden. Our knowledge -of the horticulture of the Greeks is very -limited. In fact the Greeks seem to have -had no great taste for landscape beauties, and -the small number of flowers with which they -were acquainted afforded but little inducement -to ornamental horticulture. At Athens -the flowers most cultivated were probably -those used for making garlands, such as violets -and roses. In the time of the Ptolemies -the art of gardening seems to have advanced -in the favourable climate of Egypt so far,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span> -that a succession of flowers was obtained all -the year round. The Romans, like the -Greeks, laboured under the disadvantage of a -very limited flora. This disadvantage they -endeavoured to overcome, by arranging the -materials they did possess in such a way as -to produce a striking effect. We have a very -full description of a Roman garden in a -letter of the younger Pliny, in which he describes -his Tuscan villa. In front of the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porticus</i> there was generally a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">xystus</i>, or flat -piece of ground, divided into flower-beds of -different shapes by borders of box. There -were also such flower-beds in other parts of -the garden. Sometimes they were raised so -as to form terraces, and their sloping sides -planted with evergreens or creepers. The -most striking features of a Roman garden -were lines of large trees, among which the -plane appears to have been a great favourite, -planted in regular order; alleys or walks (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambulationes</i>) -formed by closely clipped hedges -of box, yew, cypress, and other evergreens; -beds of acanthus, rows of fruit-trees, especially -of vines, with statues, pyramids, fountains, -and summer-houses (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diaetae</i>). The -trunks of the trees and the parts of the house -or any other buildings which were visible -from the garden, were often covered with -ivy. In one respect the Roman taste differed -most materially from that of the present day, -namely, in their fondness for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ars topiaria</i>, -which consisted in tying, twisting, or -cutting trees and shrubs (especially the box) -into the figures of animals, ships, letters, &c. -Their principal garden-flowers seem to have -been violets and roses, and they also had the -crocus, narcissus, lily, gladiolus, iris, poppy, -amaranth, and others. Conservatories and -hot-houses are frequently mentioned by Martial. -Flowers and plants were also kept in -the central place of the peristyle [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>], -on the roofs and in the windows of houses. -An ornamental garden was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viridarium</i>, -and the gardener <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">topiarius</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viridarius</i>. -The common name for a gardener is villicus -or cultor hortorum.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill208" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill208.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Hortus, Garden. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Hospitium">HOSPĬTĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προξενία</span>), hospitality, -was in Greece, as well as at Rome, of a two-fold -nature, either private or public, in so -far as it was either established between individuals, -or between two states. (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hospitium -privatum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hospitium publicum</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενία</span> and -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προξενία</span>.) In ancient Greece the stranger, -as such (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξένος</span> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostis</i>), was looked upon -as an enemy; but whenever he appeared -among another tribe or nation without any -sign of hostile intentions, he was considered -not only as one who required aid, but as a -suppliant, and Zeus was the protecting deity -of strangers and suppliants (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζεὺς ξένιος</span>). On -his arrival, therefore, the stranger was kindly -received, and provided with every thing necessary -to make him comfortable. It seems -to have been customary for the host, on the -departure of the stranger, to break a die -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστράγαλος</span>) in two, one half of which he -himself retained, while the other half was -given to the stranger; and when at any -future time they or their descendants met, -they had a means of recognising each other, -and the hospitable connection was renewed. -Hospitality thus not only existed between the -persons who had originally formed it, but -was transferred as an inheritance from father -to son. What has been said hitherto, only -refers to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hospitium privatum</i>; but of far -greater importance was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hospitium publicum</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προξενία</span>, sometimes simply <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενία</span>) or -public hospitality, which existed between two -states, or between an individual or a family -on the one hand, and a whole state on the -other. Of the latter kind of public hospitality -many instances are recorded, such as that -between the Peisistratids and Sparta, in -which the people of Athens had no share. -The hospitium publicum among the Greeks -arose undoubtedly from the hospitium privatum, -and it may have originated in two ways. -When the Greek tribes were governed by -chieftains or kings, the private hospitality -existing between the ruling families of two -tribes may have produced similar relations -between their subjects, which, after the abolition -of the kingly power, continued to exist -between the new republics as a kind of political<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span> -inheritance of former times. Or a person -belonging to one state might have either -extensive connections with the citizens of -another state, or entertain great partiality -for the other state itself, and thus offer to -receive all those who came from that state -either on private or public business, and to -act as their patron in his own city. This he -at first did merely as a private individual, -but the state to which he offered this kind -service would naturally soon recognise and -reward him for it. When two states established -public hospitality, and no individuals -came forward to act as the representatives of -their state, it was necessary that in each -state persons should be appointed to show -hospitality to, and watch over the interests -of, all persons who came from the state connected -by hospitality. The persons who were -appointed to this office as the recognised -agents of the state for which they acted were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proxeni</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόξενοι</span>), but those who undertook -it voluntarily <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">etheloproxeni</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐθελοπρόξενοι</span>). -The office of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proxenus</i>, which bears -great resemblance to that of a modern consul -or minister-resident, was in some cases hereditary -in a particular family. When a state -appointed a proxenus, it either sent out one -of its own citizens to reside in the other -state, or it selected one of the citizens of this -state, and conferred upon him the honour of -proxenus. The former was, in early times, -the custom of Sparta, where the kings had -the right of selecting from among the Spartan -citizens those whom they wished to send -out as proxeni to other states. But in subsequent -times this custom seems to have been -given up, for we find that at Athens the -family of Callias were the proxeni of Sparta, -and at Argos, the Argive Alciphron. The -principal duties of a proxenus were to receive -those persons, especially ambassadors, who -came from the state which he represented; to -procure for them admission to the assembly, -and seats in the theatre; to act as the patron -of the strangers, and to mediate between the -two states if any disputes arose. If a stranger -died in the state, the proxenus of his country -had to take care of the property of the deceased.—The -hospitality of the Romans was, -as in Greece, either hospitium privatum or -publicum. Private hospitality with the Romans, -however, seems to have been more -accurately and legally defined than in Greece. -The character of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hospes</i>, <em>i.e.</em> a person connected -with a Roman by ties of hospitality, -was deemed even more sacred, and to have -greater claims upon the host, than that of a -person connected by blood or affinity. The -relation of a hospes to his Roman friend was -next in importance to that of a cliens. The -obligations which the connection of hospitality -with a foreigner imposed upon a Roman, -were to receive in his house his hospes -when travelling; and to protect, and, in case -of need, to represent him as his patron in the -courts of justice. Private hospitality thus -gave to the hospes the claims upon his host -which the client had on his patron, but without -any degree of the dependence implied in -the clientele. Private hospitality was established -between individuals by mutual presents, -or by the mediation of a third person, -and hallowed by religion; for Jupiter hospitalis -was thought to watch over the jus hospitii, -as Zeus xenios did with the Greeks, and -the violation of it was as great a crime and -impiety at Rome as in Greece. When hospitality -was formed, the two friends used to -divide between themselves a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tessera hospitalis</i>, -by which, afterwards, they themselves -or their descendants—for the connection was -hereditary as in Greece—might recognise one -another. Hospitality, when thus once established, -could not be dissolved except by a -formal declaration (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">renuntiatio</i>), and in this -case the tessera hospitalis was broken to -pieces. Public hospitality seems likewise to -have existed at a very early period among -the nations of Italy; but the first direct mention -of public hospitality being established -between Rome and another city, is after the -Gauls had departed from Rome, when it was -decreed that Caere should be rewarded for -its good services by the establishment of -public hospitality between the two cities. -The public hospitality after the war with the -Gauls gave to the Caerites the right of -isopolity with Rome, that is, the civitas -without the suffragium and the honores. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>] In the later times of the republic -we no longer find public hospitality established -between Rome and a foreign state; -but a relation which amounted to the same -thing was introduced in its stead, that is, -towns were raised to the rank of municipia, -and thus obtained the civitas without the -suffragium and the honores; and when a -town was desirous of forming a similar relation -with Rome, it entered into clientela to -some distinguished Roman, who then acted -as patron of the client-town. But the custom -of granting the honour of hospes publicus -to a distinguished foreigner by a decree -of the senate, seems to have existed down to -the end of the republic. His privileges were -the same as those of a municeps, that is, he -had the civitas, but not the suffragium or the -honores. Public hospitality was, like the hospitium -privatum, hereditary in the family of -the person to whom it had been granted.</p> - - -<p id="Hyacinthia">HỸĂCINTHĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑακίνθια</span>), a great national<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span> -festival, celebrated every year at Amyclae by -the Amyclaeans and Spartans, probably in -honour of the Amyclaean Apollo and Hyacinthus -together. This Amyclaean Apollo, however, -with whom Hyacinthus was assimilated -in later times, must not be confounded with -Apollo, the national divinity of the Dorians. -The festival was called after the youthful -hero Hyacinthus, who evidently derived his -name from the flower hyacinth (the emblem -of death among the ancient Greeks), and -whom Apollo accidentally struck dead with a -quoit. The Hyacinthia lasted for three days, -and began on the longest day of the Spartan -month Hecatombeus, at the time when the -tender flowers, oppressed by the heat of -the sun, drooped their languid heads. On -the first and last day of the Hyacinthia -sacrifices were offered to the dead, and -the death of Hyacinthus was lamented. -During these two days, nobody wore any -garlands at the repasts, nor took bread, but -only cakes and similar things, and when the -solemn repasts were over, everybody went -home in the greatest quiet and order. The -second day, however, was wholly spent in -public rejoicings and amusements, such as -horse-races, dances, processions, &c. The -great importance attached to this festival by -the Amyclaeans and Lacedaemonians is seen -from the fact, that the Amyclaeans, even -when they had taken the field against an -enemy, always returned home on the approach -of the season of the Hyacinthia, that -they might not be obliged to neglect its celebration; -and that in a treaty with Sparta, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 421, the Athenians, in order to show -their good-will towards Sparta, promised -every year to attend the celebration of this -festival.</p> - - -<p id="Hybreos">HYBRĔŌS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕβρεως γραφή</span>), an -action prescribed by the Attic law for wanton -and contumelious injury to the person, -whether in the nature of indecent (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δι’ αἰσχρουργίας</span>) -or other assaults (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διὰ πληγῶν</span>). The -severity of the sentence extended to confiscation -or death.</p> - - -<p id="Hydraulis">HYDRAULIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕδραυλις</span>), an hydraulic organ, -invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria, who -lived about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 200. Its pipes were partly -of bronze, and partly of reed. The number -of its stops, and consequently of its rows of -pipes, varied from one to eight. It continued -in use so late as the ninth century of our -era. The organ was well adapted to gratify -the Roman people in the splendid entertainments -provided for them by the emperors -and other opulent persons. Nero was very -curious about organs, both in regard to their -musical effect and their mechanism. A contorniate -coin of this emperor, in the British -Museum, shows an organ with a sprig of -laurel on one side, and a man standing on -the other.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp76" id="ill210" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill210.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Hydraulis, water-organ. (Coin of Nero in British Museum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Hydriaphoria">HYDRĬAPHŎRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδριαφορία</span>), was the -carrying of a vessel with water (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδρία</span>), which -service the married alien (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέτοικοι</span>) women -had to perform to the married part of the -female citizens of Athens, when they walked -to the temple of Athena in the great procession -at the Panathenaea.</p> - - -<p id="Hyporchema">HỸPORCHĒMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόρχημα</span>), a lively kind -of mimic dance which accompanied the songs -used in the worship of Apollo, especially -among the Dorians. A chorus of singers at -the festivals of Apollo usually danced around -the altar, while several other persons were -appointed to accompany the action of the -song with an appropriate mimic performance -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπορχεῖσθαι</span>). The hyporchema was thus a -lyric dance, and often passed into the playful -and comic.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="I_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">I</span></h2> - -<p id="Idus" class="drop-capy">IDUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ignominia">IGNŌMĬNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a>; <a href="#Infamia">Infamia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ignobiles">IGNŌBĬLES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Imago">ĬMĀGO, a representation or likeness, an -image or figure of a person. Among the -Romans those persons, who had filled any of -the higher or curule magistracies of the state, -had the right of having images of themselves. -Respecting this <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus imaginum</i> see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Immunitas">IMMŪNĬTAS (from <em>in</em> and <em>munus</em>), signifies, -(1) A freedom from taxes. (2) A -freedom from services which other citizens -had to discharge. With respect to the first -kind of immunitas we find that the emperors -frequently granted it to separate persons, or -to certain classes of persons, or to whole -states. The second kind of immunitas was -granted to all persons who had a valid excuse<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span> -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excusatio</i>) to be released from such, services, -and also to other persons as a special favour. -The immunitas might be either general, from -all services which a citizen owed to the state, -or special, such as from military service, from -taking the office of tutor or guardian, and -the like.</p> - - -<p id="Imperator">IMPĔRĀTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Imperium">Imperium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Imperium">IMPĔRĬUM, was under the republic a -power, without which no military operation -could be carried on as in the name and on -the behalf of the state. It was not incident -to any office, and was always specially conferred -by a lex curiata, that is, a lex passed -in the comitia curiata. Consequently, not -even a consul could act as commander of an -army, unless he were empowered by a lex -curiata. It could not be held or exercised -within the city in the republican period; -but it was sometimes conferred specially upon -an individual for the day of his triumph -within the city, and at least, in some cases, -by a plebiscitum. As opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">potestas, -imperium</i> is the power which was conferred -by the state upon an individual who was -appointed to command an army. The phrases -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consularis potestas</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consulare imperium</i> -might both be properly used; but the expression -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribunitia potestas</i> only could be -used, as the tribuni never received the imperium. -In respect of his imperium, he who -received it was styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imperator</i>. After a -victory it was usual for the soldiers to salute -their commander as imperator, but this salutation -neither gave nor confirmed the title, -since the title as a matter of course was -given with the imperium. Under the republic -the title came properly after the name; -thus Cicero, when he was proconsul in Cilicia, -could properly style himself M. Tullius -Cicero Imperator, for the term merely expressed -that he had the imperium. The -emperors Tiberius and Claudius refused to -assume the praenomen of imperator, but the -use of it as a praenomen became established -among their successors. The term imperium -was applied in the republican period to -express the sovereignty of the Roman state. -Thus Gaul is said by Cicero to have come -under the imperium and ditio of the populus -Romanus.</p> - - -<p id="Impluvium">IMPLŬVĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Impubes">IMPŪBES. An infans was incapable of -doing any legal act. An impubes, who had -passed the limits of infantia, could do any -legal act with the auctoritas of his tutor. -With the attainment of pubertas, a person -obtained the full power over his property, -and the tutela ceased: he could also dispose -of his property by will; and he could contract -marriage. Pubertas, in the case of a -male, was attained with the completion of -the fourteenth, and, in a female, with the -completion of the twelfth year. Upon attaining -the age of puberty a Roman youth -assumed the toga virilis, but until that time -he wore the toga praetexta, the broad purple -hem of which (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetexta</i>) at <ins class="corr" id="tn-211" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'once distinguised'"> -once distinguished</ins> him from other persons. The toga virilis -was assumed at the Liberalia in the month -of March, and though no age appears to have -been positively fixed for the ceremony, it -probably took place as a general rule on the -feast which next followed the completion of -the fourteenth year; though it is certain -that the completion of the fourteenth year -was not always the time observed. Still, so -long as a male wore the praetexta, he was -impubes, and when he assumed the toga -virilis, he was pubes.</p> - - -<p id="Inauguratio">INAUGŬRĀTĬO, was in general the ceremony -by which the augurs obtained, or endeavoured -to obtain, the sanction of the gods -to something which had been decreed by -man; in particular, however, it was the -ceremony by which things or persons were -consecrated to the gods, whence the terms -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dedicatio</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consecratio</i> were sometimes -used as synonymous with inauguratio. Not -only were priests inaugurated, but also the -higher magistrates, who for this purpose were -summoned by the augurs to appear on the -capitol, on the third day after their election. -This inauguratio conferred no priestly dignity -upon the magistrates, but was merely a method -of obtaining the sanction of the gods to -their election, and gave them the right to -take auspicia; and on important emergencies -it was their duty to make use of this privilege.</p> - - -<p id="Inauris">INAURIS, an ear-ring; called in Greek -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνώτιον</span>, because it was worn in the ear (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὗς</span>), -and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλλόβιον</span>, because it was inserted into the -lobe of the ear (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λοβός</span>), which was bored for -the purpose. Ear-rings were worn by both -sexes in oriental countries. Among the -Greeks and Romans they were worn only by -females. This ornament consisted of the -ring (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρίκος</span>), and of the drops (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stalagmia</i>). -The ring was generally of gold, although the -common people also wore ear-rings of bronze. -Instead of a ring a hook was often used. The -drops were sometimes of gold, very finely -wrought, and sometimes of pearls.</p> - - -<p id="Incendium">INCENDĬUM, the crime of setting any -object on fire, by which the property of a -man is endangered. A law of the Twelve -Tables inflicted a severe punishment on the -person who set fire to property maliciously -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sciens</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prudens</i>); but if it was done by accident -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">casu</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">id est</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">negligentia</i>), the law -obliged the offender to repair the injury he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span> -had committed. Sulla, in his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Cornelia -de Sicariis</i>, punished malicious (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolo malo</i>) -incendium, but only in the city, or within a -thousand paces of it, with aquae et ignis interdictio. -Cn. Pompeius, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 52, made -incendium a crime of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vis</i> by his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Pompeia -de Vi</i>, in consequence of the burning of the -Curia and the Porcia Basilica on the burial -of Clodius; and Julius Caesar also included -it in his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia de Vi</i>. Besides the two -criminal prosecutions given by the Lex Cornelia -and Lex Julia, a person could also bring -actions to recover compensation for the injury -done to his property.</p> - - -<p id="Incestum">INCESTUM or INCESTUS. Incestum is -non castum, and signifies generally all immoral -and irreligious acts. In a narrower -sense it denotes the unchastity of a Vestal, -and sexual intercourse of persons within -certain degrees of consanguinity. Incest -with a Vestal was punished with the death -of both parties. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vestales">Vestales</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Incunabula">INCŪNĀBŬLA or CŪNABŬLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπάργανον</span>), -swaddling-clothes, in which a new-born -child was wrapped. It was one of the peculiarities -of the Lacedaemonian education to -dispense with the use of incunabula, and -to allow children to enjoy the free use of -their limbs.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp68" id="ill212" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill212.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Incunabula, swaddling-clothes. (From a Bas-relief at -Rome.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Indutus">INDUTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amictus">Amictus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Infamia">INFĀMĬA, was a consequence of condemnation -for certain crimes, and also a direct -consequence of certain acts, such as adultery, -prostitution, appearing on the public stage as -an actor, &c. A person who became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">infamis</i> -lost the suffragium and honores, and -was degraded to the condition of an aerarian. -Infamia should <ins class="corr" id="tn-212" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'be distingushed'"> -be distinguished</ins> from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nota -Censoria</i>, the consequence of which was only -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ignominia</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Infans">INFANS, INFANTIA. In the Roman -law there were several distinctions of age -which were made with reference to the capacity -for doing legal acts:—1. The first period -was from birth to the end of the seventh -year, during which time persons were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Infantes</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Qui fari non possunt</i>. 2. The -second period was from the end of seven years -to the end of fourteen or twelve years, according -as the person was a male or a female, -during which persons were defined as those -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Qui fari possunt</i>. The persons included in -these first two classes were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Impuberes</i>. 3. -The third period was from the end of the -twelfth or fourteenth to the end of the -twenty-fifth year, during which period persons -were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Adolescentes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Adulti</i>. The persons -included in these three classes were minores -xxv annis or annorum, and were often, for -brevity’s sake, called minores only [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Curator">Curator</a></span>]; -and the persons included in the third and -fourth class were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Puberes</i>. 4. The fourth -period was from the age of twenty-five, during -which persons were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Majores</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Inferiae">INFĔRĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Infula">INFŬLA, a flock of white and red wool, -which was slightly twisted, drawn into the -form of a wreath or fillet, and used by the -Romans for ornament on festive and solemn -occasions. In sacrificing it was tied with a -white band [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vitta">Vitta</a></span>] to the head of the victim -and also of the priest.</p> - - -<p id="Ingenui">INGĔNŬI, were those freemen who were -born free. Consequently, freedmen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertini</i>) -were not ingenui, though the sons of -libertini were ingenui; nor could a libertinus -by adoption become ingenuus. The words -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ingenuus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertinus</i> are often opposed to -one another; and the title of freeman (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liber</i>), -which would comprehend <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertinus</i>, is sometimes -limited by the addition of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ingenuus</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liber -et ingenuus</i>.) Under the empire a person, -not ingenuus by birth, could be made -ingenuus by the emperor.</p> - - -<p id="Injuria">INJŪRĬA. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Injuria</i>, in the general sense, -is opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus</i>. In a special sense <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">injuria</i> -was done by striking or beating a man either -with the hand or with anything; by abusive -words (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">convicium</i>); by the proscriptio bonorum, -when the claimant knew that the alleged -debtor was not really indebted to him; -by libellous writings or verses; by soliciting -a materfamilias, &c. The Twelve Tables -had various provisions on the subject of Injuria. -Libellous songs or verses were followed -by capital punishment. In the case of -a limb being mutilated the punishment was -Talio. In the case of a broken bone, the -penalty was 300 asses if the injury was done -to a freeman, and 150 if it was done to a -slave. In other cases the Tables fixed the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span> -penalty at 25 asses. These penalties were -afterwards considered to be insufficient; and -the injured person was allowed by the praetor -to claim such damages as he thought that -he was entitled to, and the judex might give -the full amount or less. Infamia was a consequence -of condemnation in an actio Injuriarum.</p> - - -<p id="Inoa">ĪNŌA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰνῶα</span>), festivals celebrated in several -parts of Greece, in honour of Ino.</p> - - -<p id="Inquilinus">INQUĬLĪNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Instita">INSTĬTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περιπόδιον</span>), a flounce; a fillet. -The Roman matrons sometimes wore a broad -fillet with ample folds, sewed to the bottom -of the tunic and reaching to the instep. The -use of it indicated a superior regard to decency -and propriety of manners.</p> - - -<p id="Insula">INSŬLA was, properly, a house not joined -to the neighbouring houses by a common -wall. An insula, however, generally contained -several separate houses, or at least -separate apartments or shops, which were let -to different families; and hence the word -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">domus</i> under the emperors seems to be applied -to the house where a family lived, -whether it were an insula or not, and insula -to any hired lodgings.</p> - - -<p id="Intercessio">INTERCESSĬO was the interference of a -magistrates to whom an appeal [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Appellatio">Appellatio</a></span>] -was made. The object of the intercessio was -to put a stop to proceedings, on the ground -of informality or other sufficient cause. Any -magistratus might <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intercedere</i>, who was of -equal rank with or of rank superior to the -magistratus from or against whom the appellatio -was. Cases occur in which one of the -praetors interposed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intercessit</i>) against the -proceedings of his colleague. The intercessio -is most frequently spoken of with reference -to the tribunes, who originally had not jurisdictio, -but used the intercessio for the purpose -of preventing wrong which was offered -to a person in their presence. The intercessio -of the tribunes of the plebs was auxilium, -and it might be exercised either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in judicio</i>. The tribune <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui intercessit</i> could -prevent a judicium from being instituted. -The tribunes could also use the intercessio to -prevent execution of a judicial sentence. A -single tribune could effect this, and against -the opinion of his colleagues.</p> - - -<p id="Intercisi">INTERCĪSI DĬES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dies">Dies</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Interdictum">INTERDICTUM. “In certain cases (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">certis -ex causis</i>) the praetor or proconsul, in the -first instance (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">principaliter</i>), exercises his -authority for the termination of disputes. -This he chiefly does when the dispute is -about possession or quasi-possession; and the -exercise of his authority consists in ordering -something to be done, or forbidding something -to be done. The formulae and the -terms, which he uses on such occasions, are -called either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">interdicta</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decreta</i>. They are -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decreta</i> when he orders something to -be done, as when he orders something to be -produced (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exhiberi</i>) or to be restored: they -are called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">interdicta</i> when he forbids something -to be done, as when he orders that -force shall not be used against a person who -is in possession rightfully (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sine vitio</i>), or that -nothing shall be done on a piece of sacred -ground. Accordingly all interdicta are -either restitutoria, or exhibitoria, or prohibitoria.” -This passage, which is taken from -Gaius, the Roman jurist, contains the essential -distinction between an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actio</i> and an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">interdictum</i>. -In the case of an actio, the praetor -pronounces no order or decree, but he gives -a judex, whose business it is to investigate -the matter in dispute, and to pronounce -a sentence consistently with the formula, -which is his authority for acting. In the -case of an actio, therefore, the praetor neither -orders nor forbids a thing to be done, but he -says, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Judicium dabo</i>. In the case of an interdict, -the praetor makes an order that something -shall be done or shall not be done, and -his words are accordingly words of command; -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Restituas, Exhibeas, Vim fieri veto</i>. This <em>immediate</em> -interposition of the praetor is appropriately -expressed by the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">principaliter</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Interpres">INTERPRES, an interpreter. This class -of persons became very numerous and necessary -to the Romans as their empire extended. -In large mercantile towns the interpreters, -who formed a kind of agents through whom -business was done, were sometimes very -numerous. All Roman praetors, proconsuls, -and quaestors, who were entrusted with the -administration of a province, had to carry on -all their official proceedings in the Latin language, -and as they could not be expected to -be acquainted with the language of the provincials, -they had always among their servants -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apparitor">Apparitores</a></span>] one or more interpreters, -who were generally Romans, but in most -cases undoubtedly freedmen. These interpreters -had not only to officiate at the conventus -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Conventus">Conventus</a></span>], but also explained to the Roman -governor everything which the provincials -might wish to be laid before him.</p> - - -<p id="Interregnum">INTERREGNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Interrex">Interrex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Interrex">INTERREX. This office is said to have -been instituted on the death of Romulus, -when the senate wished to share the sovereign -power among themselves, instead of electing -a king. For this purpose, according to Livy, -the senate, which then consisted of one hundred -members, was divided into ten decuries; -and from each of these decuries one senator -was nominated. These together formed a -board of ten, with the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Interreges</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span> -each of whom enjoyed in succession the regal -power and its badges for five days; and if no -king was appointed at the expiration of fifty -days, the rotation began anew. The period -during which they exercised their power was -called an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Interregnum</i>. These ten interreges -were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Decem Primi</i>, or ten leading senators, -of whom the first was chief of the whole -senate. The interreges agreed among themselves -who should be proposed as king, and -if the senate approved of their choice, they -summoned the assembly of the curiae, and -proposed the person whom they had previously -agreed upon; the power of the curiae -was confined to accepting or rejecting him. -Interreges were appointed under the republic -for holding the comitia for the election of the -consuls, when the consuls, through civil commotions -or other causes, had been unable to -do so in their year of office. Each held the -office for only five days, as under the kings. -The comitia were hardly ever held by the -first interrex; more usually by the second or -third; but in one instance we read of an -eleventh, and in another of a fourteenth interrex. -The interreges under the republic, -at least from <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 482, were elected by the -senate from the whole body, and were not -confined to the decem primi or ten chief senators, -as under the kings. Plebeians, however, -were not admissible to this office; and -consequently, when plebeians were admitted -into the senate, the patrician senators met -without the plebeian members to elect an interrex. -For this reason, as well as on account -of the influence which the interrex -exerted in the election of the magistrates, we -find that the tribunes of the plebs were -strongly opposed to the appointment of an -interrex. The interrex had jurisdictio. Interreges -continued to be appointed occasionally -till the time of the second Punic war, -but after that time we read of no interrex, -till the senate, by command of Sulla, created -an interrex to hold the comitia for his election -as dictator, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 82. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 55 another -interrex was appointed, to hold the -comitia in which Pompey and Crassus were -elected consuls; and we also read of interreges -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 53 and 52, in the latter of -which years an interrex held the comitia in -which Pompey was appointed sole consul.</p> - - -<p id="Isthmia">ISTHMĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴσθμια</span>), the Isthmian games, -one of the four great national festivals of the -Greeks. This festival derived its name from -the Corinthian isthmus, where it was held. -Subsequent to the age of Theseus the Isthmia -were celebrated in honour of Poseidon; and -this innovation is ascribed to Theseus himself. -The celebration of the Isthmia was -conducted by the Corinthians, but Theseus -had reserved for his Athenians some honourable -distinctions: those Athenians who attended -the Isthmia sailed across the Saronic -gulf in a sacred vessel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρίς</span>), and an honorary -place (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προεδρία</span>), as large as the sail -of their vessel, was assigned to them during -the celebration of the games. In times of -war between the two states a sacred truce -was concluded, and the Athenians were invited -to attend at the solemnities. These -games were celebrated regularly every other -year, in the first and third years of each -Olympiad. After the fall of Corinth, in 146 -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, the Sicyonians were honoured with the -privilege of conducting the Isthmian games; -but when the town of Corinth was rebuilt by -Julius Caesar, the right of conducting the solemnities -was restored to the Corinthians. The -season of the Isthmian solemnities was, like -that of all the great national festivals, distinguished -by general rejoicings and feasting. -The contests and games of the Isthmia were -the same as those at Olympia, and embraced -all the varieties of athletic performances, -such as wrestling, the pancratium, together -with horse and chariot racing. Musical and -poetical contests were likewise carried on, -and in the latter women were also allowed -to take part. The prize of a victor in the -Isthmian games consisted at first of a garland -of pine-leaves, and afterwards of a wreath of -ivy. Simple as such a reward was, a victor -in these games gained the greatest distinction -and honour among his countrymen; and -a victory not only rendered the individual -who obtained it a subject of admiration, but -shed lustre over his family, and the whole -town or community to which he belonged. -Hence Solon established by a law, that every -Athenian who gained the victory at the -Isthmian games should receive from the -public treasury a reward of one hundred -drachmae. His victory was generally celebrated -in lofty odes, called Epinikia, or triumphal -odes, of which we still possess some -beautiful specimens among the poems of -Pindar.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="J_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">J</span></h2> - -<p id="Jaculum" class="drop-capy">JĂCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Janua">JĀNŬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύρα</span>), a door. Besides being -applicable to the doors of apartments in the -interior of a house, which were properly -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostia</i>, this term more especially denoted -the first entrance into the house, <em>i.e.</em> the -front or street door, which was also called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anticum</i>, and in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύρα αὔλειος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλεία</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλιος</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλία</span>. The houses of the Romans -commonly had a back door, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">posticum</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">postica</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">posticula</i>, and in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράθυρα</span>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span> -<em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραθύριον</span>. The door-way, when complete, -consisted of four indispensable parts; -the threshold, or sill (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">limen</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βηλός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὖδας</span>); -the lintel (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugumentum, limen superum</i>); -and the two jambs (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">postes</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σταθμοί</span>). The -door itself was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foris</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">valva</i>, and in -Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σανίς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλισιάς</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύρετρον</span>. These -words are commonly found in the plural, -because the door-way of every building of -the least importance contained two doors -folding together. When <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foris</i> is used in the -singular, it denotes one of the folding doors -only. The fastenings of the door (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">claustra</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obices</i>) commonly consisted of a bolt (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pessulus</i>; -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάνδαλος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατοχεύς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλεῖθρον</span>) placed at -the base of each <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foris</i>, so as to admit of being -pushed into a socket made in the sill to -receive it. By night, the front-door of the -house was further secured by means of a -wooden and sometimes an iron bar (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sera</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repagula</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μοχλός</span>) placed across it, and inserted -into sockets on each side of the door-way. -Hence it was necessary to remove the -bar (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸν <ins class="corr" id="tn-215" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'μοχλόν'"> -μοχλὸν</ins> παράφερειν</span>) in order to open -the door (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reserare</i>). It was considered improper -to enter a house without giving notice -to its inmates. This notice the Spartans gave -by shouting; the Athenians and all other -nations by using the knocker, or more commonly -by rapping with the knuckles or with -a stick (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κρούειν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόπτειν</span>). In the houses of -the rich a porter (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">janitor</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρωρός</span>) -was always in attendance to open the door. -He was commonly an eunuch or a slave, and -was chained to his post. To assist him in -guarding the entrance, a dog was universally -kept near it, being also attached by a chain -to the wall; and in reference to this practice, -the warning <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cave canem</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐλαβοῦ τὴν -κύνα</span>, was sometimes written near the door. -The appropriate name for the portion of the -house immediately behind the door (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρών</span>) -denotes that it was a kind of apartment; it -corresponded to the hall or lobby of our -houses. Immediately adjoining it, and close -to the front door, there was in many houses -a small room for the porter.</p> - - -<p id="Jentaculum">JENTĀCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Judex">JŪDEX, JŪDĬCĬUM. A Roman magistratus -generally did not investigate the facts -in dispute in such matters as were brought -before him: he appointed a judex for that -purpose, and gave him instructions. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a>.</span>] -Accordingly, the whole of civil procedure was -expressed by the two phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Judicium</i>, -of which the former comprehended all -that took place before the magistratus (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in -jure</i>), and the latter all that took place before -the judex (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in judicio</i>). In many cases a -single judex was appointed: in others, several -were appointed, and they seem to have been -sometimes called recuperatores, as opposed to -the single judex. Under certain circumstances -the judex was called arbiter: thus -judex and arbiter are named together in the -Twelve Tables. A judex when appointed -was bound to discharge the functions of the -office, unless he had some valid excuse -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excusatio</i>). There were certain seasons of -the year when legal business was done at -Rome, and at these times the services of the -judices were required. These legal terms -were regulated according to the seasons, so -that there were periods of vacation. When -the judex was appointed, the proceedings <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in -jure</i> or before the praetor were terminated. -The parties appeared before the judex on the -third day (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comperendinatio</i>), unless the praetor -had deferred the judicium for some sufficient -reason. The judex was generally aided -by advisers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurisconsulti</i>) learned in the law, -who were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in consilio adesse</i>; but the -judex alone was empowered to give judgment. -The matter was first briefly stated -to the judex (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">causae conjectio, collectio</i>), and -the advocates of each party supported his -cause in a speech. Witnesses were produced -on both sides, and examined orally: the -witnesses on one side were also cross-examined -by the other. After all the evidence was -given and the advocates had finished, the -judex gave sentence: if there were several -judices, a majority decided. If the matter -was one of difficulty, the hearing might be -adjourned as often as was necessary (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ampliatio</i>); -and if the judex could not come to -a satisfactory conclusion, he might declare -this upon oath, and so release himself from -the difficulty. This was done by the form -of words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">non liquere</i> (N. L.). The sentence -was pronounced orally, and was sometimes -first written on a tablet. If the defendant -did not make his appearance after being duly -summoned, judgment might be given against -him.—According to Cicero, all judicia had -for their object, either the settlement of disputes -between individuals (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">controversiae</i>), or -the punishment of crimes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maleficia</i>). This -refers to a division of judicia, which appears -in the jurists, into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicia publica</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicia -privata</i>. The former, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicia publica</i>, -succeeded to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicia populi</i> of the early -republican period: the latter were so called -because in them the populus acted as judices. -Originally the kings presided in all criminal -cases, and the consuls succeeded to their -authority. But after the passing of the <a href="#Valeriae">Lex -Valeria</a> (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 507), which gave an appeal to -the populus (that is, the comitia curiata) -from the magistratus, the consul could not -sit in judgment on the caput of a Roman -citizen, but such cases were tried in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span> -comitia, or persons were appointed to preside -at such inquiries, who were accordingly -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaesitores</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores parricidii</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rerum capitalium</i>. In course of time, as such -cases became of more frequent occurrence, -such quaestiones were made perpetual, that -is, particular magistrates were appointed for -the purpose. It was eventually determined, -that while the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor urbanus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peregrinus</i> -should continue to exercise their usual jurisdictions, -the other praetors should preside at -public trials. In such trials any person -might be an accuser (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accusator</i>). The praetor -generally presided as quaesitor, assisted by a -judex quaestionis, and a body of judices called -his consilium. The judices were generally -chosen by lot out of those who were qualified -to act; but in some cases the accuser and -the accused (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reus</i>) had the privilege of choosing -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edere</i>) a certain number of judices out -of a large number, who were thence called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Edititii</i>. Both the accusator and the reus -had the privilege of rejecting or challenging -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rejicere</i>) such judices as they did not like. -In many cases a lex was passed for the purpose -of regulating the mode of procedure.—The -judices voted by ballot, at least generally, -and a majority determined the acquittal or -condemnation of the accused. Each judex -was provided with three tablets (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i>), on -one of which was marked A, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Absolvo</i>; on a -second C, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Condemno</i>; and on a third N. L., -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Non liquet</i>. The judices voted by placing -one of these tablets in the urns, which were -then examined for the purpose of ascertaining -the votes. It was the duty of the magistratus -to pronounce the sentence of the -judices; in the case of condemnation, to -adjudge the legal penalty; of acquittal, to -declare the accused acquitted; and of doubt, -to declare that the matter must be further investigated -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amplius cognoscendum</i>).—A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium -populi</i>, properly so called, was one in -which the case was tried in the comitia curiata, -but afterwards in the comitia centuriata -and tributa. The accuser, who must be a -magistratus, commenced by declaring in a -contio that he would on a certain day accuse -a certain person, whom he named, of some -offence, which he also specified. This was -expressed by the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diem dicere</i>. If the -offender held any high office, it was necessary -to wait till his time of service had -expired, before proceedings could be thus -commenced against him. The accused was -required to give security for his appearance -on the day of trial; the security was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vades</i> in a causa capitalis, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praedes</i> when -the penalty for the alleged offence was pecuniary. -If such security was not given, -the accused was kept in confinement. If -nothing prevented the inquiry from taking -place at the time fixed for it, the trial proceeded, -and the accuser had to prove his case -by evidence. The investigation of the facts -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anquisitio</i> with reference to the -proposed penalty: accordingly, the phrases -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecunia, capite</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capitis anquirere</i>, are used. -When the investigation was concluded, the -magistratus promulgated a rogatio, which -comprehended the charge and the punishment -or fine. It was a rule of law that a -fine should not be imposed together with -another punishment in the same rogatio. -The rogatio was made public during three -nundinae, like any other lex, and proposed -at the comitia for adoption or rejection. The -accused sometimes withdrew into exile before -the votes were taken; or he might make his -defence. The offences which were the chief -subject of judicia populi and publica were -majestas, adulteria and stupra, parricidium, -falsum, vis publica and privata, peculatus, -repetundae, ambitus.—With the passing of -special enactments for the punishment of -particular offences, was introduced the practice -of forming a body of judices for the trial -of such offences as the enactments were -directed against. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Album Judicum</i> was -the body out of which judices were to be -chosen. It is not known what was the number -of the body so constituted, but it has -been conjectured that the number was 350, -and that ten were chosen from each tribe, -and thus the origin of the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Decuriae -Judicum</i> is explained. It is easy to conceive -that the judicia populi, properly so called, -would be less frequent, as special leges were -framed for particular offences, the circumstances -of which could be better investigated -by a smaller body of judices than by the -assembled people. The <a href="#Servilia_j">Lex Servilia</a> (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -104) enacted that the judices should not be -under thirty nor above sixty years of age, -that the accuser and accused should severally -propose one hundred judices, and that each -might reject fifty from the list of the other, -so that one hundred would remain for the -trial. Up to <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 122 the judices were always -senators, but in this year the <a href="#Semproniae">Sempronia Lex</a> -of C. Gracchus took the judicia from the -senators and gave them to the equites. This -state of things lasted nearly fifty years, till -Sulla (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 80) restored the judicia to the -senate, and excluded the equites from the -album judicum. A <a href="#Aurelia">Lex Aurelia</a> (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 70) -enacted that the judices should be chosen -from the three classes—of senators, equites, -and tribuni aerarii; and accordingly the judicia -were then said to be divided between -the senate and the equites. The tribuni -aerarii were taken from the rest of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span> -citizens, and were, or ought to have been, -persons of some property. Thus the three -decuriae of judices were formed; and it was -either in consequence of the <a href="#Aurelia">Lex Aurelia</a> or -the <a href="#Fufia">Lex Fufia</a> that, instead of one urn for -all the tablets, the decuriae had severally -their balloting urn, so that the votes of the -three classes were known. It is not known -if the <a href="#Aurelia">Lex Aurelia</a> determined the number of -judices in any given case. The <a href="#Pompeiae">Lex Pompeia</a> -de Vi and De Ambitu (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 52) determined -that eighty judices were to be selected -by lot, out of whom the accuser and the -accused might reject thirty. In the case of -Clodius, in the matter of the Bona Dea, there -were fifty-six judices. It is conjectured that -the number fixed for a given case, by the -<a href="#Aurelia">Lex Aurelia</a>, was seventy judices. Augustus -added to the existing three decuriae judicum -a fourth decuria, called that of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ducenarii</i>, -who had a lower pecuniary qualification, and -only decided in smaller matters. Caligula -added a fifth decuria, in order to diminish -the labours of the judices.</p> - - -<p id="Jugerum">JŪGĔRUM, a Roman measure of surface, -240 feet in length and 120 in breadth, containing -therefore 28,800 square feet. It was -the double of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Actus Quadratus</i>, and from -this circumstance, according to some writers, -it derived its name. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actus">Actus</a>.</span>] The uncial -division [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a></span>] was applied to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugerum</i>, its -smallest part being the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scrupulum</i> of 10 feet -square, = 100 square feet. Thus the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugerum</i> -contained 288 scrupula. The jugerum was -the common measure of land among the Romans. -Two <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugera</i> formed an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">heredium</i>, a -hundred <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">heredia</i> a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuria</i>, and four <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuriae</i> -a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltus</i>. These divisions were derived -from the original assignment of landed property, -in which two <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugera</i> were given to -each citizen as heritable property.</p> - - -<p id="Jugum">JŬGUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζυγός, ζυγόν</span>), signified in general -that which joined two things together, such -as the transverse beam which united the upright -posts of a loom, the cross-bar of a lyre, -a scale-beam, &c., but it denoted more especially -the yoke by which ploughs and carriages -were drawn. The following woodcut -shows two examples of the yoke: the upper -one is provided with two collars, the lower -one with excavations cut in the yoke, in -order to give more ease and freedom to the -animals. The latter figure shows the method -of tying the yoke to the pole (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">temo</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥυμός</span>) by -means of a leathern strap. The word jugum -is often used to signify <em>slavery</em>, or the condition -in which men are compelled, against -their will, like oxen or horses, to labour for -others. Hence, to express symbolically the -subjugation of conquered nations, the Romans -made their captives pass under a yoke -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub jugum mittere</i>), which, however, was -not made like the yoke used in drawing carriages -or ploughs, but consisted of a spear -supported transversely by two others placed -upright.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp69" id="ill217" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill217.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Jugum, yoke.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Jurisconsulti">JŪRISCONSULTI or JŪRĔCONSULTI -arose among the Romans after the separation -of the Jus Civile from the Jus Pontificium. -Such a body certainly existed before the time -of Cicero, and the persons who professed to -expound the law were called by the various -names of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurisperiti</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurisconsulti</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consulti</i> -simply. They were also designated by other -names, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurisprudentes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prudentiores</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peritiores</i>, -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">juris auctores</i>. The business of -the early jurisconsulti consisted both in advising -and acting on behalf of their clients -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consultores</i>) gratuitously. They gave their -advice or answers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">responsa</i>) either in public -places which they attended at certain times, -or at their own houses; and not only on -matters of law, but on any thing else that -might be referred to them. The words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scribere</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavere</i> referred to their employment -in drawing up formal instruments, such as -contracts or wills, &c. At a later period, -many of these functions were performed by -persons who were paid by a fee, and thus -there arose a body of practitioners distinct -from those who gave responsa and who were -writers and teachers. Tiberius Coruncanius, -a plebeian, who was consul <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 281, and -also the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, is -mentioned as the first who publicly professed -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">publice professus est</i>), and he was distinguished -both for his knowledge of the law -and his eloquence.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span></p> - - -<p id="Jurisdictio">JŪRISDICTIO, signifies generally the authority -of the magistrate “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui jus dicit</span>,” and -is mostly applied to the authority of the -praetor in civil cases, such as the giving of -the formula in an actio and the appointment -of a judex. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Jus">JŪS. The law peculiar to the Roman -state is sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Civile Romanorum</i>, -but more frequently <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Civile</i> only. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Quiritium</i> is equivalent to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus -Civile Romanorum</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus civil</i>e of the Romans -is divisible into two parts, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus civile</i> in -the narrower sense, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus pontificium</i>, or -the law of religion. This opposition is sometimes -expressed by the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fas</i>. -The law of religion, or the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Pontificium</i>, -was under the control of the pontifices, who -in fact originally had the control of the -whole mass of the law; and it was only after -the separation of the jus civile in its wider -sense into the two parts of the jus civile, in -its narrower sense, and the jus pontificium, -that each part had its proper and peculiar -limits. Still, even after the separation, there -was a mutual relation between these two -branches of law; for instance, an adrogatio -was not valid by the jus civile unless it was -valid by the jus pontificium. Again, jus -pontificium, in its wider sense, as the law of -religion, had its subdivisions, as into jus augurum, -pontificium, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Jus_c">JŪS CĪVĪLE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jus">Jus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Jus_l">JŪS LĂTĪI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Latinitas">Latinitas</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Jus_p">JUS PONTĬFĬCĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jus">Jus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Jus_q">JUS QUĬRĪTĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jus">Jus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Jusjurandum">JUSJŪRANDUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅρκος</span>), an oath. (1) -<span class="smcap">Greek.</span> An oath is an appeal to some superior -being, calling on him to bear witness -that the swearer speaks the truth, or intends -to perform the promise which he makes. We -find early mention in the Greek writers of oaths -being taken on solemn and important occasions, -as treaties, alliances, vows, compacts, -and agreements, both between nations and individuals. -The Greeks paid high regard to the -sanctity of oaths. The poets frequently allude -to the punishment of perjury after death, -which they assign to the infernal gods or -furies, and we find many proofs of a persuasion -that perjurers would not prosper in this -world. Anciently the person who took an -oath stood up, and lifted his hands to heaven, -as he would in prayer; for an oath was a -species of prayer, and required the same sort -of ceremony. Oaths were frequently accompanied -with sacrifice or libation. The parties -used also to lay their hands upon the victims, -or on the altar or some other sacred thing, -as if by so doing they brought before them -the deity by whom the oath was sworn, and -made him witness of the ceremony. Hence -the expressions <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρὸς τὸν βωμὸν ἐξορκίζειν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀμνύναι -καθ’ ἱερῶν</span>. The hand especially was regarded -as a pledge of fidelity, and the allusions -to the junction of hands in making contracts -and agreements abound in the ancient -writers. The different nations of Greece -swore by their own peculiar gods and heroes; -as the Thebans by Hercules, Iolaus, &c., the -Lacedaemonians by Castor and Pollux, the -Corinthians by Poseidon; the Athenians swore -principally by Zeus, Athena, Apollo (their -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πατρῷος θεὸς</span>), Demeter, and Dionysus. The -office or character of the party, or the place, -or the occasion often suggested the oath to be -taken. As swearing became a common practice -with men upon trivial occasions, and in -ordinary conversation, they used to take -oaths by any god, person, or thing, as their -peculiar habits or predilections, or the fancy -of the moment, dictated. Women also had -their favourite oaths. As the men preferred -swearing by Hercules, Apollo, &c., so the -other sex used to swear by Aphrodite, Demeter, -and Persephone, Hera, Hecate, Artemis; -and Athenian women by Aglauros, -Pandrosus, &c.—(2) <span id="Jusj_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span> I. <em>Oaths taken -by magistrates and other persons who entered -the service of the republic.</em>—After the establishment -of the republic the consuls, and -subsequently all the other magistrates, were -obliged, within five days after their appointment, -to promise on oath that they would -protect and observe the laws of the republic -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in leges jurare</i>). Vestal virgins and the -flamen dialis were not allowed to swear on -any occasion. During the later period of -the republic we also find that magistrates, -when the time of their office had expired, -addressed the people and swore that during -their office they had undertaken nothing -against the republic, but had done their utmost -to promote its welfare. All Roman -soldiers after they were enlisted for a campaign, -had to take the military oath (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacramentum</i>). -It may here be remarked that any -oath might be taken in two ways: the person -who took it, either framed it himself, or it -was put to him in a set form, and in this case -he was said in <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verba jurare</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jurare verbis -conceptis</i>.—II. <em>Oaths taken in transactions -with foreign nations in the name of the republic.</em> -According to the most ancient form -the pater patratus pronounced the oath in -the name of his country, and struck the -victim with a flint-stone, calling on Jupiter -to destroy the Roman nation in like manner, -as he (the pater patratus) destroyed the animal, -if the people should violate the oath. -The chiefs or priests of the other nation then -swore in a similar manner by their own -gods. In swearing to a treaty with a foreign<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span> -nation, a victim (a pig or a lamb) was in the -early times always sacrificed by the fetialis -(whence the expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foedus icere</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅρκια -τέμνειν</span>), and the priest while pronouncing -the oath probably touched the victim or the -altar. The jus fetiale, however, fell into disuse -as the Romans extended their conquests; -and as in most cases of treaties with foreign -nations, the Romans were not the party that -chose to promise anything on oath, we hear -no more of oaths on their part. At first the -Romans were very scrupulous in observing -their oaths in contracts or treaties with foreigners, -and even with enemies; but from -the third Punic war to the end of the republic, -perjury was common among the Romans -in their dealings with foreigners as -well as among themselves.—III. <em>Oaths or -various modes of swearing in common life.</em> -The practice of swearing in ordinary conversations, -was as common among the Romans -as among the Greeks. The forms used were -sometimes simple invocations of one or more -gods, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hercle</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mehercle</i>, that is, ita me -Hercules juvet, amet, or servet; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pol</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Perpol</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aedepol</i>, that is, per Pollucem; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per Jovem -Lapidem</i> or simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per Jovem</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per superos</i>; -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per deos immortales</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">medius fidius</i>, that is, -ita me Dius (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίος</span>) filius juvet; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ita me deus -amet</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dii ament</i>. Women as well as men -swore by most of the gods; but some oaths -were peculiar to one of the sexes. Thus women -never swore by Hercules, and men never -by Castor. Sometimes oaths were accompanied -with an execration, in case the swearer -was stating a falsehood: as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dii me perdant</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dii -me interficiant</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dispeream</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ne vivam</i>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ne salvus -sim</i>, &c.—IV. <em>Oaths taken before the praetor -or in courts of justice.</em> There might be a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jusjurandum</i> either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in jure</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in judicio</i>. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jusjurandum in jure</i> is the oath which one -party proposed to his adversary (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">detulit</i>) that -he should make about the matter in dispute; -and the effect of the oath being taken or refused -was equivalent to a judicium. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jusjurandum in judicio (jusjurandum judiciale)</i> -was required by the judex, and not by -either of the parties, though either of the -parties might suggest it.</p> - - -<p id="Justitium">JUSTĬTĬUM, a cessation of public business -of every kind. Thus the courts of law and -the treasury were shut up, no ambassadors -were received in the senate, and no auctions -took place. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Justitium</i> was proclaimed -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edicere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">indicere</i>) by the senate and the magistrates -in times of public alarm and danger; -and after confidence and tranquillity had -been restored, the Justitium was removed -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">remittere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exuere</i>) by the same authorities. -As such times of alarm are usually accompanied -with general sorrow, a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Justitium</i> came -in course of time to be ordained as a mark of -public mourning, and under the empire was -only employed for this reason.</p> - - -<p id="Juvenalia">JŬVĔNĀLĬA, or JŬVĔNĀLES LŪDI, -scenic games instituted by Nero, in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 59, -in commemoration of his shaving his beard -for the first time, thus intimating that he -had passed from youth to manhood. He was -then in the twenty-second year of his age. -These games were not celebrated in the circus, -but in a private theatre erected in a pleasure-ground -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nemus</i>), and consisted of every kind -of theatrical performance, Greek and Roman -plays, mimetic pieces, and the like. The Juvenalia -continued to be celebrated by subsequent -emperors, but not on the same occasion. -The name was given to those games -which were exhibited by the emperors on the -1st of January in each year. They no longer -consisted of scenic representations, but of -chariot races and combats of wild beasts.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="L_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">L</span></h2> - -<p id="Labarum" class="drop-capy">LĂBĂRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Signa">Signa Militaria</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Labrum">LĂBRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Labyrinthus">LĂBỸRINTHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαβύρινθος</span>), a labyrinth, -a large and complicated subterraneous cavern -with numerous and intricate passages, similar -to those of a mine. The earliest and most -renowned labyrinth was that of Egypt, which -lay beyond lake Moeris. It had 3000 apartments, -1500 under ground, and the same -number above it, and the whole was surrounded -by a wall. It was divided into courts, -each of which was surrounded by colonnades -of white marble. The second labyrinth mentioned -by the ancients was that of Crete, in -the neighbourhood of Cnossus, where the Minotaur -is said to have dwelt. Although the -Cretan labyrinth is very frequently mentioned -by ancient authors, yet none of them -speaks of it as an eyewitness. It was probably -some natural cavern in the neighbourhood -of Cnossus. A third labyrinth, the construction -of which belongs to a more historical -age, was that in the island of Lemnos. A -fabulous edifice in Etruria is also mentioned, -to which Pliny applies the name of labyrinth. -It is described as being in the neighbourhood -of Clusium, and as the tomb of Lar Porsena; -but no writer says that he ever saw it, or remains -of it.</p> - - -<p id="Lacerna">LĂCERNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μανδύας</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μανδύη</span>), a cloak worn -by the Romans over the toga. It differed -from the paenula in being an open garment -like the Greek pallium, and fastened on -the right shoulder by means of a buckle -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fibula</i>), whereas the paenula was what is -called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestimentum clausum</i> with an opening -for the head. The Lacerna appears to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span> -have been commonly used in the army. In -the time of Cicero it was not usually worn in -the city, but it soon afterwards became quite -common at Rome. The lacerna was sometimes -thrown over the head for the purpose -of concealment; but a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cucullus</i> or cowl was -generally used for that purpose, which appears -to have been frequently attached to the -lacerna, and to have formed a part of the -dress.</p> - - -<p id="Laciniae">LĂCĬNĬAE, the angular extremities of the -toga, one of which was brought round over -the left shoulder. It was generally tucked -into the girdle, but sometimes was allowed to -hang down loose.</p> - - -<p id="Laconicum">LĂCŌNĬCUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Lacunar">LĂCŪNAR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Lacus">LĂCUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fons">Fons</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Laena">LAENA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χλαῖνα</span>), a woollen cloak, the -cloth of which was twice the ordinary thickness, -shaggy upon both sides, and worn -over the pallium or the toga for the sake of -warmth. In later times the laena seems, to -a certain extent, to have been worn as a substitute -for the toga.</p> - - -<p id="Lampadephoria">LAMPĂDĒPHŎRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαμπαδηφορία</span>), <em>torch-bearing</em>, -<span class="smcap">Lampadedromia</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαμπαδηδρομία</span>), -<em>torch-race</em>, and often simply <span class="smcap">Lampas</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαμπάς</span>), -was a game common throughout Greece. -At Athens we know of five celebrations of -this game: one to Prometheus at the Prometheia, -a second to Athena at the Panathenaca, -a third to Hephaestos at the Hephaesteia, a -fourth to Pan, and a fifth to the Thracian -Artemis or Bendis. The first three are of -unknown antiquity; the fourth was introduced -soon after the battle of Marathon; the -last in the time of Socrates. The race was -usually run on foot, horses being first used in -the time of Socrates; sometimes also at night. -The preparation for it was a principal branch -of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gymnasiarchia</i>, so much so indeed in -later times, that the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lampadarchia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λαμπαδαρχία</span>) -seems to have been pretty much equivalent -to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gymnasiarchia</i>. The gymnasiarch -had to provide the lampas, which was -a candlestick with a kind of shield set at the -bottom of the socket, so as to shelter the -flame of the candle; as is seen in the following -woodcut, taken from a coin. He had -also to provide for the training of the runners, -which was of no slight consequence, for -the race was evidently a severe one, with -other expenses, which on the whole were -very heavy, so that Isaeus classes this office -with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">choregia</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trierarchia</i>, and reckons -that it had cost him 12 minae.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill220" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill220.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Lampae. (From a Coin.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Lampas">LAMPAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lampadephoria">Lampadephoria</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Lancea">LANCĔA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Lanista">LĂNISTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Lanx">LANX, a large dish, made of silver or some -other metal, and sometimes embossed, used -at splendid entertainments to hold meat or -fruit; and consequently at sacrifices and funeral -banquets.</p> - - -<p id="Laphria">LAPHRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λάφρια</span>), an annual festival, -celebrated at Patrae in Achaia, in honour of -Artemis, surnamed Laphria.</p> - - -<p id="Lapicidinae">LĂPĬCĪDĪNAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lautumiae">Lautumiae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Laquear">LĂQUĔAR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_144">p. 144</a>, <em>b.</em>]</p> - - -<p id="Laqueatores">LĂQŬEĀTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Laqueus">LĂQUĔUS, a rope, was used to signify the -punishment of death by strangling. This -mode of execution was never performed in -public, but only in prison and generally in -the Tullianum. Hence we find the words -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carcer</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">laqueus</i> frequently joined together. -Persons convicted of treason were most frequently -put to death by strangling, as for instance -the Catilinarian conspirators (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">laqueo -gulam fregere</i>).</p> - - -<p id="Lararium">LĂRĀRĬUM, a place in the inner part of -a Roman house, which was dedicated to the -Lares, and in which their images were kept -and worshipped. It seems to have been customary -for religious Romans in the morning, -immediately after they rose, to perform their -prayers in the lararium.</p> - - -<p id="Larentalia">LĀRENTĀLĬA, sometimes written LĀRENTINĀLIA -and LAURENTĀLIA, a Roman -festival in honour of Acca Larentia, the -wife of Faustulus and the nurse of Romulus -and Remus. It was celebrated in December, -on the 10th before the calends of January.</p> - - -<p id="Largitio">LARGĪTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Later">LĂTER <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλίνθος</span>, a brick. The Romans -distinguished between those bricks which -were merely dried by the sun and air (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lateres -crudi</i>), and those which were burnt in the -kiln (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cocti</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coctiles</i>). They preferred for -brick making clay which was either whitish -or decidedly red. Pliny calls the brickfield -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lateraria</i>, and to make bricks <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lateres ducere</i>, -corresponding to the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλίνθους ἕλκειν</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔρυειν</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Laticlavii">LĀTĬCLĀVĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus">Clavus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Latinae">LĂTĪNAE FĔRĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Feriae">Feriae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Latinitas">LĂTĪNĬTAS, LĂTĬUM, JUS LĂTĬI. All -these expressions are used to signify a certain -status intermediate between that of cives and -peregrini. Before the passing of the Lex<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span> -Julia de Civitate (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 90) the above expressions -denoted a certain nationality, and as -part of it a certain legal status with reference -to Rome; but after the passing of that -lex, these expressions denoted only a certain -status, and had no reference to any national -distinction. About the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 89, a Lex -Pompeia gave the jus Latii to all the Transpadani, -and consequently the privilege of obtaining -the Roman civitas by having filled a -magistratus in their own cities. To denote -the status of these Transpadani, the word -Latinitas was used, which since the passing -of the Lex Julia had lost its proper signification; -and this was the origin of that Latinitas -which thenceforth existed to the time of Justinian. -This new Latinitas or jus Latii was -given to whole towns and countries; as, -for instance, by Vespasian to the whole of -Spain. It is not certain wherein this new -Latinitas differed from that Latinitas which -was the characteristic of the Latini before -the passing of the Lex Julia. It is, however, -clear that all the old Latini had not the -same right with respect to Rome; and that -they could acquire the civitas on easier terms -than those by which the new Latinitas was -acquired.</p> - - -<p id="Latrunculi">LĂTRUNCŬLI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεσσοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψήφοι</span>), draughts. -The invention of a game resembling draughts -was attributed by the Greeks to Palamedes; -and it is mentioned by Homer. There were -two sets of men, one set being black, the -other white or red. Being intended to represent -a miniature combat between two -armies, they were called soldiers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">milites</i>), -foes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostes</i>), and marauders (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">latrones</i>, dim. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">latrunculi</i>); also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calculi</i>, because stones were -often employed for the purpose. The Romans -often had twelve lines on the draught-board, -whence the game so played was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duodecim scripta</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Laudatio">LAUDĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Laurentalia">LAURENTĀLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Larentalia">Larentalia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Lautumiae">LAUTŬMĬAE, LAUTŎMIAE, LĀTOMIAE, -Or LĀTUMIAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λιθοτομίαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λατομίαι,</span> -Lat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lapicidinae</i>), literally places where -stones are cut, or quarries, and more particularly -the public prison of Syracuse. It lay -in the steep and almost inaccessible part of -the town which was called Epipolae, and had -been built by Dionysius the tyrant. It was -cut to an immense depth into the solid rock, -so that nothing could be imagined to be a -safer or stronger prison, though it had no -roof, and thus left the prisoners exposed to -the heat of the sun, the rain, and the coldness -of the nights. The Tullianum at Rome -was also sometimes called lautumiae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Carcer">Carcer</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Lectica">LECTICA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλίνη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλινίδιον</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φορεῖον</span>), was -a kind of couch or litter, in which persons, in -a lying position, were carried from one place -to another. Lecticae were used for carrying -the dead [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>] as well as the living. -The Greek lectica consisted of a bed or mattress, -and a pillow to support the head, placed -upon a kind of bedstead or couch. It had a -roof, consisting of the skin of an ox, extending -over the couch and resting on four posts. -The sides of this lectica were covered with -curtains. In the republican period it appears -to have been chiefly used by women, and by -men only when they were in ill health. When -this kind of lectica was introduced among the -Romans, it was chiefly used in travelling, -and very seldom in Rome itself. But towards -the end of the republic, and under the empire, -it was commonly used in the city, and -was fitted up in the most splendid manner. -Instead of curtains, it was frequently closed -on the sides with windows made of transparent -stone (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lapis specularis</i>), and was provided -with a pillow and bed. When standing, it -rested on four feet, generally made of wood. -Persons were carried in a lectica by slaves -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lecticarii</i>), by means of poles (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">asseres</i>) attached -to it, but not fixed, so that they might -easily be taken off when necessary. The -number of lecticarii employed in carrying one -lectica varied according to its size, and the -display of wealth which a person might wish -to make. The ordinary number was probably -two; but it varied from two to eight, and the -lectica is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hexaphoron</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">octophoron</i>, -accordingly as it was carried by six or eight -persons.</p> - - -<p id="Lectisternium">LECTISTERNIUM. Sacrifices being of the -nature of feasts, the Greeks and Romans, on -occasion of extraordinary solemnities, placed -images of the gods reclining on couches, with -tables and viands before them, as if they -were really partaking of the things offered in -sacrifice. This ceremony was called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lectisternium</i>. -The woodcut here introduced exhibits<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span> -one of these couches, which is represented -with a cushion covered by a cloth -hanging in ample folds down each side. This -beautiful <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulvinar</i> is wrought altogether in -white marble, and is somewhat more than -two feet in height.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill221" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill221.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Pulvinar used at Lectisternium. (From the Glyptothek at -Munich.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Lectus">LECTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λέχος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλίνη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐνή</span>), a bed. The -complete bed (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐνή</span>) of a wealthy Greek in -later times generally consisted of the following -parts:—<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλίνη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίτονοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τυλεῖον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνέφαλον</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσκεφάλειον</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρώματα</span>. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλίνη</span> -is, properly speaking, merely the bedstead, -and seems to have consisted only of posts -fitted into one another and resting upon four -feet. At the head part alone there was a -board (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-222" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'ἀνάκλίντρον'"> -ἀνάκλιντρον</ins></span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίκλιντρον</span>) to support -the pillow and prevent its falling out. -Sometimes, however, the bottom part of a -bedstead was likewise protected by a board, -so that in this case a Greek bedstead resembled -what we call a French bedstead. The -bedstead was provided with girths (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόνοι</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίτονοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κειρία</span>) on which the bed or mattress -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνέφαλον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τυλεῖον</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τύλη</span>) rested. The -cover or ticking of a mattress was made of -linen or woollen cloth, or of leather, and -the usual material with which it was filled -was either wool or dried weeds. At the head -part of the bed, and supported by the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίκλιντρον</span>, -lay a round pillow (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσκεφάλειον</span>) to -support the head. The bed-covers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρώματα</span>) -were generally made of cloth, which was very -thick and woolly, either on one or on both sides. -The beds of the Romans (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lecti cubiculares</i>) in -the earlier periods of the republic were probably -of the same description as those used -in Greece; but towards the end of the republic -and during the empire, the richness and -magnificence of the beds of the wealthy Romans -far surpassed every thing we find described -in Greece. The bedstead was generally -rather high, so that persons entered the -bed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scandere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ascendere</i>) by means of steps -placed beside it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scamnum</i>). It was sometimes -made of metal, and sometimes of costly -kinds of wood, or veneered with tortoise-shell -or ivory; its feet (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fulcra</i>) were frequently -of silver or gold. The bed or mattress -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">culcita</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torus</i>) rested upon girths or -strings (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">restes</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fasciae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">institae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funes</i>), -which connected the two horizontal side-posts -of the bed. In beds destined for two persons -the two sides are distinguished by different -names; the side at which persons entered -was open, and bore the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponda</i>; the -other side, which was protected by a board, -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pluteus</i>. The two sides of such a -bed are also distinguished by the names <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torus -exterior</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torus interior</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponda exterior</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponda interior</i>; and from these -expressions it is not improbable that such -lecti had two beds or mattresses, one for each -person. Mattresses were in the earlier times -filled with dry herbs or straw, and such -beds continued to be used by the poor. But -in subsequent times wool, and, at a still later -period, feathers, were used by the wealthy -for the beds as well as the pillows. The -cloth or ticking (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">operimentum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">involucrum</i>) -with which the beds or mattresses were -covered, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toral</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torale</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">linteum</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">segestre</i>. The blankets or counterpanes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestes -stragulae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stragula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peristromata</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peripetasmata</i>) -were in the houses of wealthy Romans -of the most costly description, and generally -of a purple colour, and embroidered with -beautiful figures in gold. Covers of this sort -were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peripetasmata Attalica</i>, because -they were said to have been first used at the -court of Attalus. The pillows were likewise -covered with magnificent casings. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lectus -genialis</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adversus</i> was the bridal bed, -which stood in the atrium, opposite the -janua, whence it derived the epithet <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adversus</i>. -It was generally high, with steps -by its side, and in later times beautifully -adorned. Respecting the lectus funebris see -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>. An account of the disposition of the -couches used at entertainments is given under -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinium</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Legatio">LĒGĀTĬO LĪBĔRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Legatus">Legatus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Legatum">LĒGĀTUM, a part of the hereditas which -a testator gives out of it, from the heres (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ab -herede</i>); that is, it is a gift to a person out of -that whole (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">universum</i>) which is diminished -to the heres by such gift. There were several -laws limiting the amount of property which -a person might give in legacies; and it was -at last fixed by the Lex Falcidia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 40), -that he should not bequeath more than three-fourths -of his property in legacies, and thus -a fourth was left to the heres. By the Law -of the Twelve Tables a man could dispose of -his property as he pleased, and he might -exhaust (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">erogare</i>) the whole hereditas by -legacies and bequests of freedom to slaves, so -as to leave the heres nothing. The consequence -was that in such cases the scripti -heredes refused to take the hereditas, and -there was of course an intestacy. Legata -were inutilia or void, if they were given -before a heres was instituted by the will, for -the will derived all its legal efficacy from -such institution; there was the same rule as -to a gift of freedom.</p> - - -<p id="Legatus">LĒGĀTUS, from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lego</i>, a person commissioned -or deputed to do certain things. They -may be divided into three classes:—1. Legati -or ambassadors sent to Rome by foreign -nations; 2. Legati or ambassadors sent from -Rome to foreign nations and into the provinces; -3. Legati who accompanied the Roman<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span> -generals into the field, or the proconsuls -and praetors into the provinces. 1. Foreign -legati at Rome, from whatever country they -came, had to go to the temple of Saturn, and -deposit their names with the quaestors. Previous -to their admission into the city, foreign -ambassadors seem to have been obliged to -give notice from what nation they came and -for what purpose; for several instances are -mentioned, in which ambassadors were prohibited -from entering the city, especially in -case of a war between Rome and the state -from which they came. In such cases the -ambassadors were either not heard at all, -and obliged to quit Italy, or an audience was -given to them by the senate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus legatis -datur</i>) outside the city, in the temple of Bellona. -This was evidently a sign of mistrust, -but the ambassadors were nevertheless treated -as public guests, and some public villa outside -the city was sometimes assigned for their -reception. In other cases, however, as soon -as the report of the landing of foreign ambassadors -on the coast of Italy was brought -to Rome, especially if they were persons of -great distinction, or if they came from an -ally of the Roman people, some one of the -inferior magistrates, or a legatus of a consul, -was despatched by the senate to receive, and -conduct them to the city at the expense of -the republic. When they were introduced -into the senate by the praetor or consul, they -first explained what they had to communicate, -and then the praetor invited the senators -to put their questions to the ambassadors. -The whole transaction was carried on by -interpreters, and in the Latin language. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Interpres">Interpres</a>.</span>] After the ambassadors had -thus been examined, they were requested to -leave the assembly of the senate, who now -began to discuss the subject brought before -them. The result was communicated to the -ambassadors by the praetor. In some cases -ambassadors not only received rich presents -on their departure, but were at the command -of the senate conducted by a magistrate, and -at the public expense, to the frontier of Italy, -and even farther. By the Lex Gabinia it -was decreed, that from the 1st of February -to the 1st of March, the senate should every -day give audience to foreign ambassadors. -There was a place on the right-hand side of -the senate-house, called Graecostasis, in -which foreign ambassadors waited. All ambassadors, -whencesoever they came, were -considered by the Romans throughout the -whole period of their existence as sacred and -inviolable. 2. Legati to foreign nations in -the name of the Roman republic were always -sent by the senate; and to be appointed to -such a mission was considered a great honour, -which was conferred only on men of high -rank or eminence: for a Roman ambassador -had the powers of a magistrate and the venerable -character of a priest. If a Roman -during the performance of his mission as -ambassador died or was killed, his memory -was honoured by the republic with a public -sepulchre and a statue in the Rostra. The -expenses during the journey of an ambassador -were, of course, paid by the republic; and -when he travelled through a province, the -provincials had to supply him with every -thing he wanted. 3. The third class of -legati, to whom the name of ambassadors -cannot be applied, were persons who accompanied -the Roman generals on their expeditions, -and in later times the governors of -provinces also. They are mentioned at a very -early period as serving along with the tribunes, -under the consuls. They were nominated -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legabantur</i>) by the consul or the dictator -under whom they served, but the -sanction of the senate was an essential point, -without which no one could be legally considered -a legatus. The persons appointed to -this office were usually men of great military -talents, and it was their duty to advise and -assist their superior in all his undertakings, -and to act in his stead both in civil and military -affairs. The legati were thus always -men in whom the consul placed great confidence, -and were frequently his friends or -relations: but they had no power independent -of the command of their general. Their -number varied according to the greatness or -importance of the war, or the extent of the -province: three is the smallest number that -we know of, but Pompey, when in Asia, had -fifteen legati. Whenever the consuls were -absent from the army, or when a proconsul -left his province, the legati or one of them -took his place, and then had the insignia as -well as the power of his superior. He was in -this case called legatus pro praetore, and -hence we sometimes read that a man governed -a province as legatus without any mention -being made of the proconsul whose vicegerent -he was. During the latter period of the republic, -it sometimes happened that a consul -carried on a war, or a proconsul governed -his province, through his legati, while he -himself remained at Rome, or conducted some -other more urgent affairs. When the provinces -were divided at the time of the empire -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Provincia">Provincia</a></span>], those of the Roman people were -governed by men who had been either consuls -or praetors, and the former were always -accompanied by three legati, the latter by -one. The provinces of the emperor, who -was himself the proconsul, were governed by -persons whom the emperor himself appointed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span> -and who had been consuls or praetors, or -were at least senators. These vicegerents of -the emperor were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legati augusti pro -praetore</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legati praetorii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legati consulares</i>, or -simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legati</i>, and they, like the governors of -the provinces of the Roman people, had one -or three legati as their assistants. During -the latter period of the republic it had become -customary for senators to obtain from the -senate the permission to travel through or -stay in any province at the expense of the -provincials, merely for the purpose of managing -and conducting their own personal -affairs. There was no restraint as to the -length of time the senators were allowed to -avail themselves of this privilege, which was -a heavy burden upon the provincials. This -mode of sojourning in a province was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legatio libera</i>, because those who availed -themselves of it enjoyed all the privileges of -a public legatus or ambassador, without -having any of his duties to perform. At the -time of Cicero the privilege of legatio libera -was abused to a very great extent. Cicero, -therefore, in his consulship (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63) endeavoured -to put an end to it, but, owing to the -opposition of a tribune, he only succeeded in -limiting the time of its duration to one year. -Julius Caesar afterwards extended the time -during which a senator might avail himself -of the legatio libera to five years.</p> - - -<p id="Legio">LĔGĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Leiturgia">LEITURGIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λειτουργία</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεῖτον</span>, Ion. -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λήϊτον</span>, <em>i.e.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημόσιον</span>, or, according to others, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτανεῖον</span>), a liturgy, is the name of certain -personal services which, at Athens, every -citizen who possessed a certain amount of -property had to perform towards the state. -These personal services, which in all cases -were connected with considerable expenses, -were at first a natural consequence of the -greater political privileges enjoyed by the -wealthy, who, in return, had also to perform -heavier duties towards the republic; but -when the Athenian democracy was at its -height the original character of these liturgies -became changed, for, as every citizen -now enjoyed the same rights and privileges -as the wealthiest, they were simply a tax -upon property connected with personal labour -and exertion. All liturgies may be divided -into two classes: 1, ordinary or encyclic -liturgies (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐγκύκλιοι λειτουργίαι</span>); and 2, extraordinary -liturgies. The former were called -encyclic, because they recurred every year -at certain festive seasons, and comprised the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Choregia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gymnasiarchia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lampadarchia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Architheoria</i>, -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hestiasis</i>. Every Athenian -who possessed three talents and above was -subject to them, and they were undertaken -in turns by the members of every tribe who -possessed the property qualification just mentioned, -unless some one volunteered to undertake -a liturgy for another person. But -the law did not allow any one to be compelled -to undertake more than one liturgy -at a time, and he who had in one year performed -a liturgy was free for the next, so -that legally a person had to perform a liturgy -only every other year. Those whose turn it -was to undertake any of the ordinary liturgies -were always appointed by their own tribe. -The persons who were exempt from all kinds -of liturgies were the nine archons, heiresses, -and orphans until after the commencement -of the second year of their coming of age. -Sometimes the exemption from liturgies -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτελεία</span>) was granted to persons for especial -merits towards the republic. The only kind -of extraordinary liturgy to which the name -is properly applied is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trierarchia</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριηραρχία</span>); in the earlier times, however, -the service in the armies was in reality no -more than an extraordinary liturgy. [See -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Eisphora">Eisphora</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Trierarchia">Trierarchia</a></span>.] In later times, -during and after the Peloponnesian war, -when the expenses of a liturgy were found -too heavy for one person, we find that in -many instances two persons combined to -defray its expenses. Such was the case with -the choragia and the trierarchy.</p> - - -<p id="Lembus">LEMBUS, a skiff or small boat, used for -carrying a person from a ship to the shore. -The name was also given to the light boats -which were sent ahead of a fleet to obtain -information of the enemy’s movements.</p> - - -<p id="Lemniscus">LEMNISCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λημνίσκος</span>), a kind of coloured -ribbon which hung down from crowns -or diadems at the back part of the head. -Coronae adorned with lemnisci were a greater -distinction than those without them. This -serves to explain an expression of Cicero -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palma lemniscata, pro Rosc. Am.</i> 35), where -palma means a victory, and the epithet lemniscata -indicates the contrary of infamis, and -at the same time implies an honourable as -well as lucrative victory. Lemnisci were -also worn alone and without being connected -with crowns, especially by ladies, as an ornament -for the head.</p> - - -<p id="Lemuria">LĔMŬRĬA, a festival for the souls of the -departed, which was celebrated at Rome -every year in the month of May. It was -said to have been instituted by Romulus to -appease the spirit of Remus, whom he had -slain, and to have been called originally -Remuria. It was celebrated at night and in -silence, and during three alternate days, that -is, on the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth of -May. During this season the temples of the -gods were closed, and it was thought unlucky -for women to marry at this time and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span> -during the whole month of May, and those -who ventured to marry were believed to die -soon after, whence the proverb, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mense Maio -malae nubent</i>. Those who celebrated the -Lemuria walked barefooted, washed their -hands three times, and threw black beans -nine times behind their backs, believing by -this ceremony to secure themselves against -the Lemures. As regards the solemnities on -each of the three days, we only know that on -the second there were games in the circus in -honour of Mars, and that on the third day -the images of the thirty Argei, made of -rushes, were thrown from the Pons Sublicius -into the Tiber by the Vestal virgins [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Argei">Argei</a></span>]. -On the same day there was a festival of the -merchants, probably because on this day the -temple of Mercury had been dedicated in the -year 495 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - - -<p id="Lenaea">LĒNAEA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Lesche">LESCHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λέσχη</span>), an Ionic word, signifying -<em>council</em> or <em>conversation</em>, and <em>a place for -council or conversation</em>. There is frequent -mention of places of public resort, in the -Greek cities, by the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leschae</i>, some -set apart for the purpose, and others so called -because they were so used by loungers; to -the latter class belong the agora and its porticoes, -the gymnasia, and the shops of various -tradesmen. The former class were small -buildings or porticoes, furnished with seats, -and exposed to the sun, to which the idle -resorted to enjoy conversation, and the poor -to obtain warmth and shelter: at Athens -alone there were 360 such. In the Dorian -states the word retained the meaning of a -place of meeting for deliberation and intercourse, -a council-chamber or club-room. -There were generally chambers for council -and conversation, called by this name, attached -to the temples of Apollo. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lesche</i> -at Delphi was celebrated through Greece for -the paintings with which it was adorned by -Polygnotus.</p> - - -<p id="Lex">LEX. Of Roman leges, viewed with reference -to the mode of enactment, there were -properly two kinds, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges Curiatae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges -Centuriatae</i>. Plebiscita are improperly called -leges, though they were laws, and in the -course of time had the same effect as leges. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plebiscitum">Plebiscitum</a>.</span>] Originally the leges curiatae -were the only leges, and they were passed by -the populus in the comitia curiata. After -the establishment of the comitia centuriata, -the comitia curiata fell almost into disuse; -but so long as the republic lasted, and even -under Augustus, a shadow of the old constitution -was preserved in the formal conferring -of the imperium by a lex curiata only, and -in the ceremony of adrogation being effected -only in these comitia. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio</a>.</span>] Those -leges, properly so called, with which we are -acquainted, were passed in the comitia centuriata, -and were proposed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogabantur</i>) by -a magistratus of senatorial rank, after the -senate had approved of them by a decretum. -Such a lex was also designated by the name -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Populi Scitum</i>.—The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogatio</i> (from the -verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogo</i>) properly means any measure proposed -to the legislative body, and therefore -is equally applicable to a proposed lex and a -proposed plebiscitum. It corresponds to our -word <em>bill</em>, as opposed to <em>act</em>. When the -measure was passed, it became a lex or plebiscitum; -though rogationes, after they had -become laws, were sometimes, but improperly, -called rogationes. A rogatio began -with the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velitis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jubeatis</i>, &c., and -ended with the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ita vos Quirites rogo</i>. -The corresponding expression of assent to -the rogatio on the part of the sovereign assembly -was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uti rogas</i>. The phrases for proposing -a law are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogare legem</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legem ferre</i>, -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogationem promulgare</i>; the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogationem -accipere</i> applies to the enacting body. -The terms relating to legislation are thus -explained by Ulpian the jurist:—“A lex is -said either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogari</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ferri</i>; it is said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">abrogari</i>, -when it is repealed; it is said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">derogari</i>, -when a part is repealed; it is said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subrogari</i>, -when some addition is made to it; and it -is said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obrogari</i>, when some part of it is -changed.”—A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">privilegium</i> is an enactment -that had for its object a single person, which -is indicated by the form of the word (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">privilegium</i>), -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">privae res</i> being the same as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">singulae -res</i>. The word privilegium did not convey -any notion of the character of the legislative -measures; it might be beneficial to the party -to whom it referred, or it might not. Under -the empire, the word is used in the sense of -a special grant proceeding from the imperial -favour.—The title of a lex was generally derived -from the gentile name of the magistratus -who proposed it, as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Hortensia</i> -from the dictator Hortensius. Sometimes -the lex took its name from the two consuls -or other magistrates, as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acilia Calpurnia</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aelia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aelia Sentia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Papia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Papia Poppaea</i>, -and others. It seems to have been the fashion -to omit the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">et</i> between the two -names, though instances occur in which it was -used. A lex was also designated, with reference -to its object, as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Cincia de Donis -et Muneribus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Furia Testamentaria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex -Julia Municipalis</i>, and many others. Leges -which related to a common object, were often -designated by a collective name, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges -Agrariae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Judiciariae</i>, and others. A lex -sometimes took its name from the chief contents -of its first chapter, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia de -Maritandis Ordinibus</i>. Sometimes a lex<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span> -comprised very various provisions, relating -to matters essentially different, and in that -case it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Satura</i>.—The number -of leges was greatly increased in the later -part of the republican period, and Julius -Caesar is said to have contemplated a revision -of the whole body. Under him and Augustus -numerous enactments were passed, which -are known under the general name of Juliae -Leges. It is often stated that no leges, properly -so called, or plebiscita, were passed -after the time of Augustus; but this is a -mistake. Though the voting might be a mere -form, still the form was kept. Besides, various -leges are mentioned as having been passed -under the Empire, such as the Lex Junia -under Tiberius, the Lex Visellia, the Lex -Mamilia under Caligula, and a Lex Claudia -on the tutela of women. It does not appear -when the ancient forms of legislation were -laid aside. A particular enactment is always -referred to by its name. The following is a -list of the principal leges, properly so called; -but the list includes also various plebiscita -and privilegia:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p id="Acilia">ACĪLĬA, De Coloniis Deducendis. (Liv. -xxxii. 29.)</p> - - -<p id="Acilia_a">ACĪLIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Acilia_c">ACĪLIA CALPURNĬA or CALPURNIA. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aebutia">AEBUTĬA, of uncertain date, which with -two Juliae Leges put an end to the Legis -Actiones, except in certain cases. This or -another lex of the same name prohibited the -proposer of a lex, which created any office or -power (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatio ac potestas</i>), from having such -office or power, and even excluded his collegae, -cognati, and affines.</p> - - -<p id="Aelia">AELIA. This lex and a Fufia Lex, passed -about the end of the sixth century of the -city, gave to all the magistrates the obnunciatio, -or power of preventing or dissolving -the comitia, by observing the omens and declaring -them to be unfavourable.</p> - - -<p id="Aelia_c">AELĬA, De Coloniis Deducendis. (Liv. -xxxiv. 53.)</p> - - -<p id="Aelia_s">AELĬA SENTĬA, passed in the time of -Augustus (about <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 3). This lex contained -various provisions as to the manumission of -slaves.</p> - - -<p id="Aemilia">AEMĬLĬA. A lex passed in the dictatorship -of Mamercus Aemilius (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 433), by -which the censors were elected for a year -and a half, instead of a whole lustrum. -After this lex they had accordingly only a -year and a half allowed them for holding -the census and letting out the public works -to farm.</p> - - -<p id="Aemilia_b">AEMĬLĬA BAEBĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cornelia_b">Cornelia Baebia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aemilia_l">AEMĬLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Agrariae">AGRĀRÏAE, the name of laws which had -relation to the ager publicus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ager">Ager Publicus</a>.</span>] -The most important of these are mentioned -under the names of their proposers. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Appuleia">Appuleia</a>; <a href="#Cassia">Cassia</a>; <a href="#Cornelia">Cornelia</a>; <a href="#Flaminia">Flaminia</a>; -<a href="#Flavia">Flavia</a>; <a href="#Juliae">Julia</a>; <a href="#Licinia">Licinia</a>; <a href="#Sempronia">Sempronia</a>; <a href="#Servilia">Servilia</a>; -<a href="#Thoria">Thoria</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ambitus_a">AMBĬTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ampia">AMPĬA, to allow Cn. Pompeius to wear a -crown of bay at the Ludi Circenses, &c. Proposed -by T. Ampius and T. Labienus, tr. pl. -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 64.</p> - - -<p id="Annalis">ANNĀLIS or VILLĬA, proposed by L. Villius -Tapulus in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 179, fixed the age at -which a Roman citizen might become a candidate -for the higher magistracies. It appears -that until this law was passed, any -office might be enjoyed by a citizen after -completing his twenty-seventh year. The -Lex Annalis fixed 31 as the age for the -quaestorship, 37 for the aedileship, 40 for -the praetorship, and 43 for the consulship.</p> - - -<p id="Antia">ANTĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Sumptuariae Leges</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Antonia">ANTŌNĬA <span class="smcap">De Thermensibus</span>, about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -72, by which Thermessus in Pisidia was recognised -as Libera.</p> - - -<p id="Antoniae">ANTŌNĬAE, the name of various enactments -proposed or passed by the influence of -M. Antonius, after the death of the dictator -J. Caesar.</p> - - -<p id="Appuleia">APPŬLĒIA, respecting sureties.</p> - - -<p id="Appuleia_a">APPŬLĒIA AGRĀRĬA, proposed by the -tribune L. Appuleius Saturninus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 101.</p> - - -<p id="Appuleia_f">APPŬLĒIA FRŪMENTĀRĬA, proposed -about the same time by the same tribune.</p> - - -<p id="Appuleia_c">APPŬLĒIA, <span class="smcap">De Coloniis Deducendis</span>. -(Cic. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pro Balbo</i>, 21.)</p> - - -<p id="Appuleia_m">APPŬLĒIA MAJESTĀTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aternia">ATERNIA TARPĒIA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 455. This -lex empowered all magistrates to fine persons -who resisted their authority; but it fixed the -highest fine at two sheep and thirty cows, or -two cows and thirty sheep, for the authorities -vary in this.</p> - - -<p id="Atia">ĂTĬA DE SĂCERDŌTIIS (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63), -proposed by the tribune T. Atius Labienus, -repealed the Lex Cornelia de Sacerdotiis.</p> - - -<p id="Atilia">ĂTĪLĬA MARCĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 312, empowered -the populus to elect 16 tribuni militum for -each of four legions.</p> - - -<p id="Atilia_t">ĂTĪLĬA, respecting tutores.</p> - - -<p id="Atinia">ĂTĪNĬA, respecting thefts.</p> - - -<p id="Atinia_p">ĂTĪNĬA, of uncertain date, was a plebiscitum -which gave the rank of senator to a -tribune. This measure probably originated -with C. Atinius, who was tribune <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 130.</p> - - -<p id="Aufidia">AUFĬDĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aurelia">AURĒLĬA (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 70), enacted that the judices -should be chosen from the senators, -equites, and tribuni aerarii. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Aurelia_t">AURĒLĬA TRĬBŪNĬCĬA, respecting the -tribunes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span></p> - - -<p id="Baebia">BAEBĬA (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 192 or 180), enacted that -four praetors and six praetors should be -chosen alternately; but the law was not observed.</p> - - -<p id="Baebia_c">BAEBĬA CORNĒLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Caecilia">CAECĬLĬA DE CENSŌRĬBUS or CENSŌRIA -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 54), proposed by Metellus Scipio, -repealed a Clodia Lex (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58), which -had prescribed certain regular forms of proceeding -for the censors in exercising their -functions as inspectors of mores, and had required -the concurrence of both censors to -inflict the nota censoria. When a senator -had been already convicted before an ordinary -court, the lex permitted the censors to remove -him from the senate in a summary way.</p> - - -<p id="Caecilia_v">CAECĬLĬA DE VECTĪGĀLĬBUS (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -62), released lands and harbours in Italy -from the payment of taxes and dues (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portoria</i>). -The only vectigal remaining after -the passing of this lex was the Vicesima.</p> - - -<p id="Caecilia_d">CAECĬLĬA DĪDĬA (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 98) forbade the -proposing of a Lex Satura, on the ground -that the people might be compelled either to -vote for something which they did not approve, -or to reject something which they did -approve, if it was proposed to them in this -manner. This lex was not always operative.</p> - - -<p id="Caelia">CAELIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabellariae">Leges Tabellariae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Caligulae">CĂLĬGŬLAE LEX AGUĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mamilia">Mamilia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Calpurnia">CALPURNĬA DE AMBĬTU. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Calpurnia_r">CALPURNĬA DE RĔPĔTUNDIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Canuleia">CĂNŬLĒIA. (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 445) established connubium -between the patres and plebs, which -had been taken away by the law of the -Twelve Tables.</p> - - -<p id="Cassia">CASSĬA (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 104), proposed by the tribune -L. Cassius Longinus, did not allow a -person to remain a senator who had been -convicted in a judicium populi, or whose -imperium had been abrogated by the populus.</p> - - -<p id="Cassia_c">CASSĬA empowered the dictator Caesar to -add to the number of the patricii, to prevent -their extinction.</p> - - -<p id="Cassia_a">CASSĬA AGRĀRĬA, proposed by the consul -Sp. Cassius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 486. This is said to -have been the first agrarian law. It enacted -that of the land taken from the Hernicans, -half should be given to the Latins, and half -to the plebs, and likewise that part of the -public land possessed by the patricians should -be distributed among the plebeians. This -law met with the most violent opposition, -and appears not to have been carried. Cassius -was accused of aiming at the sovereignty, -and was put to death. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ager">Ager -Publicus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cassia_t">CASSĬA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabellariae">Leges Tabellariae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Cassia_f">CASSĬA TĔRENTĬA FRŪMENTĀRĬA -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 73) for the distribution of corn among -the poor citizens and the purchasing of it.</p> - - -<p id="Cincia">CINCĬA DE DŌNIS ET MŪNĔRĬBUS, a -plebiscitum passed in the time of the tribune -M. Cincius Alimentus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 204). It forbade -a person to take any thing for his pains in -pleading a cause. In the time of Augustus, -the Lex Cincia was confirmed by a senatus-consultum, -and a penalty of four times the -sum received was imposed on the advocate. -The law was so far modified in the time of -Claudius, that an advocate was allowed to -receive ten sestertia; if he took any sum -beyond that, he was liable to be prosecuted -for repetundae. It appears that this permission -was so far restricted in Trajan’s time, -that the fee could not be paid till the work -was done.</p> - - -<p id="Claudia">CLAUDĬA, passed under the emperor Claudius, -took away the agnatorum tutela in case -of women.</p> - - -<p id="Claudia_s">CLAUDĬA <span class="smcap">de Senatoribus</span>, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 218 (Liv. -xxi. 63), the provisions of which are alluded to -by Cicero as antiquated and dead in his time.</p> - - -<p id="Clodiae">CLŌDIAE, the name of various plebiscita, -proposed by Clodius, when tribune, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clodia de Auspiciis</span> prevented the magistratus -from dissolving the comitia tributa, -by declaring that the auspices were unfavourable. -This lex therefore repealed the Aelia -and Fufia. It also enacted that a lex might -be passed on the dies fasti. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aelia">Aelia Lex</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clodia de Censoribus.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caecilia">Caecilia</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clodia de Civibus Romanis Interemptis</span>, -to the effect that “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui civem Romanum indemnatum -interemisset, ei aqua et igni interdiceretur</span>.” -It was in consequence of this -lex that the interdict was pronounced against -Cicero, who considers the whole proceeding as -a privilegium.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clodia Frumentaria</span>, by which the corn, -which had formerly been sold to the poor -citizens at a low rate, was given.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clodia de Sodalitatibus</span> or <span class="smcap">de Collegiis</span> -restored the Sodalitia, which had been abolished -by a senatus-consultum of the year -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 80, and permitted the formation of new -Sodalitia.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clodia de Libertinorum Suffragiis.</span> (Cic. -<cite>pro Mil.</cite> 12, 33.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Clodia de Rege Ptolemaeo et de Exsulibus -Byzantinis.</span> (Vell. Pat. ii. 45.)</p> - -<p>There were other so-called Leges Clodiae, -which were however privilegia.</p> - - -<p id="Commissoria">COMMISSORĬA LEX, respecting sales.</p> - - -<p id="Corneliae">CORNĒLĬAE. Various leges passed in the -dictatorship of Sulla, and by his influence, are -so called.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Agraria</span>, by which many of the inhabitants -of Etruria and Latium were deprived of the -complete civitas, and retained only the commercium, -and a large part of their lands were -made public, and given to military colonists.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Civitate.</span> (Liv., <cite>Epit.</cite> 86.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Falsis</span>, against those who forged testaments -or other deeds, and against those who -adulterated or counterfeited the public coin, -whence Cicero calls it <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testamentaria</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummaria</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Injuriis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Injuria">Injuria</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Judiciaria.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Magistratibus</span>, partly a renewal of old -plebiscita. (Appian, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> i. 100, 101.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Majestatis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Parricidio.</span> [See below: <span class="smcap">De Sicariis</span>.]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Proscriptione et Proscriptis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Proscriptio">Proscriptio</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Provinciis Ordinandis.</span> (Cic. <cite>ad Fam.</cite> -i. 9; iii. 6, 8, 10.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Repetundis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Sacerdotiis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacerdos">Sacerdos</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Sicariis et Veneficis</span>, contained provisions -as to death or fire caused by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolus -malus</i>, and against persons going about -armed with the intention of killing or thieving. -The law not only provided for cases of -poisoning, but contained provisions against -those who made, sold, bought, possessed, or -gave poison for the purpose of poisoning; -also against a magistratus or senator who -conspired in order that a person might be -condemned in a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium publicum</i>, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sumptuariae.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tribunicia</span>, which diminished the power -of the Tribuni Plebis.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Unciaria</span> appears to have been a lex which -lowered the rate of interest, and to have been -passed about the same time with the Leges -Sumptuariae of Sulla.</p> - - -<p id="Corneliae_t">CORNĒLĬAE, which were proposed by the -tribune C. Cornelius about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 67. One -limited the edictal power by compelling the -praetors <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus dicere ex edictis suis perpetuis</i>.—Another -lex of the same tribune enacted that -no one <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legibus solveretur</i>, unless such a measure -was agreed on in a meeting of the senate -at which two hundred members were present, -and afterwards approved by the people; and -it enacted that no tribune should put his veto -on such a senatus-consultum.—There was also -a Lex Cornelia concerning the wills of those -Roman citizens who died in captivity (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apud -hostes</i>).</p> - - -<p id="Cornelia">CORNĒLIA DE NOVIS TABELLIS, proposed -by P. Corn. Dolabella, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 47.</p> - - -<p id="Cornelia_c">CORNĒLIA ET CAECĬLĪA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 57, gave -Cn. Pompeius the superintendence of the Res -Frumentaria for five years.</p> - - -<p id="Cornelia_b">CORNĒLĬA BAEBĬA DE AMBĬTU, proposed -by the consuls P. Cornelius Cethegus -and M. Baebius Tamphilus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 181. This -law is sometimes, but erroneously, attributed -to the consuls of the preceding year, L. -Aemilius and Cn. Baebius. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Curiata_i">CŪRIĀTA LEX DE IMPERIO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Imperium">Imperium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Curiata_a">CŪRIĀTA LEX DE ADOPTIONE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Decemviralis">DĔCEMVĬRĀLIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Duodecim_t">Lex Duodecim Tabularum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Decia">DĔCĬA DE DUUMVIRIS NAVALIBUS. -(Liv. ix. 30.)</p> - - -<p id="Didia">DĪDĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Domitia">DOMĬTĬA DE SĂCERDŌTIIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacerdos">Sacerdos</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Duilia">DUĪLĬA (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449), a plebiscitum proposed -by the tribune Duilius, which enacted that -whoever left the people without tribunes, or -created a magistrate from whom there was -no appeal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>), should be scourged -and beheaded.</p> - - -<p id="Duilia_m">DUĪLĬA MAENĬA, proposed by the tribunes -Duilius and Maenius (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 357), restored -the old uncial rate of interest (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unciarium -fenus</i>), which had been fixed by the -Twelve Tables. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>] The same tribunes -carried a measure which was intended, in -future, to prevent such unconstitutional proceedings -as the enactment of a lex by the soldiers -out of Rome, on the proposal of the consul.</p> - - -<p id="Duodecim_t">DŬŎDĔCIM TĂBŬLĀRUM. In the year -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 454 the Senate assented to a Plebiscitum, -pursuant to which commissioners were to be -sent to Athens and the Greek cities generally, -in order to make themselves acquainted with -their laws. Three commissioners were appointed -for the purpose. On the return of -the commissioners, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 452, it was agreed -that persons should be appointed to draw up -the code of laws (decemviri Legibus scribundis), -but they were to be chosen only from -the Patricians, with a provision that the -rights of the Plebeians should be respected -by the decemviri in drawing up the laws. -In the following year (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 451) the Decemviri -were appointed in the Comitia Centuriata, -and during the time of their office no -other magistratus were chosen. The body -consisted of ten Patricians, including the -three commissioners who had been sent -abroad: Appius Claudius, Consul designatus, -was at the head of the body. Ten Tables of -Laws were prepared during the year, and -after being approved by the Senate were confirmed -by the Comitia Centuriata. As it was -considered that some further Laws were -wanted, Decemviri were again elected <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -450, consisting of Appius Claudius and his -friends. Two more Tables were added by -these Decemviri, which Cicero calls “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Duae -tabulae iniquarum legum</span>.” The provision<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span> -which allowed no connubium between the -Patres and the Plebs is referred to the -Eleventh Table. The whole Twelve Tables -were first published in the consulship of L. -Valerius and M. Horatius after the downfall -of the Decemviri, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449. This the first -attempt to make a code remained also the -only attempt for near one thousand years, -until the legislation of Justinian. The -Twelve Tables are mentioned by the Roman -writers under a great variety of names: -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges Decemvirales</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Decemviralis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges -XII.</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex XII. tabularum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Duodecim</i>, and -sometimes they are referred to under the -names of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex</i> simply, as being -pre-eminently The Law. The Laws were -cut on bronze tablets and put up in a public -place. They contained matters relating both -to the Jus Publicum and the Jus Privatum -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fons publici privatique juris</i>). The Jus -Publicum underwent great changes in the -course of years, but the Jus Privatum of the -Twelve Tables continued to be the fundamental -law of the Roman State. The Roman -writers speak in high terms of the precision -of the enactments contained in the Twelve -Tables, and of the propriety of the language -in which they were expressed.</p> - - -<p id="Fabia">FĂBĬA DE PLĂGIO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plagium">Plagium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fabia_n">FĂBĬA DE NUMERO SECTATORUM. -(Cic. <cite>pro Murena</cite>, 34.)</p> - - -<p id="Falcidia">FALCIDIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Voconia">Lex Voconia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fannia">FANNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Fannia_j">FANNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Junia">Junia de Peregrinis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Flaminia">FLĀMĬNĬA was an Agraria Lex for the -distribution of lands in Picenum, proposed by -the tribune C. Flaminius, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 228 according -to Cicero, or in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 232 according to -Polybius. The latter date is the more probable.</p> - - -<p id="Flavia">FLĀVĬA AGRĀRĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 60, for the distribution -of lands among Pompey’s soldiers, -proposed by the tribune L. Flavius, who -committed the consul Caecilius Metellus to -prison for opposing it.</p> - - -<p id="Frumentariae_l">FRŪMENTĀRĬAE. Various leges were so -called which had for their object the distribution -of grain among the people, either at -a low price or gratuitously. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Frumentariae">Frumentariae -Leges</a></span>, <a href="#Page_182">p. 182</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Fufia">FŪFĬA DE RĒLĬGĬŌNE, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 61, was a -privilegium which related to the trial of -Clodius.</p> - - -<p id="Fufia_j">FŪFĬA JŪDĬCĬĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>, <a href="#Page_217">p. 217</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Furia">FŪRIA or FŪSĬA CĂNĪNĬA limited the -number of slaves to be manumitted by testament.</p> - - -<p id="Furia_t">FŪRIA or FŪSĬA TESTĂMENTĀRĬA, -enacted that a testator should not give more -than three-fourths of his property in legacies, -thus securing one-fourth to the heres.</p> - - -<p id="Gabinia">GĂBĪNĬA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabellariae">Leges Tabellariae</a>.</span>] -There were various Gabiniae Leges, -some of which were privilegia, as that for -conferring extraordinary power on Cn. Pompeius -for conducting the war against the -pirates. A Gabinia Lex, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58, forbade all -loans of money at Rome to legationes from -foreign parts. The object of the lex was to -prevent money being borrowed for the purpose -of bribing the senators at Rome.</p> - - -<p id="Galliae">GALLĬAE CISALPĪNAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Rubria">Rubria</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Gellia">GELLIA CORNĒLĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 72, which gave -to Cn. Pompeius the extraordinary power of -conferring the Roman civitas on Spaniards in -Spain, with the advice of his consilium.</p> - - -<p id="Genucia">GENUCĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 341, forbade altogether -the taking of interest for the use of money.</p> - - -<p id="Hieronica">HĬĔRŎNĬCA was not a lex properly so -called. Before the Roman conquest of Sicily, -the payment of the tenths of wine, oil, and -other produce had been fixed by Hiero; and -the Roman quaestors, in letting these tenths -to farm, followed the practice which they -found established.</p> - - -<p id="Horatiae">HŎRĀTĬAE ET VALĔRĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Valeriae">Leges Valeriae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Hortensia">HORTENSIA DE PLĒBISCĪTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Publilia">Leges -Publiliae</a>; <a href="#Plebiscitum">Plebiscitum</a>.</span>] Another Lex -Hortensia enacted that the nundinae, which -had hitherto been feriae, should be dies fasti. -This was done for the purpose of accommodating -the inhabitants of the country.</p> - - -<p id="Icilia">ICILĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 456, by which the Aventinus -was assigned to the plebs. This was the first -instance of the ager publicus being assigned -to the plebs. Another Lex Icilia, proposed -by the tribune Sp. Icilius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 470, had for -its object to prevent all interruption to the -tribunes while acting in the discharge of -their duties. In some cases the penalty was -death.</p> - - -<p id="Juliae">JŪLĬAE. Most of the Juliae Leges were -passed in the time of C. Julius Caesar and -Augustus.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Adulteriis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adulterium">Adulterium</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Agraria</span>, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 59, in the consulship of -Caesar, for distributing the ager publicus in -Campania among 20,000 poor citizens, who had -each three children or more.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Ambitu.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Bonis Cedendis.</span> This lex provided -that a debtor might escape all personal molestation -from his creditors by giving up his -property to them for the purpose of sale and -distribution. It is doubtful if this lex was -passed in the time of Julius Caesar or of -Augustus, though probably of the former.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Caede et Veneficio</span> (Suet. <cite>Ver.</cite> 33), -perhaps the same as the Lex De Vi Publica.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Civitate</span> was passed in the consulship -of L. Julius Caesar and P. Rutilius<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span> -Lupus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 90. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a>; <a href="#Foederatae">Foederatae -Civitates</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Fenore</span>, or rather De Pecuniis Mutuis -or Creditis (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 47), passed in the time -of Julius Caesar. The object of it was to -make an arrangement between debtors and -creditors, for the satisfaction of the latter. -The possessiones and res were to be estimated -at the value which they had before the civil -war, and to be surrendered to the creditors -at that value; whatever had been paid for -interest was to be deducted from the principal. -The result was, that the creditor lost -about one-fourth of his debt; but he escaped -the loss usually consequent on civil disturbance, -which would have been caused by -novae tabulae.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Judiciariae.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Liberis Legationibus.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Legatus">Legatus</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Majestate.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Maritandis Ordinibus.</span> [See below: -<span class="smcap">Julia et Papia Poppaea</span>.]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Municipalis</span>, commonly called the Table -of Heraclea. In the year 1732 there were -found near the Gulf of Tarentum and in the -neighbourhood of the city of ancient Heraclea, -large fragments of a bronze table, -which contained on one side a Roman lex, -and on the other a Greek inscription. The -whole is now in the Museo Borbonico at -Naples. The lex contains various provisions -as to the police of the city of Rome, and as -to the constitution of communities of Roman -citizens (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">municipia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coloniae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefecturae</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fora</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conciliabula civium Romanorum</i>). It -was accordingly a lex of that kind which is -called Satura. It was probably passed in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 45.</p> - -<p id="Lex_jpp"><span class="smcap">Julia et Papia Poppaea.</span> Augustus appears -to have caused a lex to be enacted -about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 18, which is cited as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia -de Maritandis Ordinibus</i>, and is referred to -in the Carmen Seculare of Horace, which was -written in the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 17. The object of -this lex was to regulate marriages, as to -which it contained numerous provisions; but -it appears not to have come into operation -till the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 13. In the year <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 9, -and in the consulship of M. Papius Mutilus -and Q. Poppaeus Secundus (consules suffecti), -another lex was passed as a kind of amendment -and supplement to the former lex, and -hence arose the title of Lex Julia et Papia -Poppaea, by which this lex is often quoted. -The lex is often variously quoted, according -as reference is made to its various provisions; -sometimes it is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia</i>, sometimes -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Papia Poppaea</i>, sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia et Papia</i>, -sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex de Maritandis Ordinibus</i>, -from the chapter which treated of the marriages -of the senators, sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Caducaria, -Decimaria</i>, &c. from the various chapters. -The Lex Julia forbade the marriage -of a senator or senator’s children with a -libertina, with a woman whose father or -mother had followed an ars ludicra, and with -a prostitute; and also the marriage of a -libertinus with a senator’s daughter. In -order to promote marriage, various penalties -were imposed on those who lived in a state -of celibacy (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caelibatus</i>) after a certain age, -and various privileges were given to those -who had three or more children. A candidate -for the public offices who had several -children was preferred to one who had fewer. -After the passing of this lex, it became usual -for the senate, and afterwards the emperor -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">princeps</i>), to give occasionally, as a privilege -to certain persons who had not children, the -same advantage that the lex secured to those -who had children. This was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus -Liberorum</i>, and sometimes the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus trium -Liberorum</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Peculatus</span>, cited in the Digest, related to -sacrilege as well as peculatus.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julia et Plautia</span>, respecting stolen things.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julia Papiria.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Papiria">Papiria</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Provinciis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Provincia">Provinciae</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Repetundarum.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sacrilegis.</span> [See above: <span class="smcap">Julia Peculatus</span>.]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sumptuariae.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Theatralis</span>, which permitted Roman -equites, in case they or their parents had -ever had a census equestris, to sit in the -fourteen rows (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quatuordecim ordines</i>) fixed -by the Lex Roscia Theatralis, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 69.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julia et Titia</span>, respecting Tutors.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Vi Publica and Privata.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vis">Vis</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vicesimaria.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vicesima">Vicesima</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Junia">JŪNĬA DE PĔRĔGRĪNIS, proposed <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -126, by M. Junius Pennus, a tribune, banished -peregrini from the city. A lex of C. -Fannius, consul <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 122, contained the same -provisions respecting the Latini and Italici; -and a lex of C. Papius, perhaps <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 65, contained -the same respecting all persons who -were not domiciled in Italy.</p> - - -<p id="Junia_l">JŪNĬA LĬCĬNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Licinia_j">Licinia Junia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Junia_n">JŪNIA NORBĀNA, of uncertain date, but -probably about <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 17, enacted that when -a Roman citizen had manumitted a slave -without the requisite formalities, the manumission -should not in all cases be ineffectual, -but the manumitted person should have the -status of a Latinus.</p> - - -<p id="Junia_r">JŪNIA RĒPĔTUNDĀRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Laetoria">LAETŌRIA, the false name of the Lex -Plaetoria. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Curator">Curator</a>.</span>] Sometimes the lex -proposed by Volero for electing plebeian magistrates -at the comitia tributa is cited as a -Lex Laetoria.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span></p> - - -<p id="Licinia">LĬCĬNĬA DE SŎDĀLĬTIIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Licinia_a">LĬCĬNIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aebutia">Aebutia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Licinia_l">LĬCĬNIA DE LŪDIS ĂPOLLĬNĀRĬBUS. -(Liv. xxvii. 23.)</p> - - -<p id="Licinia_j">LĬCĬNIA JŪNIA, or, as it is sometimes -called, Junia et Licinia, passed in the consulship -of L. Licinius Murena and Junius Silanus, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 62, enforced the Caecilia Didia, -in connection with which it is sometimes mentioned.</p> - - -<p id="Licinia_c">LĬCĬNIA MŪCĬA DE CĪVĬBUS RĔGUNDIS, -passed in the consulship of L. -Licinius Crassus and Q. Mucius Scaevola, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 95, enacted a strict examination as to -the title to citizenship, and deprived of the -exercise of civic rights all those who could -not make out a good title to them. This -measure partly led to the Marsic war.</p> - - -<p id="Licinia_s">LĬCĬNIA SUMPTUĀRIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Liciniae">LĬCĬNIAE, proposed by C. Licinius, who -was tribune of the people from <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 376 to -367, and who brought the contest between -the patricians and plebeians to a happy termination. -He was supported in his exertions -by his colleague L. Sextius. The laws -which he proposed were: 1. That in future -no more consular tribunes should be appointed, -but that consuls should be elected -as in former times, one of whom should always -be a plebeian. 2. That no one should possess -more than 500 jugera of the public land, nor -keep upon it more than 100 head of large, -or 500 of small cattle. It is related that -Licinius was accused and condemned for violating -his own law. Livy states that Licinius, -together with his son, held 1000 jugera of -the public land, and by emancipating his son -had acted in fraud of the law. The son thus -possessed 500 jugera in his own name, while -his father had the actual enjoyment. 3. A law -regulating the affairs between debtor and creditor, -which ordained that the interest already -paid for borrowed money should be deducted -from the capital, and that the remainder of -the latter should be paid back in three yearly -instalments. 4. That the Sibylline books -should be entrusted to a college of ten men -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decemviri</i>), half of whom should be plebeians, -in order that no falsifications might -be introduced in favour of the patricians. -These rogations were passed after a most -vehement opposition on the part of the patricians, -and L. Sextius was the first plebeian -who, in accordance with the first of them, -obtained the consulship for the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -366.</p> - - -<p id="Licinia_m">LĬCĬNIA, also called MANLĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 196, -created the triumviri epulones.</p> - - -<p id="Liviae">LĪVĬAE, various enactments proposed by -the tribune M. Livius Drusus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 91, for -establishing colonies in Italy and Sicily, distributing -corn among the poor citizens at a -low rate, and admitting the foederatae civitates -to the Roman civitas. He is also said -to have been the mover of a law for adulterating -silver by mixing with it an eighth -part of brass. Drusus was assassinated, and -the senate declared that all his laws were -passed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contra auspicia</i>, and were therefore -not leges.</p> - - -<p id="Lutatia">LUTĀTIA DE VI, proposed by the consul -Q. Lutatius Catulus, with the assistance of -Plautius the tribune: usually called Lex -Plautia or Plotia. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vis">Vis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Maenia">MAENĬA LEX, is only mentioned by -Cicero, who says that M. Curius compelled -the patres <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante auctores fieri</i> in the case of -the election of a plebeian consul, “which,” -adds Cicero, “was a great thing to accomplish, -as the Lex Maenia was not yet passed.” -The lex therefore required the patres to give -their consent at least to the election of a -magistratus, or, in other words, to confer or -agree to confer the imperium on the person -whom the comitia should elect. It was -probably proposed by the tribune Maenius -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 287.</p> - - -<p id="Majestatis">MAJESTĀTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Mamilia">MAMILĬA DE JŬGURTHAE FAUTŌRĬBUS. -(Sall. <cite>Jug.</cite> 40.)</p> - - -<p id="Mamilia_f">MAMILIA FINIUM RĔGUNDŌRUM, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -239 or 165, respecting boundaries.</p> - - -<p id="Manilia">MĀNĪLĬA, proposed by the tribune C. -Manilius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 66, was a privilegium by -which was conferred on Pompey the command -in the war against Mithridates. The -lex was supported by Cicero when praetor.</p> - - -<p id="Manlia">MANLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Licinia">Licinia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Manlia_v">MANLIA DE VĪCĒSĬMA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 357, imposed -the tax of five per cent. (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vicesima</i>) on -the value of manumitted slaves.</p> - - -<p id="Marcia">MARCĬA, probably about the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -352, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adversus feneratores</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Marcia_a">MARCĬA, an agrarian law proposed by the -tribune L. Marcius Philippus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 104.</p> - - -<p id="Maria">MĂRĬA, proposed by Marius when tribune, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 119, for narrowing the pontes at -elections.</p> - - -<p id="Memmia">MEMMIA or REMMĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calumnia">Calumnia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Mensia">MENSĬA, respecting the marriage of a Roman -woman with a peregrinus, declared -the offspring of such marriages peregrini.</p> - - -<p id="Minucia">MĬNŬCĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 216, created the triumviri -mensarii.</p> - - -<p id="Nervae">NERVAE AGRĀRIA, the latest known -instance of a lex.</p> - - -<p id="Octavia">OCTĀVĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 91, one of the numerous -leges frumentariae which repealed a Sempronia -Frumentaria. It is mentioned by -Cicero as a more reasonable measure than the -Sempronia, which was too profuse.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span></p> - - -<p id="Ogulnia">OGULNĬA, proposed by the tribunes, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -300, increased the number of pontifices to -eight, and that of the augurs to nine; it -also enacted that four of the pontifices and -five of the augurs should be taken from the -plebes.</p> - - -<p id="Oppia">OPPĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Orchia">ORCHĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Leges Sumptuariae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ovinia">ŎVĪNĬA, of uncertain date, was a plebiscitum -which gave the censors certain powers -in regulating the lists of the senators (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo -senatorius</i>): the main object seems to have -been to exclude all improper persons from -the senate, and to prevent their admission, -if in other respects qualified.</p> - - -<p id="Papia">PĀPĬA DE PĔRĔGRĪNIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Junia">Lex Junia -de Peregrinis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Papia_p">PĀPIA POPPAEA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex_jpp">Lex Julia et Papia -Poppaea</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Papiria">PĂPĪRĬA or JŪLIA PĂPĪRIA DE MULCTĀRUM -AESTĬMĀTIŌNE (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 430), fixed -a money value according to which fines were -paid, which formerly were paid in sheep and -cattle. Some writers make this valuation -part of the Aternian law [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aternia">Aternia Tarpeia</a></span>], -but in this they appear to have been mistaken.</p> - - -<p id="Papiria_s">PĂPĪRIA, by which the as was made semuncialis, -one of the various enactments -which tampered with the coinage.</p> - - -<p id="Papiria_a">PĂPĪRĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 332, proposed by the praetor -Papirius, gave the Acerrani the civitas -without the suffragium. It was properly a -privilegium, but is useful as illustrating the -history of the extension of the civitas Romana.</p> - - -<p id="Papiria_c">PĂPĪRĬA, of uncertain date, enacted that -no <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aedes</i> should be declared <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">consecratae</i> without -a plebiscitum.</p> - - -<p id="Papiria_p">PĂPĪRIA PLAUTĬA, a plebiscitum of the -year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 89, proposed by the tribunes C. -Papirius Carbo and M. Plautius Silvanus, in -the consulship of Cn. Pompeius Strabo and -L. Porcius Cato, is called by Cicero a lex of -Silvanus and Carbo. [See <span class="smcap"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas</a>; <a href="#Foederatae">Foederatae -Civitates</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Papiria_l">PĂPĪRIA POETELĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Poetelia">Lex Poetelia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Papiria_t">PĂPĪRIA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabellariae">Leges Tabellariae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pedia">PĔDĬA, relating to the murderers of Caesar.</p> - - -<p id="Peducaea">PĒDŪCAEA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 113, a plebiscitum, seems -to have been merely a privilegium, and not a -general law against incestum.</p> - - -<p id="Pesulania">PESULĀNĬA, provided that if an animal -did any damage, the owner should make it -good, or give up the animal.</p> - - -<p id="Petillia">PĔTILLĬA, <span class="smcap">De Pecunia Regis Antiochi</span>. -(Liv. xxxviii. 54.)</p> - - -<p id="Petreia">PETRĒIA, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de decimatione militum</i>, in case -of mutiny.</p> - - -<p id="Petronia">PETRŌNĬA, probably passed in the time -of Augustus, and subsequently amended by -various senatusconsulta, forbade a master -to deliver up his slave to fight with wild -beasts.</p> - - -<p id="Pinari">PĪNĀRĬ, related to the giving of a judex -within a limited time.</p> - - -<p id="Plaetoria">PLAETŌRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Curator">Curator</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Plautia">PLAUTĬA or PLŎTIA DE VI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vis">Vis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Plautia_j">PLAUTIA or PLŌTIA JŪDĬCĬĀRIA, -enacted that fifteen persons should be annually -taken from each tribe to be placed in the -Album Judicum.</p> - - -<p id="Plautia_r">PLAUTIA ET PLŌTIA DE RĔDĬTU -LĔPĬDĀNORUM. (Suet. Caes. 5.)</p> - - -<p id="Poetelia">POETELĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 358, a plebiscitum, was -the first lex against ambitus.</p> - - -<p id="Poetelia_p">POETELIA PĂPĪRIA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 326, made -an important change in the liabilities of the -Nexi.</p> - - -<p id="Pompeiae">POMPĒIAE. There were various leges so -called.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Civitate</span>, proposed by Cn. Pompeius -Strabo, the father of Cn. Pompeius Magnus, -probably in his consulship <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 89, gave the -jus Latii or Latinitas to all the towns of the -Transpadani, and probably the civitas to the -Cispadani.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Ambitu.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Imperio Caesari Prorogando.</span> (Vell. -Pat. ii. 46; Appian, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> ii. 18.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Judiciaria.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>, <a href="#Page_217">p. 217</a>, <em>a</em>.]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Jure Magistratuum</span>, forbade a person -to be a candidate for public offices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">petitio -honorum</i>) who was not at Rome; but J. -Caesar was excepted. This was doubtless -the old law, but it had apparently become -obsolete.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Parricidiis.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Parricida">Parricidium</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tribunitia</span> (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 70), restored the old tribunitia -potestas, which Sulla had nearly -destroyed. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribunus">Tribuni</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Vi</span>, was a privilegium, and only referred -to the case of Milo.</p> - - -<p id="Porciae">PORCĬAE DE CĂPĬTE CĪVĬUM, or DE -PRŌVŎCĀTIŌNE, enacted that no Roman -citizen should be scourged or put to death.</p> - - -<p id="Porcia">PORCIA DE PRŌVINCIIS, about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -198, the enactments of which are doubtful.</p> - - -<p id="Publicia">PUBLĬCĬA, permitted betting at certain -games which required strength.</p> - - -<p id="Publilia">PUBLĪLĬA. In the consulship of L. Pinarius -and P. Furius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 471, the tribune -Publilius Volero proposed, in the assembly of -the tribes, that the tribunes should in future -be appointed in the comitia of the tribes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ut -plebeii magistratus tributis comitiis fierent</i>), -instead of by the centuries, as had formerly -been the case; since the clients of the patricians -were so numerous in the centuries, that -the plebeians could not elect whom they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span> -wished. This measure was violently opposed -by the patricians, who prevented the tribes -from coming to any resolution respecting it -throughout this year; but in the following -year, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 471, Publilius was re-elected tribune, -and together with him C. Laetorius, a -man of still greater resolution than Publilius. -Fresh measures were added to the former -proposition: the aediles were to be chosen -by the tribes, as well as the tribunes, and the -tribes were to be competent to deliberate and -determine on all matters affecting the whole -nation, and not such only as might concern -the plebes. This proposition, though still -more violently resisted by the patricians than -the one of the previous year, was carried. -Some said that the number of the tribunes -was now for the first time raised to five, having -been only two previously.</p> - - -<p id="Publiliae">PUBLĪLĬAE, proposed by the dictator Q. -Publilius Philo, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 339. According to -Livy, there were three Publiliae Leges. 1. -The first is said to have enacted, that plebiscita -should bind all Quirites, which is to the -same purport as the Lex Hortensia of <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -286. It is probable, however, that the object -of this law was to render the approval of the -senate a sufficient confirmation of a plebiscitum, -and to make the confirmation of the -curiae unnecessary. 2. The second law -enacted, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ut legum quae comitiis centuriatis -ferrerentur ante initum suffragium patres -auctores fierent</i>. By patres Livy here means -the curiae; and accordingly this law made -the confirmation of the curiae a mere formality -in reference to all laws submitted to -the comitia centuriata, since every law proposed -by the senate to the centuries was to -be considered to have the sanction of the -curiae also. 3. The third law enacted that -one of the two censors should necessarily be -a plebeian. It is probable that there was -also a fourth law, which applied the Licinian -law to the praetorship as well as to the censorship, -and which provided that in each -alternate year the praetor should be a -plebeian.</p> - - -<p id="Pupia">PŪPĬA, mentioned by Cicero, seems to -have enacted that the senate could not meet -on comitiales dies.</p> - - -<p id="Quintia">QUINTĬA, was a lex proposed by T. Quintius -Crispinus, consul <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 9, for the preservation -of the aquaeductus.</p> - - -<p id="Regia">RĒGĬA. A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Regia</i> during the kingly -period of Roman history might have a two-fold -meaning. In the first place it was a -law which had been passed by the comitia -under the presidency of the king, and was -thus distinguished from a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Tribunicia</i>, -which was passed by the comitia under the -presidency of the tribunus celerum. In later -times all laws, the origin of which was attributed -to the time of the kings, were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leges Regiae</i>, though it by no means follows -that they were all passed under the presidency -of the kings, and much less, that they -were enacted by the kings without the sanction -of the curies. Some of these laws were -preserved and followed at a very late period -of Roman history. A collection of them was -made, though at what time is uncertain, by -Papisius or Papirius, and this compilation -was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Civile Papirianum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Papisianum</i>. -The second meaning of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Regia</i> -during the kingly period was undoubtedly -the same as that of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Curiata de Imperio</i>. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Imperium">Imperium</a>.</span>] This indeed is not -mentioned by any ancient writer, but must -be inferred from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Regia</i> which we -meet with under the empire, for the name -could scarcely have been invented then; it -must have come down from early times, when -its meaning was similar, though not nearly -so extensive. During the empire the curies -continued to hold their meetings, though they -were only a shadow of those of former times; -and after the election of a new emperor, -they conferred upon him the imperium in -the ancient form by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Curiata de Imperio</i>, -which was now usually called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex -Regia</i>. The imperium, however, which this -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Regia Lex</i> conferred upon an emperor, was -of a very different nature from that which in -former times it had conferred upon the kings. -It now embraced all the rights and powers -which the populus Romanus had formerly -possessed, so that the emperor became what -formerly the populus had been, that is, the -sovereign power in the state. A fragment of -such a lex regia, conferring the imperium -upon Vespasian, engraved upon a brazen -table, is still extant in the Lateran at Rome.</p> - - -<p id="Remnia">REMNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calumnia">Calumnia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Repetundarum">RĔPĔTUNDĀRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Rhodia">RHŎDĬA. The Rhodians had a maritime -code which was highly esteemed. Some of -its provisions were adopted by the Romans, -and have thus been incorporated into the -maritime law of European states. It was -not, however, a lex in the proper sense of -the term.</p> - - -<p id="Roscia">ROSCĬA THEĀTRĀLIS, proposed by the -tribune L. Roscius Otho, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 67, which gave -the equites a special place at the public -spectacles in fourteen rows or seats (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in quatuordecim -gradibus sive ordinibus</i>) next to -the place of the senators, which was in the -orchestra. This lex also assigned a certain -place to spendthrifts. The phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sedere in -quatuordecim ordinibus</i> is equivalent to having -the proper census equestris which was -required by the lex. There are numerous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span> -allusions to this lex, which is sometimes -simply called the Lex of Otho, or referred to -by his name. It is erroneously supposed by -some writers to have been enacted in the consulship -of Cicero, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63.</p> - - -<p id="Rubria">RUBRĬA. The province of Gallia Cisalpina -ceased to be a provincia, and became -a part of Italia, about the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 43. -When this change took place, it was necessary -to provide for the administration of -justice, as the usual modes of provincial -administration would cease with the determination -of the provincial form of government. -This was effected by a lex, a large -part of which, on a bronze tablet, is preserved -in the Museum at Parma. The name -of this lex is not known, but it is supposed -by some to be the Lex Rubria.</p> - - -<p id="Rupiliae">RŬPĬLĬAE LĒGES (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 131), were the -regulations established by P. Rupilius, and -ten legati, for the administration of the province -of Sicily, after the close of the first -servile war. They were made in pursuance -of a consultum of the senate. Cicero speaks -of these regulations as a decretum of Rupilius, -which he says they call Lex Rupilia; -but it was not a lex proper. The powers -given to the commissioners by the Lex Julia -Municipalis were of a similar kind.</p> - - -<p id="Sacratae">SĂCRĀTAE. Leges were properly so called -which had for their object to make a thing or -person <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacer</i>. A lex sacrata militaris is also -mentioned by Livy.</p> - - -<p id="Saenia">SAENĬA DE PATRICIORUM NUMERO -AUGENDO, enacted in the 5th consulship of -Augustus.</p> - - -<p id="Satura">SĂTŬRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a></span>, <a href="#Page_226">p. 226</a>, <em>a</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Scantinia">SCANTĪNĬA, proposed by a tribune; the -date and contents are not known, but its -object was to suppress unnatural crimes. It -existed in the time of Cicero.</p> - - -<p id="Scribonia">SCRĪBŌNĬA. The date and whole import -of this lex are not known; but it enacted -that a right to servitutes should not be acquired -by usucapion.</p> - - -<p id="Scribonia_v">SCRĪBŌNIA VĬĀRIA or DE VIIS MUNIENDIS, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 51.</p> - - -<p id="Semproniae">SEMPRŌNĬAE, the name of various laws -proposed by Tiberius and Caius Sempronius -Gracchus.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Agraria.</span> In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 133 the tribune Tib. -Gracchus revived the Agrarian law of Licinius -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Liciniae">Leges Liciniae</a></span>]: he proposed that no -one should possess more than 500 jugera of -the public land, and that the surplus land -should be divided among the poor citizens, -who were not to have the power of alienating -it: he also proposed, as a compensation to -the possessors deprived of the land on which -they had frequently made improvements, that -the former possessors should have the full -ownership of 500 jugera, and each of their -sons, if they had any, half that quantity: -finally, that three commissioners (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triumviri</i>) -should be appointed every year to carry the -law into effect. This law naturally met with -the greatest opposition, but it was eventually -passed in the year in which it was proposed, -and Tib. Gracchus, C. Gracchus, and Appius -Claudius were the three commissioners appointed -under it. It was, however, never -carried fully into effect, in consequence of -the murder of Tib. Gracchus. Owing to the -difficulties which were experienced in carrying -his brother’s agrarian law into effect, it was -again brought forward by C. Gracchus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Capite Civium Romanorum</span>, proposed -by C. Gracchus <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123, enacted that the -people only should decide respecting the -caput or civil condition of a citizen. This -law continued in force till the latest times of -the republic.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Frumentaria</span>, proposed by C. Gracchus -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123, enacted that corn should be sold by -the state to the people once a month at the -price of 6⅓ asses for each modius, which was -equal to 1 gallon and nearly 8 pints English. -This was only a trifle more than half the -market price.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Judiciaria.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>, <a href="#Page_216">p. 216</a>.]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Militaris</span>, proposed by C. Gracchus <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -123, enacted that the soldiers should receive -their clothing gratis, and that no one should -be enrolled as a soldier under the age of -seventeen. Previously a fixed sum was deducted -from the pay for all clothes and arms -issued to the soldiers.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ne quis Judicio circumveniretur</span>, proposed -by C. Gracchus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123, punished all -who conspired to obtain the condemnation of -a person in a judicium publicum. One of -the provisions of the Lex Cornelia de Sicariis -was to the same effect.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">De Provinciis Consularibus</span>, proposed by -C. Gracchus <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 123, enacted that the senate -should fix each year, before the comitia for -electing the consuls were held, the two provinces -which were to be allotted to the two -new consuls. There was also a Sempronian -law concerning the province of Asia, which -probably did not form part of the Lex de -Provinciis Consularibus: it enacted that the -taxes of this province should be let out to -farm by the censors at Rome. This law was -afterwards repealed by J. Caesar.</p> - - -<p id="Sempronia">SEMPRŌNIA DE FĒNŎRE, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 193, was -a plebiscitum proposed by a tribune, M. Sempronius, -which enacted that the law (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus</i>) -about money lent (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecunia credita</i>) should -be the same for the Socii and Latini (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii ac -nomen Latinum</i>) as for Roman citizens. The -object of the lex was to prevent Romans from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[235]</span> -lending money in the name of the Socii, who -were not bound by the fenebres leges. The -lex could obviously only apply within the -jurisdiction of Rome.</p> - - -<p id="Servilia">SERVĪLĬA AGRĀRIA, proposed by the -tribune P. S. Rullus in the consulship of -Cicero, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63, was a very extensive agrarian -rogatio. It was successfully opposed by -Cicero; but it was in substance carried by -J. Caesar, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 59 [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Juliae">Lex Julia Agraria</a></span>], and -is the lex called by Cicero <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Campana</i>, -from the public land called ager campanus -being assigned under this lex.</p> - - -<p id="Servilia_c">SERVĪLĬA GLAUCIA DE CĪVĬTĀTE. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Servilia_r">SERVĪLIA GLAUCIA DE RĔPĔTUNDIS. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Servilia_j">SERVĪLIA JŪDĬCĬĀRIA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 106. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>, -<a href="#Page_216">p. 216</a>.] It is assumed by some writers -that a lex of the tribune Servius Glaucia -repealed the Servilia Judiciaria two years -after its enactment.</p> - - -<p id="Silia">SĪLĬA, relating to Publica Pondera.</p> - - -<p id="Silvani">SILVĀNI ET CARBŌNIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Papiria_p">Lex Papiria -Plautia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sulpiciae">SULPĬCĬAE, proposed by the tribune -P. Sulpicius Rufus, a supporter of Marius, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 88, enacted the recall of the exiles, the -distribution of the new citizens and the -libertini among the thirty-five tribes, that -the command in the Mithridatic war should -be taken from Sulla and given to Marius, -and that a senator should not contract debt -to the amount of more than 2000 denarii. -The last enactment may have been intended -to expel persons from the senate who should -get in debt. All these leges were repealed -by Sulla.</p> - - -<p id="Sulpicia">SULPĬCĬA SEMPRŌNĬA, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304. No -name is given to this lex by Livy, but it was -probably proposed by the consuls. It prevented -the dedicatio of a templum or altar -without the consent of the senate or a majority -of the tribunes.</p> - - -<p id="Sumptuariae">SUMPTUĀRĬAE, the name of various laws -passed to prevent inordinate expense (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sumptus</i>) -in banquets, dress, &c. In the states -of antiquity it was considered the duty of -government to put a check upon extravagance -in the private expenses of persons, -and among the Romans in particular we find -traces of this in the laws attributed to the -kings, and in the Twelve Tables. The censors, -to whom was entrusted the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">disciplina</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cura morum</i>, punished by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nota censoria</i> -all persons guilty of what was then -regarded as a luxurious mode of living; a -great many instances of this kind are recorded. -But as the love of luxury greatly increased -with the foreign conquests of the republic -and the growing wealth of the nation, various -leges sumptuariae were passed at different -times with the object of restraining it. These, -however, as may be supposed, rarely accomplished -their object, and in the latter times -of the republic they were virtually repealed. -The following list of them is arranged in -chronological order:—</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Oppia</span>, proposed by the tribune C. Oppius -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 215, enacted that no woman should -have above half an ounce of gold, nor wear a -dress of different colours, nor ride in a carriage -in the city or in any town, or within a -mile of it, unless on account of public sacrifices. -This law was repealed twenty years -afterwards, whence we frequently find the -Lex Orchia mentioned as the first lex sumptuaria.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Orchia</span>, proposed by the tribune C. Orchius -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 181, limited the number of guests to -be present at entertainments.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fannia</span>, proposed by the consul C. Fannius, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 61, limited the sums which were to be -spent on entertainments, and enacted that -not more than 100 asses should be spent on -certain festivals named in the lex, whence it -is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centussis</i> by Lucilius; that on ten -other days in each month not more than 30 -asses, and that on all other days not more -than 10 asses, should be expended; also -that no other fowl but one hen should be -served up, and that not fattened for the -purpose.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Didia</span>, passed <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 143, extended the Lex -Fannia to the whole of Italy, and enacted -that not only those who gave entertainments -which exceeded in expense what the law -had prescribed, but also all who were present -at such entertainments, should be liable to -the penalties of the law. We are not, however, -told in what these consisted.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Licinia</span>, agreed in its chief provisions with -the Lex Fannia, and was brought forward, -we are told, that there might be the authority -of a new law upon the subject, inasmuch -as the Lex Fannia was beginning to be neglected. -It allowed 200 asses to be spent on -entertainments upon marriage days, and on -other days the same as the Lex Fannia; also, -that on ordinary days there should not be -served up more than three pounds of fresh, -and one pound of salt meat. It was probably -passed in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 103.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cornelia</span>, a law of the dictator Sulla, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -81, was enacted on account of the neglect of -the Fannian and Licinian Laws. Like these, -it regulated the expenses of entertainments. -Extravagance in funerals, which had been -forbidden even in the Twelve Tables, was -also restrained by a law of Sulla.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Aemilia</span>, proposed by the consul Aemilius -Lepidus, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 78, did not limit the expenses<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[236]</span> -of entertainments, but the kind and quantity -of food that was to be used.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Antia</span>, of uncertain date, proposed by Antius -Resto, besides limiting the expenses of -entertainments, enacted that no actual magistrate, -or magistrate elect, should dine -abroad anywhere except at the houses of -certain persons. This law however was little -observed; and we are told that Antius never -dined out afterwards, that he might not see -his own law violated.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julia</span>, proposed by the dictator C. Julius -Caesar, enforced the former sumptuary laws -respecting entertainments which had fallen -into disuse. He stationed officers in the -provision market to seize upon all eatables -forbidden by the law, and sometimes sent -lictors and soldiers to banquets to take everything -which was not allowed by the law.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julia</span>, a lex of Augustus, allowed 200 sesterces -to be expended upon festivals on dies -profesti, 300 on those of the calends, ides, -nones, and some other festive days, and 1000 -upon marriage feasts. There was also an -edict of Augustus or Tiberius, by which as -much as from 300 to 2000 sesterces were -allowed to be expended upon entertainments, -the increase being made with the hope of securing -thereby the observance of the law. -Tiberius attempted to check extravagance in -banquets; and a senatusconsultum was passed -in his reign for the purpose of restraining -luxury, which forbade gold vases to be employed, -except for sacred purposes, and also -prohibited the use of silk garments to men. -This sumptuary law, however, was but little -observed. Some regulations on the subject -were also made by Nero and by succeeding -emperors, but they appear to have been of -little or no avail in checking the increasing -love of luxury in dress and food.</p> - - -<p id="Tabellariae">TĂBELLĀRĬAE, the laws by which the -ballot was introduced in voting in the comitia. -As to the ancient mode of voting at -Rome, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_107">p. 107</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gabinia</span>, proposed by the tribune Gabinius -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 139, introduced the ballot in the -election of magistrates; whence Cicero calls -the tabella <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vindex tacitae libertatis</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cassia</span>, proposed by the tribune L. Cassius -Longinus <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 137, introduced the ballot in -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium populi</i>, or cases tried in the -comitia by the whole body of the people, with -the exception of cases of perduellio.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Papiria</span>, proposed by the tribune C. Papirius -Carbo, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 131, introduced the ballot -in the enactment and repeal of laws.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Caelia</span>, proposed by C. Caelius Caldus, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 107, introduced the ballot in cases of -perduellio, which had been excepted in the -Cassian law. There was also a law brought -forward by Marius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 119, which, was intended -to secure freedom and order in voting.</p> - - -<p id="Tarpeia">TARPĒIA ATERNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aternia">Aternia Tarpeia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Terentilia">TĔRENTĪLĬA, proposed by the tribune C. -Terentilius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 462, but not carried, was a -rogatio which had for its object an amendment -of the constitution, though in form it -only attempted a limitation of the imperium -consulare. This rogatio probably led to the -subsequent legislation of the decemviri.</p> - - -<p id="Testamentariae">TESTĀMENTĀRĬAE. Various leges, such -as the Cornelia, Falcidia, Furia, and Voconia, -regulated testamentary dispositions.</p> - - -<p id="Thoria">THŎRĬA, passed <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 121, concerned the -public land in Italy as far as the rivers Rubico -and Macra, or all Italy except Cisalpine -Gaul, the public land in the province of -Africa, the public land in the territory of -Corinth, and probably other public land besides. -It relieved a great part of the public -land of the land-tax (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigal</i>). Some considerable -fragments of this lex have come down -to us, engraved on the back part of the same -bronze tablet which contained the Servilia -Lex Judiciaria, and on Repetundae.</p> - - -<p id="Titia">TĬTĬA, similar in its provisions to the Lex -Publicia.</p> - - -<p id="Titia_t">TĬTĬA, <span class="smcap">De Tutoribus</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Juliae">Julia et Titia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Trebonia">TRĒBONĬA, a plebiscitum proposed by L. -Trebonius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 448, which enacted that if -the ten tribunes were not chosen before the -comitia were dissolved, those who were elected -should not fill up the number (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">co-optare</i>), but -that the comitia should be continued till the -ten were elected.</p> - - -<p id="Trebonia_p">TRĒBŌNĬA DE PRŌVINCIIS CONSULĀRĬBUS. -(Plut. <cite>Cat. Min.</cite> 43; Liv. <cite>Epit.</cite> -105.)</p> - - -<p id="Tribunitia">TRĬBŪNĬTĬA. (1) A law passed in the -times of the kings under the presidency of -the tribunus celerum, and was so called to -distinguish it from one passed under the presidency -of the king. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Regia">Lex Regia</a>.</span>]—(2) -Any law proposed by a tribune of the plebs.—(3) -The law proposed by Pompey in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -70, restoring to the tribunes of the plebs the -power of which they had been deprived by -Sulla.</p> - - -<p id="Tullia">TULLĬA DE AMBĬTU. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tullia_l">TULLIA DE LĒGĀTIŌNE LĪBĔRA. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Legatus">Legatus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_224">p. 224</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Valeriae">VĂLĔRĬAE, proposed by the consul P. -Valerius Publicola, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 508, enacted, 1. -That whoever attempted to obtain possession -of royal power should be devoted to the gods, -together with his substance. 2. That -whoever was condemned by the sentence of -a magistrate to be put to death, to be -scourged, or to be fined, should possess the -right of appeal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>) to the people. -The patricians possessed previously the right<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[237]</span> -of appeal from the sentence of a magistrate -to their own council the curiae, and therefore -this law of Valerius probably related only to -the plebeians, to whom it gave the right of -appeal to the plebeian tribes, and not to the -centuries. Hence the laws proposed by the -Valerian family respecting the right of appeal -are always spoken of as one of the chief -safeguards of the liberty of the plebs. The -right of appeal did not extend beyond a mile -from the city, where unlimited imperium -began, to which the patricians were just as -much subject as the plebeians.</p> - - -<p id="Valeriae_h">VĂLĔRĬAE ET HŎRĀTĬAE, three laws -proposed by the consuls L. Valerius and M. -Horatius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449, in the year after the -decemvirate, enacted, 1. That a plebiscitum -should be binding on the whole people, respecting -the meaning of which expression, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plebiscitum">Plebiscitum</a></span>. -2. That whoever should procure the -election of a magistrate without appeal should -be outlawed, and might be killed by any -one with impunity. 3. Renewed the penalty -threatened against any one who should harm -the tribunes and the aediles, to whom were -now added the judices and decemviri. There -is considerable doubt as to who are meant -by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judices</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decemviri</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Valeria">VĂLĔRĬA, proposed by the consul M. -Valerius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 300, re-enacted for the third -time the celebrated law of his family respecting -appeal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">provocatio</i>) from the decision of -a magistrate. The law specified no fixed -penalty for its violation, leaving the judges -to determine what the punishment should be.</p> - - -<p id="Varia">VĂRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vatinia">VĂTĪNĬA DE PRŌVINCIIS, was the -enactment by which Julius Caesar obtained -the province of Gallia Cisalpina with Illyricum -for five years, to which the senate -added Gallia Transalpina. This plebiscitum -was proposed by the tribune Vatinius. A -Trebonia Lex subsequently prolonged Caesar’s -imperium for five years.</p> - - -<p id="Vatinia_c">VĂTĪNĬA DE CŎLŌNIS, under which the -Latina Colonia [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Latinitas">Latinitas</a></span>] of Novum-Comum -in Gallia Cisalpina was planted, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 59.</p> - - -<p id="Vatinia_r">VĂTĪNIA DE REJECTIŌNE JŪDĬCUM. -(Cic. <cite>in Vatin.</cite> 11.)</p> - - -<p id="De">DE VI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vis">Vis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Viaria">VĬĀRĬA. A viaria lex which Cicero says -the tribune C. Curio talked of; but nothing -more seems to be known of it. Some modern -writers speak of leges viariae, but there do -not appear to be any leges properly so called. -The provisions as to roads in many of the -Agrarian laws were parts of such leges, and -had no special reference to roads.</p> - - -<p id="Visellia">VISELLĬA, made a Latinus who assumed -the rights of an ingenuus liable to prosecution.</p> - - -<p id="Villia">VILLĬA ANNĀLIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Annalis">Lex Annalis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Voconia">VŎCŌNIA, enacted on the proposal of -Q. Voconius Saxa, a tribunus plebis, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 169. -One provision of the lex was, that no person -who should be rated in the census at -100,000 sesterces (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centum millia aeris</i>) after -the census of that year, should make any -female (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">virginem neve mulierem</i>) his heres. -The lex allowed no exceptions, even in favour -of an only daughter. It applied simply -to testaments, and therefore a daughter or -other female could inherit ab intestato to -any amount. The vestal virgins could make -women their heredes in all cases, which -was the only exception to the provisions -of the lex. Another provision of the lex -forbade a person who was included in the -census to give more in amount, in the form -of a legacy to any person, than the heres or -heredes should take. This provision secured -something to the heres or heredes, but still -the provision was ineffectual, and the object -of the lex was only accomplished by the Lex -Falcidia, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 44, which enacted that a -testator should not give more than three-fourths -in legacies, thus securing a fourth to -the heres.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - - -<p id="Libella">LĪBELLA, a small Roman silver coin, -which existed in the early age of the city. -The name was retained later as a proverbial -expression for a very small value. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libella</i> was equal in value to the old full-weight -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i>; and it seems most probable that -the coin ceased being struck at the time of -the reduction of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">as</i>, on account of the -inconveniently small size which it would -have assumed. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libella</i> was subdivided -into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sembella</i>, its half, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">teruncius</i>, -its quarter. Cicero uses these words to express -fractions of an estate, with reference -to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">denarius</i> as the unit, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libella</i> signifying -1-10th, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">teruncius</i> 1-40th of the -whole.</p> - - -<p id="Libellus">LĬBELLUS, the diminutive form of liber, -signifies properly a little book. It was -distinguished from other kinds of writings, -by being written like our books by pages, -whereas other writings were written <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">transversa -charta</i>. It was used by the Romans -as a technical term in the following cases:—1. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libelli accusatorum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accusatorii</i>, the -written accusations which in some cases a -plaintiff, after having received the permission -to bring an action against a person, drew up, -signed, and sent to the judicial authorities. -2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libelli famosi</i>, libels or pasquinades, intended -to injure the character of persons. -A law of the Twelve Tables inflicted very -severe punishments on those who composed -defamatory writings. 3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libellus memorialis</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[238]</span> -a pocket or memorandum book. 4. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libellus</i> -is used by the Roman jurists as equivalent -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oratio Principis</i>. 5. The word libellus was -also applied to a variety of writings, which in -most cases probably consisted of one page only; -such as short letters, advertisements, &c.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill238a" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill238a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ancient Writing Materials. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Liber">LĬBER (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιβλίον</span>), a book. The most common -material on which books were written -by the Greeks and Romans, was the thin -coats or rind (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liber</i>, whence the Latin name -for a book) of the Egyptian papyrus. This -plant was called by the Egyptians Byblos -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βύβλος</span>), whence the Greeks derived their -name for a book (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιβλίον</span>). The papyrus-tree -grows in swamps to the height of ten -feet and more, and paper (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">charta</i>) was prepared -from the thin coats or pellicles which -surround the plant. Next to the papyrus, -parchment (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">membrana</i>) was the most common -material for writing upon. It is said -to have been invented by Eumenes II. king -of Pergamus, in consequence of the prohibition -of the export of papyrus from Egypt -by Ptolemy Epiphanes. It is probable, however, -that Eumenes introduced only some -improvement in the manufacture of parchment, -as Herodotus mentions writing on -skins as common in his time, and says that -the Ionians had been accustomed to give the -name of skins (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διφθέραι</span>) to books. The ancients -wrote usually on only one side of the -paper or parchment. The back of the paper, -instead of being written upon, was usually -stained with saffron colour or the cedrus, -which produced a yellow colour. As paper -and parchment were dear, it was frequently -the custom to erase or wash out writing of -little importance, and to write upon the -paper or parchment again, which was then -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Palimpsestus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλιμψήστος</span>). The paper -or parchment was joined together so as to -form one sheet, and when the work was -finished, it was rolled on a staff, whence it -was called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">volumen</i>; and hence we have -the expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">evolvere librum</i>. When an -author divided a work into several books, it -was usual to include only one book in a -volume or roll, so that there was generally -the same number of volumes as of books. In -the papyri rolls found at Herculaneum, the -stick on which the papyrus is rolled does not -project from the papyrus, but is concealed -by it. Usually, however, there were balls -or bosses, ornamented or painted, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">umbilici</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornua</i>, which were fastened at each -end of the stick and projected from the -papyrus. The ends of the roll were carefully -cut, polished with pumice-stone and coloured -black; they were called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">geminae frontes</i>. -The way in which a book was held while -reading is shown in the following cut, taken -from a painting at Herculaneum. To protect -the roll from injury it was frequently -put into a parchment case, which was stained -with a purple colour or with the yellow of -the Lutum. The title of the book (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">titulus</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">index</i>) was written on a small strip of papyrus -or parchment with a light red colour -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coccum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minium</i>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp63" id="ill238b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill238b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Book held by a crowned Poet. (From a Painting at -Herculaneum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Liberalia">LĪBĔRĀLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Liberi">LĪBĔRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ingenui">Ingenui</a>; <a href="#Libertus">Libertus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Libertus">LĪBERTUS, LĪBERTĪNUS. Freemen -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberi</i>) were either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ingenui</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ingenui">Ingenui</a></span>] or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[239]</span> -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libertini</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libertini</i> were those persons who -had been released from legal servitude. A -manumitted slave was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libertus</i> (that is, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberatus</i>) -with reference to his master; with -reference to the class to which he belonged -after manumission, he was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libertinus</i>. Respecting -the mode in which a slave was -manumitted, and his status after manumission, -see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Manumissio">Manumissio</a></span>.—At Athens, a liberated -slave was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπελεύθερος</span>. When manumitted -he did not obtain the citizenship, but -was regarded as a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metoicus</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Metoici">Metoicus</a></span>], and, -as such, he had to pay not only the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metoicion</i> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετοίκιον</span> but a triobolon in addition to it. -His former master became his patron <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span> -to whom he owed certain duties.</p> - - -<p id="Libitinarii">LĬBĬTĪNĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Libra">LĪBRA, <em>dim.</em> LĪBELLA <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σταθμός</span>, a balance, -a pair of scales. The principal parts -of this instrument were, 1. The beam (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugum</i>). -2. The two scales, called in Greek -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάλαντα</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lances</i>. The beam was -made without a tongue, being held by a ring -or other appendage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ligula</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥῦμα</span>) fixed in -the centre.</p> - - -<p id="Libra_a">LĪBRA or AS, a pound, the unit of weight -among the Romans and Italians. The uncial -division, which has been noticed in speaking -of the coin As, was also applied to the weight.—(See -<a href="#TABLES">Tables</a> at the end.) The divisions of -the ounce are given under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia</a></span>. Where -the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pondo</i>, or its abbreviations <span class="allsmcap">P.</span> or -<span class="allsmcap">POND.</span>, occur with a simple number, the -weight understood is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libra</i>. The name -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libra</i> was also given to a measure of horn, -divided into twelve equal parts (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unciae</i>) by -lines marked on it, and used for measuring -oil.</p> - - -<p id="Librarii">LIBRĀRĬI, the name of slaves, who were -employed by their masters in writing or copying, -sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">antiquarii</i>. They -must be distinguished from the Scribae publici, -who were freemen [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Scribae">Scribae</a></span>], and also -from the booksellers [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Bibliopola">Bibliopola</a></span>], to both of -whom this name was also applied.</p> - - -<p id="Librator">LĪBRĀTOR, in general a person who examines -things by a <span class="allsmcap">LIBRA</span>; but specially applied -to two kinds of persons.—(1) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libratores -aquae</i>, persons whose knowledge of -hydrostatics was indispensable in the construction -of aquaeducts, sewers, and other -structures for the purpose of conveying a -fluid from one place to another.—(2) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libratores</i> -in the armies were probably soldiers -who attacked the enemy by hurling with -their own hands (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librando</i>) lances or spears -against them.</p> - - -<p id="Libripens">LIBRĬPENS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mancipium">Mancipium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Liburna">LĬBURNA, LĬBURNĬCA, a light vessel, -which derived its name from the Liburni. -The ships of this people were of great assistance -to Augustus at the battle of Actium; -and experience having shown their efficiency, -vessels of a similar kind were built and -called by the name of the people.</p> - - -<p id="Lictor">LICTOR, a public officer, who attended on -the chief Roman magistrates. The number -which waited on the different magistrates is -stated in the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Fasces">Fasces</a></span>. The office of -lictor is said to have been derived by Romulus -from the Etruscans. The lictors went -before the magistrates one by one in a line; -he who went last or next to the magistrate -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proximus lictor</i>, to whom the magistrate -gave his commands; and as this -lictor was always the principal one, we also -find him called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">primus lictor</i>. The lictors -had to inflict punishment on those who were -condemned, especially in the case of Roman -citizens; for foreigners and slaves were punished -by the Carnifex; and they also probably -had to assist in some cases in the execution -of a decree or judgment in a civil suit. -The lictors likewise commanded persons to -pay proper respect to a magistrate passing -by, which consisted in dismounting from -horseback, uncovering the head, standing out -of the way, &c. The lictors were originally -chosen from the plebs, but afterwards appear -to have been generally freedmen, probably of -the magistrate on whom they attended. Lictors -were properly only granted to those -magistrates who had the Imperium. Consequently, -the tribunes of the plebs never had -lictors, nor several of the other magistrates. -Sometimes, however, lictors were granted to -persons as a mark of respect or for the sake -of protection. Thus by a law of the Triumvirs -every vestal virgin was accompanied by -a lictor, whenever she went out, and the honour -of one or two lictors was usually granted -to the wives and other female members of -the Imperial family. There were also thirty -lictors called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lictores Curiati</i>, whose duty it -was to summon the curiae to the comitia -curiata; and when these meetings became -little more than a form, their suffrages were -represented by the thirty lictors.</p> - - -<p id="Ligula">LĬGŬLA, a Roman measure of fluid capacity, -containing one-fourth of the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus</a></span>. -It signifies <em>a spoonful</em>, like <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cochlear</i>; only the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ligula</i> was larger than the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cochlear</i>. The -spoon which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ligula</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lingula</i> -(dim. of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lingua</i>) from its shape, was used for -various purposes, especially to clean out -small and narrow vessels, and to eat jellies -and such things. The word is also used for -the leather tongue of a shoe.</p> - - -<p id="Limen">LĪMEN. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Linter">LINTER, a light boat, frequently formed -of the trunk of a tree, and drawing little -water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[240]</span></p> - - -<p id="Lithostrota">LĬTHOSTRŌTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_144">p. 144</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Litra">LITRA <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λίτρα</span>, a Sicilian silver coin, equal -in value to the Aeginetan obol.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp94" id="ill240a" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill240a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Lituus, Augur’s Staff. (Centre figure from an Etruscan sculpture; the two others are Roman coins.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Lituus">LĬTUUS, probably an Etruscan word signifying -<em>crooked</em>.—(1) The crooked staff borne -by the augurs, with which they divided the -expanse of heaven, when viewed with reference -to divination (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i>), into regions -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">regiones</i>).—(2) A sort of trumpet slightly -curved at the extremity. It differed both -from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tuba</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornu</i>, the former -being straight, while the latter was bent -round into a spiral shape. Its tones are -usually characterised as harsh and shrill. -The Liticines, or blowers on the Lituus, -formed a Collegium along with the Cornicines. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cornu">Cornu</a>.</span>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill240b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill240b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Lituus, Trumpet. (From Fabretti.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Lixae">LIXAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calones">Calones</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Locupletes">LŎCŬPLĒTES or ASSĬDŬI, the name of -the Roman citizens included in the five -classes of the Servian constitution, and opposed -to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Proletarii</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Lodix">LŌDIX, a small shaggy blanket. It was -also used as a carpet.</p> - - -<p id="Logistae">LOGISTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Euthyne">Euthyne</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill240c" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill240c.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Lorica, as worn by a Greek Warrior.<br />(From a Vase.)</p> -<p class="right">Lorica, as worn by a Roman Emperor.<br /> -(Statue of Caligula in Louvre.)</p></div> -</div> - -<p id="Lorica">LŌRĪCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θώραξ</span>), a cuirass. The cuirass -was worn by the heavy-armed infantry both<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[241]</span> -among the Greeks and Romans. The soldiers -commonly wore cuirasses made of flexible -bands of steel, or cuirasses of chain -mail; but those of generals and officers -usually consisted of two <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γύαλα</span>, the breast-piece -and back-piece, made of bronze, iron, -&c., which were joined by means of buckles -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περόναι</span>). The epithets <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεπιδωτός</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φολιδωτός</span> -are applied to a cuirass; the former -on account of its resemblance to the scales -of fish (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεπίσιν</span>), the latter to the scales of -serpents (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φολίσιν</span>). Among the Asiatic nations -the cuirass was frequently made of -cotton, and among the Sarmatians and other -northern nations of horn.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill241a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill241a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p>Lorica. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεπιδωτός</span>.</p> -<p class="right">Lorica. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φολιδωτός</span>.</p> -(Bartoli, ‘Arcus Triumph.’)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Lucar">LŪCAR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Histrio">Histrio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Luceres">LŪCĔRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill241b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill241b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Lucerna, lamp. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iv. pl. 10.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Lucerna">LŬCERNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λύχνος</span>), an oil lamp. The -Greeks and Romans originally used candles; -but in later times candles were chiefly confined -to the houses of the lower classes. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Candela">Candela</a>.</span>] A great number of ancient lamps -has come down to us; the greater part of -which are made of terra cotta, but also a -considerable number of bronze. Most of the -lamps are of an oval form, and flat upon the -top, on which there are frequently figures in -relief. In the lamps there are one or more -round holes, according to the number of -wicks (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ellychnia</i>) burnt in them; and as these -holes were called from an obvious analogy, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυκτῆρες</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύξαι</span>, literally nostrils or nozzles, -the lamp was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Monomyxos</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dimyxos</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Trimyxos</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Polymyxos</i>, according as -it contained one, two, three, or a greater -number of nozzles or holes for the wicks. -The following is an example of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dimyxos -lucerna</i>, upon which there is a winged boy -with a goose. The next woodcut represents -one of the most beautiful bronze lamps which -has yet been found. Upon it is the figure of -a standing Silenus. The lamps sometimes -hung in chains from the ceiling of the room, -but they generally stood upon a stand. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Candelabrum">Candelabrum</a>.</span>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp85" id="ill241c" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill241c.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Lucerna lamp. (Museo Borbonico, vol. i. pl 10.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Lucta">LUCTA, LUCTĀTĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλαισμα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλαισμοσύνη</span>, -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταβλητική</span>), wrestling. The -Greeks ascribed the invention of wrestling to -mythical personages, and Hermes, the god of -all gymnastic exercises, also presided over -wrestling. In the Homeric age wrestling -was much practised: during this period -wrestlers contended naked, and only the loins -were covered with the perizoma (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίζωμα</span>), -and this custom probably remained throughout -Greece until Ol. 15, from which time the -perizoma was no longer used, and wrestlers -contended entirely naked. In the Homeric -age the custom of anointing the body for the -purpose of wrestling does not appear to have -been known, but in the time of Solon it was -quite general, and was said to have been -adopted by the Cretans and Lacedaemonians -at a very early period. After the body was -anointed, it was strewed over with sand or dust, -in order to enable the wrestlers to take a firm -hold of each other. If one combatant threw -the other down three times, the victory was -decided. Wrestling was practised in all the -great games of the Greeks. The most renowned -wrestler was Milon, of Croton. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pancratium">Pancratium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ludi">LŪDI, the common name for the whole -variety of games and contests which were -held at Rome on various occasions, but chiefly -at the festivals of the gods; and as the ludi -at certain festivals formed the principal part -of the solemnities, these festivals themselves -are called ludi. Sometimes ludi were also -held in honour of a magistrate or a deceased -person, in which case they may be considered -as ludi privati. All ludi were divided by the -Romans into two classes, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi circenses</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi scenici</i>, accordingly as they were held in -the circus or in the theatre; in the latter -case they were mostly theatrical representations -with their various modifications; in the -former they consisted of all or of a part of the -games enumerated in the articles <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a></span> and -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a></span>. Another division of the ludi -into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stati</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imperativi</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">votivi</i>, is analogous -to the division of the feriae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Feriae">Feriae</a>.</span>] The -superintendence of the games, and the solemnities -connected with them, was in most -cases intrusted to the aediles. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aediles">Aediles</a>.</span>] -If the lawful rites were not observed in the -celebration of the ludi, it depended upon the -decision of the pontiffs whether they were to -be held again (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">instaurari</i>) or not. An alphabetical -list of the principal ludi is subjoined.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Apollinares</span> were instituted at Rome -during the second Punic war, after the battle -of Cannae (212 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), at the command of an -oracle contained in the books of the ancient -seer Marcius, in order to obtain the aid of -Apollo. They were held every year under -the superintendence of the praetor urbanus, -and ten men sacrificed to Apollo, according to -Greek rites, a bull with gilt horns and two -white goats also with gilt horns, and to Latona -a heifer with gilt horns. The games -themselves were held in the Circus Maximus, -the spectators were adorned with chaplets, -and each citizen gave a contribution towards -defraying the expenses. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 208, it was -ordained that they should always be celebrated -on the 6th of July.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Augustales.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augustales">Augustales</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Capitolini</span> were instituted <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 387, -after the departure of the Gauls from Rome, -as a token of gratitude towards Jupiter Capitolinus, -who had saved the Capitol in the -hour of danger. The superintendence of the -games was entrusted to a college of priests -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capitolini</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Circenses</span>, <span class="smcap">Romani</span> or <span class="smcap">Magni</span>, were -celebrated every year during several days, -from the fourth to the twelfth of September, -in honour of the three great divinities, Jupiter, -Juno, and Minerva, or, according to -others, in honour of Jupiter, Consus, and -Neptunus Equestris. They were superintended -by the curule aediles. For further -particulars see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a></span>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Compitalicii.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Compitalia">Compitalia</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Florales.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Floralia">Floralia</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Funebres</span> were games celebrated at -the funeral pyre of illustrious persons. Such -games are mentioned in the very early legends -of the history of Greece and Rome, and they -continued with various modifications until -the introduction of Christianity. It was at -such a ludus funebris, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 264, that gladiatorial -fights were exhibited at Rome for -the first time, which henceforwards were the -most essential part in all funeral games. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Liberales.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Megalenses.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Megalesia">Megalesia</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Plebeii</span> were instituted probably in -commemoration of the reconciliation between -the patricians and plebeians after the first -secession to the Mons Sacer, or, according to -others, to the Aventine. They were held on -the 16th, 17th, and 18th of November, and -were conducted by the plebeian aediles.</p> - -<p id="Saeculares"><span class="smcap">Ludi Saeculares.</span> During the time of the -republic these games were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi Tarentini</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Terentini</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Taurii</i>, and it was not till -the time of Augustus that they bore the name -of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi saeculares</i>. The names <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tarenti</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Taurii</i> are perhaps nothing but different -forms of the same word, and of the same root -as Tarquinius. There were various accounts<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[242]<br /><a id="Page_243"></a>[243]</span> -respecting the origin of the games, yet all -agree in stating that they were celebrated for -the purpose of averting from the state some -great calamity by which it had been afflicted, -and that they were held in honour of Dis and -Proserpina. From the time of the consul -Valerius Publicola down to that of Augustus, -the Tarentine games were held only three -times, and again only on certain emergencies, -and not at any fixed period, so that we must -conclude that their celebration was in no way -connected with certain cycles of time (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saecula</i>). -Not long after Augustus had assumed -the supreme power in the republic, the quindecimviri -announced that according to their -books <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludi saeculares</i> ought to be held, and -at the same time tried to prove from history -that in former times they had not only been -celebrated repeatedly, but almost regularly -once in every century. The festival, however, -which was now held, was in reality -very different from the ancient Tarentine -games; for Dis and Proserpina, to whom -formerly the festival belonged exclusively, -were now the last in the list of the divinities -in honour of whom the ludi saeculares were -celebrated. The festival took place in summer, -and lasted for three days and three -nights. On the first day the games commenced -in that part of the Campus Martius, -Which had belonged to the last Tarquin, from -whom it derived its name Tarentum, and -sacrifices were offered to Jupiter, Juno, Neptune, -Minerva, Venus, Apollo, Mercury, Ceres, -Vulcan, Mars, Diana, Vesta, Hercules, -Latona, the Parcae, and to Dis and Proserpina. -The solemnities began at the second -hour of the night, and the emperor opened -them by the river side with the sacrifice of -three lambs to the Parcae upon three altars -erected for the purpose, and which were -sprinkled with the blood of the victims. The -lambs themselves were burnt. A temporary -scene like that of a theatre was erected in -the Tarentum, and illuminated with lights -and fires. In this scene festive hymns were -sung by a chorus, and various other ceremonies, -together with theatrical performances, -took place. During the morning of the first -day the people went to the Capitol to offer -solemn sacrifices to Jupiter; thence they -returned to the Tarentum, to sing choruses -in honour of Apollo and Diana. On the -second day the noblest matrons, at an hour -fixed by an oracle, assembled in the Capitol, -offered supplications, sang hymns to the gods, -and also visited the altar of Juno. The emperor -and the quindecimviri offered sacrifices -which had been vowed before, to all the great -divinities. On the third day Greek and -Latin choruses were sung in the sanctuary of -Apollo by three times nine boys and maidens -of great beauty, whose parents were still -alive. The object of these hymns was to -implore the protection of the gods for all -cities, towns, and officers of the empire. One -of these hymns was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carmen saeculare</i> by -Horace, which was especially composed for -the occasion and adapted to the circumstances -of the time. During the whole of the three -days and nights, games of every description -were carried on in all the circuses and theatres, -and sacrifices were offered in all the -temples. The first celebration of the ludi -saeculares in the reign of Augustus took -place in the summer of <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 17.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludi Tarentini</span> or <span class="smcap">Taurii</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Saeculares">Ludi Saeculares</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ludus">LŪDUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ludus_t">LŪDUS TRŌJAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Lupercalia">LŬPERCĀLĬA, one of the most ancient -Roman festivals, which was celebrated every -year in honour of Lupercus, the god of fertility. -It was originally a shepherd-festival, -and hence its introduction at Rome was connected -with the names of Romulus and Remus, -the kings of shepherds. It was held -every year, on the 15th of February, in the -Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were -said to have been nurtured by the she-wolf; the -place contained an altar and a grove sacred -to the god Lupercus. Here the Luperci assembled -on the day of the Lupercalia, and -sacrificed to the god goats and young dogs. -Two youths of noble birth were then led to -the Luperci, and one of the latter touched -their foreheads with a sword dipped in the -blood of the victims; other Luperci immediately -after wiped off the bloody spots with -wool dipped in milk. Hereupon the two -youths were obliged to break out into a shout -of laughter. This ceremony was probably -a symbolical purification of the shepherds. -After the sacrifice was over, the Luperci partook -of a meal, at which they were plentifully -supplied with wine. They then cut the -skins of the goats which they had sacrificed, -into pieces: with some of which they covered -parts of their body in imitation of the god -Lupercus, who was represented half naked -and half covered with goatskin. The other -pieces of the skins they cut in the shape of -thongs, and holding them in their hands they -ran with them through the streets of the city, -touching or striking with them all persons -whom they met in their way, and especially -women, who even used to come forward voluntarily -for the purpose, since they believed -that this ceremony rendered them fruitful, -and procured them an easy delivery in child-bearing. -This act of running about with -thongs of goatskin was a symbolic purification<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[244]</span> -of the land, and that of touching persons a -purification of men, for the words by which -this act is designated are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">februare</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lustrare</i>. -The goatskin itself was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">februum</i>, -the festive day <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies februata</i>, the -month in which it occurred <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Februarius</i>, and -the god himself <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Februus</i>. The festival of the -Lupercalia, though it necessarily lost its original -import at the time when the Romans were -no longer a nation of shepherds, was yet -always observed in commemoration of the -founders of the city. M. Antonius, in his -consulship, was one of the Luperci, and not -only ran with them half naked and covered -with pieces of goatskin through the city, but -even addressed the people in the forum in -this rude attire.</p> - - -<p id="Luperci">LŬPERCI, the priests of the god Lupercus. -They formed a college, the members of which -were originally youths of patrician families, -and which was said to have been instituted -by Romulus and Remus. The college was divided -into two classes, the one called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fabii</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fabiani</i>, and the other <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quinctilii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quinctiliani</i>. -The office was not for life, but how -long it lasted is not known. Julius Caesar -added to the two classes of the college a -third with the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Julii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Juliani</i>, and -made Antonius their high-priest. He also -assigned to them certain revenues (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigalia</i>) -which were afterwards withdrawn from -them.</p> - - -<p id="Lupus">LŬPUS FERREUS, the iron wolf used by -the besieged in repelling the attacks of the -besiegers, and especially in seizing the battering-ram -and diverting its blows.</p> - - -<p id="Lustratio">LUSTRĀTĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάθαρσις</span>) was originally a -purification by ablution in water. But the -lustrations of which we possess direct knowledge -are always connected with sacrifices -and other religious rites, and consisted in -the sprinkling of water by means of a branch -of laurel or olive, and at Rome sometimes by -means of the aspergillum, and in the burning -of certain materials, the smoke of which was -thought to have a purifying effect. Whenever -sacrifices were offered, it seems to have -been customary to carry them around the -person or thing to be purified. Lustrations -were made in ancient Greece, and probably -at Rome also, by private individuals when -they had polluted themselves by any criminal -action. Whole cities and states also sometimes -underwent purifications to expiate the -crime or crimes committed by a member of -the community. The most celebrated purification -of this kind was that of Athens, performed -by Epimenides of Crete, after the -Cylonian massacre. Purification also took -place when a sacred spot had been unhallowed -by profane use, as by burying dead -bodies in it, as was the case with the island -of Delos. The Romans performed lustrations -on many occasions, on which the Greeks did -not think of them; and the object of most -Roman lustrations was not to atone for the -commission of crime, but to obtain the blessing -of the gods upon the persons or things -which were lustrated. Thus fields were purified -after the business of sowing was over, -and before the sickle was put to the corn. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arvales">Arvales Fratres</a>.</span>] Sheep were purified -every year at the festival of the Palilia. All -Roman armies before they took the field were -lustrated; and as the solemnity was probably -always connected with a review of the troops, -the word lustratio is also used in the sense -of the modern review. The establishment -of a new colony was always preceded by a -lustratio with solemn sacrifices. The city of -Rome itself, as well as other towns within its -dominion, always underwent a lustratio after -they had been visited by some great calamity, -such as civil bloodshed, awful prodigies, and -the like. A regular and general lustratio of -the whole Roman people took place after the -completion of every lustrum, when the censor -had finished his census and before he laid -down his office. This lustratio (also called -lustrum) was conducted by one of the censors, -and held with sacrifices called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Suovetaurilia</i>, -because the sacrifices consisted of a pig (or -ram), a sheep, and an ox. It took place in -the Campus Martius, where the people assembled -for the purpose. The sacrifices were -carried three times around the assembled -multitude.</p> - - -<p id="Lustrum">LUSTRUM (from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">luo</i>, Gr. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λούω</span>) is properly -speaking a lustration or purification, -and in particular the purification of the whole -Roman people performed by one of the censors -in the Campus Martius, after the business -of the census was over. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Census">Census</a>; <a href="#Lustratio">Lustratio</a>.</span>] -As this purification took place only -once in five years, the word lustrum was also -used to designate the time between two lustra. -The first lustrum was performed in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 566, by king Servius, after he had completed -his census, and it is said to have taken -place subsequently every five years, after the -census was over. The census might be held -without the lustrum, and indeed two cases -of this kind are recorded which happened in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 459 and 214. In these cases the lustrum -was not performed on account of some -great calamities which had befallen the republic. -The time when the lustrum took -place has been very ingeniously defined by -Niebuhr. Six ancient Romulian years of 304 -days each were, with the difference of one -day, equal to five solar years of 365 days -each, or the six ancient years made 1824<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[245]</span> -days, while the five solar years contained -1825 days. The lustrum, or the great year -of the ancient Romans, was thus a cycle, at -the end of which the beginning of the ancient -year nearly coincided with that of the -solar year. As the coincidence, however, -was not perfect, a month of 24 days was intercalated -in every eleventh lustrum. Now -it is highly probable that the recurrence of -such a cycle or great year was, from the -earliest times, solemnised with sacrifices and -purifications, and that Servius Tullius did not -introduce them, but merely connected them -with his census, and thus set the example -for subsequent ages. Many writers of the -latter period of the republic and during the -empire, use the word lustrum for any space -of five years, and without any regard to the -census, while others even apply it in the -sense of the Greek pentaeteris or an Olympiad, -which contained only four years.</p> - - -<p id="Lycaea">LỸCAEA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λύκαια</span>), a festival with contests, -celebrated by the Arcadians in honour of -Zeus surnamed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λυκαῖος</span>. It was said to have -been instituted by the ancient hero Lycaon, -the son of Pelasgus, who is also said, instead -of the cakes which had formerly been offered -to the god, to have sacrificed a child to Zeus, -and to have sprinkled the altar with its -blood.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp73" id="ill245a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill245a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Lyre with four strings, from a Lycian coin. (Cabinet of -Sir Charles Fellows.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill245b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill245b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Lyre with seven strings, from a coin of Chalcis. (British -Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Lyra">LỸRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λύρα</span>, Lat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fides</i>), a lyre, one of the -most ancient musical instruments of the -stringed kind. The Greeks attributed the -invention of the lyre to Hermes, who is said -to have formed the instrument of a tortoise-shell, -over which he placed gut-strings. The -name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λύρα</span>, however, does not occur in the -Homeric poems, and the ancient lyre, called -in Homer <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phorminx</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φόρμιγξ</span>) and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">citharis</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κίθαρις</span>), seems rather to have resembled the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cithara</i> of later times, which was in some -respects like a modern guitar. In the cithara -the strings were drawn across the bottom, -whereas in the lyra of ancient times they -were free on both sides. The lyre is also -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χέλυς</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χελώνη</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testudo</i>, -because it was made of a tortoise-shell. The -lyre had originally three or four strings, but -after the time of Terpander of Antissa (about -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 650), who is said to have added three -more, it was generally made with seven. -The ancients, however, made use of a variety -of lyres; and about the time of Sappho and -Anacreon several stringed instruments, such -as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magadis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">barbiton</i>, and others, were used -in Greece, and especially in Lesbos. They -had been introduced from Asia Minor, and -their number of strings far exceeded that of -the lyre, for we know that some had even -twenty strings, so that they must have more -resembled a modern harp than a lyre. But -the lyra and cithara had in most cases no -more than seven strings. The lyre had a -great and full-sounding bottom, which continued -as before to be made generally of tortoise-shell, -from which the horns rose as from -the head of a stag. A transverse piece of -wood connecting the two horns at or near -their top-ends served to fasten the strings, -and was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζύγον</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">transtillum</i>. -The horns were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πήχεις</span> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornua</i>. These instruments were often -adorned in the most costly manner with gold -and ivory. The lyre was considered as a -more manly instrument than the cithara, -which, on account of its smaller-sounding -bottom, excluded full-sounding and deep -tones, and was more calculated for the -middle tones. The lyre when played stood -in an upright position between the knees, -while the cithara stood upon the knees of -the player. Both instruments were held -with the left hand, and played with the -right. It has generally been supposed that -the strings of these instruments were always<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[246]</span> -touched with a little staff called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plectrum</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλῆκτρον</span>), but among the paintings discovered -at Herculaneum we find several instances -where the persons play the lyre with -their fingers. The lyre was at all times only -played as an accompaniment to songs. The -Latin name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fides</i>, which was used for a lyre -as well as a cithara, is probably the same as -the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφίδες</span>, which signifies gut-string. -The lyre (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cithara</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phorminx</i>) was at first -used in the recitations of epic poetry, though -it was probably not played during the recitation -itself, but only as a prelude before the -minstrel commenced his story, and in the -intervals or pauses between the several parts. -The lyre has given its name to a species of -poetry called lyric; this kind of poetry was -originally never recited or sung without the -accompaniment of the lyre, and sometimes -also of an appropriate dance.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp43" id="ill246" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill246.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Anacreon playing the lyre. (Vase-painting in the British -Museum.)</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="M_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">M</span></h2> - -<p id="Maenianum" class="drop-capy">MAENIĀNUM, signified, originally, a projecting -balcony, which was erected -round the Roman forum, by the censor, C. -Maenius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 318, in order to give more -accommodation to the spectators of the gladiatorial -combats. Hence balconies in general -came to be called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maeniana</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Magadis">MĂGĂDIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lyra">Lyra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Magister">MĂGISTER., which contains the same root -as <em>mag-is</em> and <em>mag-nus</em>, was applied at Rome -to persons possessing various kinds of offices, -and especially to the leading person in a collegium -or corporation [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Collegium">Collegium</a></span>]; thus -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister societatis</i> was the president of -the corporation of equites, who farmed the -taxes at Rome.</p> - - -<p id="Magister_e">MĂGISTER ĔQUITUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dictator">Dictator</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Magistratus">MĂGISTRĀTUS was a person <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui juri dicundo -praeerat</i>. The King was originally the -sole Magistratus; he had all the Potestas. -On the expulsion of the Kings, two Consuls -were annually appointed, and they were Magistratus. -In course of time other Magistratus -were appointed; namely, dictators, censors, -praetors, aediles, tribunes of the plebs, -and the decemviri litibus judicandis. The -governors of provinces with the title of propraetor -or proconsul were also Magistratus. -The word Magistratus contains the same -element as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mag(ister)</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mag(nus)</i>; and it -signifies both the person and the office, as -we see in the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">se magistratu abdicare</i>. -The auspicia maxima belonged to the consuls, -praetors, and censors, and the minora -auspicia to the other magistrates; accordingly -the consuls, praetors, and censors were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Majores</i>, and they were elected at the -comitia centuriata; the other magistratus -were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Minores</i>. The former had the -imperium, the latter had not. The magistratus -were also divided into curules and those -who were not curules: the magistratus curules -were the dictator, consuls, praetors, -censors, and the curule aediles, who were so -called, because they had the jus sellae curulis. -The magistrates were chosen only -from the patricians in the early republic, but -in course of time the plebeians shared these -honours, with the exception of that of the -Interrex: the plebeian magistratus, properly -so called, were the plebeian aediles and the -tribuni plebis.</p> - - -<p id="Majestas">MAJESTAS pretty nearly corresponds to -treason in English law; but all the offences -included under majestas comprehend more -than the English treason. One of the offences -included in majestas was the effecting, aiding -in, or planning the death of a magistratus -populi Romani, or of one who had imperium -or potestas. Though the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crimen majestatis</i> -was used, the complete expression -was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crimen laesae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imminutae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diminutae</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minutae majestatis</i>. The word majestas, -consistently with its relation to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mag(nus)</i>, -signifies the magnitude or greatness of a -thing. Accordingly, the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">majestas -populi Romani</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imperii majestas</i>, signify the -whole of that which constituted the Roman -state; in other words, the sovereign power -of the Roman state. The expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minuere -majestatem</i> consequently signifies any act by -which this majestas is impaired. In the republican -period the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">majestas laesa</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minuta</i> was most commonly applied to cases -of a general betraying or surrendering his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>[247]</span> -army to the enemy, exciting sedition, and -generally by his bad conduct in administration -impairing the majestas of the state. The -old punishment of majestas was perpetual -interdiction from fire and water. In the -later imperial period, persons of low condition -were thrown to wild beasts, or burnt -alive; persons of better condition were simply -put to death. In the early times of the -republic, every act of a citizen which was -injurious to the state or its peace was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perduellio</i>, and the offender (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perduellis</i>) was -tried before the populus (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">populi judicio</i>), and, -if convicted, put to death. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Perduellis</i> originally -signified <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostis</i>; and thus the old offence -of perduellio was equivalent to making war -on the Roman state. The trial for perduellio -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perduellionis judicium</i>) existed to the later -times of the republic; but the name seems to -have almost fallen into disuse, and various -leges were passed for the purpose of determining -more accurately what should be majestas. -These were a lex Apuleia, probably -passed in the fifth consulship of Marius, the -exact contents of which are unknown, a lex -Varia <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 91, a lex Cornelia passed by L. -Cornelius Sulla, and the lex Julia, which -continued under the empire to be the fundamental -enactment on this subject. This lex -Julia is by some attributed to C. Julius Caesar, -and assigned to the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 48. Under -the empire the term majestas was applied to -the person of the reigning Caesar, and we -find the phrases majestas Augusta, imperatoria, -and regia. It was, however, nothing -new to apply the term to the emperor, considered -in some of his various capacities, for it -was applied to the magistratus under the -republic, as to the consul and praetor. Horace -even addresses Augustus in the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">majestas -tua</i>, but this can hardly be viewed otherwise -than as a personal compliment, and not -as said with reference to any of the offices -which he held.</p> - - -<p id="Malleolus">MALLĔŎLUS, a hammer, the transverse -head of which was formed for holding pitch -and tow, which, having been set on fire, was -projected slowly, so that it might not be extinguished -during its flight, upon houses and -other buildings in order to set them on fire: -it was therefore commonly used in sieges -together with torches and falaricae.</p> - - -<p id="Malus">MĀLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Manceps">MANCEPS has the same relation to Mancipium -that Auspex has to Auspicium. It is -properly <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui manu capit</i>. But the word has -several special significations. Mancipes were -they who bid at the public lettings of the -censors for the purpose of farming any part -of the public property. Sometimes the chief -of the publicani generally are meant by this -term, as they were no doubt the bidders and -gave the security, and then they shared the -undertaking with others or underlet it. The -mancipes would accordingly have distinctive -names according to the kind of revenue which -they took on lease, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Decumani</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Portitores</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pecuarii</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Mancipatio">MANCĬPĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mancipium">Mancipium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Mancipium">MANCĬPĬUM, MANCĬPĀTIO. These -words are used to indicate the formal transfer -of the ownership of a thing, and are derived -from the fact that the person who received -the thing took hold of it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipatio dicitur -quia manu res capitur</i>). It was not a simple -corporeal apprehension, but one which was -accompanied with certain forms described by -Gaius the jurist:—“Mancipatio is effected -in the presence of not less than five witnesses, -who must be Roman citizens and of -the age of puberty (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puberes</i>), and also in the -presence of another person of the same status, -who holds a pair of brazen scales, and hence -is called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libripens</i>. The purchaser (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui mancipio -accipit</i>), taking hold of the thing, says: -I affirm that this slave (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">homo</i>) is mine Ex -Jure Quiritium, and he is purchased by me -with this piece of money (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i>) and brazen -scales. He then strikes the scales with the -piece of money, and gives it to the seller as a -symbol of the price (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasi pretii loco</i>).” This -mode of transfer applied to all free persons -or slaves, animals or lands, all of which persons -and things were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Res Mancipi</i>; -other things were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nec Mancipi</i>. Lands -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praedia</i>) might be thus transferred, though -the parties to the mancipatio were not on the -lands; but all other things, which were objects -of mancipatio, were only transferable in -the presence of the parties, because corporeal -apprehension was a necessary part of the -ceremony. The party who transferred the -ownership of a thing pursuant to these forms -was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipio dare</i>; he who thus acquired -the ownership was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipio accipere</i>. -The verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipare</i> is sometimes -used as equivalent to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipio dare</i>. Mancipium -may be used as equivalent to complete -ownership, and may thus be opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">usus</i> -and to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fructus</i>. Sometimes the word mancipium -signifies a slave, as being one of the -res mancipi.</p> - - -<p id="Mandatum">MANDĀTUM, often signifies a command -from a superior to an inferior. Under the -empire the mandata principum were the -commands and instructions given to governors -of provinces and others.</p> - - -<p id="Manipulus">MĂNĬPŬLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Mansio">MANSĬO <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σταθμός</span>, a post-station at the -end of a day’s journey. The word is derived -from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manere</i>, signifying to pass the night at a -place in travelling. On the great Roman roads<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>[248]</span> -the mansiones were at the same distance from -one another as on those of the Persian empire, -where such resting-places (khans or caravanseras) -were first provided, viz. at intervals of -about 20 English miles. They were originally -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castra</i>, being probably mere places of encampment -formed by making earthen entrenchments. -In process of time they included, not -only barracks and magazines of provisions (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horrea</i>) -for the troops, but commodious buildings -adapted for the reception of travellers of all -ranks, and even of the emperor himself, if he -should have occasion to visit them. At those -stations the cisiarii kept gigs for hire and for -conveying government despatches. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cisium">Cisium</a>; -<a href="#Esseda">Essedum</a>.</span>] The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mansio</i> was under the superintendence -of an officer called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mansionarius</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Manubiae">MĂNŬBĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Spolia">Spolia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Manumissio">MĂNŪMISSĬO was the form by which -slaves were released from slavery. There -were three modes by which this was effected, -namely, Vindicta, Census, and Testamentum. -Of these the manumissio by vindicta is probably -the oldest, and perhaps was once the -only mode of manumission. It is mentioned -by Livy as in use at an early period; and, -indeed, he states that some persons refer the -origin of the vindicta to the event which he -relates, and derive its name from Vindicius; -the latter part, at least, of the supposition is -of no value. The ceremony of the manumissio -by the vindicta was as follows:—The -master brought his slave before the magistratus, -and stated the grounds (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">causa</i>) of the -intended manumission. The lictor of the -magistratus laid a rod (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">festuca</i>) on the head -of the slave, accompanied with certain formal -words, in which he declared that he was a -freeman ex jure quiritium, that is, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vindicavit -in libertatem</i>. The master in the meantime -held the slave, and after he had pronounced -the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hunc hominem liberum volo</i>, he -turned him round and let him go (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emisit e -manu</i>), whence the general name of the act -of manumission. The word vindicta itself, -which is properly the res <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vindicata</i>, is used -for festuca by Horace. In the case of the -census the slave was registered by the censors -as a citizen with his master’s consent. The -third mode of manumission was, when a -master gave liberty to a slave by his will -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testamentum</i>). The act of manumission -established the relation of patronus and -libertus between the manumissor and the -manumitted. When manumitted by a citizen, -the libertus took the praenomen and the gentile -name of the manumissor, and became in -a sense a member of the gens of his patron. -To these two names he added some other -name as a cognomen, either some name by -which he was previously known, or some -name assumed on the occasion: thus we find -the names M. Tullius Tiro, P. Terentius Afer, -and other like names. The relation between -a patronus and libertus is stated under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Patronus">Patronus</a></span>. -Before the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 311, the libertini -had not the suffragium, but in that year -the censor Appius Claudius gave the libertini a -place in the tribes, and from this time the -libertini had the suffragium after they were -duly admitted on the censors’ roll. In the -year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304, they were placed in the tribus -urbanae, and not allowed to perform military -service. In the censorship of Tiberius Gracchus, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 169, they were placed in one of -the tribus urbanae, determined by lot. Subsequently, -by a law of Aemilius Scaurus, -about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 116, they were restored to the -four city tribes, and this remained their condition -to the end of the republic, though -various attempts were made to give them a -better suffrage. A tax was levied on manumission -by a lex Manlia, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 357: it consisted -of the twentieth part of the value of -the slave, hence called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vicesima</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Manus">MĂNUS FERREA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Harpago">Harpago</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Marsupium">MARSŪPĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαρσύπιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βαλάντιον</span>), a -purse. The purse used by the ancients was -commonly a small leathern bag, and was -often closed by being drawn together at the -mouth (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύσπαστα βαλάντια</span>). Mercury is -commonly represented holding one in his -hand. (See cut, <a href="#ill063">p. 63</a>.)</p> - - -<p id="Martyria">MARTỸRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαρτύρια</span>), signifies strictly -the deposition of a witness in a court of justice, -though the word is applied metaphorically -to all kinds of testimony. At Athens -none but freemen could be witnesses. The -incapacity of women may be inferred from -the general policy of the Athenian law, and -the absence of any example in the orators -where a woman’s evidence is produced. The -same observation applies to minors. Slaves -were not allowed to give evidence, unless -upon examination by torture (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βάσανος</span>). Citizens -who had been disfranchised (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἠτιμωμένοι</span>) -could not appear as witnesses (any more than -as jurors or plaintiffs) in a court of justice; -for they had lost all honourable rights and -privileges. But there was no objection to -alien freemen. The party who desired the evidence -of a witness, summoned him to attend -for that purpose. The summons was called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόσκλησις</span>. If the witness promised to -attend and failed to do so, he was liable to an -action called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη λειπομαρτυρίου</span>. Whether -he promised or not, he was bound to attend, -and if his absence caused injury to the party, -he was liable to an action (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη βλάβης</span>). The -attendance of the witness was first required -at the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκρισις</span>, where he was to make his -deposition before the superintending magistrate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>[249]</span> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-249" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'ἠγεμὼν'"> -ἡγεμὼν</ins> δικαστηρίου</span>). The party in -whose favour he appeared, generally wrote -the deposition at home upon a whitened board -or tablet (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λελευκωμένον γραμματεῖον</span>), which -he brought with him to the magistrate’s -office, and, when the witness had deposed -thereto, put into the box (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐχῖνος</span>) in which -all the documents in the cause were deposited. -An oath was usually taken by the -witness at the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκρισις</span>, where he was sworn -by the opposite party at an altar. The witness, -whether he had attended before the -magistrate or not, was obliged to be present -at the trial, in order to confirm his testimony. -The only exception was, when he -was ill or out of the country, in which case -a commission might be sent to examine him. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ecmartyria">Ecmartyria</a>.</span>] All evidence was produced -by the party during his own speech, the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλεψύδρα</span> being stopped for that purpose. -The witness was called by an officer of the -court, and mounted on the raised platform -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βῆμα</span>.) of the speaker, while his deposition -was read over to him by the clerk; he then -signified his assent, either by express words, -or bowing his head in silence.—We conclude -by noticing a few expressions. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαρτυρεῖν -τινι</span> is to testify in favour of a man, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταμαρτυρεῖν -τινος</span> to testify against. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαρτύρεσθαι</span> -to call to witness (a word used poetically), -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαμαρτύρεσθαι</span> and sometimes <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμαρτύρεσθαι -τοὺς παρόντας</span>, to call upon those who -are present to take notice of what passes, with -a view to give evidence. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψευδομαρτυρεῖν</span> and -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιορκεῖν</span> are never used indifferently, which -affords some proof that testimony was not -necessarily on oath. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάρτυς</span> (witness in -the cause) is to be distinguished from the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλητὴρ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλήτωρ</span>, who merely gave evidence -of the summons to appear.</p> - - -<p id="Mastigophori">MASTĪGŎPHŎRI or MASTĪGŎNOMI -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαστιγοφόροι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαστιγονόμοι</span>), the name of -the lower police officers in the Greek states, -who carried into execution the corporal -punishments inflicted by the higher magistrates. -In the theatre the mastigophori preserved -order, and were stationed for this -purpose in the orchestra, near the thymele. -In the Olympic games the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαβδοῦχοι</span> performed -the same duties. At Athens they -were discharged by the public slaves, called -bowmen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοξόται</span>), or Scythians (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκύθαι</span>). -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Demosii">Demosii</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Materfamilias">MĀTERFĂMĬLĬAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Matralia">MATRĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome -every year on the 11th of June, in honour of -the goddess Mater Matuta, whose temple -stood in the Forum Boarium. It was celebrated -only by Roman matrons, and the -sacrifices offered to the goddess consisted of -cakes baked in pots of earthenware. Slaves -were not allowed to take part in the solemnities, -or to enter the temple of the goddess. -One slave, however, was admitted by the -matrons, but only to be exposed to a humiliating -treatment, for one of the matrons gave -her a blow on the cheek, and then sent her -away from the temple. The matrons on this -occasion took with them the children of their -sisters, but not their own, held them in their -arms, and prayed for their welfare.</p> - - -<p id="Matronalia">MĀTRŌNĀLĬA, a festival celebrated on -the Kalends of March in honour of Juno -Lucina. Hence Horace says, “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Martiis <em>caelebs</em> -quid agam Kalendis</span>.”</p> - - -<p id="Matrimonium">MĀTRĬMŌNĬUM NUPTĬAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γάμος</span>), -marriage. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> The ancient Greek -legislators considered the relation of marriage -as a matter not merely of private, but also of -public or general interest. This was particularly -the case at Sparta, where proceedings -might be taken against those who married -too late or unsuitably, as well as against -those who did not marry at all. But independent -of public considerations, there were -also private or personal reasons, peculiar to -the ancients, which made marriage an obligation. -One of these was the duty incumbent -upon every individual to provide for a -continuance of representatives to succeed -himself as ministers of the Divinity; and -another was the desire felt by almost every -one, not merely to perpetuate his own name, -but to leave some one who might make the -customary offerings at his grave. We are -told that with this view childless persons -sometimes adopted children. The choice of -a wife among the ancients was but rarely -grounded upon affection, and scarcely ever -could have been the result of previous acquaintance -or familiarity. In many cases a -father chose for his son a bride whom the -latter had never seen, or compelled him to -marry for the sake of checking his extravagances. -By the Athenian laws a citizen was -not allowed to marry with a foreign woman, -nor conversely, under very severe penalties, -but proximity by blood (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγχιστεία</span>), or consanguinity -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συγγένεια</span>), was not, with some -few exceptions, a bar to marriage in any -part of Greece; direct lineal descent was. -At Athens the most important preliminary -to marriage was the betrothal (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐγγύησις</span>), -which was in fact indispensable to the complete -validity of a marriage contract. It was -made by the natural or legal guardian -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ κύριος</span>) of the bride elect, and attended by -the relatives of both parties as witnesses. -The wife’s dowry was settled at the betrothal. -On the day before the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gamos</i>, or marriage, -or sometimes on the day itself, certain sacrifices -or offerings (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προτέλεια γάμων</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προγάμεια</span>)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>[250]</span> -were made to the gods who presided -over marriage. Another ceremony of almost -general observance on the wedding day, was -the bathing of both the bride and bridegroom -in water fetched from some particular fountain, -whence, as some think, the custom of -placing the figure of a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λουτροφόρος</span> or “water -carrier” over the tombs of those who died -unmarried. After these preliminaries, the -bride was generally conducted from her father’s -to the house of the bridegroom at nightfall, -in a chariot (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐφ’ ἁμάξης</span>) drawn by a pair -of males or oxen, and furnished with a kind -of couch (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλινίς</span>) as a seat. On either side of -her sat the bridegroom and one of his most -intimate friends or relations, who from his -office was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paranymph</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράνυμφος</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νυμφευτής</span>); but as he rode in the carriage -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄχημα</span>) with the bride and bridegroom, -he was sometimes called the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάροχος</span>. The -nuptial procession was probably accompanied, -according to circumstances, by a -number of persons, some of whom carried -the nuptial torches. Both bride and bridegroom -(the former veiled) were decked out -in their best attire, with chaplets on their -heads, and the doors of their houses were -hung with festoons of ivy and bay. As -the bridal procession moved along, the -hymenaean song was sung to the accompaniment -of Lydian flutes, even in olden times, -as beautifully described by Homer, and the -married pair received the greetings and -congratulations of those who met them. -After entering the bridegroom’s house, into -which the bride was probably conducted by -his mother, bearing a lighted torch, it was -customary to shower sweetmeats upon them -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταχύσματα</span>), as emblems of plenty and -prosperity. After this came the nuptial -feast, to which the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gamos</i> was particularly -applied; it was generally given in the -house of the bridegroom or his parents; and -besides being a festive meeting, served other -and more important purposes. There was -no public rite, whether civil or religious, -connected with the celebration of marriage -amongst the ancient Greeks, and therefore -no public record of its solemnisation. This -deficiency then was supplied by the marriage -feast, for the guests were of course -competent to prove the fact of a marriage -having taken place. To this feast, contrary -to the usual practice amongst the Greeks, -women were invited as well as men; but -they seem to have sat at a separate table, -with the bride still veiled amongst them. -At the conclusion of this feast she was conducted -by her husband into the bridal -chamber; and a law of Solon required that -on entering it they should eat a quince together, -as if to indicate that their conversation -ought to be sweet and agreeable. -The song called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epithalamium</i> was then -sung before the doors of the bridal chamber. -The day after the marriage, the first of the -bride’s residence in her new abode, was -called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epaulia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπαύλια</span>); on which their -friends sent the customary presents to the -newly married couple. On another day, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apaulia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπαύλια</span>), perhaps the second -after marriage, the bridegroom left his house, -to lodge apart from his wife at his father’s-in-law. -Some of the presents made to the -bride by her husband and friends were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anacalypteria</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνακαλυπτήρια</span>), as being given -on the occasion of the bride first appearing -unveiled: they were probably given on the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epaulia</i>, or day after the marriage. Another -ceremony observed after marriage was the -sacrifice which the husband offered up on -the occasion of his bride being registered -amongst his own phratores. The above account -refers to Athenian customs.—At Sparta -the betrothal of the bride by her father or -guardian (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύριος</span>) was requisite as a preliminary -of marriage, as well as at Athens. -Another custom peculiar to the Spartans, -and a relic of ancient times, was the seizure -of the bride by her intended husband, but of -course with the sanction of her parents or -guardians. She was not, however, immediately -domiciled in her husband’s house, -but cohabited with him for some time clandestinely, -till he brought her, and frequently -her mother also, to his home.—The Greeks, -generally speaking, entertained little regard -for the female character. They considered -women, in fact, as decidedly inferior to men, -qualified to discharge only the subordinate -functions in life, and rather necessary as -helpmates than agreeable as companions. -To these notions female education for the -most part corresponded, and in fact confirmed -them; it did not supply the elegant -accomplishments and refinement of manners -which permanently engage the affections, -when other attractions have passed away. -Aristotle states, that the relation of man to -woman is that of the governor to the subject; -and Plato, that a woman’s virtue may -be summed up in a few words, for she has -only to manage the house well, keeping what -there is in it, and obeying her husband. -Among the Dorians, however, and especially -at Sparta, women enjoyed much more estimation -than in the rest of Greece.—(2) <span id="Matr_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span> -A legal Roman marriage was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justae nuptiae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justum matrimonium</i>, as being -conformable to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">civile</i>) or to law. A legal -marriage was either <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cum conventione uxoris -in manum viri</i> or it was without <ins class="corr" id="tn-250" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'this conventio.'"> -this convention.</ins> But both forms of marriage agreed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>[251]</span> -in this: there must be connubium between -the parties, and consent. The legal consequences -as to the power of the father over -his children were the same in both. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Connubium</i> -is merely a term which comprehends -all the conditions of a legal marriage. Generally -it may be stated, that there was only -connubium between Roman citizens; the -cases in which it at any time existed between -parties, not both Roman citizens, were exceptions -to the general rule. Originally, or -at least at one period of the republic, there -was no connubium between the patricians -and the plebeians; but this was altered by -the Lex Canuleia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 445.), which allowed -connubium between persons of those two -classes. There were various degrees of consanguinity -and affinity, within which there -was no connubium. An illegal union of a -male and female, though affecting to be, was -not a marriage: the man had no legal wife, -and the children had no legal father: consequently -they were not in the power of their -reputed father. The marriage <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cum conventione</i> -differed from that <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sine conventione</i>, in -the relationship which it effected between the -husband and the wife; the marriage <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cum -conventione</i> was a necessary condition to -make a woman a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">materfamilias</i>. By the -marriage cum conventione, the wife passed -into the familia of her husband, and was to -him in the relation of a daughter, or, as it -was expressed, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in manum convenit</i>. In the -marriage sine conventione, the wife’s relation -to her own familia remained as before, -and she was merely <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uxor</i>. “<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uxor</i>,” says -Cicero, “is a genus of which there are two -species; one is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">materfamilias, quae in manum -convenit</i>; the other is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uxor</i> only.” Accordingly, -a materfamilias is a wife who is in -manu, and in the familia of her husband. A -wife not in manu was not a member of her -husband’s familia, and therefore the term -could not apply to her. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Matrona</i> was properly -a wife not in manu, and equivalent to -uxor; and she was called matrona before she -had any children. But these words are not -always used in these their original and -proper meanings. It does not appear that -any forms were requisite in the marriage -sine conventione; and apparently the evidence -of such marriage was cohabitation matrimonii -causa. The matrimonii causa might -be proved by various kinds of evidence. In -the case of a marriage cum conventione, -there were three forms, 1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Usus</i>, 2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Farreum</i>, -and 3. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coemptio</i>.—1. Marriage was -effected by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">usus</i>, if a woman lived with a -man for a whole year as his wife; and this -was by analogy to usucaption of movables -generally, in which usus for one year gave -ownership. The Law of the Twelve Tables provided, -that if a woman did not wish to come -into the manus of her husband in this manner, -she should absent herself from him -annually for three nights (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trinoctium</i>) and so -break the usus of the year. 2. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Farreum</i> was -a form of marriage, in which certain words -were used in the presence of ten witnesses, -and were accompanied by a certain religious -ceremony, in which panis farreus was employed; -and hence this form of marriage was -also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">confarreatio</i>. It appears that -certain priestly offices, such as that of Flamen -Dialis, could only be held by those who -were born of parents who had been married -by this ceremony (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">confarreati parentes</i>). 3. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coemptio</i> was effected by mancipatio, and -consequently the wife was in mancipio. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mancipium">Mancipium</a>.</span>] A woman who was cohabiting -with a man as uxor, might come into his -manus by this ceremony, in which case the -coemptio was said to be matrimonii causa, -and she who was formerly uxor became -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apud maritum filiae loco</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sponsalia</i> were -not an unusual preliminary of marriage, but -they were not necessary.—The sponsalia were -an agreement to marry, made in such form -as to give each party a right of action -in case of non-performance, and the offending -party was condemned in such damages -as to the judex seemed just. The woman -who was promised in marriage was accordingly -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponsa</i>, which is equivalent to -promissa; the man who was engaged to -marry was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponsus</i>.—The sponsalia -were of course not binding, if the parties -consented to waive the contract. Sometimes -a present was made by the future husband to -the future wife by way of earnest (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arrha</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arrha sponsalitia</i>), or, as it was called, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propter -nuptias donatio</i>.—The consequences of -marriage were—1. The power of the father -over the children of the marriage, which was -a completely new relation, an effect indeed -of marriage, but one which had no influence -over the relation of the husband and wife. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patria">Patria Potestas</a>.</span>] 2. The liabilities of -either of the parties to the punishments -affixed to the violation of the marriage union. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adulterium">Adulterium</a>; <a href="#Divortium">Divortium</a>.</span>] 3. The relation -of husband and wife with respect to property. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dos">Dos</a>.</span>] When marriage was dissolved, the -parties to it might marry again; but opinion -considered it more decent for a woman not -to marry again. A woman was required by -usage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mos</i>) to wait a year before she contracted -a second marriage, on the pain of -infamia.—It remains to describe the customs -and rites which were observed by the Romans -at marriages. After the parties had<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>[252]</span> -agreed to marry and the persons in whose -potestas they were had consented, a meeting -of friends was sometimes held at the house -of the maiden for the purpose of settling the -marriage-contract, which was written on -tablets, and signed by both parties. The -woman after she had promised to become -the wife of a man was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sponsa</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pacta</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dicta</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sperata</i>. It appears that, at least -during the imperial period, the man put a -ring on the finger of his betrothed, as a -pledge of his fidelity. This ring was probably, -like all rings at this time, worn on -the left hand, and on the finger nearest to -the smallest. The last point to be fixed was -the day on which the marriage was to take -place. The Romans believed that certain -days were unfortunate for the performance -of the marriage rites, either on account of -the religious character of those days themselves, -or on account of the days by which -they were followed, as the woman had to -perform certain religious rites on the day -after her wedding, which could not take -place on a dies ater. Days not suitable for -entering upon matrimony were the calends, -nones, and ides of every month, all dies atri, -the whole months of May and February, and -a great number of festivals. On the wedding-day, -which in the early times was never -fixed upon without consulting the auspices, -the bride was dressed in a long white robe -with a purple fringe, or adorned with ribands. -This dress was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tunica recta</i>, and was -bound round the waist with a girdle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corona</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cingulum</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">zona</i>), which the husband had -to untie in the evening. The bridal veil, -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flammeum</i>, was of a bright yellow -colour, and her shoes likewise. Her hair -was divided on this occasion with the point -of a spear. The bride was conducted to the -house of her husband in the evening. She -was taken with apparent violence from the -arms of her mother, or of the person who -had to give her away. On her way she was -accompanied by three boys dressed in the -praetexta, and whose fathers and mothers -were still alive (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patrimi et matrimi</i>). One -of them carried before her a torch of white -thorn (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spina</i>), or, according to others, of -pine wood; the two others walked by her -side, supporting her by the arm. The bride -herself carried a distaff and a spindle, with -wool. A boy called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">camillus</i> carried in a -covered vase (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cumera</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cumerum</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">camillum</i>), -the so-called utensils of the bride and -playthings for children (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crepundia</i>). Besides -these persons who officiated on the occasion, -the procession was attended by a numerous -train of friends, both of the bride and the -bridegroom. When the procession arrived -at the house of the bridegroom, the door of -which was adorned with garlands and flowers, -the bride was carried across the threshold by -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pronubi</i>, <em>i.e.</em> men who had been married -to only one woman, that she might not -knock against it with her foot, which would -have been an evil omen. Before she entered -the house, she wound wool around the door-posts -of her new residence, and anointed -them with lard (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adeps suillus</i>) or wolf’s fat -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adeps lupinus</i>). The husband received her -with fire and water, which the woman had -to touch. This was either a symbolic purification, -or a symbolic expression of welcome, -as the interdicere aqua et igni was the formula -for banishment. The bride saluted her -husband with the words: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ubi tu Caius, ego -Caia</i>. After she had entered the house with -distaff and spindle, she was placed upon a -sheep-skin, and here the keys of the house -were delivered into her hands. A repast -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coena nuptialis</i>) given by the husband to -the whole train of relatives and friends who -accompanied the bride, generally concluded -the solemnity of the day. Many ancient -writers mention a very popular song, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Talasius</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Talassio</i>, which was sung at weddings; -but whether it was sung during the -repast or during the procession is not quite -clear, though we may infer from the story -respecting the origin of the song, that it was -sung while the procession was advancing -towards the house of the husband. It may -easily be imagined that a solemnity like that -of marriage did not take place among the -merry and humorous Italians without a -variety of jests and railleries, and the ancient -writers mention songs which were sung before -the door of the bridal apartment by girls, -after the company had left. These songs -were probably the old Fescennina [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fescennina">Fescennina</a></span>], -and are frequently called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epithalamia</i>. -At the end of the repast the bride was conducted -by matrons who had not had more -than one husband (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pronubae</i>), to the lectus -genialis in the atrium, which was on this -occasion magnificently adorned and strewed -with flowers. On the following day the -husband sometimes gave another entertainment -to his friends, which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repotia</i>, -and the woman, who on this day undertook -the management of the house of her husband, -had to perform certain religious rites; -on which account, as was observed above, it -was necessary to select a day for the marriage -which was not followed by a dies ater. -These rites probably consisted of sacrifices to -the Dii Penates. The position of a Roman -woman after marriage was very different -from that of a Greek woman. The Roman -presided over the whole household; she educated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>[253]</span> -her children, watched over and preserved -the honour of the house, and as the -materfamilias she shared the honours and -respect shown to her husband. Far from -being confined like the Greek women to a -distinct apartment, the Roman matron, at -least during the better centuries of the republic, -occupied the most important part of -the house, the atrium.</p> - - -<p id="Mausoleum">MAUSŌLĒUM <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαυσωλεῖον</span>, signified originally -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">the sepulchre of Mausolus</i>, which was -a magnificent monument erected at Halicarnassus -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 353, by Artemisia, the widow of -Mausolus. (See <cite>Classical Dict., art. Artemisia</cite>.) -It was adorned with beautiful works -of art, and was regarded as one of the seven -wonders of the world. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mausoleum</i> -was used by the Romans as a generic name -for any magnificent sepulchral edifice. Mausolus, -the dynast of Caria, having died in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 353, his queen Artemisia evinced her -sorrow by observing his funeral rites with -the most expensive splendour, and by commencing -the erection of a sepulchral monument -to him at Halicarnassus, which should -surpass any thing the world had yet seen. -The building extended 63 feet from north to -south, being shorter on the fronts, and its -whole circuit was 411 feet (or, according to -the Bamberg MS., 440); it rose to the height -of 25 cubits (37½ feet); and was surrounded -by 36 columns. This part of the building was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pteron</i>. It was adorned with sculptures -in relief, on its eastern face by Scopas, on the -northern by Bryaxis, on the southern by -Timotheus, on the western by Leochares. -Above this <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pteron</i> was a pyramid equal to it -in height, diminishing by 24 steps to its -summit, which was surmounted by the marble -quadriga made by Pythis. The total -height, including this ornament, was 140 -feet. In the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mausolea</i> the form -chiefly employed was that of a succession of -terraces in imitation of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogus</i>. Of these -the most celebrated were those of Augustus -and of Hadrian; the latter of which, stripped -of its ornaments, still forms the fortress of -modern Rome (the castle of S. Angelo); but -of the other, which was on a still larger -scale, and which was considered as one -of the most magnificent buildings of Augustus, -there are only some insignificant -ruins.</p> - - -<p id="Mediastini">MĔDĬASTĪNI, the name given to slaves, -used for any common purpose. The name is -chiefly given to certain slaves belonging to -the familia rustica, but it is also applied sometimes -to slaves in the city.</p> - - -<p id="Medimnus">MĔDIMNUS <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέδιμνος</span>, the principal dry -measure of the Greeks. It was used especially -for measuring corn. The Attic medimnus -was equal to six Roman modii. For its -subdivisions see <a href="#TABLES">Tables</a> at the end. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Metretes">Metretes</a></span>; -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Choenix">Choenix</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Xestes">Xestes</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cotyla">Cotyla</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Medix">MĒDIX TUTICUS, the name of the supreme -magistrate among the Oscan people. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Medix</i> appears to have signified a magistrate -of any kind, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tuticus</i> to have been equivalent -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magnus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">summus</i>. Livy, therefore, -in calling the medix tuticus the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">summus magistratus</i>, -gives a literal translation of the word.</p> - - -<p id="Megalesia">MĔGĂLĒSĬA, MĔGĂLENSĬA, or MĔGĂLENSES -LŪDI, a festival with games, celebrated -at Rome in the month of April and in -honour of the great mother of the gods -(Cybelé, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεγάλη θεός</span>, whence the festival -derived its name). The statue of the goddess -was brought to Rome from Pessinus in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -203, and the day of its arrival was solemnised -with a magnificent procession, lectisternia, -and games, and great numbers of people carried -presents to the goddess on the Capitol. -The regular celebration of the Megalesia, -however, did not begin till twelve years later -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 191), when the temple, which had been -vowed and ordered to be built in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 203, -was completed and dedicated by M. Junius -Brutus. The festival lasted for six days, -beginning on the 4th of April. The season of -this festival, like that of the whole month in -which it took place, was full of general rejoicings -and feasting. It was customary for -the wealthy Romans on this occasion to invite -one another mutually to their repasts. -The games which were held at the Megalesia -were purely scenic, and not circenses. They -were at first held on the Palatine, in front of -the temple of the goddess, but afterwards -also in the theatres. The day which was -especially set apart for the performance of -scenic plays was the third of the festival. -Slaves were not permitted to be present at -the games, and the magistrates appeared -dressed in a purple toga and praetexta, -whence the proverb, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">purpura Megalensis</i>. -The games were under the superintendence -of the curule aediles, and we know that four -of the extant plays of Terence were performed -at the Megalesia.</p> - - -<p id="Membrana">MEMBRĀNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Liber">Liber</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Mensa">MENSA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράπεζα</span>), a table. The simplest -kind of table was a round one with three -legs, called in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίπους</span>. Tables, however, -must usually have had four legs, as the -etymology of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράπεζα</span>, the common word for -table, indicates. For the houses of the opulent, -tables were made of the most valuable -and beautiful kinds of wood, especially of -maple, or of the citrus of Africa, which was -a species of cypress or juniper. As the table -was not large, it was usual to place the dishes -and the various kinds of meat upon it, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>[254]</span> -then to bring it thus furnished to the place -where the guests were reclining. On many -occasions, indeed, each guest either had a -small table to himself, or the company was -divided into parties of two or three, with a -separate table for each party, as is distinctly -represented in the cut under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium</a></span>. -Hence we have such phrases as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensam apponere</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opponere</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensam auferre</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">removere</i>. The two principal courses of a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coena</i>, or a Greek and Roman -dinner, were called respectively <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρώτη τράπεζα</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεύτερα τράπεζα</span>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensa prima</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensa secunda</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>; <a href="#Deipnon">Deipnon</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Mensarii">MENSĀRĬI, MENSŬLĀRĬI, or NŪMŬLĀRĬI, -a kind of public bankers at Rome -who were appointed by the state; they were -distinct from the argentarii, who were common -bankers, and did business on their own -account. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Argentarii">Argentarii</a>.</span>] The mensarii had -their tables or banks (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensae</i>) like ordinary -bankers, in the forum, and in the name of -the aerarium they offered ready money to -debtors who could give security to the state -for it. Such an expediency was devised by -the state only in times of great distress. The -first time that mensarii (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quinqueviri mensarii</i>) -were appointed was in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 352, at the time -when the plebeians were so deeply involved -in debt, that they were obliged to borrow -money from new creditors in order to pay -the old ones, and thus ruined themselves -completely. On this occasion they were also -authorised to ordain that cattle or land should -be received as payment at a fair valuation. -With the exception of this first time, they -appear during the time of the republic to -have always been <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triumviri mensarii</i>. One -class of mensarii, however (perhaps an inferior -order), the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mensularii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">numularii</i>, -seem to have been permanently employed by -the state, and these must be meant when we -read, that not only the aerarium, but also -private individuals, deposited in their hands -sums of money which they had to dispose of.</p> - - -<p id="Mensis">MENSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Merenda">MĔRENDA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Metae">MĔTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Metallum">MĔTALLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέταλλον</span>), a <em>mine</em> and <em>metal</em>. -The metals which have been known from the -earliest period of which we have any information -are those which were long distinguished -as the seven principal metals, namely, gold, -silver, copper, tin, iron, lead, and mercury. -If to this list we add the compound of gold -and silver called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">electrum</i>, the compound of -copper and tin called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκός</span> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i> (bronze), -and steel, we have, in all probability, a complete -list of the metals known to the Greeks -and Romans, with the exception of zinc, -which they do not seem to have known as a -metal, but only in its ores, and of brass, -which, they regarded as a sort of bronze. The -early Greeks were no doubt chiefly indebted -for a supply of the various metals to the -commerce of the Phoenicians, who procured -them principally from Arabia and Spain, and -tin from our own island and the East. They -were perfectly acquainted with the processes -of smelting the metal from the ore, and of -forging heated masses into the required -shapes, by the aid of the hammer and tongs. -The smith’s instruments were the anvil -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκμων</span>) with the block on which it rested -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκμόθετον</span>), the tongs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυράγρη</span>) and the -hammer (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαιστήρ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφῦρα</span>). The advances -made in the art of metallurgy in subsequent -times are chiefly connected with the -improvements in the art of statuary. The -method of working, as described in Homer, -seems to have long prevailed, namely by -beating out lumps of the material into the -form proposed, and afterwards fitting the -pieces together by means of pins or keys. -It was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφυρήλατον</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφῦρα</span>, a -hammer. The next mode, among the Greeks, -of executing metal works seems to have -been by plating upon a nucleus, or general -form, of wood—a practice which was employed -also by the Egyptians. It is extremely -difficult to determine at what date -the casting of metal was introduced. According -to the statements of Pausanias and -Pliny, the art of casting in bronze and in -iron was invented by Rhoecus and Theodorus -of Samos, who probably lived in the sixth -and fifth centuries before our era.</p> - - -<p id="Metoici">MĔTOICI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέτοικοι</span>), the name by which, -at Athens and in other Greek states, the -<em>resident aliens</em> were designated. They must -be distinguished from such strangers as made -only a transitory stay in a place, for it was a -characteristic of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metoicus</i>, that he resided -permanently in the city. No city of Greece -perhaps had such a number of resident aliens -as Athens, since none afforded to strangers so -many facilities for carrying on mercantile -business, or a more agreeable mode of living. -In the census instituted by Demetrius Phalereus -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 309), the number of resident aliens -at Athens was 10,000, in which number -women and children were probably not included. -The jealousy with which the citizens -of the ancient Greek republics kept their -body clear of intruders, is also manifest in -their regulations concerning aliens. However -long they might have resided in Athens, -they were always regarded as strangers, -whence they are sometimes called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξένοι</span>, and -to remind them of their position, they had on -some occasions to perform certain degrading -services for the Athenian citizens [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hydriaphoria">Hydriaphoria</a></span>].<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>[255]</span> -These services were, however, in -all probability not intended to hurt the feelings -of the aliens, but were simply acts symbolical -of their relation to the citizens. Aliens -were not allowed to acquire landed property -in the state they had chosen for their residence, -and were consequently obliged to live -in hired houses or apartments. As they did -not constitute a part of the state, and were -yet in constant intercourse and commerce with -its members, every alien was obliged to select -a citizen for his patron (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span>), who was -not only the mediator between them and the -state, through whom alone they could transact -any legal business, whether private or -public, but was at the same time answerable -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐγγυητής</span>) to the state for the conduct of his -client. On the other hand, however, the -state allowed the aliens to carry on all kinds -of industry and commerce under the protection -of the law; in fact, at Athens nearly all -business was in the hands of aliens, who on -this account lived for the most part in the -Peiraeeus. Each family of aliens, whether -they availed themselves of the privilege of -carrying on any mercantile business or not, -had to pay an annual tax (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετοίκιον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενικά</span>) -of twelve drachmae, or if the head of the -family was a widow, of only six drachmae. -If aliens did not pay this tax, or if they -assumed the right of citizens, and probably -also in case they refused to select a patron, -they not only forfeited the protection of the -state, but were sold as slaves. Extraordinary -taxes and liturgies (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφοραί</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λειτουργίαι</span>) -devolved upon aliens no less than upon citizens. -The aliens were also obliged, like -citizens, to serve in the regular armies and -in the fleet, both abroad and at home, for the -defence of the city. Those aliens who were -exempt from the burthens peculiar to their -class were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">isoteles</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσοτελεῖς</span>). They -had not to pay the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετοίκιον</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτέλια μετοικίου</span>), -were not obliged to choose a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span>, -and in fact enjoyed all the rights of citizens, -except those of a political nature. Their condition -was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσοτέλεια</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰσοπολιτεία</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Metopa">MĔTOPA or MĔTŎPE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετόπη</span>), the name -applied to each of the spaces between the -triglyphs in the frieze of the Doric order, and -by metonymy to the sculptured ornament -with which those spaces were filled up. In -the original significance of the parts the triglyphs -represent the ends of the cross-beams -or joists which rested on the architrave; the -beds of these beams were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀπαί</span>, and -hence the spaces between them <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετόπαι</span>. -Originally they were left open; next they -were filled up with plain slabs, as in the -propylaea at Eleusis, and many other buildings, -and lastly, but still at an early period, -they were adorned with sculptures either in -low or high relief. The metopes from the -Parthenon in the British Museum are -adorned with sculptures in high relief.</p> - - -<p id="Metretes">MĔTRĒTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετρητής</span>), the principal Greek -liquid measure. The Attic metretes was equal -in capacity to the amphora, containing 8 -galls. 7·365 pints, English. See the <a href="#TABLES">Tables</a>. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chous">Chous</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Choenix">Choenix</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Xestes">Xestes</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cotyla">Cotyla</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Metropolis">MĒTRŎPŎLIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Miliare">MĬLIĀRE, MILLĬĀRĬUM, or MILLE -PASSUUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίλιον</span>), the Roman mile, consisted -of 1000 paces (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">passus</i>) of 5 feet each, -and was therefore = 5000 feet. Taking the -Roman foot at 11·6496 English inches [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a></span>], -the Roman mile would be 1618 English -yards, or 142 yards less than the English -statute mile. The most common term for -the mile is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mille passuum</i>, or only the initials -M. P.; sometimes the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">passuum</i> is omitted. -The Roman mile contained 8 Greek -stadia. The mile-stones along the Roman -roads were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">milliaria</i>. They were also -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lapides</i>; thus we have <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad tertium lapidem</i> -(or without the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lapidem</i>) for 3 -miles from Rome. Augustus erected a gilt -pillar in the Forum, where the principal -roads terminated, which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">milliarium -aureum</i>; but the miles were not -reckoned from it, but from the gates of the -city. Such central marks appear to have -been common in the principal cities of the -Roman empire. The “London-stone” in -Cannon-street is supposed to have marked -the centre of the Roman roads in Britain.</p> - - -<p id="Mimus">MĪMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μῖμος</span>), the name by which, in -Greece and at Rome, a species of the drama -was designated, though the Roman mimus -differed essentially from the Greek. The -Greek mimus seems to have originated among -the Greeks of Sicily and southern Italy, and -to have consisted originally of extemporary -representations or imitations of ridiculous -occurrences of common life at certain festivals. -At a later period these rude representations -acquired a more artistic form, -which was brought to a high degree of perfection -by Sophron of Syracuse (about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -420). He wrote his pieces in the popular -dialect of the Dorians and a kind of rhythmical -prose. Among the Romans the word -mimus was applied to a species of dramatic -plays as well as to the persons who acted in -them. It is certain that the Romans did not -derive their mimus from the Greeks in -southern Italy, but that it was of native -growth. The Greek mimes were written in -prose, and the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μῖμος</span> was never applied -to an actor, but if used of a person it signified -one who made grimaces. The Roman mimes -were imitations of foolish and mostly indecent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>[256]</span> -occurrences, and scarcely differed from -comedy except in consisting more of gestures -and mimicry than of spoken dialogue. At -Rome such mimes seem originally to have been -exhibited at funerals, where one or more persons -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mimi</i>) represented in a burlesque manner -the life of the deceased. If there were several -mimi, one of them, or their leader, was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">archimimus</i>. These coarse and indecent performances -had greater charms for the Romans -than the regular drama. They were performed -on the stage as farces after tragedies, and -during the empire they gradually supplanted -the place of the Atellanae. It was peculiar to -the actors in these mimes, to wear neither -masks, the cothurnus, nor the soccus, whence -they are sometimes called planipedes.</p> - - -<p id="Mina">MĬNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Talentum">Talentum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Mirmillones">MIRMILLŌNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Missio">MISSĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Missio_g">MISSĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Mitra">MITRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span>), in general a band of any -kind, and specifically, (1) A belt or girdle -worn by warriors round the waist. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Zona">Zona</a>.</span>]—(2) -A broad band of cloth worn round the -head, to which the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anadema</i> was -sometimes given. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Modius">MODĬUS, the principal dry measure of -the Romans, was equal to one-third of the -amphora, and therefore contained nearly two -gallons English. (See the <a href="#TABLES">Tables</a>.) The -modius was one-sixth of the medimnus.</p> - - -<p id="Mola">MŎLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύλος</span>), a mill. All mills were anciently -made of stone, the kind used being a -volcanic trachyte or porous lava (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pyrites</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silices</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pumiceas</i>). Every mill consisted of -two essential parts, the upper mill-stone, -which was moveable (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">catillus</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄνος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἐπιμύλιον</span>), -and the lower, which was fixed and -by much the larger of the two. Hence a -mill is sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">molae</i> in the plural. -The principal mills mentioned by ancient -authors are the following:—I. The hand-mill, -or quern, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mola manuaria, versatilis</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trusatilis</i>. The hand-mills were -worked among the Greeks and Romans by -slaves. Their pistrinum was consequently -proverbial as a place of painful and degrading -labour; and this toil was imposed principally -on women. II. The cattle-mill, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mola asinaria</i>, -in which human labour was supplied by -the use of an ass or some other animal. III. -The water-mill (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mola aquaria</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδραλέτης</span>). -A cogged wheel, attached to the axis of the -water wheel, turned another which was attached -to the axis of the upper mill-stone: -the corn to be ground fell between the stones -out of a hopper (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">infundibulum</i>), which was -fixed above them. IV. The floating-mill. -V. The saw-mill. VI. The pepper-mill.</p> - - -<p id="Monarchia">MŎNARCHĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μοναρχία</span>), a general name -for any form of government in which the supreme -functions of political administration -are in the hands of a single person. The -term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μοναρχία</span> is applied to such governments, -whether they are hereditary or elective, legal -or usurped. In its commonest application, -it is equivalent to <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλεία</span>, whether absolute -or limited. But the rule of an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aesymnetes</i> -or a <em>tyrant</em> would equally be called a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μοναρχία</span>. -Hence Plutarch uses it to express the Latin -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dictatura</i>. It is by a somewhat rhetorical -use of the word that it is applied now and -then to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Moneta">MŎNĒTA, the mint, or the place where -money was coined. The mint of Rome was -a building on the Capitoline, and attached to -the temple of Juno Moneta, as the aerarium -was to the temple of Saturn. The officers -who had the superintendence of the mint -were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triumviri Monetales</i>, who were -perhaps first appointed about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 269. -Under the republic, the coining of money -was not a privilege which belonged exclusively -to the state. The coins struck in the -time of the republic mostly bear the names -of private individuals; and it would seem -that every Roman citizen had the right of -having his own gold and silver coined in the -public mint, and under the superintendence -of its officers. Still no one till the time of -the empire had the right of putting his own -image upon a coin; Julius Caesar was the -first to whom this privilege was granted.</p> - - -<p id="Monile">MŎNĪLE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅρμος</span>), a necklace. Necklaces -were worn by both sexes among the most polished -of those nations which the Greeks called -barbarous, especially the Indians, the Egyptians, -and the Persians. Greek and Roman -females adopted them more particularly as a -bridal ornament. They were of various forms, -as may be seen by the following specimens:—</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill256" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill256.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Monilia, necklaces. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>[257]</span></p> - - -<p id="Monumentum">MŎNŬMENTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Mora">MŎRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Mortarium">MORTĀRIUM, also called PĪLA and PILUM -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄλμος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴγδη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴγδις</span>), a mortar. Before -the invention of mills [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mola">Mola</a></span>] corn was -pounded and rubbed in mortars (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pistum</i>), -and hence the place for making bread, or the -bake-house, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pistrinum</i>. Also long -after the introduction of mills this was an -indispensable article of domestic furniture. -Those used in pharmacy were sometimes -made of Egyptian alabaster. The mortar -was also employed in pounding charcoal, rubbing -it with glue, in order to make black -paint (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atramentum</i>), in making plaster for -the walls of apartments, in mixing spices and -fragrant herbs and flowers for the use of the -kitchen, and in metallurgy, as in triturating -cinnabar to obtain mercury from it by sublimation.</p> - - -<p id="Mulsum">MULSUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vinum">Vinum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Munerator">MŪNĔRĀTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Municeps">MŪNĬCEPS, MŪNĬCĬPĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a></span>; -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Foederatae">Foederatae Civitates</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Munus">MŪNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Honores">Honores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Munus_g">MŪNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Muralis">MŪRĀLIS CŎRŌNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Corona">Corona</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Murrhina">MURRHĬNA VĀSA, or MURRĔA VĀSA, -were first introduced into Rome by Pompey, -who dedicated cups of this kind to Jupiter -Capitolinus. Their value was very great. -Nero gave 300 talents for a capis or drinking -cup. These murrhine vessels came from the -East, principally from places within the Parthian -empire, and chiefly from Caramania. -They were made of a substance formed by a -moisture thickened in the earth by heat, and -were chiefly valued on account of the variety -of their colours. Modern writers differ much -respecting the material of which they were -composed, and some think they may have -been true Chinese porcelain.</p> - - -<p id="Murus">MŪRUS, MOENĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τεῖχος</span>), the wall of a -city, in contradistinction to <span class="smcap"><a href="#Paries">Paries</a></span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοῖχος</span>), -the wall of a house, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Maceria</i>, a boundary -wall. We find cities surrounded by massive -walls at the earliest periods of Greek and -Roman history. Homer speaks of the chief -cities of the Argive kingdom as “the walled -Tiryns,” and “Mycenae the well-built city,” -attesting the great antiquity of those identical -gigantic walls which still stand at Tiryns and -Mycenae, and which have been frequently attributed -to the Cyclopes and Pelasgians. Three -principal species can be clearly distinguished:—1. -That in which the masses of -stone are of irregular shape and are put together -without any attempt to fit them into -one another, the interstices being loosely -filled in with smaller stones. An example is -given in the annexed engraving.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp98" id="ill257a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill257a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ancient Wall at Tiryns.</div> -</div> - -<p>2. In other cases we find the blocks still of irregular -polygonal shapes, but their sides are sufficiently -smoothed to make each fit accurately -into the angles between the others, and their -faces are cut so as to give the whole wall a -tolerably smooth surface. An example is given -in the annexed engraving.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill257b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill257b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ancient Wall of Larissa, the Acropolis of Argos.</div> -</div> - -<p>3. In the third species, -the blocks are laid in horizontal courses, -more or less regular (sometimes indeed so -irregular, that none of the horizontal joints -are continuous), and with vertical joints -either perpendicular or oblique, and with all -the joints more or less accurately fitted. The -walls of Mycenae present one of the ruder -examples of this sort of structure; and the -following engraving of the “Lion Gate” of -that fortress (so called from the rudely sculptured -figures of lions) shows also the manner -in which the gates of these three species of -walls were built, by supporting an immense -block of stone, for the lintel, upon two others, -for jambs, the latter inclining inwards, so as -to give more space than if they were upright.—</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp92" id="ill258" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill258.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ancient Wall at Mycenae.</div> -</div> - -<p>The materials employed in walls -about the time of Pericles were various sorts -of stone, and, in some of the most magnificent -temples, marble. The practice of putting -a facing of marble over a wall of a commoner -material was introduced in the next<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>[258]</span> -period of architectural history. For buildings -of a common sort, the materials employed -were smaller stones, rough or squared, -or flints, as well as bricks. These were -bound together with various kinds of mortar -or cement, composed of lime mixed with different -sands and volcanic earths. The history -of Roman masonry is not very different from -that of the Greek.—The most ancient works -at Rome, such as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carcer Mamertinus</i>, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cloaca Maxima</i>, and the Servian Walls, -were constructed of massive quadrangular -hewn stones, placed together without cement. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cloaca">Cloaca</a>.</span>] Five species of Roman masonry -may be distinguished; namely, 1. when -the blocks of stone are laid in alternate -courses, lengthwise in one course, and crosswise -in the next; this is the most common; -2. when the stones in each course are laid -alternately along and across; this construction -was usual when the walls were to -be faced with slabs of marble; 3. when they -are laid entirely lengthwise; 4. entirely -crosswise; and 5. when the courses are alternately -higher and lower than each other. -As by the Greeks, so by the Romans, walls -of a commoner sort were built of smaller -quarried stones (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caementa</i>) or of bricks. The -excellence of the cement which the Romans -used enabled them to construct walls of very -small rough stones, not laid in courses, but -held together by the mortar; this structure -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opus incertum</i>. Another structure -of which the Romans made great use, and -which was one of the most durable of all, -was that composed of courses of flat tiles. -Such courses were also introduced in the -other kinds of stone and brick walls, in which -they both served as bond-courses, and, in the -lower part of the wall, kept the damp from -rising from the ground. Brick walls covered -with stucco were exceedingly common with -the Romans: even columns were made of -brick covered with stucco.</p> - - -<p id="Musculus">MUSCŬLUS was a kind of vinea, one of -the smaller military machines, by which the -besiegers of a town were protected.</p> - - -<p id="Museum">MŪSĒUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μουσεῖον</span>), the name of an institution -founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, -about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 280, for the promotion of learning -and the support of learned men. The -museum formed part of the palace, and contained -cloisters or porticoes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίπατος</span>), a -public theatre or lecture-room (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξέδρα</span>), and -a large hall (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἶκος μέγας</span>), where the learned -men dined together. The museum was supported -by a common fund, supplied apparently -from the public treasury; and the -whole institution was under the superintendence -of a priest, who was appointed by the -king, and after Egypt became a province of -the Roman empire, by the Caesar. Botanical -and zoological gardens appear to have been -attached to the museum.</p> - - -<p id="Myrii">MȲRĬI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυρίοι</span>), the name given to the -popular assembly of the Arcadians, which -was established after the overthrow of the -Spartan supremacy by the battle of Leuctra, -and which used to meet at Megalopolis in -order to determine upon matters affecting -the whole people.</p> - - -<p id="Mysia">MYSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μύσια</span>), a festival celebrated by -the inhabitants of Pellene in Achaia in honour -of Demeter Mysia, which lasted for 7 days.</p> - - -<p id="Mysteria">MYSTĒRĬA. The names by which mysteries -or mystic festivals were designated in -Greece, are <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυστήρια</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελεταί</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄργια</span>. The -name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄργια</span> (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔοργα</span>) originally signified -only sacrifices accompanied by certain ceremonies, -but it was afterwards applied especially -to the ceremonies observed in the worship -of Dionysus, and at a still later period -to mysteries in general. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τελετή</span> signifies, in -general, a religious festival, but more particularly -a lustration or ceremony performed -in order to avert some calamity, either public -or private. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυστήριον</span> signifies, properly -speaking, the secret part of the worship, but -was also used in the same sense as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελετή</span>, -and for mystic worship in general. Mysteries -in general may be defined as sacrifices -and ceremonies which took place at night or -in secret within some sanctuary, which the -uninitiated were not allowed to enter. What -was essential to them, were objects of worship, -sacred utensils, and traditions with -their interpretation, which were withheld -from all persons not initiated. The most -celebrated mysteries in Greece were those of -Samothrace and Eleusis, which are described -in separate articles. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cabeiria">Cabeiria</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Eleusinia">Eleusinia</a></span>.]</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>[259]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="N_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">N</span></h2> - -<p id="Naenia" class="drop-capy">NAENĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Natatio">NĂTĀTĬO, NĂTĀTŌRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Navalia">NĀVĀLIA, docks at Rome where ships -were built, laid up, and refitted. They were -attached to the emporium outside of the Porta -Trigemina, and were connected with the -Tiber. The emporium and navalia were first -included within the walls of the city by -Aurelian.—The docks (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεώσοικοι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεώρια</span>) -in the Peiraeeus at Athens cost 1000 talents, -and having been destroyed in the anarchy -were again restored and finally completed by -Lycurgus, the contemporary of Demosthenes. -They were under the superintendence of -regular officers, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν νεωρίων</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Navalis">NĀVĀLIS CŎRŌNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Corona">Corona</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Navarchus">NĀVARCHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναύαρχος</span>), the name by -which the Greeks designated both the captain -of a single ship, and the admiral of a fleet. -The office itself was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναυαρχία</span>. The -admiral of the Athenian fleet was always one -of the ten generals (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατηγοί</span>) elected every -year, and he had either the whole or the -chief command of the fleet. The chief officers -who served under him were the trierarchs -and the pentecontarchs, each of whom -commanded one vessel; the inferior officers -in the vessels were the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυβερνῆται</span> or helmsmen, -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κελευσταί</span> or commanders of the -rowers, and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωρᾶται</span>, who must have -been employed at the prow of the vessels. -Other Greek states who kept a navy had -likewise their navarchs. The chief admiral -of the Spartan fleet was called navarchus, -and the second in command <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">epistoleus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστολεύς</span>). -The same person was not allowed -to hold the office of navarchus two successive -years at Sparta. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epistoleus">Epistoleus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Naucraria">NAUCRĀRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναυκραρία</span>), the name of a -division of the inhabitants of Attica. The -four ancient phylae were each divided into -three phratries, and each of these twelve -phratries into four naucraries, of which there -were thus forty-eight. What the naucraries -were previous to the legislation of Solon is -not stated anywhere, but it is not improbable -that they were political divisions similar -to the demes in the constitution of Cleisthenes, -and were made perhaps at the time -of the institution of the nine archons, for the -purpose of regulating the liturgies, taxes, or -financial and military affairs in general. At -any rate, however, the naucraries before the -time of Solon can have had no connection -with the navy, for the Athenians then had -no navy; the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναύκραρος</span> therefore cannot -be derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναῦς</span>, ship, but must -come from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναιω</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναύκραρος</span> is thus only -another form for <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναύκληρος</span> in the sense of a -householder, as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναῦλον</span> was used for the rent -of a house. Solon in his legislation retained -the old institution of the naucraries, and -charged each of them with the equipment of -one trireme and with the mounting of two -horsemen. All military affairs, as far as -regards the defraying of expenses, probably -continued as before to be regulated according -to naucraries. Cleisthenes, in his change -of the Solonian constitution, retained the -division into naucraries for military and -financial purposes; but he increased their -number to fifty, making five for each of his -ten tribes; so that now the number of their -ships was increased from forty-eight to fifty, -and that of horsemen from ninety-six to one -hundred. The statement of Herodotus, that -the Athenians in their war against Aegina -had only fifty ships of their own, is thus -perfectly in accordance with the fifty naucraries -of Cleisthenes. The functions of the -former <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναύκραροι</span>, or the heads of their respective -naucraries, were now transferred to -the demarchs. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Demarchi">Demarchi</a>.</span>] The obligation -of each naucrary to equip a ship of war for -the service of the republic may be regarded -as the first form of trierarchy. As the system -of trierarchy became developed and -established, this obligation of the naucraries -appears to have gradually ceased, and to have -fallen into disuse. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Trierarchia">Trierarchia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Naucrarus">NAUCRĀRUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Naucraria">Naucraria</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Navis">NĀVIS, NĀVĬGIUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναῦς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλοῖον</span>), a -ship. The numerous fleet, with which the -Greeks are said to have sailed to the coast -of Asia Minor, must on the whole be regarded -as sufficient evidence of the extent -to which navigation was carried on in those -times, however much of the detail in the -Homeric description may have arisen from -the poet’s own imagination. In the Homeric -catalogue it is stated that each of the -fifty Boeotian ships carried 120 warriors, -and a ship which carried so many cannot -have been of very small dimensions. What -Homer states of the Boeotian vessels applies -more or less to the ships of other Greeks. -These boats were provided with a mast -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστός</span>) which was fastened by two ropes -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρότονοι</span>) to the two ends of the ship, so that -when the rope connecting it with the prow -broke, the mast would fall towards the stern, -where it might kill the helmsman. The mast -could be erected or taken down as necessity -required. They also had sails (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστία</span>), but -no deck; each vessel however appears to -have had only one sail, which was used in -favourable winds; and the principal means of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>[260]</span> -propelling the vessel lay in the rowers, who -sat upon benches (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κληΐδες</span>). The oars were -fastened to the side of the ship with leathern -thongs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροποὶ δερμάτινοι</span>), in which they -were turned as a key in its hole. The ships -in Homer are mostly called black (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέλαιναι</span>), -probably because they were painted or covered -with a black substance, such as pitch, -to protect the wood against the influence of -the water and the air; sometimes other -colours, such as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίλτος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">minium</i> (a red colour), -were used to adorn the sides of the -ships near the prow, whence Homer occasionally -calls ships <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μιλτοπάρῃοι</span>, i.e. red-cheeked; -they were also painted occasionally -with a purple colour (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φοινικοπάρῃοι</span>). When -the Greeks had landed on the coast of Troy, -the ships were drawn on land, and fastened -at the poop to large stones with a rope which -served as anchors. The Greeks then surrounded -the fleet with a fortification to secure -it against the attacks of the enemy. This -custom of drawing the ships upon the shore, -when they were not used, was followed in -later times also, as every one will remember -from the accounts in Caesar’s Commentaries. -In the Odyssey (v. 243, &c.) the building of a -boat (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχεδία</span>) is described, though not with the -minuteness which an actual ship-builder might -wish for. Ulysses first cuts down with his axe -twenty trees, and prepares the wood for his -purpose by cutting it smooth and giving it the -proper shape. He then bores the holes for -nails and hooks, and fits the planks together -and fastens them with nails. He rounds -the bottom of the ship like that of a broad -transport vessel, and raises the bulwark -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἴκρια</span>), fitting it upon the numerous ribs of -the ship. He afterwards covers the whole -of the outside with planks, which are laid -across the ribs from the keel upwards to the -bulwark: next the mast is made, and the -sail-yard attached to it, and lastly the rudder. -When the ship is thus far completed, he -raises the bulwark still higher by a wicker-work -which goes all around the vessel, as a -protection against the waves. This raised -bulwark of wicker-work and the like was -used in later times also. For ballast Ulysses -throws into the ship <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕλη</span>, which according to -the Scholiast consisted of wood, stones, and -sand. Calypso then brings him materials to -make a sail of, and he fastens the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπέραι</span> or -ropes which run from the top of the mast to -the two ends of the yard, and also the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλοι</span> -with which the sail is drawn up or let down. -The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόδες</span> mentioned in this passage were -undoubtedly, as in the later times, the ropes -attached to the two lower corners of the -square sail. The ship of which the building -is thus described was a small boat, a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχεδία</span>, -as Homer calls it; but it had like all the Homeric -ships a round or flat bottom. Greater -ships must have been of a more complicated -structure, as ship-builders are praised as -artists. Below (<a href="#ill266b">p. 266</a>), a representation of -two boats is given which appear to bear -great resemblance to the one of which the -building is described in the Odyssey.—The -Corinthians were the first who brought the -art of ship-building nearest to the point at -which we find it in the time of Thucydides, -and they were the first who introduced ships -with three ranks of rowers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριήρεις</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triremes</i>). -About <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 700, Ameinocles the -Corinthian, to whom this invention is ascribed, -made the Samians acquainted with it; but it -must have been preceded by that of the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Biremes</i>, that is, ships with two ranks of -rowers, which Pliny attributes to the Erythraeans.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> -These innovations however do not -seem to have been generally adopted for a -long time; for we read that about the time of -Cyrus the Phocaeans introduced long sharp-keeled -ships called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκόντοροι</span>. These belonged -to the class of long war-ships (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νῆες -μακραί</span>), and had fifty rowers, twenty-five on -each side of the ship, who sat in one row. -It is further stated that before this time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>[261]</span> -vessels called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρογγύλαι</span>, with large round or -rather flat bottoms, had been used exclusively -by all the Ionians in Asia. At this -period most Greeks seem to have adopted the -long ships with only one rank of rowers on -each side (Moneris).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill260" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill260.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Moneris. (Montfaucon, vol. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>. pt. <span class="allsmcap">II</span>. pl. 142.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Their name varied accordingly -as they had fifty (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκόντοροι</span>), -or thirty (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριακόντοροι</span>), or even a smaller -number of rowers. A ship of war of this -class is represented in the preceding woodcut. -The following cut contains a beautiful fragment -of a Biremis with a complete deck. Another -specimen of a small Biremis is given -further on.—</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill261a" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill261a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Biremis. (Winckelmann, pl. 207.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp74" id="ill261b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill261b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Navis Aperta. (Coin of Corcyra.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The first Greek people whom -we know to have acquired a navy of importance -were the Corinthians, Samians, and -Phocaeans. About the time of Cyrus and -Cambyses the Corinthian Triremes were generally -adopted by the Sicilian tyrants and -by the Corcyraeans, who soon acquired the -most powerful navies among the Greeks. In -other parts of Greece and even at Athens -and in Aegina the most common vessels -about this time were long ships with only -one rank of rowers on each side. Athens, -although the foundation of its maritime -power had been laid by Solon [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Naucraria">Naucraria</a></span>], -did not obtain a fleet of any importance until -the time of Themistocles, who persuaded the -Athenians to build 200 Triremes for the purpose -of carrying on the war against Aegina. But -even then ships were not provided with complete -decks (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταστρώματα</span>) covering the -whole of the vessel. Ships with only a -partial deck or with no deck at all, were -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄφρακτοι νῆες</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naves apertae</i>. -Even at the time of the Persian war, -the Athenian ships were without a complete -deck. Ships which had a complete deck were -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάφρακτοι</span>, and the deck itself <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάστρωμα</span>. -At the time when Themistocles induced -the Athenians to build a fleet of 200 -sail he also carried a decree, that every year -twenty new Triremes should be built from the -produce of the mines of Laurium. After the -time of Themistocles as many as twenty Triremes -must have been built every year both in -times of war and of peace, as the average -number of Triremes which was always ready -amounted to between three and four hundred. -Such an annual addition was the -more necessary, as the vessels were of a light -structure and did not last long. The whole -superintendence of the building of new Triremes -was in the hands of the senate of the -Five Hundred, but the actual business was entrusted -to a committee called the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριηροποιοί</span>, -one of whom acted as their treasurer, and -had in his keeping the money set apart for -the purpose. Under the Macedonian supremacy -the Rhodians became the greatest maritime -power in Greece. The navy of Sparta -was never of great importance. Navigation -remained for the most part what it had been -before; the Greeks seldom ventured out into -the open sea, and it was generally considered -necessary to remain in sight of the coast or -of some island, which also served as guides -in daytime: in the night the position, rising -and setting of the different stars answered -the same purpose. In winter navigation -generally ceased altogether. In cases where -it would have been necessary to coast around -a considerable extent of country, which was -connected with the main land by a narrow -neck, the ships were sometimes drawn across -the neck of land from one sea to the other, -by machines called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁλκοί</span>. This was done -most frequently across the isthmus of Corinth.—The -various kinds of ships used by -the Greeks might be divided, according to -the number of ranks of rowers employed in -them, into Moneres, Biremes, Triremes, Quadriremes, -Quinqueremes, &c., up to the enormous -ship with forty ranks of rowers, built -by Ptolemaeus Philopator. But all these appear<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>[262]</span> -to have been constructed on the same -principle, and it is more convenient to divide -them into <em>ships of war</em> and <em>ships of burden</em> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φορτικὰ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φορτηγοὶ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁλκάδες</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλοῖα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρογγύλαι</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naves onerariae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naves actuariae</i>). -Ships of the latter kind were not calculated -for quick movement or rapid sailing, but to -carry the greatest possible quantity of goods. -Hence their structure was bulky, their bottom -round, and although they were not without -rowers, yet the chief means by which they -were propelled were their sails. The most -common ships of war in the earlier times -were the pentecontori (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκόντοροι</span>), but -afterwards they were chiefly Triremes, and -the latter are frequently designated only by -the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νῆες</span>, while all the others are called -by the name indicating their peculiar character. -Triremes however were again divided -into two classes: the one consisting of -real men-of-war, which were quick-sailing -vessels (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταχεῖαι</span>), and the other of transports -either for soldiers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατιώτιδες</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁπλιταγωγοί</span>) -or for horses (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππηγοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππαγωγοί</span>). -Ships of this class were more heavy and awkward, -and were therefore not used in battle -except in cases of necessity. The ordinary -size of a war galley may be inferred from -the fact that the average number of men engaged -in it, including the crew and marines, -was two hundred, to whom on some occasions -as many as thirty epibatae were added. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epibatae">Epibatae</a>.</span>]—Vessels with more than three -ranks of rowers on each side were not constructed -in Greece till about the year 400 -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, when Dionysius I., tyrant of Syracuse, -who bestowed great care upon his navy, built -the first Quadriremes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετρήρεις</span>), and Quinqueremes -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντήρεις</span>). In the reign of Dionysius -II., Hexeres (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑξήρεις</span>) are also mentioned. -After the time of Alexander the -Great the use of vessels with four, five, and -more ranks of rowers became very general, -and it is well known that the first Punic war -was chiefly carried on with Quinqueremes. -Ships with twelve, thirty, or even forty ranks -of rowers, such as they were built by Alexander -and the Ptolemies, appear to have -been mere curiosities, and did not come into -common use. The Athenians at first did not -adopt vessels larger than Triremes, probably -because they thought that with rapidity and -skill they could do more than with large and -unwieldy ships. In the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 356 they -continued to use nothing but Triremes; but -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 330 the republic had already a number -of Quadriremes, which was afterwards -increased. The first Quinqueremes at Athens -are mentioned in a document belonging to -the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 325.—Among the smaller -vessels we may mention the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκατος</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκάτιον</span>, which seems to have been sometimes -used as a ship of burden. The name Scapha -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκάφη</span>) denotes a small skiff or life-boat, -which was commonly attached to merchantmen -for the purpose of saving the crew in -danger.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liburna</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Liburnica</i>, in Greek -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λιβυρνίς</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λιβυρνόν</span>, is a name given apparently -to every war-ship, from a bireme up -to those with six lines of rowers on each -side, but in the time of Augustus, liburnae -even with six lines of rowers were considered -small and swift in comparison with the unwieldy -ships of Antony at Actium. They -were usually provided with a beak, whence a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">navis rostrata</i> is generally the same as a -Liburna. They were first constructed by the -Liburnians (whence they derived their name), -and formed the main part of the fleet of Augustus -in the battle of Actium.—Every vessel -at Athens, as in modern times, had a name -given to it, which was generally of the feminine -gender. The Romans sometimes gave -to their ships masculine names. The Greek -names were either taken from ancient heroines -such as Nausicaa, or they were abstract -words such as <em>Forethought</em>, <em>Safety</em>, <em>Guidance</em>, -&c. In many cases the name of the -builder also was added.—The Romans appear -to have first become aware of the importance -of a fleet during the second Samnite war, in -the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 311: when <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">duumviri navales</i> -were for the first time appointed by the -people. The ships which the Romans now -built were undoubtedly Triremes. This fleet, -however insignificant it may have been, continued -to be kept up until the time when -Rome became a real maritime power. In the -year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 260, when the Romans saw that -without a navy they could not carry on the -war against Carthage with any advantage, -the senate ordained that a fleet should be -built. Triremes would now have been of no -avail against the high-bulwarked vessels -(Quinqueremes) of the Carthaginians. But -the Romans would have been unable to build -others had not fortunately a Carthaginian -Quinquereme been wrecked on the coast of -Bruttium, and fallen into their hands. This -wreck the Romans took as their model, and -after it built 120, or according to others 130 -ships. From this time forward the Romans -continued to keep up a powerful navy. Towards -the end of the Republic they also increased -the size of their ships, and built war -vessels of from six to ten ranks of rowers. -The construction of their ships, however, -scarcely differed from that of Greek vessels; -the only great difference was that the Roman -galleys were provided with a greater variety -of destructive engines of war than those of -the Greeks. They even erected turres and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>[263]</span> -tabulata upon the decks of their great men-of-war -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naves turritae</i>), and fought upon -them as if they were standing upon the walls -of a fortress (see cut, <a href="#ill260">p. 260</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp79" id="ill263" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill263.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">BIREMIS.<br /> -<p class="noindent"> -A. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Prora</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρώρα</span>.<br /> -B. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oculus</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀφθαλμός</span>.<br /> -C. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rostrum</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμβολος</span>.<br /> -D. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cheniscus</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χηνίσκος</span>.<br /> -E. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Puppis</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρύμνη</span>.<br /> -F. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aplustre</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄφλαστον</span>, with the pole containing<br />the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fascia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taenia</i>.</p> -<p class="noindent pad4"> -G. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράφηξ</span>.<br /> -H. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Remi</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώπαι</span>.<br /> -I. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gubernaculum</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πηδάλιον</span>.<br /> -K. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Malus</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστός</span>.<br /> -L. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Velum</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστός</span>.<br /> -M. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antenna</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεραία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέρας</span>.<br /> -N. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cornua</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκροκέραιαι</span>.</p> -<p class="noindent pad8"> -O. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ceruchi</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεροῦχοι</span>.<br /> -P. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carchesium</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρχήσιον</span>.<br /> -Q. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλῴδια</span>.<br /> -R. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρότονος</span>.<br /> -S. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pedes</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόδες</span>.<br /> -T. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Opifera</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπέραι</span>.</p></div> -</div> - -<p>We now proceed to describe the parts -of ancient vessels.—1. The prow (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρώρα</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέτωπον</span>, prora) was generally ornamented on -both sides with figures, which were either -painted upon the sides or laid in. It seems -to have been very common to represent an -eye on each side of the prow. Upon the -prow or fore-deck there was always some -emblem (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράσημον</span>, insigne, figura) by which -the ship was distinguished from others. At the -head of the prow there projected the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στόλος</span>, -and its extremity was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκροστόλιον</span>, -which was frequently made in the shape of -an animal or a helmet. It appears to have -been sometimes covered with brass and to -have served as an embole (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβολή</span>) against -the enemy’s vessels. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκροστόλιον</span> is sometimes -designated by the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χηνίσκος</span> -(from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χήν</span>, a goose), because it was formed in -the shape of the head or neck of a goose or -swan, as in the accompanying woodcut.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill264a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill264a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cheniscus. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The cheniscus was often gilt and made of bronze. -Just below the prow and projecting a little -above the keel was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rostrum</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμβολος</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμβολον</span>) or beak, which consisted of a beam, -to which were attached sharp and pointed -irons, or the head of a ram and the like. -This <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔμβολος</span> was used for the purpose of attacking -another vessel and of breaking its -sides. These beaks were at first always -above the water and visible; afterwards they -were attached lower, so that they were invisible, -and thus became still more dangerous -to other ships. The annexed woodcuts -represent three different beaks of ships.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill264b" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill264b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Rostra, Beaks of Ships. (Montfaucon, pl. 133.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The command in the prow of a vessel was -exercised by an officer called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρωρεύς</span>, who -seems to have been next in rank to the -steersman, and to have had the care of the -gear, and the command over the rowers.—2. -<em>The stern</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρύμνη</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puppis</i>) was generally -above the other parts of the deck, and in it -the helmsman had his elevated seat. It is -seen in the representations of ancient vessels -to be rounder than the prow, though its extremity -is likewise sharp. The stern was, -like the prow, adorned in various ways, but -especially with the image of the tutelary -deity of the vessel (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tutela</i>). In some representations -a kind of roof is formed over the -head of the steersman, and the upper part -of the stern frequently has an elegant ornament -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aplustre</i>, and in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄφλαστον</span>, -which constituted the highest part of the -poop. It formed a corresponding ornament -to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκροστόλιον</span> at the prow. At the -junction of the aplustre with the stern on -which it was based, we commonly observe -an ornament resembling a circular shield: -this was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσπιδεῖον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσπιδίσκη</span>. It is -seen on the two aplustria here represented. -The aplustre rose immediately behind the -gubernator, and served in some degree to -protect him from wind and rain. Sometimes -there appears, beside the aplustre, a pole, to -which a fillet or pennon (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταινία</span>) was attached, -which served both to distinguish and adorn -the vessel, and also to show the direction of -the wind.—3. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράφηξ</span> is the bulwark of -the vessel, or rather the uppermost edge of it. -In small boats the pegs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκαλμοί</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scalmi</i>)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>[264]<br /><a id="Page_265"></a>[265]</span> -between which the oars move, and to which -they are fastened by a thong (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροπωτήρ</span>), -were upon the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τράφηξ</span>. In all other vessels -the oars passed through holes in the side of -the vessel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀφθαλμοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρήματα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρυπήματα</span>).—</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="ill265a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill265a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Aphlaston, Aplustre.</div> -</div> - -<p>4. The middle part of the deck in most -ships of war appears to have been raised -above the bulwark, or at least to a level with -its upper edge, and thus enabled the soldiers -to occupy a position from which they could -see far around and hurl their darts against -the enemy. Such an elevated deck appears -in the annexed woodcut representing a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Moneris</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="ill265b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill265b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Moneris. (From a Painting at Pompeii.)</div> -</div> - -<p>In this instance the flag is standing -upon the hind-deck.—5. One of the most -interesting, as well as important parts in the -arrangements of the Biremes, Triremes, &c., -is the position of the ranks of rowers, from -which the ships themselves derive their -names. Various opinions have been entertained -by those who have written upon this -subject. Thus much is certain, that the -different ranks of rowers, who sat along the -sides of a vessel, were placed one above the -other. In ordinary vessels, from the Moneris -up to the Quinqueremis, each oar was -managed by one man. The rowers sat upon -little benches attached to the ribs of the -vessel, and called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑδώλια</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fori</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">transtra</i>. The lowest row of rowers -was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θαλάμος</span>, the rowers themselves, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θαλαμῖται</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θαλάμιοι</span>. The uppermost ordo -of rowers was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θράνος</span>, and the rowers -themselves <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θρανῖται</span>. The middle ordo or -ordines of rowers were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζυγὰ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζύγιοι</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζυγῖται</span>. Each of this last class of rowers -had likewise his own seat, and did not, as -some have supposed, sit upon benches running -across the vessel. The gear of a vessel -was divided into <em>wooden</em> and <em>hanging gear</em> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκεύη ξύλινα</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκεύη κρεμαστά</span>).</p> - -<p>I. <span class="smcap">Wooden Gear.</span>—1. <em>Oars</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώπαι</span>, remi). -The collective term for oars is <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταῤῥός</span>, which -properly signified only the blade or flat part -of the oar, but was afterwards used as -a collective expression for all the oars, with -the exception of the rudder. The oars varied -in size accordingly as they were used by a -lower or higher ordo of rowers, and from the -name of the ordo by which they were used, -they also received their special names, viz., -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώπαι θαλάμιαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζύγιαι</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θρανίτιδες</span>. Each -Trireme had on an average 170 rowers. In -a Roman Quinquereme during the first Punic -war, the average number of rowers was 300; -in later times we even find as many as 400. -The lower part of the holes through which -the oars passed appears to have been covered -with leather (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄσκωμα</span>), which also extended -a little way outside the hole.—2. <em>The rudder</em> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πηδάλιον</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gubernaculum</i>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp85" id="ill266a" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill266a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Gubernacula, rudders. (From an ancient Lamp and Gems.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Before the invention -of the rudder, vessels must have been -propelled and guided by the oars alone. -This circumstance may account for the form -of the ancient rudder, as well as for the -mode of using it. It was like an oar with a -very broad blade, and was commonly placed -on each side of the stern, not at its extremity. -The annexed woodcut presents examples -of its appearance as it is frequently -exhibited on gems, coins, and other works of -art. The figure in the centre shows a Triton -blowing the buccina, and holding a rudder -over his shoulder. The left-hand figure -represents a rudder with its helm or tiller -crossed by the cornucopia. In the third -figure Venus leans with her left arm upon a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[266]</span> -rudder to indicate her origin from the sea. -The rudder was managed by the gubernator -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυβερνήτης</span>), who is also called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rector -navis</i> as distinguished from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister</i>. -A ship had sometimes one, but more commonly -two rudders; but they were managed -by the steersman to prevent confusion. -In larger ships the two rudders were joined -by a pole, which was moved by the gubernator, -and kept the rudders parallel. The -contrivances for attaching the two rudders -to one another and to the sides of the ship, -are called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζεῦγλαι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζευκτηρίαι</span>.—3. <span id="Scalae_n"><em>Ladders</em></span> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλιμακίδες</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scalae</i>). Each Trireme had two -wooden ladders, and the same seems to have -been the case in <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριακόντοροι</span>.—<span id="Contus">4.</span> <em>Poles</em> or -punt poles (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοντοί</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conti</i>). Three of these, -of different lengths, belonged to every Trireme.—5. -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραστάται</span> or supports for the -masts. They seem to have been a kind of -props placed at the foot of the masts.—6. -The <em>mast</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστός</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">malus</i>). The ancients had -vessels with one, two, or three masts. The -fore-mast was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκάτειος</span>, the mainmast, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><ins class="corr" id="tn-266" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'ἱστός'"> -ἱστὸς</ins> μέγας</span>. A triaconter, or a vessel with -30 rowers, had likewise two masts, and the -smaller mast here, as well as in a trireme, -was near the prow. In three-masted vessels -the largest mast was nearest the stern. The -masts as well as the yards were usually of -fir. The part of the mast immediately above -the yard (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">antenna</i>), formed a structure similar -to a drinking-cup, and bore the name of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carchesium</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρχήσιον</span>). Into it the mariners -ascended in order to manage the sail, to -obtain a distant view, or to discharge missiles.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[267]</span> -Breastworks (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θωράκια</span>) were fixed to -these structures, so as to supply the place of -defensive armour; and pulleys (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροχηλίαι</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trochleae</i>) for hoisting up stones and weapons -from below. The continuation of the mast -above the carchesium was called the “distaff” -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἠλακάτη</span>), corresponding to our top-mast -or top-gallant mast.—7. The <em>yards</em> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέρα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεραίαι</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">antennae</i>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="ill266b" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill266b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ceruchi. (From an ancient Lamp.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The mainyard was fastened to the top of the mast by ropes -termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ceruchi</i>, as seen in the preceding woodcut. -To the mainyard was attached the -mainsail, which was hoisted or let down as -the occasion might require. In the two extremities -of the yard (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornua</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκροκέραιαι</span>), -ropes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ceruchi</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηροῦχοι</span>) were attached, which -passed to the top of the mast; and by means -of these ropes and the pulleys connected -with them, the yard and sail, guided by the -hoop, were hoisted to the height required. -There are numerous representations of ancient -ships in which the antenna is seen, as -in the two woodcuts here appended. In the -second of them there are ropes hanging -down from the antenna, the object of which -was to enable the sailors to turn the antenna -and the sail according to the wind.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill267" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill267.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Antennae. (From ancient Gems.)</div> -</div> - -<p>II. <span class="smcap">Hanging Gear.</span>—1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hypozomata</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑποζώματα</span>), -thick and broad ropes running in -a horizontal direction around the ship from -the stern to the prow, and intended to keep -the whole fabric together. They ran round the -vessel in several circles, and at certain distances -from one another. The Latin name for -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόζωμα</span> is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tormentum</i>. Sometimes they were -taken on board when a vessel sailed, and not -put on till it was thought necessary. The -act of putting them on was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποζωννύναι</span>, -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαζωννύναι</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζῶσαι</span>. A Trireme -required four <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποζώματα</span>.—2. <em>The sail</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱστίον</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velum</i>). Most ancient ships had only one -sail, which was attached with the yard to -the great mast. In a Trireme also one sail -might be sufficient, but the trierarch might -nevertheless add a second. As each of the -two masts of a Trireme had two sail-yards, -it further follows that each mast might have -two sails, one of which was placed lower -than the other. The two belonging to the -mainmast were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστία μεγάλα</span>, and -those of the fore-mast <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστία ἀκάτεια</span>. The -former were used on ordinary occasions, but -the latter probably only in cases when it was -necessary to sail with extraordinary speed. -The sails of the Attic war-galleys, and of -most ancient ships in general, were of a -square form. Whether triangular sails were -ever used by the Greeks, as has been frequently -supposed, is very doubtful. The -Romans, however, used triangular sails, -which they called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Suppara</i>, and which had -the shape of an inverted Greek Δ (⛛), the -upper side of which was attached to the -yard.—3. <em>Cordage</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοπεῖα</span>) differed from the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχοινία</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλοι</span>. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχοινία</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funes</i>) are -the strong ropes to which the anchors were -attached, and by which a ship was fastened -to the land; while the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοπεῖα</span> were a lighter -kind of ropes and made with greater care, -which were attached to the masts, yards, -and sails. Each rope of this kind was made -for a distinct purpose and place (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόπος</span>, whence -the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοπεῖα</span>). The following kinds are -most worthy of notice:—<em>a</em>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλῴδια</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλοι</span>, -were probably the ropes by which the mast -was fastened to both sides of the ship, so -that the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρότονοι</span> in the Homeric ships were -only an especial kind of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλῴδια</span>, or the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλῴδια</span> themselves differently placed. In -later times the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρότονος</span> was the rope which -went from the top of the mainmast (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρχήσιον</span>) -to the prow of the ship, and thus was -what is now called the main-stay. <em>b</em>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ceruchi</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεροῦχοι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάντες</span>), ropes which ran from the -two ends of the sail-yard to the top of the -mast. In more ancient vessels the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμὰς</span> consisted -of only one rope; in later times it -consisted of two, and sometimes four, which -uniting at the top of the mast, and there -passing through a ring, descended on the -other side, where it formed the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίτονος</span>, -by means of which the sail was drawn up or -let down. <em>c</em>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγκοινα</span>, Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">anquina</i>, was -the rope which went from the middle of a -yard to the top of the mast, and was intended -to facilitate the drawing up and letting down -of the sail. <em>d</em>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόδες</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pedes</i>) were in later -times, as in the poems of Homer, the ropes -attached to the two lower corners of a square -sail. These <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόδες</span> ran from the ends of the -sail to the sides of the vessel towards the -stern, where they were fastened with rings -attached to the outer side of the bulwark. -<em>e</em>. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπέραι</span> were the two ropes attached to -the two ends of the sail-yard, and thence -came down to a part of the ship near the -stern. Their object was to move the yard -according to the wind. In Latin they are -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opifera</i>, which is, perhaps, only a corruption -of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hypera</i>.—4. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραῤῥύματα</span>. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[268]</span> -ancients as early as the time of Homer had -various preparations raised above the edge -of a vessel, which were made of skins and -wicker-work, and which were intended as a -protection against high waves, and also to -serve as a kind of breast-work behind which -the men might be safe against the darts of -the enemy. These elevations of the bulwark -are called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραῤῥύματα</span>. They were probably -fixed upon the edge on both sides of the -vessel, and were taken off when not wanted. -Each galley appears to have had several -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραῤῥύματα</span>, two made of hair and two -white ones, these four being regularly mentioned -as belonging to one ship.—5. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σχοινία</span> -are the stronger and heavier kinds of ropes. -There were two kinds of these, viz. the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχοινία ἀγκύρεια</span>, to which the anchor was -attached, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχοινία ἐπίγυα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίγεια</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">retinacula</i>), -by which the ship was fastened to -the shore or drawn upon the shore.—6. The -<em>anchor</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγκύρα</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ancora</i>). We have already -remarked that in the Homeric age anchors -were not known, and large stones (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐναὶ</span>, -<em>sleepers</em>) used in their stead. When anchors -came to be used, they were generally made -of iron, and their form resembled that of a -modern anchor. Such an anchor was often -termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bidens</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διπλῆ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφίβολος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφίστομος</span>, -because it had two teeth or flukes; -but sometimes it had only one, and was then -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑτεροστόμος</span>. The technical expressions -in the use of the anchor are: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ancoram -solvere</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγκύραν χαλᾷν</span>, to loose the anchor; -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ancoram jacere</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγκύραν βάλλειν</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥίπτειν</span>, -to cast anchor; and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ancoram tollere</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγκύραν -αἴρειν</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναίρεσθαι</span>, to weigh anchor, whence -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἴρειν</span> by itself means “to set sail,” <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγκύραν</span> -being understood. The following figure -shows the cable (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funis</i>), passing through a -hole in the prow (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oculus</i>). Each ship of -course had several anchors. The last or -most powerful anchor, “the last hope,” was -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερά</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacra</i>, and persons trying their -last hope were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacram solvere</i>.—The -preceding account of the different parts of -the ship will be rendered still clearer by the -drawing on <a href="#ill263">p. 263</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp99" id="ill268" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill268.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Biremis. (From a Marble at Rome.)</div> -</div> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Biremes are sometimes called by the Greeks <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκροτα</span>. -The name biremis is also applied to a little boat managed -by only two oars.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Naumachia">NAUMĂCHIA, the name given to the -representation of a sea-fight among the Romans, -and also to the place where such engagements -were exhibited. These fights -sometimes took place in the circus or amphitheatre, -sufficient water being introduced to -float ships, but more generally in buildings -especially devoted to this purpose. The -combatants in these sea-fights, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Naumachiarii</i>, -were usually captives, or criminals -condemned to death, who fought as in -gladiatorial combats, until one party was -killed, unless preserved by the clemency of -the emperor. The ships engaged in the sea -fights were divided into two parties, called -respectively by the names of different maritime -nations, as Tyrians and Egyptians, Rhodians -and Sicilians, Persians and Athenians, -Corcyraeans and Corinthians, Athenians and -Syracusans, &c. These sea-fights were exhibited -with the same magnificence and lavish -expenditure of human life as characterised -the gladiatorial combats and other public -games of the Romans. In Nero’s naumachia -there were sea-monsters swimming about in -the artificial lake. In the sea-fight exhibited -by Titus there were 3000 men engaged, and -in that exhibited by Domitian the ships were -almost equal in number to two real fleets.</p> - - -<p id="Nautodicae">NAUTŎDĬCAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναυτόδικαι</span>), magistrates at -Athens, who had jurisdiction in matters belonging -to navigation and commerce, and in -matters concerning such persons as had entered -their names as members of a phratria<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[269]</span> -without both their parents being citizens of -Athens, or in other words, in the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι ἐμπόρων</span> -and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι ξενίας</span>. The time when nautodicae -were first instituted is not mentioned, but it -must have been previous to Pericles, and -perhaps as early as the time of Cleisthenes. -The nautodicae were appointed every year -by lot in the month of Gamelion, and probably -attended to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι ἐμπόρων</span> only during -the winter, when navigation ceased, -whereas the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκαι ξενίας</span> might be brought -before them all the year round.</p> - - -<p id="Nefasti">NĔFASTI DIES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dies">Dies</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Negotiatores">NĔGŌTĬĀTŌRES, signified specially during -the later times of the republic Roman -citizens settled in the provinces, who lent -money upon interest or bought up corn on -speculation, which they sent to Rome as well -as to other places. Their chief business however -was lending money upon interest, and -hence we find the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">negotia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">negotiatio</i>, -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">negotiari</i> used in this sense. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">negotiatores</i> -are distinguished from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">publicani</i>, -and from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mercatores</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">negotiatores</i> -in the provinces corresponded to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">argentarii</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feneratores</i> at Rome.</p> - - -<p id="Nemea">NĔMEA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νέμεα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεμεῖα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεμαῖα</span>), the Nemean -games, one of the four great national -festivals of the Greeks. It was held at Nemea, -a place near Cleonae in Argolis, and is -said to have been originally instituted by the -Seven against Thebes in commemoration of -the death of Opheltes, afterwards called Archemorus. -The games were revived by Hercules, -after he had slain the Nemean lion; and -were from this time celebrated in honour of -Zeus. They were at first of a warlike character, -and only warriors and their sons were -allowed to take part in them; subsequently, -however, they were thrown open to all the -Greeks. The various games were horse-racing, -running in armour in the stadium, -wrestling, chariot-racing and the discus, boxing, -throwing the spear and shooting with -the bow, to which we may add musical contests. -The prize given to the victors was at -first a chaplet of olive-branches, but afterwards -a chaplet of green parsley. The presidency -of these games, and the management -of them, belonged at different times to Cleonae, -Corinth, and Argos. They were celebrated -twice in every Olympiad, viz. at the -commencement of every second Olympic year, -in the winter, and soon after the commencement -of every fourth Olympic year, in the -summer.</p> - - -<p id="Nenia">NĒNIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_188">p. 188</a>, <em>a.</em>]</p> - - -<p id="Neocori">NĔŌCŎRI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεωκόροι</span>), signified originally -temple-sweepers, but was applied even in -early times to priestly officers of high rank, -who had the supreme superintendence of -temples and their treasures. Under the Roman -emperors the word was especially applied -to those cities in Asia, which erected -temples to the Roman emperors, since the -whole city in every such case was regarded -as the guardian of the worship of the emperor. -Accordingly we frequently find on -the coins of Ephesus, Smyrna, and other -cities, the epithet <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεωκόρος</span>, which also occurs -on the inscriptions of these cities.</p> - - -<p id="Neptunalia">NEPTŪNĀLĬA, a festival of Neptune, -celebrated at Rome, of which very little is -known. The day on which it was held was -probably the 23rd of July. In the ancient -calendaria this day is marked as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nept. ludi -et feriae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nept. ludi</i>, from which we see -that the festival was celebrated with games.</p> - - -<p id="Nexum">NEXUM, was either the transfer of the -ownership of a thing, or the transfer of a -thing to a creditor as a security; accordingly -in one sense Nexum included Mancipium -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mancipium">Mancipium</a></span>]; in another sense, Mancipium -and Nexum are opposed in the same way in -which Sale and Mortgage or Pledge are opposed. -The formal part of both transactions -consisted in a transfer <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per aes et libram</i>. -The person who became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nexus</i> by the effect -of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nexum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nexus</i> (for this form of the -word also is used) was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nexum inire</i>. -The phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nexi datio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nexi liberatio</i>, respectively -express the contracting and the -release from the obligation. The Roman law -as to the payment of borrowed money was -very strict. By a law of the Twelve Tables, -if the debtor admitted the debt, or had been -condemned in the amount of the debt by a -judex, he had thirty days allowed him for -payment. At the expiration of this time, he -was liable to be assigned over to the creditor -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">addictus</i>) by the sentence of the praetor. -The creditor was required to keep him for -sixty days in chains, during which time he -publicly exposed the debtor on three nundinae, -and proclaimed the amount of his debt. -If no person released the prisoner by paying -the debt, the creditor might sell him as a -slave or put him to death. If there were -several creditors, the letter of the law allowed -them to cut the debtor in pieces, and to take -their share of his body in proportion to their -debt. There is no instance of a creditor ever -having adopted this extreme mode of satisfying -his debt. But the creditor might treat -the debtor, who was addictus, as a slave, and -compel him to work out his debt; and the -treatment was often very severe. The Lex -Poetilia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 326) alleviated the condition -of the nexi. So far as we can understand -its provisions, it set all the nexi free, or -made them <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">soluti</i>, and it enacted that for the -future there should be no nexum, and that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>[270]</span> -no debtor should for the future be put in -chains.</p> - - -<p id="Nobiles">NŌBILES, NŌBĬLĬTAS. In the early -periods of the Roman state the Patricians -were the Nobles as opposed to the Plebs. -In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 366, the plebeians obtained the right -of being eligible to the consulship, and finally -they obtained access to all the curule magistracies. -Thus the two classes were put on -the same footing as to political capacity; but -now a new order of nobility arose. The descendants -of plebeians who had filled curule -magistracies, formed a class called <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nobiles</span> or -men “known,” who were so called by way -of distinction from “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ignobiles</span>” or people -who were not known. The Nobiles had no -legal privileges as such; but they were bound -together by a common distinction derived -from a legal title and by a common interest; -and their common interest was to endeavour -to confine the election to all the high magistracies -to the members of their body, to the -Nobilitas. Thus the descendants of those -Plebeians who had won their way to distinction -combined to exclude other Plebeians -from the distinction which their own ancestors -had transmitted to them. The external -distinction of the Nobiles was the Jus Imaginum, -a right or privilege which was apparently -established on usage only, and not on -any positive enactments. These Imagines -were figures with painted masks of wax, -made to resemble the person whom they -represented; and they were placed in the -Atrium of the house, apparently in small -wooden receptacles or cases somewhat in the -form of temples. The Imagines were accompanied -with the tituli or names of distinction -which the deceased had acquired; and the -tituli were connected in some way by lines -or branches so as to exhibit the pedigree -(stemma) of the family. These Imagines -were generally enclosed in their cases, but -they were opened on festival days and other -great ceremonials, and crowned with bay -(laureatae): they also formed part of a solemn -funeral procession. It seems probable -that the Roman Nobilitas, in the strict sense -of that term, and the Jus Imaginum, originated -with the admission of the Plebeians to -the consulship <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 366. A plebeian who -first attained a Curule office was the founder -of his family’s Nobilitas (princeps nobilitatis; -auctor generis). Such a person could have -no imagines of his ancestors; and he could -have none of his own, for such imagines of -a man were not made till after he was dead. -Such a person then was not nobilis in the -full sense of the term, nor yet was he ignobilis. -He was called by the Romans a “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">novus -homo</span>” or a new man; and his status or -condition was called Novitas. The term -novus homo was never applied to a Patrician. -The two most distinguished “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">novi homines</span>” -were C. Marius and M. Tullius Cicero, both -natives of an Italian municipium. The Patricians -would of course be jealous of the new -nobility; but this new nobility once formed -would easily unite with the old aristocracy -of Rome to keep the political power in their -hands, and to prevent more novi homines -from polluting this exclusive class. As early -as the second Punic war this new class, compounded -of Patricians or original aristocrats, -and Nobiles or newly-engrafted aristocrats, -was able to exclude novi homines from the -consulship. They maintained this power to -the end of the republican period, and the -consulship continued almost in the exclusive -possession of the Nobilitas. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Optimates</i> -were the Nobilitas and the chief part of the -Equites, a rich middle class, and also all -others whose support the Nobilitas and Equites -could command, in fact all who were opposed -to change that might affect the power -of the Nobilitas and the interests of those -whom the Nobilitas allied with themselves. -Optimates in this sense are opposed to Plebs, -to the mass of the people; and Optimates is -a wider term than Nobilitas, inasmuch as it -would comprehend the Nobilitas and all who -adhered to them.</p> - - -<p id="Nomen">NŌMEN (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄνομα</span>), a name. The Greeks -bore only one name, and it was one of the -especial rights of a father to choose the -names for his children, and to alter them if -he pleased. It was customary to give to the -eldest son the name of the grandfather on -his father’s side; and children usually received -their names on the tenth day after -their birth.—Originally every Roman citizen -belonged to a gens, and derived his name -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen gentilicium</i>) from his gens, -which <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen gentilicium</i> generally terminated -in <em>ius</em>. Besides this, every Roman had a -name, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praenomen</i>, which preceded the -nomen gentilicium, and which was peculiar -to him as an individual, <em>e.g.</em> Caius, Lucius, -Marcus, Cneius, Sextus, &c. This praenomen -was at a later time given to boys on the -ninth day after their birth, and to girls on -the eighth day. This day was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies -lustricus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies nominum</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nominalia</i>. The -praenomen given to a boy was in most cases -that of the father, but sometimes that of the -grandfather or great-grandfather. These -two names, a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praenomen</i> and a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen gentilicium</i>, -or simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nomen</i>, were indispensable -to a Roman, and they were at the same time -sufficient to designate him; hence the numerous -instances of Romans being designated -only by these two names, even in cases where<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>[271]</span> -a third or fourth name was possessed by the -person. Every Roman citizen, besides belonging -to a gens, was also frequently a -member of a familia, contained in a gens, -and accordingly might have a third name or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognomen</i>. Such cognomina were derived by -the Romans from a variety of mental or -bodily peculiarities, or from some remarkable -event in the life of the person who was the -founder of the familia. Such cognomina are, -Asper, Imperiosus, Magnus, Maximus, Publicola, -Brutus, Capito, Cato, Naso, Labeo, -Caecus, Cicero, Scipio, Sulla, Torquatus, &c. -These names were in most cases hereditary, -and descended to the latest members of a -familia; in some cases they ceased with the -death of the person to whom they were given -for special reasons. Many Romans had a -second cognomen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cognomen secundum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agnomen</i>), -which was given to them as an honorary -distinction, and in commemoration of -some memorable deed or event of their life, -<em>e.g.</em> Africanus, Asiaticus, Hispallus, Cretensis, -Macedonicus, Allobrogicus, &c. Such -agnomina were sometimes given by one general -to another, sometimes by the army and -confirmed by the chief-general, sometimes by -the people in the comitia, and sometimes they -were assumed by the person himself, as in -the case of L. Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus. -The regular order in which these names followed -one another was:—1. praenomen; -2. nomen gentilicium; 3. cognomen primum; -4. cognomen secundum or agnomen. -Sometimes the name of the tribe to which a -person belonged, was added to his name, in -the ablative case, as Q. Verres Romilia, C. -Claudius Palatina. If a person by adoption -passed from one gens into another, he assumed -the praenomen, nomen, and cognomen -of his adoptive father, and added to these the -name of his former gens, with the termination -<em>anus</em>. Thus C. Octavius, after being -adopted by his uncle C. Julius Caesar, was -called C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, and the -son of L. Aemilius Paullus, when adopted by -P. Cornelius Scipio, was called P. Cornelius -Scipio Aemilianus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio</a>.</span>] Slaves had -only one name, and usually retained that -which they had borne before they came into -slavery. If a slave was restored to freedom, -he received the praenomen and nomen gentilicium -of his former master, and to these -was added the name which he had had as a -slave. Instances of such freedmen are, T. -Ampius Menander, a freedman of T. Ampius -Balbus, L. Cornelius Chrysogonus, a freedman -of L. Cornelius Sulla, and M. Tullius Tiro, -freedman of M. Tullius Cicero.</p> - - -<p id="Nomophylaces">NŎMŎPHỸLĂCES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νομοφύλακες</span>), certain -magistrates or official persons of high authority, -who exercised a control over other magistrates, -and indeed over the whole body of -the people, it being their duty to see that the -laws were duly administered and obeyed. -Mention is made of such officers at Sparta -and elsewhere, but no such body existed at -Athens, for they must have had a power too -great for the existence of a democracy. The -Senate of 500, or the Areopagitic council, -performed in some measure the office of law-guardians; -but the only persons designated -by this name appear to have been inferior -functionaries (a sort of police), whose business -it was to prevent irregularities and disturbances -in the public assemblies.</p> - - -<p id="Nomos">NŎMOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμος</span>). This word comprehends -the notion not only of established or statute -law, but likewise of all customs and opinions -to which long prescription or natural feeling -gives the force of law. Before any written -codes appeared, law was promulgated by the -poets or wise men, who sang the great deeds -of their ancestors, and delivered their moral -and political lessons in verse. As civilisation -advanced, laws were reduced to writing, in -the shape either of regular codes or distinct -ordinances, and afterwards publicly exhibited, -engraved on tablets, or hewn on columns. -The first written laws we hear of are those -of Zaleucus. The first at Athens were those -of Draco, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεσμοὶ</span>, and by that name -distinguished from the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμοι</span> of Solon. The -laws of Lycurgus were not written. He enjoined -that they should never be inscribed on -any other tablet than the hearts of his countrymen. -Those of Solon were inscribed on -wooden tablets, arranged in pyramidal blocks, -turning on an axis, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄξονες</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύρβεις</span>. -They were first hung in the Acropolis, but -afterwards brought down to the Prytaneum.</p> - - -<p id="Nomothetae">NŎMŎTHĔTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νομόθεται</span>), movers or -proposers of laws, the name of a legislative -committee at Athens, which, by an institution -of Solon, was appointed to amend and revise -the laws. At the first <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυρία ἐκκλησία</span> in every -year, any person was at liberty to point out -defects in the existing code or propose alterations. -If his motion was deemed worthy of -attention, the third assembly might refer the -matter to the Nomothetae. They were selected -by lot from the Heliastic body; it -being the intention of Solon to limit the -power of the popular assembly by means of a -superior board emanating from itself, composed -of citizens of mature age, bound by a -stricter oath, and accustomed to weigh legal -principles by the exercise of their judicial -functions. The number of the committee so -appointed varied according to the exigency -of the occasion. The people appointed five -advocates (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνδικοι</span>) to attend before the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>[272]</span> -board and maintain the policy of the existing -institution. If the proposed measure met -the approval of the committee, it passed into -law forthwith. Besides this, the Thesmothetae -were officially authorised to review -the whole code, and to refer to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nomothetae</i> -all statutes which they considered -unworthy of being retained. Hence appears -the difference between <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Psephisma</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψήφισμα</span>) -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nomos</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμος</span>). The mere resolution of -the people in assembly was a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">psephisma</i>, and -only remained in force a year, like a decree -of the senate. Nothing was a <em>law</em> that did -not pass the ordeal of the Nomothetae.</p> - - -<p id="Nonae">NŌNAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Nota">NŎTA, which signified a mark or sign of -any kind, was also employed for an abbreviation. -Hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">notae</i> signified the marks or -signs used in taking down the words of a -speaker, and was equivalent to our short-hand -writing, or stenography; and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">notarii</i> -signified short-hand writers. It must be -borne in mind, however, that <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">notae</i> also signified -writing in cipher; and many passages -in the ancient reciters which are supposed to -refer to short-hand, refer in reality to writing -in cipher. Among the Greeks it is said to -have been invented by Xenophon, and their -short-hand writers were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταχυγράφοι</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀξυγράφοι</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σημειογράφοι</span>. The first introduction -of the art among the Romans is ascribed -to Cicero. He is said to have caused -the debate in the senate on the punishment -of the Catilinarian conspirators to be taken -down in short-hand. Eusebius ascribes it to -Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, and hence the -system of abbreviated writing, in which -some manuscripts are written, has received -the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Notae Tironianae</i>; but there is -no evidence to show whether this species of -short-hand was really the invention of Tiro. -The system of short-hand employed in the -time of the Roman empire must have been of -a much simpler and more expeditious kind -than the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Notae Tironianae</i>, which were -merely abbreviations of the words. Many of -the wealthy Romans kept slaves, who were -trained in the art. It was also learnt even -by the Roman nobles, and the emperor Titus -was a great proficient in it. At a later time, -it seems to have been generally taught in the -schools. There were, moreover, short-hand -writers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">notarii</i>) by profession, who were -chiefly employed in taking down (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">notare</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excipere</i>) -the proceedings in the courts of justice. -At a later period, they were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exceptores</i>. -These short-hand writers were also employed -on some occasions to take down a person’s -will.</p> - - -<p id="Notarii">NOTĀRĬI, short-hand writers, spoken of -under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Nota">Nota</a></span>. They were likewise called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Actuarii</i>. -They were also employed by the -emperors, and in course of time the title of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Notarii</i> was exclusively applied to the private -secretaries of the emperors, who, of course, -were no longer slaves, but persons of high -rank. The short-hand writers were now -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exceptores</i>, as is remarked under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Nota">Nota</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Nota_c">NŎTA CENSŌRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Novendiale">NŎVENDĬĀLE (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacrum</i>).—(1) A festival -lasting nine days, which was celebrated -as often as stones rained from heaven. It -was originally instituted by Tullus Hostilius, -when there was a shower of stones upon the -Mons Albanus, and was frequently celebrated -in later times.—(2) This name was also given -to the sacrifice performed nine days after a -funeral. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Novi">NŎVI HŎMĬNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Nudus">NŪDUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνός</span>). These words, besides -denoting absolute nakedness, were applied to -any one who, being without an <span class="smcap"><a href="#Amictus">Amictus</a></span>, -wore only his tunic or indutus. In this state -of nudity the ancients performed the operations -of ploughing, sowing, and reaping. -This term applied to the warrior expressed -the absence of some part of his armour. -Hence the light-armed were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γυμνῆτες</span>. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arma">Arma</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Nummularii">NUMMŬLĀRĬI or NŪMŬLĀRII. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mensarii">Mensarii</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Nummus">NUMMUS or NŪMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertius</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Nundinae">NUNDĬNAE is derived by all the ancient -writers from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novem</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies</i>, so that it -literally signifies the ninth day. Every eighth -day, according to our mode of speaking, was -a nundinae, and there were thus always seven -ordinary days between two nundinae. The -Romans in their peculiar mode of reckoning -added these two nundinae to the seven ordinary -days, and consequently said that the -nundinae recurred every ninth day, and -called them <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nundinae</i>, as it were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novemdinae</i>. -The number of nundinae in the ancient year -of ten months was 38. They were originally -market-days for the country folk, on which -they came to Rome to sell the produce of -their labour, and on which the king settled -the legal disputes among them. When, -therefore, we read that the nundinae were -feriae, or dies nefasti, and that no comitia -were allowed to be held, we have to understand -this of the populus or patricians, and -not of the plebes; and while for the populus -the nundinae were feriae, they were real -days of business (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies fasti</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitiales</i>) for -the plebeians, who on these occasions pleaded -their causes with members of their own order, -and held their public meetings (the ancient -comitia of the plebeians). Afterwards the -nundinae became fasti for both orders, and -this innovation facilitated the attendance of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273"></a>[273]</span> -the plebeians at the comitia centuriata. The -subjects to be laid before the comitia, whether -they were proposals for new laws, or the -appointment of officers, were announced to -the people three nundinae beforehand (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trinundino -die proponere</i>). Instead of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nundinae</i> -the form <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nundinum</i> is sometimes used, but -only when it is preceded by a numeral, as in -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trinundinum</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trinum nundinum</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Nuptiae">NUPTĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="O_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">O</span></h2> - -<p id="Obolus" class="drop-capy">ŎBOLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Drachma">Drachma</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ocrea">OCRĔA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνημίς</span>), a greave, a leggin. A -pair of greaves (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνημῖδες</span>) was one of the six -articles of armour which formed the complete -equipment of a Greek warrior [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arma">Arma</a></span>], and -likewise of a Roman soldier as fixed by Servius -Tullius. They were made of various -metals, with a lining probably of leather, -felt, or cloth. Their form is shown in the -accompanying cut. The figure is that of a -fallen warrior, and in consequence of the -bending of the knees, the greaves are seen to -project a little above them. This statue also -shows the ankle-rings (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπισφύρια</span>), which -were used to fasten the greaves immediately -above the feet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill273" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill273.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ocreae, Greaves. (From the Aeginetan Marbles.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Odeum">ŌDĒUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ᾠδεῖον</span>), a species of public building -for contests in vocal and instrumental -music. In its general form and arrangements -it was very similar to the theatre; and it is -sometimes called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θέατρον</span>. There were, -however, some characteristic differences: the -Odeum was much smaller than the theatre; -and it was roofed over, in order to retain the -sound. The earliest building of this kind -was that erected by Pericles at Athens, for -the purpose of celebrating the musical contests -at the Panathenaea. Its proximity to -the theatre suggested some of the uses made -of it, namely, as a refuge for the audience -when driven out of the theatre by rain, and -also as a place in which the chorus could be -prepared. Another Odeum was built at Athens -by Herodes Atticus, and was the most magnificent -edifice of the sort in the whole empire. -The length of its largest diameter was 248 -feet, and it is calculated to have furnished -accommodation for about 8000 persons. -There were also Odea in other Greek towns. -The first Odeum, properly so called, at Rome, -was built by Domitian, and the second by -Trajan. There are ruins of such buildings in -the villa of Hadrian at Tivoli, at Pompeii, -and at Catana.</p> - - -<p id="Olea">ŎLĔA, ŎLĪVA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλαία</span>); ŎLĔUM, OLĪVUM -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔλαιον</span>). The importance of the olive -was recognised from the most remote period -of antiquity in all civilised countries where -the temperature admitted of its cultivation: -and it was widely adopted as an emblem -of industry and peace. Hence the honour -paid to it at Athens, and hence the title -of “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">prima omnium arborum</span>,” bestowed upon -it by Columella. The fruit (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bacca</i>) of the -olive was for the most part employed for -one of two purposes. 1. It was eaten as a -fruit, either fresh, pickled, or preserved in -various ways. 2. It was pressed so as to -yield the oil and other juices which it contained. -And again, the oil was employed for -a variety of purposes, but chiefly 1. As an -article of food. 2. For anointing the body, and -in this case was frequently made a vehicle -for perfumes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unguenta</i>). 3. For burning in -lamps.</p> - - -<p id="Oligarchia">OLĬGARCHĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀλιγαρχια</span>), the government -of a few: a term applied to that perversion -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρέκβασις</span>) of an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aristocratia</i> into -which the latter passed, when, owing to the rise -of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demus</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Democratia">Democratia</a></span>], and the vanishing -of those substantial grounds of pre-eminence -which rendered an Aristocratia not unjust, -the rule of the dominant portion of the community -became the ascendancy of a faction, -whose efforts were directed chiefly towards -their own aggrandisement. The preservation -of power under such circumstances of course -depended chiefly upon the possession of superior -wealth and the other appliances of -wealth which were its concomitants. Thus -it came to be regarded as essentially characteristic -of an oligarchy, that the main distinction -between the dominant faction and -the subject portion of the community was -the possession of greater wealth on the part -of the former. Hence the term <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oligarchia</i> -would not have been applied, if a small section -of the community, consisting of <em>poor</em> -persons, by any means got the reins of government -into their hands.</p> - - -<p id="Olla">OLLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λέβης</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χύτρος</span>), a vessel of any material,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274"></a>[274]</span> -round and plain, and having a wide -mouth; a pot; a jar.</p> - - -<p id="Olympia">ŎLYMPĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀλύμπια</span>), the Olympic games, -the greatest of the national festivals of the -Greeks. It was celebrated at Olympia in -Elis, the name given to a small plain to the -west of Pisa, which was bounded on the -north and north-east by the mountains Cronius -and Olympus, on the south by the river -Alpheus, and on the west by the Cladeus, -which flows into the Alpheus. Olympia does -not appear to have been a town, but rather a -collection of temples and public buildings. -The origin of the Olympic games is buried in -obscurity, but the festival was of very great -antiquity. The first historical fact connected -with this festival is its revival by Iphitus, -king of Elis, who is said to have accomplished -it with the assistance of Lycurgus, the -Spartan lawgiver, and Cleosthenes of Pisa. -The date of this event is given by some -writers as <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 884, and by others as <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 828. -The interval of four years between each celebration -of the festival was called an Olympiad; -but the Olympiads were not employed -as a chronological aera till the victory of -Coroebus in the foot-race, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 776. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Olympias">Olympias</a>.</span>] -The most important point in the -renewal of the festival by Iphitus was the -establishment of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ececheiria</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκεχειρία</span>), -or sacred armistice. The proclamation was -made by peace-heralds (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπονδοφόροι</span>), first in -Elis and afterwards in the other parts of -Greece; it put a stop to all warfare for the -month in which the games were celebrated, -and which was called the <em>sacred month</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερομηνία</span>). -The territory of Elis itself was considered -especially sacred during the games, -and no armed force could enter it without -incurring the guilt of sacrilege. The -Olympic festival was probably confined at -first to the Peloponnesians; but as its celebrity -extended, the other Greeks took part -in it, till at length it became a festival for -the whole nation. No one was allowed to -contend in the games but persons of pure -Hellenic blood: barbarians might be spectators, -but slaves were entirely excluded. -After the conquest of Greece by the Romans, -the latter were permitted to take part in the -games. No women were allowed to be present -or even to cross the Alpheus during -the celebration of the games, under penalty -of being hurled down from the Typaean -rock, but women could send chariots to -the races. The number of spectators at the -festival was very great; and these were -drawn together not merely by the desire of -seeing the games, but partly through the -opportunity it afforded them of carrying on -commercial transactions with persons from -distant places, as is the case with the Mohammedan -festivals at Mecca and Medina. -Many of the persons present were also deputies -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωροί</span>) sent to represent the various -states of Greece; and we find that these -embassies vied with one another in the number -of their offerings, and the splendour of -their general appearance, in order to support -the honour of their native cities. The -Olympic festival was a Pentaëteris (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πενταετηρίς</span>), -that is, according to the ancient mode -of reckoning, a space of four years elapsed -between each festival, in the same way as -there was only a space of two years between -a Trieteris. It was celebrated on the first -full moon after the summer solstice. It -lasted, after all the contests had been introduced, -five days, from the 11th to the 15th -days of the month inclusive. The fourth day -of the festival was the 14th of the month, -which was the day of the full moon, and -which divided the month into two equal -parts. The festival was under the immediate -superintendence of the Olympian Zeus, whose -temple at Olympia, adorned with the statue -of the god made by Phidias, was one of the -most splendid works of art in Greece. There -were also temples and altars to most of the -other gods. The festival itself may be divided -into two parts, the games or contests -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγὼν Ολυμπιακός</span>), and the festive rites -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑορτή</span>) connected with the sacrifices, with the -processions, and with the public banquets in -honour of the conquerors.—The contests consisted -of various trials of strength and skill, -which were increased in number from time -to time. There were in all twenty-four contests, -eighteen in which men took part, and -six in which boys engaged, though they were -never all exhibited at one festival, since some -were abolished almost immediately after their -institution, and others after they had been in -use only a short time. We subjoin a list of -these from Pausanias, with the date of the -introduction of each, commencing from the -Olympiad of Coroebus:—1. The foot-race -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρόμος</span>), which was the only contest during -the first 13 Olympiads. 2. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίαυλος</span>, or -foot-race, in which the stadium was traversed -twice, first introduced in Ol. 14. 3. The -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόλιχος</span>, a still longer foot-race than the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίαυλος</span>, introduced in Ol. 15. For a more -particular account of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίαυλος</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόλιχος</span>, -see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Stadium">Stadium</a></span>. 4. Wrestling (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>), and, 5. -The Pentathlum (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πένταθλον</span>), which consisted -of five exercises [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pentathlon">Pentathlum</a></span>], both introduced -in Ol. 18. 6. Boxing (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμή</span>) introduced -in Ol. 23. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pugilatus">Pugilatus</a>.</span>] 7. The chariot-race, -with four full-grown horses (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵππων τελείων -δρόμος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅρμα</span>), introduced in Ol. 25. 8. The -Pancratium (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παγκράτιον</span>) [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pancratium">Pancratium</a></span>], and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275"></a>[275]</span> -9. The horse-race (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵππος κέλης</span>), both introduced -in Ol. 33. 10 and 11. The foot-race -and wrestling for boys, both introduced in -Ol. 37. 12. The Pentathlum for boys, introduced -in Ol. 38., but immediately afterwards -abolished. 13. Boxing for boys, introduced -in Ol. 41. 14. The foot-race, in -which men ran with the equipments of heavy-armed -soldiers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῶν ὁπλιτῶν δρόμος</span>), introduced -in Ol. 65., on account of its training men for -actual service in war. 15. The chariot-race -with mules (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπήνη</span>), introduced in Ol. 70.; -and 16. The horse-race with mares (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλπη</span>), -introduced in Ol. 71., both of which were -abolished in Ol. 84. 17. The chariot-race -with two full-grown horses (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵππων τελείων -συνωρίς</span>), introduced in Ol. 93. 18, 19. The -contest of heralds (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κήρυκες</span>) and trumpeters -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαλπιγκταί</span>), introduced in Ol. 96. 20. The -chariot-race with four foals (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πώλων ἅρμασιν</span>), -introduced in Ol. 99. 21. The chariot-race -with two foals (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πώλων συνωρίς</span>), introduced in -Ol. 128. 22. The horse-race with foals -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πῶλος κέλης</span>), introduced in Ol. 131. 23. -The Pancratium for boys, introduced in Ol. -145. 24. There was also a horse-race (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵππος -κέλης</span>) in which boys rode, but we do not -know the time of its introduction.—The judges -in the Olympic Games, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hellanodicae</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑλλανοδίκαι</span>), were appointed by the Eleans, -who had the regulation of the whole festival. -It appears to have been originally under the -superintendence of Pisa, in the neighbourhood -of which Olympia was situated, but after the -conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians on -the return of the Heraclidae, the Aetolians, -who had been of great assistance to the Heraclidae, -settled in Elis, and from this time -the Aetolian Eleans obtained the regulation of -the festival, and appointed the presiding -officers. The Hellanodicae were chosen by -lot from the whole body of the Eleans. Their -number varied at different periods, but at a -later time there were eight Hellanodicae. -Their office probably lasted for only one festival. -They had to see that all the laws -relating to the games were observed by the -competitors and others, to determine the -prizes, and to give them to the conquerors. -An appeal lay from their decision to the -Elean senate. Under the direction of the -Hellanodicae was a certain number of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alytae</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλύται</span>) with an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alytarches</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀλυτάρχης</span>) at -their head, who formed a kind of police, and -carried into execution the commands of the -Hellanodicae. There were also various other -minor officers under the control of the Hellanodicae.—All -free Greeks were allowed to -contend in the games, who had complied with -the rules prescribed to candidates. The equestrian -contests were necessarily confined to -the wealthy; but the poorest citizens could -contend in the athletic games. This, however, -was far from degrading the games in -public opinion; and some of the noblest as -well as meanest citizens of the state took -part in these contests. The owners of the -chariots and horses were not obliged to contend -in person; and the wealthy vied with -one another in the number and magnificence -of the chariots and horses which they sent to -the games. All persons, who were about to -contend, had to prove to the Hellanodicae -that they were freemen, and of pure Hellenic -blood, that they had not been branded with -atimia, nor guilty of any sacrilegious act. -They further had to prove that they had -undergone the preparatory training (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προγυμνάσματα</span>) -for ten months previous. All competitors -were obliged, thirty days before the -festival, to undergo certain exercises in the -Gymnasium at Elis, under the superintendence -of the Hellanodicae. The competitors -took their places by lot. The herald then -proclaimed the name and country of each -competitor. When they were all ready to -begin the contest, the judges exhorted them -to acquit themselves nobly, and then gave the -signal to commence.—The only prize given -to the conqueror was a garland of wild olive -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κότινος</span>), cut from a sacred olive tree, which -grew in the sacred grove of Altis in Olympia. -The victor was originally crowned upon a -tripod covered over with bronze, but afterwards -upon a table made of ivory and gold. -Palm branches, the common tokens of victory -on other occasions, were placed in his hands. -The name of the victor, and that of his father -and of his country, were then proclaimed by -a herald before the representatives of assembled -Greece. The festival ended with processions -and sacrifices, and with a public -banquet given by the Eleans to the conquerors -in the Prytaneium. The most powerful states -considered an Olympic victory, gained by one -of their citizens, to confer honour upon the -state to which he belonged; and a conqueror -usually had immunities and privileges conferred -upon him by the gratitude of his -fellow-citizens. On his return home the -victor entered the city in a triumphal procession, -in which his praises were celebrated, -frequently in the loftiest strains of poetry. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Athletae">Athletae</a>.</span>] As persons from all parts of -the Hellenic world were assembled together -at the Olympic Games, it was the best opportunity -which the artist and the writer possessed -of making their works known. It -answered, to some extent, the same purpose -as the press does in modern times. Before -the invention of printing, the reading of -an author’s works to as large an assembly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276"></a>[276]</span> -as could be obtained, was one of the easiest -and surest modes of publishing them; and -this was a favourite practice of the Greeks -and Romans. Accordingly we find many -instances of literary works thus published at -the Olympic festival. Herodotus is said to -have read his history at this festival; but -though there are some reasons for doubting -the correctness of this statement, there are -numerous other writers who thus published -their works, as the sophist Hippias, Prodicus -of Ceos, Anaximenes, the orator Lysias, Dion -Chrysostom, &c. It must be borne in mind -that these recitations were not contests, and -that they formed properly no part of the -festival. In the same way painters and other -artists exhibited their works at Olympia.</p> - - -<p id="Olympias">OLYMPĬAS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀλυμπιάς</span>), an Olympiad, the -most celebrated chronological aera among -the Greeks, was the period of four years -which elapsed between each celebration of -the Olympic Games. The Olympiads began -to be reckoned from the victory of Coroebus -in the foot-race, which happened in the year -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 776. Timaeus of Sicily, however, who -flourished <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 264, was the first writer who -regularly arranged events according to the -conquerors in each Olympiad. His practice -of recording events by Olympiads was followed -by Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius -of Halicarnassus, &c. The writers who -make use of the aera of the Olympiads, -usually give the number of the Olympiad -(the first corresponding to <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 776), and then -the name of the conqueror in the foot-race. -Some writers also speak of events as happening -in the first, second, third, or fourth year, -as the case may be, of a certain Olympiad; -but others do not give the separate years of -each Olympiad. The rules for converting -Olympiads into the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vice versa</i>, -are given under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Chronologia">Chronologia</a></span>; but as this -is troublesome, the student will find at the -end of the book a list of the Olympiads, with -the years of the Christian aera corresponding -to them from the beginning of the Olympiads -to <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 301. To save space, the separate -years of each Olympiad, with the corresponding -years <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, are only given from the 47th -to the 126th Olympiad, as this is the most -important period of Grecian history; in the -other Olympiads the first year only is -given. In consulting the table it must be -borne in mind that the Olympic Games were -celebrated about midsummer, and that the -Attic year commenced at about the same -time. If, therefore, an event happened in -the second half of the Attic year, the year -B.C. must be reduced by 1. Thus Socrates -was put to death in the 1st year of the -95th Olympiad, which corresponds in the -table to <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 400; but as his death happened -in Thargelion, the 11th month of the Attic -year, the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> must be reduced by 1, -which gives us <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 399, the true date of his -death.</p> - - -<p id="Opalia">ŎPĀLĬA, a Roman festival in honour of -Opis, celebrated on the 19th of December, -being the third day of the Saturnalia. It was -believed that Opis was the wife of Saturnus, -and for this reason the festivals were celebrated -at the same time.</p> - - -<p id="Opsonium">OPSŌNĬUM, or OBSŌNĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄψον</span>, <em>dim.</em> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀψάριον</span>; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀψήμα</span>), denoted everything which -was eaten with bread, the principal substance -of every meal. Those numerous articles of -diet called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opsonia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulmentaria</i> were designed -to give nutriment, but still more to -add a relish to food. Some of these articles -were taken from the vegetable kingdom, but -were much more pungent and savoury than -bread, such as olives, either fresh or pickled, -radishes, and sesamum. Of animal food by -much the most common kind was fish, whence -the terms under explanation were in the -course of time used in a confined and special -sense to denote fish only, but fish variously -prepared, and more especially salt fish, which -was most extensively employed to give a -relish to the vegetable diet. The Athenians -were in the habit of going to markets (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰς -τοῦψον</span>) themselves in order to purchase their -opsonia (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀψωνεῖν</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opsonare</i>). But the opulent, -Romans had a slave, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opsonator</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀψώνης</span>), -whose office it was to purchase for his master.</p> - - -<p id="Optio">OPTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Centurio">Centurio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Optimates">OPTĬMĀTES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Oraculum">ŌRĀCŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μαντεῖον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρηστήριον</span>) was -used by the ancients to designate both the -revelations made by the deity to man, as well -as the place in which such revelations were -made. The deity was in none of these places -believed to appear in person to man, and to -communicate to him his will or knowledge -of the future, but all oracular revelations -were made through some kind of medium, -which was different in the different places -where oracles existed. It may, at first sight, -seem strange that there were, comparatively -speaking, so few oracles of Zeus, the father -and ruler of gods and men. But although, -according to the belief of the ancients, Zeus -himself was the first source of all oracular -revelations, yet he was too far above men to -enter with them into any close relation; -other gods therefore, especially Apollo, and -even heroes, acted as mediators between Zeus -and men, and were, as it were, the organs -through which he communicated his will. -The ancients consulted the will of the gods -on all important occasions of public and private -life, since they were unwilling to undertake<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277"></a>[277]</span> -anything of importance without their -sanction.—The most celebrated oracle was -that of Apollo at Delphi. Its ancient name -was Pytho. In the centre of the temple -there was a small opening (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χάσμα</span>) in the -ground, from which, from time to time, an -intoxicating smoke arose, which was believed -to come from the well of Cassotis, which -vanished into the ground close by the sanctuary. -Over this chasm there stood a high -tripod, on which the Pythia, led into the -temple by the prophetes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προφήτης</span>), took her -seat whenever the oracle was to be consulted. -The smoke rising from under the tripod -affected her brain in such a manner that she -fell into a state of delirious intoxication, and -the sounds which she uttered in this state -were believed to contain the revelations of -Apollo. These sounds were carefully written -down by the prophetes, and afterwards communicated -to the persons who had come to -consult the oracle. The Pythia (the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προφῆτις</span>) -was always a native of Delphi, and when she -had once entered the service of the god she -never left it, and was never allowed to marry. -In early times she was always a young girl, -but subsequently no one was elected as prophetess -who had not attained the age of fifty -years. The Delphians, or, more properly -speaking, the noble families of Delphi, had -the superintendence of the oracle. Among -the Delphian aristocracy, however, there -were five families which traced their origin -to Deucalion, and from each of these one of -the five priests, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hosioi</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅσιοι</span>), was -taken. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hosioi</i>, together with the high-priest -or prophetes, held their offices for life, -and had the control of all the affairs of the -sanctuary and of the sacrifices. That these -noble families had an immense influence upon -the oracle is manifest from numerous instances, -and it is not improbable that they -were its very soul, and that it was they who -dictated the pretended revelations of the god. -Most of the oracular answers which are -extant are in hexameters, and in the Ionic -dialect. Sometimes, however, Doric forms -also were used.—No religious institution in -all antiquity obtained such a paramount influence -in Greece as the oracle of Delphi. -When consulted on a subject of a religious -nature, the answer was invariably of a kind -calculated not only to protect and preserve -religious institutions, but to command new -ones to be established, so that it was the preserver -and promoter of religion throughout -the ancient world. Colonies were seldom or -never founded without having obtained the -advice and the directions of the Delphic god. -The Delphic oracle had at all times a leaning -in favour of the Greeks of the Doric race, -but the time when it began to lose its influence -must be dated from the period when -Athens and Sparta entered upon their struggle -for the supremacy in Greece; for at this time -the partiality for Sparta became so manifest -that the Athenians and their party began to -lose all reverence and esteem for it, and the -oracle became a mere instrument in the hands -of a political party. Of the other oracles, the -most celebrated were that of Apollo at Didyma, -usually called the oracle of the Branchidae, -in the territory of Miletus; that of Zeus, at -Dodona, where the oracle was given from -sounds produced by the wind; that of Zeus -Ammon, in an oasis in Libya, not far from -the boundaries of Egypt; that of Amphiaraus, -between Potniae and Thebes, where the hero -was said to have been swallowed up by the -earth; and that of Trophonius, at Lebadeia -in Boeotia.</p> - - -<p id="Orarium">ŌRĀRĬUM was a small handkerchief used -for wiping the face, and appears to have been -employed for much the same purposes as our -pocket-handkerchief. It was made of silk or -linen. Aurelian introduced the practice of -giving <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oraria</i> to the Roman people to use -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad favorem</i>, which appears to mean for the -purpose of waving in the public games in -token of applause.</p> - - -<p id="Orator">ŌRĀTOR. The profession of the Roman -orator, who with reference to his undertaking -a client’s case is also called patronus, was -quite distinct from that of the Jurisconsultus -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jurisconsulti">Jurisconsulti</a></span>], and also from that of the -Advocatus, at least in the time of Cicero, and -even later. An orator who possessed a competent -knowledge of the Jus Civile would, -however, have an advantage. Some requisites -of oratory, such as voice and gesture, -could only be acquired by discipline, whereas -a competent knowledge of the law of a case -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">juris utilitas</i>) could be got at any time from -the jurisconsulti (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">periti</i>) or from books. -Oratory was a serious study among the Romans. -Cicero tells us by what painful labour -he attained to excellence. Roman oratory -reached its perfection in the century which -preceded the Christian aera. Its decline dates -from the establishment of the Imperial power. -The old orators learned their art by constant -attendance on some eminent orator and by -actual experience of business: the orators of -Messala’s time were formed in the schools of -Rhetoric, and their powers were developed -in exercises on fictitious matters. But the -immediate causes of the former nourishing -condition of eloquence were the political power -which oratory conferred on the orator under -the Republic, and the party struggles and -even the violence that are incident to such a -state of society.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278"></a>[278]</span></p> - - -<p id="Orchestra">ORCHESTRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Orcinus">ORCĪNUS SĔNĀTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ordo">ORDO is applied to any body of men who -form a distinct class in the community, either -by possessing distinct privileges, pursuing certain -trades or professions, or in any other -way. Thus the whole body of sacerdotes at -Rome is spoken of as an ordo, and separate -ecclesiastical corporations are called by the -same title. The libertini and scribae also -formed separate ordines. The senate and -the equites are also spoken of respectively as -the ordo senatorius and ordo equestris, but -this name is never applied to the plebes. Accordingly -we find the expression, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uterque -ordo</i>, used without any further explanation -to designate the senatorial and equestrian -ordines. The senatorial ordo, as the highest, -is sometimes distinguished as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amplissimus -ordo</i>.—The senate in colonies and municipia -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo decurionum</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a></span>], and -sometimes simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo</i>.—The term ordo is -also applied to a company or troop of soldiers, -and is used as equivalent to centuria: thus -centurions are sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">qui ordines -duxerunt</i>, and the first centuries in a legion -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">primi ordines</i>. Even the centurions of the first -centuries are occasionally called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">primi ordines</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Orgia">ORGIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mysteria">Mysteria</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Orgyia">ORGYIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀργυιά</span>), a Greek measure of -length, derived from the human body, was -the distance from extremity to extremity of -the outstretched arms, whence the name, -from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀρέγω</span>. It was equal to 6 feet or to 4 -cubits, and was 1-100th of the stadium.</p> - - -<p id="Orichalcum">ŎRĬCHALCUM, a metallic compound, akin -to copper and bronze, which was highly -prized by the ancients. It probably denotes -<em>brass</em>, with which the ancients became acquainted -by fusing zinc ore (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cadmium</i>, calamine) -with copper, although they appear to -have had scarcely any knowledge of zinc -as a metal. The word is derived from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄρος</span> -and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χαλκός</span>, that is, <em>mountain-bronze</em>.</p> - - -<p id="Oschophoria">OSCHOPHŎRIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὠσχοφόρια</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀσχοφόρια</span>), -an Attic festival, which, according to some -writers, was celebrated in honour of Athena -and Dionysus, and according to others in -honour of Dionysus and Ariadne. It is said -to have been instituted by Theseus. It was -a vintage festival, and its name is derived -from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὦσχος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄσχος</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄσχη</span>, a branch of vines -with grapes.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp65" id="ill278a" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill278a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Oscillum. (From a Marble in the British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Oscillum">OSCILLUM, a diminutive through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">osculum</i> -from <em>os</em>, meaning “a little face,” was the -term applied to faces or heads of Bacchus, -which were suspended in the vineyards to -be turned in every direction by the wind. -Whichsoever way they looked, they were -supposed to make the vines in that quarter -fruitful. The first cut represents the countenance -of Bacchus with a beautiful, mild, and -propitious expression. The other cut represents -a tree with four oscilla hung upon its -branches. A syrinx and a pedum are placed -at the root of the tree.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill278b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill278b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Oscillum. (From an ancient Gem.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Ostiarium">OSTĬĀRĬUM, a tax upon the doors of -houses, which appears to have been sometimes -levied in the provinces. There was a -similar tax, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">columnarium</i>, imposed -upon every pillar that supported a house.</p> - - -<p id="Ostium">OSTĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ovatio">ŎVĀTĬO, a lesser triumph. The circumstances -by which it was distinguished from -the more imposing solemnity [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Triumphus">Triumphus</a></span>] -were the following:—The general did not -enter the city in a chariot drawn by four -horses, but on foot: he was not arrayed in -the gorgeous gold-embroidered robe, but in -the simple toga praetexta of a magistrate; -his brows were encircled with a wreath, not -of laurel but of myrtle; he bore no sceptre -in his hand; the procession was not heralded -by trumpets, headed by the senate, and -thronged with victorious troops, but was -enlivened by a crowd of flute players, attended -chiefly by knights and plebeians, frequently -without soldiers: the ceremonies -were concluded by the sacrifice, not of a bull -but of a sheep. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ovatio</i> seems -clearly to be derived from the kind of victim -offered. An ovation was granted when the -advantage gained, although considerable, was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279"></a>[279]</span> -not sufficient to constitute a legitimate claim -to the higher distinction of a triumph, or -when the victory had been achieved with -little bloodshed; or when hostilities had not -been regularly proclaimed; or when the war -had not been completely terminated; or when -the contest had been carried on against base -and unworthy foes; and hence when the -servile bands of Athenion and Spartacus were -destroyed by Perperna and Crassus, these -leaders celebrated ovations only.</p> - - -<p id="Ovile">ŎVĪLE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="P_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">P</span></h2> - -<p id="Paean" class="drop-capy">PAEAN (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιήων</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιάν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιών</span>), a hymn or -song, which was originally sung in -honour of Apollo. It was always of a joyous -nature, and its tune and sounds expressed -hope and confidence. It was a song of -thanksgiving, when danger was passed, and -also a hymn to propitiate the god. It was -sung at the solemn festivals of Apollo, and -especially at the Hyacinthia. The paean -was also sung as a battle-song, both before -an attack on the enemy and after the battle -was finished. It is certain that the paean -was in later times sung to the honour of -other gods besides Apollo. Thus Xenophon -relates that the Greek army in Asia sung a -paean to Zeus.</p> - - -<p id="Paedagogus">PAEDĂGŌGUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιδαγωγός</span>), a tutor. The -office of tutor in a Grecian family of rank -and opulence was assigned to one of the most -trustworthy of the slaves. The sons of his -master were committed to his care on attaining -their sixth or seventh year, their previous -education having been conducted by females. -They remained with the tutor until they attained -the age of puberty. His duty was -rather to guard them from evil, both physical -and moral, than to communicate instruction. -He went with them to and from the school -or the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Gymnasium">Gymnasium</a></span>; he accompanied them -out of doors on all occasions; he was responsible -for their personal safety, and for their -avoidance of bad company. In the Roman -empire the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paedagogi</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paedagogia</i> was -given to beautiful young slaves, who discharged -in the imperial palace the duties of -the modern <em>page</em>, which is in fact a corruption -of the ancient name.</p> - - -<p id="Paedonomus">PAEDŎNŎMUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παιδονόμος</span>), a magistrate -at Sparta, who had the general superintendence -of the education of the boys.</p> - - -<p id="Paenula">PAENŬLA, a thick cloak, chiefly used by -the Romans in travelling, instead of the toga, -as a protection against the cold and rain. It -appears to have had no sleeves, and only an -opening for the head, as shown in the following -figure.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp43" id="ill279" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill279.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Paenula, travelling cloak. (From Bartholini.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Paganalia">PĀGĀNĀLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pagi">Pagi</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pagani">PĀGĀNI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pagi">Pagi</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pagi">PĀGI were fortified places in the neighbourhood -of Rome, to which the country-people -might retreat in case of a hostile -inroad. Each of the country tribes is said to -have been divided by Numa into a certain -number of pagi; which name was given to -the country adjoining the fortified village, as -well as to the village itself. There was a -magistrate at the head of each pagus, who -kept a register of the names and of the property -of all persons in the pagus, raised the -taxes, and summoned the people, when necessary, -to war. Each pagus had its own -sacred rites, and an annual festival called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Paganalia</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pagani</i>, or inhabitants of -the pagi, had their regular meetings, at -which they passed resolutions. The division -of the country-people into pagi continued to -the latest times of the Roman empire. The -term Pagani is often used in opposition to -milites, and is applied to all who were not -soldiers, even though they did not live in the -country. The Christian writers gave the -name of pagani to those persons who adhered -to the old Roman religion, because the -latter continued to be generally believed by -the country-people, after Christianity became -the prevailing religion of the inhabitants of -the towns.</p> - - -<p id="Palaestra">PĂLAESTRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλαίστρα</span>), properly means<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280"></a>[280]</span> -a place for wrestling (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλαίειν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>), and -appears to have originally formed a part of -the gymnasium. At Athens, however, there -was a considerable number of palaestrae, -quite distinct from the gymnasia. It appears -most probable that the palaestrae were -chiefly appropriated to the exercises of wrestling -and of the pancratium, and were principally -intended for the athletae, who, it -must be recollected, were persons that contended -in the public games, and therefore -needed special training. The Romans had -originally no places corresponding to the -Greek gymnasia and palaestrae; and when -towards the close of the republic wealthy -Romans, in imitation of the Greeks, began to -build places for exercise in their villas, they -called them indifferently gymnasia and palaestrae.</p> - - -<p id="Palilia">PĂLĪLIA, a festival celebrated at Rome -every year on the 21st of April, in honour of -Pales, the tutelary divinity of shepherds. -The 21st of April was the day on which, -according to the early traditions of Rome, -Romulus had commenced the building of the -city, so that the festival was at the same -time solemnised as the dies natalitius of -Rome. It was originally a shepherd-festival, -and continued to be so among country people -till the latest times, but in the city it lost its -original character, and was only regarded as -the dies natalitius of Rome. The first part of -the solemnities was a public purification by -fire and smoke. The things burnt in order -to produce this purifying smoke were the -blood of the <em>October-horse</em>, the ashes of the -calves sacrificed at the festival of Ceres, and -the shells of beans. The people were also -sprinkled with water, they washed their -hands in spring-water, and drank milk mixed -with must. As regards the <em>October-horse</em> -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equus October</i>) it must be observed that in -early times no bloody sacrifice was allowed -to be offered at the palilia, and the blood of -the October-horse mentioned above, was the -blood which had dropped from the tail of the -horse sacrificed in the month of October to -Mars in the Campus Martius. This blood -was preserved by the vestal virgins in the -temple of Vesta for the purpose of being used -at the palilia. The sacrifices consisted of -cakes, millet, milk, and other kinds of eatables. -The shepherds then offered a prayer -to Pales. After these solemn rites were over, -the cheerful part of the festival began: bonfires -were made of heaps of hay and straw, -and the festival was concluded by a feast in -the open air, at which the people sat or lay -upon benches of turf, and drank plentifully.</p> - - -<p id="Pallium">PALLĬUM, <em>dim.</em> PALLIŎLUM, <em>poet.</em> -PALLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάτιον</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱματίδιον</span>; <em>Ion.</em> and -<em>poet.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φᾶρος</span>), an outer garment. The English -<em>cloak</em>, though commonly adopted as the translation -of these terms, conveys no accurate -conception of the form, material, or use of -that which they denoted. The article designated -by them was always a rectangular -piece of cloth, exactly, or at least nearly -square. It was indeed used in the very form -in which it was taken from the loom, being -made entirely by the weaver, without any -aid from the tailor, except to repair the injuries -which it sustained by time. Whatever -additional richness and beauty it received -from the art of the dyer, was bestowed upon -it before its materials were woven into cloth -or even spun into thread. Most commonly it -was used without having undergone any process -of this kind. The raw material, such as -wool, flax, or cotton, was manufactured in -its natural state, and hence pallia were commonly -white, although from the same cause -brown, drab, and grey were also prevailing -colours. As the pallium was the most common -outer garment, we find it continually -mentioned in conjunction with the tunica, -which constituted the indutus. Such phrases -as “coat and waistcoat,” or “shoes and stockings,” -are not more common with us than the -following expressions, which constantly occur -in ancient authors: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tunica palliumque</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱμάτιον -καὶ χιτών</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ ἱμάτιον καὶ ὁ χιτωνίσκος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φᾶρος -ἠδὲ χιτών</span>, &c. To wear the pallium without<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281"></a>[281]</span> -the underclothing indicated poverty or severity -of manners, as in the case of Socrates. -One of the most common modes of wearing -the pallium was to fasten it with a brooch -over the right shoulder, leaving the right -arm at liberty, and to pass the middle of it -either under the left arm so as to leave that -arm at liberty also, or over the left shoulder -so as to cover the left arm. The figure in -the preceding cut is attired in the last-mentioned -fashion.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp38" id="ill280" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill280.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Pallium. (Museo Pio-Clement., vol. i. tav. 48.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Palma">PALMA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Palmipes">PALMĬPES, a Roman measure of length, -equal to a foot and a palm.</p> - - -<p id="Palmus">PALMUS, properly the width of the open -hand, or, more exactly, of the four fingers, -was used by the Romans for two different -measures of length, namely, as the translation -of the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παλαιστή</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῶρον</span> in old -Greek, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπιθαμή</span> respectively. In the -former sense it is equal to 4 digits, or 3 -inches, or 1-4th of a foot, or 1-6th of the -cubit. The larger palm of 9 inches only -occurs in later Roman writers. From this large -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palmus</i> the modern Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palmo</i> is derived.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp43" id="ill281a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill281a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Paludamentum, Military Cloak. (Statue of a Roman -Emperor.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Paludamentum">PĂLŪDĀMENTUM, the cloak worn by a -Roman general commanding an army, his -principal officers and personal attendants, in -contradistinction to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sagum</i> of the common -soldiers, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga</i> or garb of peace. It -was the practice for a Roman magistrate, -after he had received the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imperium</i> from the -comitia curiata and offered up his vows in the -Capitol, to march out of the city arrayed in -the paludamentum (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exire paludatus</i>), attended -by his lictors in similar attire (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paludatis lictoribus</i>), -nor could he again enter the gates -until he had formally divested himself of this -emblem of military power. The paludamentum -was open in front, reached down to the -knees or a little lower, and hung loosely -over the shoulders, being fastened across the -chest by a clasp. The colour of the paludamentum -was commonly white or purple, and -hence it was marked and remembered that -Crassus on the morning of the fatal battle of -Carrhae went forth in a dark-coloured mantle. -In the cut below, representing the head -of a warrior, we see the paludamentum flying -back in the charge, and the clasp nearly in -front.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill281b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill281b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Paludamentum, Military Cloak. (From a Mosaic at -Pompeii.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Pamboeotia">PAMBOEŌTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παμβοιώτια</span>), a festive panegyris -of all the Boeotians, like the Panathenaea -of the Atticans, and the Panionia of -the Ionians. The principal object of the -meeting was the common worship of Athena -Itonia, who had a temple in the neighbourhood -of Coronea, near which the panegyris -was held.</p> - - -<p id="Panathenaea">PĂNĂTHĒNAEA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παναθήναια</span>), the greatest -and most splendid of the festivals celebrated -in Attica in honour of Athena, in the -character of Athena Polias, or the protectress -of the city. It was said to have been instituted -by Erichthonius, and its original name, -down to the time of Theseus, was believed to -have been Athenaea; but when Theseus united -all the Atticans into one body, this festival, -which then became the common festival of -all the Attic tribes, was called Panathenaea. -There were two kinds of Panathenaea, the -greater and the lesser; the former were held -every fourth year (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πενταετηρίς</span>), the latter -every year. The lesser Panathenaea were -probably celebrated on the 17th of the month<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282"></a>[282]</span> -Hecatombaeon; the great Panathenaea in the -third year of every Olympiad, and probably -commenced on the same day as the lesser Panathenaea. -The principal difference between -the two festivals was, that the greater one was -more solemn, and that on this occasion the -peplus of Athena was carried to her temple in -a most magnificent procession, which was not -held at the lesser Panathenaea. The solemnities, -games, and amusements of the Panathenaea -were, rich sacrifices of bulls, foot, -horse, and chariot races, gymnastic and musical -contests, and the lampadephoria; rhapsodists -recited the poems of Homer and other -epic poets, philosophers disputed, cock-fights -were exhibited, and the people indulged in a -variety of other amusements and entertainments. -The prize in these contests was a -vase filled with oil from the ancient and -sacred olive tree of Athena on the Acropolis. -A great many of such vases, called Panathenaic -vases, have in late years been found in -Etruria, southern Italy, Sicily, and Greece. -They represent on one side the figure of -Athena, and on the other the various contests -and games in which these vases were -given as prizes to the victors. Of the discussions -of philosophers and orators at the -Panathenaea we still possess two specimens, -the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόγος Παναθηναικός</span> of Isocrates, and that -of Aristeides. Herodotus is said to have recited -his history to the Athenians at the -Panathenaea. The management of the games -and contests was entrusted to persons called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athlothetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀθλοθέται</span>), whose number was -ten, one being taken from every tribe. Their -office lasted from one great Panathenaic festival -to the other. The chief solemnity of -the great Panathenaea was the magnificent -procession to the temple of Athena Polias, -which probably took place on the last day of -the festive season. The whole of the procession -is represented in the frieze of the Parthenon, -the work of Phidias and his disciples, -now deposited in the British Museum. The -chief object of the procession was to carry the -peplus of the goddess to her temple. This peplus -was a crocus-coloured garment for the goddess, -and made by maidens, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐργαστῖναι</span>. In it -were woven Enceladus and the giants, as they -were conquered by the goddess. The peplus -was not carried to the temple by men, but -suspended from the mast of a ship. The procession -proceeded from the Ceramicus, near a -monument called Leocorium, to the temple of -Demeter at Eleusis, and thence along the -Pelasgic wall and the temple of Apollo -Pythius to the Pnyx, and thence to the -Acropolis, where the statue of Minerva Polias -was adorned with the peplus. In this procession -nearly the whole population of Attica -appears to have taken part, either on foot, on -horseback, or in chariots, as may be seen in -the frieze of the Parthenon. Aged men carried -olive branches, and were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thallophori</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θαλλοφόροι</span>); young men attended, -at least in earlier times, in armour, and -maidens who belonged to the noblest families -of Athens carried baskets, containing offerings -for the goddess, whence they were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Canephori</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κανηφόροι</span>). Respecting the part -which aliens took in this procession, and the -duties they had to perform, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Hydriaphoria">Hydriaphoria</a></span>. -Men who had deserved well of the -republic were rewarded with a gold crown at -the great Panathenaea, and the herald had to -announce the event during the gymnastic -contests.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp97" id="ill282" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill282.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Pancratiastae. (Krause, Gymnastik und Agonistik der -Hellen, tav. 21.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Pancratium">PANCRĂTĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παγκράτιον</span>), is derived -from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάν</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κράτος</span>, and accordingly signifies -an athletic game, in which all the powers of -the fighter were called into action. The -pancratium was one of the games or gymnastic -contests which were exhibited at all the -great festivals of Greece; it consisted of boxing -and wrestling (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμή</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>), and -was reckoned to be one of the heavy or hard -exercises (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγωνίσματα βαρέα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βαρύτερα</span>), on -account of the violent exertions it required, -and for this reason it was not much practised -in the gymnasia. In Homer we find neither -the game nor the name of the pancratium -mentioned, and as it was not introduced at -the Olympic games until Ol. 33, we may -presume that the game, though it may have -existed long before in a rude state, was not -brought to any degree of perfection until a -short time before that event. The name of the -combatants was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pancratiastae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παγκρατιασταί</span>) -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pammachi</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάμμαχοι</span>). They fought -naked, and had their bodies anointed and -covered with sand, by which they were -enabled to take hold of one another. When -the contest began, each of the fighters might<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283"></a>[283]</span> -commence by boxing or by wrestling, accordingly -as he thought he should be more -successful in the one than in the other. The -victory was not decided until one of the parties -was killed, or lifted up a finger, thereby -declaring that he was unable to continue the -contest either from pain or fatigue.</p> - - -<p id="Panegyris">PĂNĒGỸRIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πανήγυρις</span>), signifies a meeting -or assembly of a whole people for the -purpose of worshipping at a common sanctuary. -The word is used in three significations:—1. -For a meeting of the inhabitants -of one particular town and its vicinity; 2. -For a meeting of the inhabitants of a whole -district, a province, or of the whole body of -people belonging to a particular tribe [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Delia">Delia</a></span>; -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Panionia">Panionia</a></span>]; and 3. For great national meetings, -as the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and -Nemean games. Although in all panegyreis -which we know, the religious character forms -the most prominent feature, other subjects, -political discussions and resolutions, as well -as a variety of amusements, were not excluded, -though they were perhaps more a -consequence of the presence of many persons -than objects of the meeting. Every -panegyris, moreover, was made by tradespeople -a source of gain, and it may be presumed -that such a meeting was never held -without a fair, at which all sorts of things -were exhibited for sale.</p> - - -<p id="Panionia">PĂNIŌNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πανιώνια</span>), the great national -panegyris of the Ionians on mount Mycalé, -where the national god Poseidon Heliconius -had his sanctuary called the Panionium. One -of the principal objects of this national meeting -was the common worship of Poseidon, to -whom splendid sacrifices were offered on the -occasion. But religious worship was not the -only object for which they assembled at the -Panionium; on certain emergencies, especially -in case of any danger threatening their -country, the Ionians discussed at their meetings -political questions, and passed resolutions -which were binding upon all.</p> - - -<p id="Panoplia">PĂNOPLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πανοπλία</span>), a panoply or suit -of armour. The articles of which it consisted -both in the Greek and in the Roman army, -are enumerated under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Arma">Arma</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Pantomimus">PANTŎMĪMUS, the name of a kind of -actors peculiar to the Romans, who very -nearly resembled in their mode of acting the -modern dancers in the ballet. They did not -speak on the stage, but merely acted by -gestures, movements, and attitudes. All -movements, however, were rhythmical like -those in the ballet, whence the general term -for them is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltatio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltare</i>; the whole art -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">musica muta</i>; and to represent -Niobe or Leda was expressed by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltare -Nioben</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltare Ledam</i>. During the time -of the republic the name pantomimus does -not occur, though the art itself was known to -the Romans at an early period; for the first -histriones said to have been introduced from -Etruria were in fact nothing but pantomimic -dancers [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Histrio">Histrio</a></span>], whence we find that -under the empire the names histrio and pantomimus -were used as synonymous. The pantomimic -art, however, was not carried to any -degree of perfection until the time of Augustus. -The greatest pantomimes of this time were -Bathyllus, a freedman and favourite of Maecenas, -and Pylades and Hylas. Mythological -love-stories were from the first the favourite -subjects of the pantomimes, which were disgraced -by the most licentious scenes. In -Sicily pantomimic dances were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ballismi</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βαλλισμοί</span>), whence perhaps the modern -words ball and ballet.</p> - - -<p id="Papyrus">PĂPȲRUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Liber">Liber</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Paradisus">PĂRĂDĪSUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράδεισος</span>), the name given -by the Greeks to the parks or pleasure-grounds, -which surrounded the country residences -of the Persian kings and satraps. -They were generally stocked with animals -for the chase, were full of all kinds of trees, -watered by numerous streams, and enclosed -with walls.</p> - - -<p id="Paragraphe">PĂRĂGRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραγραφή</span>). This word -does not exactly correspond with any term -in our language, but may without much impropriety -be called <em>a plea</em>. It is an objection -raised by the defendant to the admissibility -of the plaintiff’s action. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paragraphé</i>, -like every other answer (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιγραφή</span>) made by -the defendant to the plaintiff’s charge, was -given in writing; as the word itself implies. -If the defendant merely denied the plaintiff’s -allegations, a court was at once held for the -trial of the cause. If, however, he put in a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paragraphé</i>, a court was to be held to try the -preliminary question, whether the cause -could be brought into court or not. Upon -this previous trial the defendant was considered -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actor</i>. If he succeeded, the whole -cause was at an end; unless the objection -was only to the form of action, or some other -such technicality, in which case it might be -recommenced in the proper manner. If, -however, the plaintiff succeeded, the original -action, which in the mean time had been -suspended, was proceeded with.</p> - - -<p id="Paralus">PĂRĂLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάραλος</span>), and SĂLAMĪNĬA -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαλαμινία</span>). The Athenians from very early -times kept for public purposes two sacred or -state vessels, the one of which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Paralus</i> -and the other <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Salaminia</i>: the crew of the -one bore the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραλῖται</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάραλοι</span>, and -that of the other <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαλαμίνιοι</span>. The Salaminia -was also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δηλία</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεωρίς</span>, because it -was used to convey the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωροὶ</span> to Delos, on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a>[284]</span> -which occasion the ship was adorned with -garlands by the priest of Apollo. Both -these vessels were quick-sailing triremes, and -were used for a variety of state purposes: -they conveyed theories, despatches, &c. from -Athens, carried treasures from subject countries -to Athens, fetched state criminals from -foreign parts to Athens, and the like. In -battles they were frequently used as the ships -in which the admirals sailed. These vessels and -their crews were always kept in readiness to act, -in case of any necessity arising; and the crew, -although they could not for the greater part of -the year be in actual service, received their regular -pay of four oboli per day all the year -round. The names of the two ships seem to -point to a very early period of the history of -Attica, when there was no navigation except -between Attica and Salamis, for which the Salaminia -was used, and around the coast of Attica, -for which purpose the Paralus was destined. -In later times the names were retained, although -the destination of the ships was principally -to serve the purposes of religion, whence -they are frequently called the sacred ships.</p> - - -<p id="Paranoias">PĂRĂNOIĀS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρανοίας γραφή</span>). -This proceeding may be compared to our -commission of lunacy, or writ <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de lunatico -inquirendo</i>. It was a suit at Athens that -might be instituted by a son or other relation -against one who, by reason of madness or -mental imbecility, had become incapable of -managing his own affairs. If the complaint -was well grounded, the court decreed that -the next heir should take possession of the -lunatic’s property, and probably also made -some provision for his being put in confinement, -or under proper care and guardianship. -The celebrated tale of Iophon, the son of -Sophocles, accusing his father of lunacy, is -related in the life of Sophocles in the <cite>Classical -Dictionary</cite>.</p> - - -<p id="Paranomon">PĂRĂNŎMŌN GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρανόμων γραφή</span>), -an indictment at Athens for propounding -an illegal, or rather unconstitutional measure -or law. In order to check rash and hasty -legislation, the mover of any law or decree, -though he succeeded in causing it to be -passed, was still amenable to criminal justice, -if his enactment was found to be inconsistent -with other laws that remained in force, or -with the public interest. Any person might -institute against him the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφὴ παρανόμων</span> -within a year from the passing of the law. -If he was convicted, not only did the law -become void, but any punishment might be -inflicted on him, at the discretion of the -judges before whom he was tried. A person -thrice so convicted lost the right of proposing -laws in future. The cognizance of the cause -belonged to the Thesmothetae.</p> - - -<p id="Parapresbeia">PĂRAPRESBEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραπρεσβεία</span>), signifies -any corrupt conduct, misfeasance, or neglect -of duty on the part of an ambassador; for -which he was liable to be called to account -and prosecuted on his return home. Demosthenes -accused Aeschines of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parapresbeia</i> on -account of his conduct in the embassy to -Philip.</p> - - -<p id="Parapherna">PĂRĂPHERNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dos">Dos</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Parasanga">PĂRĂSANGA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ παρασάγγης</span>), a Persian -measure of length, frequently mentioned by -the Greek writers. It is still used by the -Persians, who call it <em>ferseng</em>. According to -Herodotus the parasang was equal to 30 -Greek stadia. Xenophon must also have -calculated it at the same, as he says that -16,050 stadia are equal to 535 parasangs. -(16,050 ÷ 535 = 30.) Other ancient writers -give a different length for the parasang. -Modern English travellers estimate it variously -at from 3½ to 4 English miles, -which nearly agrees with the calculation of -Herodotus.</p> - - -<p id="Parasiti">PĂRĂSĪTI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παράσιτοι</span>) properly denotes -persons who dine with others. In the early -history of Greece the name had a very different -meaning, being given to distinguished -persons, who were appointed as assistants to -certain priests and to the highest magistrates. -Their services appear to have been rewarded -with a third of the victims sacrificed to their -respective gods. Such officers existed down -to a late period of Greek history. Solon in -his legislation called the act of giving public -meals to certain magistrates and foreign ambassadors -in the prytaneum <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρασιτεῖν</span>, and it -may be that the parasites were connected -with this institution. The class of persons -whom we call parasites was very numerous -in ancient Greece, and appears to have existed -from early times. The characteristic -features common to all parasites are importunity, -love of sensual pleasures, and above -all the desire of getting a good dinner without -paying for it. During the time of the -Roman emperors a parasite seems to have -been a constant guest at the tables of the -wealthy.</p> - - -<p id="Paredri">PĂRĔDRI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάρεδροι</span>). Each of the three -superior archons was at liberty to have two -assessors (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάρεδροι</span>) chosen by himself, to -assist him by advice and otherwise in the -performance of his various duties. The -assessor, like the magistrate himself, had to -undergo a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοκιμασία</span>) in the Senate -of Five Hundred and before a judicial tribunal, -before he could be permitted to enter -upon his labours. He was also to render an -account (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐθύνη</span>) at the end of the year. The -duties of the archons, magisterial and judicial, -were so numerous, that one of the principal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285"></a>[285]</span> -objects of having assessors must have been to -enable them to get through their business. -From the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paredri</i> of the archons we must -distinguish those who assisted the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">euthyni</i> in -examining and auditing magistrates’ accounts.</p> - - -<p id="Parentalia">PĂRENTĀLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Paries">PĂRĬES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Parma">PARMA, <em>dim.</em> PARMŬLA, a round shield, -three feet in diameter, carried by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velites</i> -in the Roman army. Though small, compared -with the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Clipeus">Clipeus</a></span>, it was so strongly -made as to be a very effectual protection. -This was probably owing to the use of iron -in its frame-work. The parma was also -worn by the cavalry. We find the term -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parma</i> often applied to the target [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cetra">Cetra</a></span>], -which was also a small round shield, -and therefore very similar to the -parma.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp44" id="ill285a" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill285a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Parma. (From the Columna Trajana.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Parochi">PĂROCHI, certain people paid by -the state to supply the Roman magistrates, -ambassadors, and other official -persons, when travelling, with those -necessaries which they could not conveniently -carry with them. They existed -on all the principal stations on -the Roman roads in Italy and the -provinces, where persons were accustomed -to pass the night. Of the things -which the parochi were bound to supply, -hay, fire-wood, salt, and a certain -number of beds appear to have been -the most important.</p> - - -<p id="Paropsis">PĂROPSIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παροψίς</span>), any food -eaten with the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅψον</span> as the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάζα</span>, a -kind of frumenty or soft cake, broth, -or any kind of condiment or sauce. -It was, likewise, the name of the -dish or plate, on which such food was served -up, and it is in this latter signification that the -Roman writers use the word.</p> - - -<p id="Parricida">PARRĬCĪDA, PARRĬCĪDĬUM. A parricida -signified originally a murderer generally, -and is hence defined to be a person -who kills another <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolo malo</i>. It afterwards -signified the murderer of a parent, and by an -ancient law such a parricide was sewed up -in a sack (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">culleus</i>), and thrown into a river. -A law of the dictator Sulla contained some -provisions against parricide, and probably -fixed the same punishment for the parricide, -as the Lex Pompeia de Parricidiis, passed in -the time of Cn. Pompeius. This law extended -the crime of parricide to the killing -of a brother, sister, uncle, aunt, and many -other relations, and enacted that he who -killed a father or mother, grandfather or -grandmother, should be punished (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">more majorum</i>) -by being whipped till he bled, sewed -up in a sack with a dog, cock, viper, and -ape, and thrown into the sea. Other parricides -were simply put to death.</p> - - -<p id="Passus">PASSUS, a measure of length, which consisted -of five Roman feet. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a>.</span>] The -passus was not the step, or distance from -heel to heel, when the feet were at their -utmost ordinary extension, but the distance -from the point which the heel leaves to that -in which it is set down. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mille passuum</i>, -or thousand paces, was the common name of -the Roman mile. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Miliare">Milliare</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pater">PĂTER FĂMĬLIAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Familia">Familia</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Pater_p">PĂTER PĂTRĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fetiales">Fetiales</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Patera">PĂTĔRA, <em>dim.</em> PĂTELLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φιάλη</span>), a -round plate or dish. The paterae of the -most common kind were small plates of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286"></a>[286]</span> -common red earthenware, on which an ornamental -pattern was drawn, and which were -sometimes entirely black. The more valuable -paterae were metallic, being chiefly of -bronze; but every family, raised above poverty, -possessed one of silver, together with -a silver salt-cellar. The accompanying cut -exhibits a highly ornamented patera, made -of bronze. The view of the upper surface is -accompanied by a side-view, showing the -form and depth of the vessel.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="ill285b" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill285b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Patera. (From Pompeii.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Patibulum">PĂTĬBŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Furca">Furca</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Patina">PĂTĬNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεκάνη</span>), a basin or bowl of -earthenware, rarely of bronze or silver. The -patina was of a form intermediate between -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patera</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">olla</i>, not so flat as the -former, nor so deep as the latter. The most -frequent use of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patina</i> was in cookery.</p> - - -<p id="Patres">PATRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Patria">PĂTRĬA POTESTAS. Potestas signifies -generally a power or faculty of any kind by -which we do anything. “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Potestas</span>,” says -Paulus, a Roman jurist, “has several significations: -when applied to magistrates, it is -Imperium; in the case of children, it is the -patria potestas; in the case of slaves, it is -Dominium.” According to Paulus then, potestas, -as applied to magistrates, is equivalent -to imperium. Thus we find potestas -associated with the adjectives praetoria, consularis. -But potestas is applied to magistrates -who had not the imperium, as for -instance to quaestors and tribuni plebis; and -potestas and imperium are often opposed in -Cicero. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Imperium">Imperium</a>.</span>] Thus it seems that -this word potestas, like many other Roman -terms, had both a wider signification and a -narrower one. In its wider signification it -might mean all the power that was delegated -to any person by the state, whatever might -be the extent of that power. In its narrower -significations, it was on the one hand equivalent -to imperium; and on the other, it -expressed the power of those functionaries -who had not the imperium. Sometimes it -was used to express a magistratus, as a -person; and hence in the Italian language -the word podestà signifies a magistrate. Potestas -is also one of the words by which is -expressed the power that one private person -has over another, the other two being manus -and mancipium. The potestas is either dominica, -that is, ownership as exhibited in -the relation of master and slave [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Servus">Servus</a></span>]; -or patria as exhibited in the relation of -father and child. The mancipium was framed -after the analogy of the potestas dominica. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mancipium">Mancipium</a>.</span>] Patria potestas then signifies -the power which a Roman father had over -the persons of his children, grandchildren, -and other descendants (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">filii-familias</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">filiae-familias</i>), -and generally all the rights which -he had by virtue of his paternity. The -foundation of the patria potestas was a legal -marriage, and the birth of a child gave it -full effect. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>] It does not -seem that the patria potestas was ever -viewed among the Romans as absolutely -equivalent to the dominica potestas, or as -involving ownership of the child; and yet -the original notion of the patria came very -near to that of the dominica potestas. Originally -the father had the power of life and -death over his son as a member of his familia; -and he could sell him, and so bring him -into the mancipii causa. He could also give -his daughter in marriage, or give a wife to -his son, divorce his child, give him in adoption, -and emancipate him at his pleasure.</p> - - -<p id="Patricii">PATRĬCĬI. This word is evidently a derivative -from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pater</i>, which frequently occurs -in the Roman writers as equivalent to senator. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Patricii</i> therefore signifies those who -belonged to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres</i>, but it is a mistake to -suppose that the patricii were only the offspring -of the patres in the sense of senators. -On the contrary, the patricians were, in the -early history of Rome, the whole body of -Roman citizens, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">populus Romanus</i>, and -there were no real citizens besides them. -The other parts of the Roman population, -namely clients and slaves, did not belong to -the populus Romanus, and were not burghers -or patricians. The senators or patres (in -the narrower sense of the word) were a -select body of the populus or patricians, -which acted as their representatives. The -burghers or patricians consisted originally of -three distinct tribes, which afterwards became -united into the sovereign populus. -These tribes had founded settlements upon -several of the hills which were subsequently -included within the precincts of the city of -Rome. Their names were Ramnes, Tities, -and Luceres, or Ramnenses, Titienses, and -Lucerenses. Each of these tribes consisted -of ten curiae, and each curia of ten gentes, -and of the same number of decuries, which -were established for representative and military -purposes. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>] The first tribe, -or the Ramnes, were a Latin colony on the -Palatine hill, said to have been founded by -Romulus. As long as it stood alone, it contained -only one hundred gentes, and had a -senate of one hundred members. When the -Tities, or Sabine settlers on the Quirinal -and Viminal hills, under king Tatius, became -united with the Ramnes, the number of -gentes, as well as that of senators, was increased -to 200. These two tribes after their -union continued probably for a considerable -time to be the patricians of Rome, until the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287"></a>[287]</span> -third tribe, the Luceres, which chiefly consisted -of Etruscans, who had settled on the -Caelian hill, also became united with the -other two as a third tribe. The amalgamation -of these three tribes did not take place -at once: the union between Latins and Sabines -is ascribed to the reign of Romulus, -though it does not appear to have been quite -perfect, since the Latins on some occasions -claimed a superiority over the Sabines. The -Luceres existed for a long time as a separate -tribe without enjoying the same rights as the -two other tribes, until Tarquinius Priscus, -himself an Etruscan, caused them to be -placed on a footing of equality with the -others. For this reason he is said to have -increased the number of senators to 300. -The Luceres, however, are, notwithstanding -this equalisation, sometimes distinguished -from the other tribes by the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patricii minorum gentium</i>. During the time -of the republic, distinguished strangers and -wealthy plebeians were occasionally made -Roman patricians; for instance, Appius Claudius -and his gens, and Domitius Ahenobarbus. -When the plebeians became a distinct -class of citizens [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plebes">Plebes</a></span>], the patricians, of -course, ceased to be the only class of citizens, -but they still retained the exclusive possession -of all the power in the state. All -civil and religious offices were in their possession, -and they continued as before to be the -populus, the nation now consisting of the -populus and the plebes. In their relation to -the plebeians or the commonalty, the patricians -were a real aristocracy of birth. A -person born of a patrician family was and -remained a patrician, whether he was rich -or poor, whether he was a member of the -senate, or an eques, or held any of the great -offices of the state, or not: there was no -power that could make a patrician a plebeian. -As regards the census, he might -indeed not belong to the wealthy classes, but -his rank remained the same. The only way -in which a patrician might become a plebeian -was when of his own accord he left his gens -and curia, gave up the sacra, &c. A plebeian, -on the other hand, or even a stranger, -might be made a patrician by a lex curiata. -But this appears to have been done very -seldom; and the consequence was, that in -the course of a few centuries the number of -patrician families became so rapidly diminished, -that towards the close of the republic -there were not more than fifty such families. -Although the patricians throughout this -whole period had the character of an aristocracy -of birth, yet their political rights -were not the same at all times. During the -first centuries of the republic there was an -almost uninterrupted struggle between patricians -and plebeians, in which the former -exerted every means to retain their exclusive -rights, but which ended in the establishment -of the political equality of the two orders. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plebes">Plebes</a>.</span>] Only a few insignificant priestly -offices, and the performance of certain ancient -religious rites and ceremonies, remained -the exclusive privilege of the patricians; of -which they were the prouder, as in former -days their religious power and significance -were the basis of their political superiority. -At the time when the struggle between patricians -and plebeians ceased, a new kind of -aristocracy began to arise at Rome, which -was partly based upon wealth, and partly -upon the great offices of the republic, and -the term nobiles was given to all persons -whose ancestors had held any of the -curule offices. (Compare <span class="smcap"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles</a></span>.) This -aristocracy of nobiles threw the old patricians -as a body still more into the shade, -though both classes of aristocrats united as -far as was possible to monopolise all the -great offices of the state. In their dress and -appearance the patricians were scarcely distinguished -from the rest of the citizens, unless -they were senators, curule magistrates, -or equites, in which case they wore like -others the ensigns peculiar to these classes. -The only thing by which they seem to have -been distinguished in their appearance from -other citizens was a peculiar kind of shoe, -which covered the whole foot and part of the -leg, though it was not as high as the shoes -of senators and curule magistrates. These -shoes were fastened with four strings (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corrigiae</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lora patricia</i>) and adorned with a -lunula on the top.</p> - - -<p id="Patrimi">PĂTRĪMI ET MĀTRĪMI were children -born of parents, who had been married by -the religious ceremony called confarreatio: -they are almost always mentioned in connection -with religious rites and ceremonies.</p> - - -<p id="Patronomi">PĂTRŎNŎMI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πατρονόμοι</span>), magistrates at -Sparta, who exercised, as it were, a paternal -power over the whole state. They did not -exist till a late period, and they succeeded to -the powers which the ephori formerly possessed.</p> - - -<p id="Patronus">PĂTRŌNUS. The act of manumission -created a new relation between the manumissor -and the slave, which was analogous to -that between father and son. The manumissor -became with respect to the manumitted -person his patronus, and the manumitted -person became the libertus of the manumissor. -The word patronus (from pater) -indicates the nature of the relation. If the -manumissor was a woman, she became patrona. -The libertus adopted the gentile name<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288"></a>[288]</span> -of the manumissor. Cicero’s freedman Tiro -was called M. Tullius Tiro. The libertus -owed respect and gratitude to his patron, and -in ancient times the patron might punish -him in a summary way for neglecting those -duties. This obligation extended to the -children of the libertus, and the duty was -due to the children of the patron. It was -the duty of the patron to support his freedman -in case of necessity, and if he did not, -he lost his patronal rights; the consequence -was the same if he brought a capital charge -against him. The most important of the -patronal rights related to the property of -liberti, as in certain cases the patronus had -a right to the whole or a part of the property -of a libertus.</p> - - -<p id="Pauperies">PAUPĔRĬES, the legal term for mischief -done by an animal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrupes</i>) contrary to -the nature of the animal, as if a man’s ox -gored another man. In such cases the law -of the Twelve Tables gave the injured person -an action against the owner of the animal -for the amount of the damage sustained. -The owner was bound either to pay the full -amount of damages or to give up the animal -to the injured person (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">noxae dare</i>).</p> - - -<p id="Pavimentum">PĂVĪMENTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_144">p. 144</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Pecten">PECTEN (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κτείς</span>), a comb. The Greeks and -Romans used combs made of box-wood. The -Egyptians had ivory combs, which also came -into use by degrees among the Romans. The -wooden combs, found in Egyptian tombs, are -toothed on one side only; but the Greeks -used them with teeth on both sides. The -principal use of the comb was for dressing -the hair, in doing which the Greeks of both -sexes were remarkably careful and diligent. -To go with uncombed hair was a sign of -affliction.</p> - - -<p id="Peculatus">PĔCŬLĀTUS, is properly the misappropriation -or theft of public property. The -person guilty of this offence was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peculator</i>. -The origin of the word appears to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecus</i>, -a term which originally denoted that kind of -moveable property which was the chief sign of -wealth. Originally trials for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peculatus</i> were -before the populus or the senate. In the -time of Cicero matters of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peculatus</i> had become -one of the quaestiones perpetuae.</p> - - -<p id="Peculium">PĔCŪLĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Servus">Servus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pecunia">PĔCŪNĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes">Aes</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Argentum">Argentum</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Pedarii">PĔDĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pedisequi">PĔDĬSĔQUI, a class of slaves, whose duty -was to follow their master when he went out -of his house. There was a similar class of -female slaves, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pedisequae</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Pedum">PĔDUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κορώνη</span>), a shepherd’s crook. On -account of its connection with pastoral life, -the crook is often seen in works of ancient -art, in the hands of Pan, Satyrs, Fauns, and -shepherds. It was also the usual attribute -of Thalia, as the muse of pastoral poetry.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp69" id="ill288" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill288.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Pedum, Shepherd’s Crook. (From a Painting found at -Civita Vecchia.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Pegma">PEGMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πῆγμα</span>), a pageant, <em>i.e.</em> an edifice -of wood, consisting of two or more stages -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulata</i>), which were raised or depressed at -pleasure by means of balance weights. These -great machines were used in the Roman -amphitheatres, the gladiators who fought -upon them being called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pegmares</i>. They were -supported upon wheels so as to be drawn -into the circus, glittering with silver and a -profusion of wealth. When Vespasian and -Titus celebrated their triumph over the Jews, -the procession included pageants of extraordinary -magnitude and splendour, consisting -of three or four stages above one another, -hung with rich tapestry, and inlaid with -ivory and gold. By the aid of various contrivances -they represented battles and their -numerous incidents, and the attack and defence -of the cities of Judaea. The pegma -was also used in sacrifices. A bull having -been slain in one of the stages, the high -priest placed himself below in a cavern, so -as to receive the blood upon his person and -his garments, and in this state he was produced -by the flamines before the worshippers.</p> - - -<p id="Pelatae">PĔLĂTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πελάται</span>), were free labourers -working for hire, like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thetes</i>, in contra-distinction -to the helots and penestae, who -were bondsmen or serfs. In the later Greek -writers, such as Dionysius of Halicarnassus, -and Plutarch, the word is used for the Latin -cliens, though the relations expressed by the -two terms are by no means similar.</p> - - -<p id="Pelta">PELTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέλτη</span>), a small shield. Iphicrates, -observing that the ancient <span class="smcap"><a href="#Clipeus">Clipeus</a></span> was cumbrous -and inconvenient, introduced among -the Greeks a much smaller and lighter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289"></a>[289]</span> -shield, from which those who bore it took -the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peltastae</i>. It consisted principally -of a frame of wood or wicker-work, -covered with skin or leather.</p> - - -<p id="Penestae">PĔNESTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πενέσται</span>), a class of serfs in -Thessaly, who stood in nearly the same relation -to their Thessalian lords as the helots of -Laconia did to the Dorian Spartans, although -their condition seems to have been on the -whole superior. They were the descendants -of the old Pelasgic or Aeolian inhabitants of -Thessaly Proper. They occupied an intermediate -position between freemen and purchased -slaves, and they cultivated the land -for their masters, paying by way of rent a -portion of the produce of it. The Penestae -sometimes accompanied their masters to battle, -and fought on horseback as their vassals: -a circumstance which need not excite surprise, -as Thessaly was so famous for cavalry. There -were Penestae among the Macedonians also.</p> - - -<p id="Penetrale">PĔNĔTRĀLE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Penicillus">PĒNĬCILLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a></span>, <a href="#Page_295">p. 295</a> <em>a</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Pentacosiomedimni">PENTĂCOSĬŎMĔDIMNI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Census">Census</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pentathlon">PENTATHLON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πένταθλον</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quinquertium</i>), -was next to the pancratium the most beautiful -of all athletic performances. The persons -engaged in it were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pentathli</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πένταθλοι</span>). -The pentathlon consisted of five -distinct kinds of games, viz. leaping (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅλμα</span>), -the foot-race (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δρόμος</span>), the throwing of the -discus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίσκος</span>), the throwing of the spear -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σίγυννος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκόντιον</span>), and wrestling (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάλη</span>), -which were all performed in one day and in a -certain order, one after the other, by the -same athletae. The pentathlon was introduced -in the Olympic games in Ol. 18.</p> - - -<p id="Pentecoste">PENTĒCOSTĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοστή</span>), a duty of two -per cent, levied upon all exports and imports -at Athens. The money was collected by persons -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοστολόγοι</span>. The merchant -who paid the duty was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοντεύεσθαι</span>. -All the customs appear to have been let to -farm, and probably from year to year. They -were let to the highest bidders by the ten -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Poletae</i>, acting under the authority of the -senate. The farmers were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελῶναι</span>, -and were said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὠνεῖσθαι τὴν πεντηκοστήν</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Peplum">PEPLUM or PEPLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέπλος</span>), an outer -garment or shawl, strictly worn by females, -and thus corresponding to the himation or -pallium, the outer garment worn by men. -Like all other pieces of cloth used for the -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amictus">Amictus</a></span>, it was often fastened by means of a -brooch. It was, however, frequently worn -without a brooch. The shawl was also often -worn so as to cover the head while it enveloped -the body, and more especially on occasion -of a funeral or of a marriage, when a -very splendid shawl (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παστός</span>) was worn by -the bride. The following woodcut may be -supposed to represent the moment when the -bride, so veiled, is delivered to her husband -at the door of the nuptial chamber. He -wears the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pallium">Pallium</a></span> only; she has a long -shift beneath her shawl, and is supported by -the pronuba. Of all the productions of the -loom, pepli were those on which the greatest -skill and labour were bestowed. So various -and tasteful were the subjects which they represented, -that poets delighted to describe -them. The art of weaving them was entirely -oriental; and those of the most splendid -dyes and curious workmanship were imported -from Tyre and Sidon. They often constituted -a very important part of the treasures of a -temple, having been presented to the divinity -by suppliants and devotees.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp89" id="ill289" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill289.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Peplum. (Bartoli, ‘Admir. Rom. Ant.,’ pl. 57.)</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290"></a>[290]</span></p> - - -<p id="Pera">PĒRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πήρα</span>), a wallet, made of leather, -worn suspended at the side by rustics and by -travellers to carry their provisions, and -adopted in imitation of them by the Cynic -philosophers.</p> - - -<p id="Perduellio">PERDŬELLĬO was in the ancient times of -the republic nearly the same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Majestas</i> -of the later times. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas</a>.</span>] <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Perduellis</i> -originally signified <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostis</i>, and thus the -offence was equivalent to making war on the -Roman state. Offenders were tried by two -judges called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Perduellionis Duumviri</i>. In the -time of the kings the duumviri perduellionis -and the quaestores parricidii appear to have -been the same persons; but after the establishment -of the republic, the offices were -distinct, for the quaestores were appointed -regularly every year, whereas the duumviri -were appointed very rarely, as had been the -case during the kingly period. Livy represents -the duumviri perduellionis as being -appointed by the kings, but they were really -proposed by the king and appointed by the -populus. During the early part of the republic -they were appointed by the comitia curiata, -and afterwards by the comitia centuriata, -on the proposal of the consuls. In the -case of Rabirius (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63), however, this -custom was violated, as the duumviri were -appointed by the praetor instead of by the -comitia centuriata. The punishment for -those who were found guilty of perduellio -was death; they were either hanged on the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arbor infelix</i>, or thrown from the Tarpeian -rock. But when the duumviri found a person -guilty, he might appeal to the people (in -early times the populus, afterwards the comitia -centuriata), as was done in the first -case which is on record, that of Horatius, -and in the last, which is that of Rabirius, -whom Cicero defended before the people in -the oration still extant.</p> - - -<p id="Peregrinus">PĔRĔGRĪNUS, a stranger or foreigner. -In ancient times the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peregrinus</i> was -used as synonymous with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostis</i>; but in the -times of which we have historical records, a -peregrinus was any person who was not a -Roman citizen. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 247, a second praetor -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor peregrinus</i>) was appointed for -the purpose of administering justice in matters -between Romans and peregrini, and in -matters between such peregrini as had taken -up their abode at Rome. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor</a>.</span>] The -number of peregrini who lived in the city of -Rome appears to have had an injurious influence -upon the poorer classes of Roman citizens, -whence on some occasions they were -driven out of the city. The first example of -this kind was set in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 127, by the tribune -M. Junius Pennus. They were expelled a -second time by the tribune C. Papius, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -66. During the last period of the republic -and the first centuries of the empire, all the -free inhabitants of the Roman world were, in -regard to their political rights, either Roman -citizens, or Latins, or peregrini, and the -latter had, as before, neither commercium -nor connubium with the Romans. They -were either free provincials, or citizens who -had forfeited their civitas, and were degraded -to the rank of peregrini, or a certain class of -freedmen, called peregrini dediticii.</p> - - -<p id="Perioeci">PĔRĬOECI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίοικοι</span>). This word properly -denotes the inhabitants of a district -lying around some particular locality, but is -generally used to describe a dependent population, -living without the walls or in the -country provinces of a dominant city, and -although personally free, deprived of the enjoyment -of citizenship, and the political -rights conferred by it. A political condition -such as that of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perioeci</i> of Greece, and -like the vassalage of the Germanic nations, -could hardly have originated in anything -else than foreign conquest, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perioeci</i> -of Laconia furnish a striking illustration of -this. Their origin dates from the Dorian -conquest of the Peloponnesus, when the old -inhabitants of the country, the Achaeans, -submitted to their conquerors on certain -conditions, by which they were left in possession -of their private rights of citizenship. -They suffered indeed a partial deprivation of -their lands, and were obliged to submit to a -king of foreign race, but still they remained -equal in law to their conquerors, and were -eligible to all offices of state except the sovereignty. -But this state of things did not last -long: in the next generation after the conquest -the relation between the two parties -was changed. The Achaeans were reduced -from citizens to vassals; they were made -tributary to Sparta; their lands were subjected -to a tax; and they lost their rights of -citizenship, the right of voting in the general -assembly, and their eligibility to important -offices in the state, such as that of a senator, -&c. It does not, however, appear that the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perioeci</i> were generally an oppressed people, -though kept in a state of political inferiority -to their conquerors. On the contrary, the -most distinguished among them were admitted -to offices of trust, and they sometimes -served as heavy-armed soldiers; as, for instance, -at the battle of Plataea. The Norman -conquest of England presents a striking parallel -to the Dorian conquest of Laconia, -both in its achievement and consequences. -The Saxons, like the old Achaeans, were deprived -of their lands, excluded from all offices -of trust and dignity, and reduced, though -personally free, to a state of political slavery.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291"></a>[291]</span> -The Normans, on the contrary, of whatever -rank in their own country, were all nobles -and warriors, compared with the conquered -Saxons, and for a long time enjoyed exclusively -the civil and ecclesiastical administration -of the land.</p> - - -<p id="Periscelis">PĔRISCĔLIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περισκελίς</span>), an anklet or -bangle, worn by the Orientals, the Greeks, -and the Roman ladies also. It decorated the -leg in the same manner as the bracelet adorns -the wrist and the necklace the throat. The -word, however, is sometimes used in the -same sense as the Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">feminalia</i>, that is, -drawers reaching from the navel to the knees.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill291a" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill291a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Periscelis, Anklet, worn by a Nereid. (Museo Borbonico, vol. <span class="allsmcap">VI</span>. tav. 34.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Peristroma">PĔRISTRŌMA, a coverlet large enough to -hang round the sides of the bed or couch.</p> - - -<p id="Peristylium">PĔRISTȲLĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pero">PĒRO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρβύλη</span>), a low boot of untanned -hide worn by ploughmen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peronatus arator</i>), -shepherds, and others employed in rural -occupations. The term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρβύλη</span> is applied to -an appendage to the Greek chariot. It seems -to have been a shoe fastened to the bottom -of the chariot, into which the driver inserted -his foot, to assist him in driving, and to -prevent him from being thrown out.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp44" id="ill291b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill291b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Masks. (From a Tomb at Sidyma in Lycia.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Persona">PERSŌNA (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">larva</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόσωπον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσωπεῖον</span>), -a mask. Masks were worn by Greek and -Roman actors in nearly all dramatic representations. -This custom arose undoubtedly -from the practice of smearing the face with -certain juices and colours, and of appearing -in disguise, at the festivals of Dionysus. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>] Now, as the Greek drama arose -out of these festivals, it is highly probable -that some mode of disguising the face was as -old as the drama itself. Choerilus of Samos, -however, (about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 500) is said to have -been the first who introduced regular masks. -Other writers attribute the invention of -masks to Thespis or Aeschylus, though the -latter had probably only the merit of perfecting -and completing the whole theatrical apparatus -and costume. Some masks covered,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292"></a>[292]</span> -like the masks of modern times, only the -face, but they appear more generally to have -covered the whole head down to the shoulders, -for we always find the hair belonging to a -mask described as being a part of it; and -this must have been the case in tragedy more -especially, as it was necessary to make the -head correspond to the stature of an actor, -which was heightened by the cothurnus.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill291c" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill291c.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Comic Mask. (Statue of Davus in British Museum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Pes">PES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποῦς</span>), a foot, the standard measure -of length among the Greeks and Romans, as -well as among nearly all other nations, both -ancient and modern. The Romans applied -the uncial division [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a></span>] to the foot, which -thus contained 12 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unciae</i>, whence our <em>inches</em>; -and many of the words used to express certain -numbers of unciae are applied to the -parts of the foot. It was also divided into 16 -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">digiti</i> (finger-breadths): this mode of division -was used especially by architects and land-surveyors, -and is found on all the foot-measures -that have come down to us. From -the analogy of the as, we have also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dupondium</i> -for 2 feet, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pes sestertius</i> for 2½ feet. The -probable value of the Roman foot is 11.6496 -inches English. (See <a href="#TABLES">Tables</a> at the end.)</p> - - -<p id="Pessi">PESSI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Latrunculi">Latrunculi</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pessulus">PESSŬLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Petalismus">PĔTĂLISMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Petasus">PĔTĂSUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pileus">Pileus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Petitor">PĔTĪTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actor">Actor</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Petauristae">PĔTAURISTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Petaurum">Petaurum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Petaurum">PĔTAURUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέταυρον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέτευρον</span>), used in -the Roman games, seems to have been a -board moving up and down, with a person at -each end, and supported in the middle, something -like our see-saw; only it appears to -have been much longer, and consequently -went to a greater height than is common -amongst us. The persons who took part in -this game, were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Petauristae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Petauristarii</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Petorritum">PĔTORRĬTUM, a four-wheeled carriage, -which, like the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Esseda">Essedum</a></span>, was adopted by the -Romans in imitation of the Gauls. It differed -from the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Harmamaxa">Harmamaxa</a></span> in being uncovered. -Its name is compounded of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">petor</i>, four, and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rit</i>, a wheel.</p> - - -<p id="Phalanx">PHĂLANX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Phalarica">PHĂLĂRĬCA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Phalerae">PHĂLĔRAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάλαρον</span>), a boss, disc, or -crescent of metal, in many cases of gold, and -beautifully wrought so as to be highly prized. -They were usually worn in pairs; and we -most commonly read of them as ornaments -attached to the harness of horses, especially -about the head, and often worn as pendants -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pensilia</i>), so as to produce a terrific effect -when shaken by the rapid motions of the -horse. These ornaments were often bestowed -upon horsemen by the Roman generals, in -the same manner as the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Armilla">Armilla</a></span>, the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Torques">Torques</a></span>, -the hasta pura [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a></span>], and the crown -of gold [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Corona">Corona</a></span>], in order to make a public -and permanent acknowledgment of bravery -and merit.</p> - - -<p id="Pharetra">PHĂRETRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φαρέτρα</span>), a quiver, was principally -made of hide or leather, and was -adorned with gold, painting, and braiding. -It had a lid (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πῶμα</span>), and was suspended from -the right shoulder by a belt passing over the -breast and behind the back. Its most common -position was on the left hip, and is so -seen in the annexed figures, the right-hand -one representing an Amazon, and the left-hand -an Asiatic archer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp59" id="ill292" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill292.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Pharetrae, Quivers. (Left-hand figure from the Aeginetan -Marbles;<br />right-hand figure from a Greek Vase.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Pharmacon">PHARMĂCŌN GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φαρμάκων</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φαρμακείας γραφή</span>), an indictment at Athens -against one who caused the death of another -by poison, whether given with intent to kill -or to obtain undue influence. It was tried -by the court of Areiopagus.</p> - - -<p id="Pharos">PHĂROS or PHĂRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάρος</span>), a light-house. -The most celebrated light-house of -antiquity was that situated at the entrance -to the port of Alexandria, on an island which -bore the name of Pharos. It contained many -stories, and the upper stories had windows -looking seawards, and torches or fires were -kept burning in them by night in order to -guide vessels into the harbour. The name -of Pharos was given to other light-houses, in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293"></a>[293]</span> -allusion to that at Alexandria, which was the -model for their construction.</p> - - -<p id="Phaselus">PHĂSĒLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάσηλος</span>), a vessel rather long -and narrow, apparently so called from its -resemblance to the shape of a phaselus or -kidney-bean. It was chiefly used by the -Egyptians, and was of various sizes, from a -mere boat to a vessel adapted for long voyages. -The phaselus was built for speed, to -which more attention seems to have been -paid than to its strength: whence the epithet -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fragilis</i> is given to it by Horace. These vessels -were sometimes made of clay, to which -the epithet of Horace may perhaps also refer.</p> - - -<p id="Phasis">PHASIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάσις</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φαίνω</span>), one of the -various methods by which public offenders at -Athens might be prosecuted; but the word -is often used to denote any kind of information; -and we do not know in what respects -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Phasis</i> was distinguished from other -methods of prosecution. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sycophantes</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συκοφάντης</span>) is derived from the -practice of laying information against those -who exported figs. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sycophantes">Sycophantes</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Phorminx">PHORMINX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lyra">Lyra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Phratria">PHRATRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Phylarchi">PHỸLARCHI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φύλαρχοι</span>) were at Athens -after the age of Cleisthenes ten officers, one -for each of the tribes, and were specially -charged with the command and superintendence -of the cavalry. There can be but little -doubt that each of the phylarchs commanded -the cavalry of his own tribe, and they were -themselves collectively and individually under -the control of the two hipparchs, just as the -taxiarchs were subject to the two strategi. -Herodotus informs us that when Cleisthenes -increased the number of the tribes from four -to ten, he also made ten phylarchs instead of -four. It has been thought, however, that -the historian should have said ten phylarchs -in the place of the old phylobasileis, who -were four in number, one for each of the old -tribes.</p> - - -<p id="Phylobasileis">PHỸLŎBĂSĬLEIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλοβασιλεῖς</span>) were -four in number, representing each one of the -four ancient Athenian tribes, and probably -elected (but not for life) from and by them. -They were nominated from the Eupatridae, -and during the continuance of royalty at -Athens these “kings of the tribes” were the -constant assessors of the sovereign, and rather -as his colleagues than counsellors. Though -they were originally connected with the four -ancient tribes, still they were not abolished -by Cleisthenes when he increased the number -of tribes, probably because their duties were -mainly of a religious character. They appear -to have existed even after his time, and acted -as judges, but in unimportant or merely -formal matters.</p> - - -<p id="Pictura">PICTŪRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφική</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζωγραφία</span>), -painting. I. <em>History of the Art.</em> It is singular -that the poems of Homer do not contain -any mention of painting as an imitative -art. This is the more remarkable, since -Homer speaks of rich and elaborate embroidery -as a thing not uncommon. This -embroidery is actual painting in principle, -and is a species of painting in practice, and -it was considered such by the Romans, who -termed it “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">pictura textilis</span>.” The various -allusions also to other arts, similar in nature -to painting, are sufficient to prove that painting -must have existed in some degree in -Homer’s time, although the only kind of -painting he notices is the “red-cheeked” -and “purple-cheeked ships,” and an ivory -ornament for the faces of horses, which a -Maeonian or Carian woman colours with -purple. Painting seems to have made considerable -progress in Asia Minor while it -was still in its infancy in Greece, for Candaules, -king of Lydia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 716), is said to -have purchased at a high price a painting of -Bularchus, which represented a battle of the -Magnetes. The old Ionic painting probably -flourished at the same time with the Ionian -architecture, and continued as an independent -school until the sixth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, when the -Ionians lost their liberty, and with their -liberty their art. Herodotus (i. 164) mentions -that when Harpagus besieged the town -of Phocaea (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 544), the inhabitants collected -all their valuables, their statues and -votive offerings from the temples, leaving -only their <em>paintings</em>, and such works in metal -or of stone as could not easily be removed, -and fled with them to the island of Chios; -from which we may conclude that paintings -were not only valued by the Phocaeans, but -also common among them. Herodotus (iv. -88) also informs us that Mandrocles of Samos, -who constructed for Darius Hystaspis the -bridge of boats across the Bosporus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -508), had a picture painted, representing the -passage of Darius’s army, and the king -seated on a throne reviewing the troops as -they passed, which he dedicated in the temple -of Hera at Samos. After the conquest of -Ionia, Samos became the seat of the arts. -The Heraeum at Samos, in which the picture -of Mandrocles was placed, was a general depository -for works of art, and in the time of -Strabo appears to have been particularly rich -in paintings, for he terms it a “picture-gallery” -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πινακοθήκη</span>). The first painter in -Greece itself, whose name is recorded, is -Cimon of Cleonae. His exact period is uncertain, -but he was probably a contemporary -of Solon, and lived at least a century before -Polygnotus. It was with Polygnotus of Thasos<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a>[294]</span> -that painting reached its full development -(about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 463). Previous to this time the -only cities that had paid any considerable -attention to painting were Aegina, Sicyon, -Corinth, and Athens. Sicyon and Corinth -had long been famous for their paintings -upon vases and upon articles of furniture; -the school of Athens had attained no celebrity -whatever until the arrival of Polygnotus from -Thasos raised it to that pre-eminence which -it continued to maintain for more than two -centuries, although very few of the great -painters of Greece were natives of Athens. -The principal contemporaries of Polygnotus -were Dionysius of Colophon, Plistaenetus -and Panaenus of Athens, brothers (or the -latter perhaps a nephew) of Phidias, and -Micon, also of Athens. The works of Polygnotus -and his contemporaries were conspicuous -for expression, character, and design; -the more minute discriminations of tone and -local colour, united with dramatic composition -and effect, were accomplished in the succeeding -generation, about 420 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, through the -efforts of Apollodorus of Athens and Zeuxis -of Heraclea. The contemporaries of Apollodorus -and Zeuxis, and those who carried out -their principles, were Parrhasius of Ephesus, -Eupompus of Sicyon, and Timanthes of Cythnus, -all painters of the greatest fame. Athens -and Sicyon were the principal seats of the art -at this period. Eupompus of Sicyon was the -founder of the celebrated Sicyonian school of -painting which was afterwards established -by Pamphilus. The Alexandrian period was -the last of progression or acquisition; but it -only added variety of effect to the tones it -could not improve, and was principally characterised -by the diversity of the styles of so -many contemporary artists. The most eminent -painters of this period were Protogenes, -Pamphilus, Melanthius, Antiphilus, Theon of -Samos, Apelles, Euphranor, Pausias, Nicias, -Nicomachus, and his brother Aristides. Of -all these Apelles was the greatest. The quality -in which he surpassed all other painters -will scarcely bear a definition; it has been -termed grace, elegance, beauty, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χάρις</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">venustas</i>. -His greatest work was perhaps his -Venus Anadyomene, Venus rising out of the -waters. He excelled in portrait, and indeed -all his works appear to have been portraits -in an extended sense; for his pictures, both -historical and allegorical, consisted nearly all -of single figures. He enjoyed the exclusive -privilege of painting the portraits of Alexander.—The -works of Greek art brought -from Sicily by Marcellus were the first to -inspire the Romans with the desire of adorning -their public edifices with statues and -paintings, which taste was converted into a -passion when they became acquainted with -the great treasures and almost inexhaustible -resources of Greece, and their rapacity knew -no bounds. Mummius, after the destruction -of Corinth, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 146, carried off or destroyed -more works of art than all his predecessors -put together. Scaurus, in his aedileship, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58, had all the public pictures still remaining -in Sicyon transported to Rome, on -account of the debts of the former city, and -he adorned the great temporary theatre which -he erected upon that occasion with 3000 -bronze statues. Verres ransacked Asia and -Achaia, and plundered almost every temple -and public edifice in Sicily of whatever was -valuable in it. Amongst the numerous robberies -of Verres, Cicero mentions particularly -twenty-seven beautiful pictures taken from -the temple of Minerva at Syracuse, consisting -of portraits of the kings and tyrants of Sicily. -Yet Rome was, about the end of the republic, -full of painters, who appear, however, to have -been chiefly occupied in portrait, or decorative -and arabesque painting. Among the -Romans the earliest painter mentioned is a -member of the noble house of the Fabii, who -received the surname of Pictor through some -paintings which he executed in the temple of -Salus at Rome, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304, which lasted till the -time of the emperor Claudius, when they -were destroyed by the fire that consumed -that temple. Pacuvius also, the tragic poet, -and nephew of Ennius, distinguished himself -by some paintings in the temple of Hercules -in the Forum Boarium, about 180 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> But -generally speaking the artists at Rome were -Greeks. Julius Caesar, Agrippa, and Augustus -were among the earliest great patrons -of artists. Caesar expended great sums in -the purchase of pictures by the old masters. -He gave as much as 80 talents for two pictures -by his contemporary Timomachus of -Byzantium, one an Ajax, and the other a -Medea meditating the murder of her children. -These pictures, which were painted in encaustic, -were very celebrated works; they are -alluded to by Ovid (<cite>Trist.</cite> ii. 525), and are -mentioned by many other ancient writers.—There -are three distinct periods observable in -the history of painting in Rome. The first -or great period of Graeco-Roman art may be -dated from the conquest of Greece until the -time of Augustus, when the artists were -chiefly Greeks. The second, from the time -of Augustus to the so-called Thirty Tyrants -and Diocletian, or from the beginning of the -Christian era until about the latter end of the -third century, during which time the great -majority of Roman works of art were produced. -The third comprehends the state of -the arts during the exarchate, when Rome,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295"></a>[295]</span> -in consequence of the foundation of Constantinople, -and the changes it involved, suffered -similar spoliations to those which it had previously -inflicted upon Greece. This was the -period of the total decay of the imitative arts -amongst the ancients. About the beginning -of the second period is the earliest age in -which we have any notice of portrait painters -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imaginum pictores</i>) as a distinct class. Portraits -must have been exceedingly numerous -amongst the Romans; Varro made a collection -of the portraits of 700 eminent men. The -portraits or statues of men who had performed -any public service were placed in the -temples and other public places; and several -edicts were passed by the emperors of Rome -respecting the placing of them. The portraits -of authors also were placed in the public -libraries; they were apparently fixed above -the cases which contained their writings, -below which chairs were placed for the convenience -of readers. They were painted also -at the beginning of manuscripts. Several of -the most celebrated ancient artists were both -sculptors and painters; Phidias and Euphranor -were both; Zeuxis and Protogenes -were both modellers; Polygnotus devoted -some attention to statuary; and Lysippus -consulted Eupompus upon style in sculpture. -Moreover scene-painting shows that the -Greeks were acquainted with perspective at -a very early period; for when Aeschylus was -exhibiting tragedies at Athens, Agatharchus -made a scene, and left a treatise upon it.—II. -<em>Methods of Painting.</em> There were two distinct -classes of painting practised by the ancients—in -water colours, and in wax, both of -which were practised in various ways. Of -the former the principal were fresco, al fresco; -and the various kinds of distemper (a tempera), -with glue, with the white of egg, or -with gums (a guazzo); and with wax or -resins when these were rendered by any -means vehicles that could be worked with -water. Of the latter the principal was -through fire (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διὰ πυρὸς</span>), termed encaustic -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐγκαυστική</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">encaustica</i>). The painting in -wax (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηρογραφία</span>), or ship painting (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inceramenta -navium</i>), was distinct from encaustic. -It does not appear that the Greeks or Romans -ever painted in oil; the only mention of oil -in ancient writers in connection with painting -is the small quantity which entered into -the composition of encaustic varnish to temper -it. They painted upon wood, clay, plaster, -stone, parchment, and canvas. The use of -canvas must have been of late introduction, -as there is no mention of it having been employed -by the Greek painters of the best -periods. They generally painted upon panels -or tablets (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πίνακες</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πινόκια</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabellae</i>), -which when finished were fixed into frames -of various descriptions and materials, and -encased in walls. The style or cestrum used -in drawing, and for spreading the wax colours, -pointed at one end and broad and flat -at the other, was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφίς</span> by the Greeks -and cestrum by the Romans; it was generally -made of metal. The hair pencil (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">penicillus</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">penicillum</i>) was termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπογραφίς</span>, and apparently -also <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαβδίον</span>. The ancients used also a -palette very similar to that used by the moderns. -Encaustic was a method very frequently -practised by the Roman and later -Greek painters; but it was in very little use -by the earlier painters, and was not generally -adopted until after the time of Alexander. -Pliny defines the term thus: “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ceris pingere -ac picturam inurere</span>,” to paint with wax or -wax colours, and to <em>burn in</em> the picture afterwards -with the cauterium; it appears therefore -to have been the simple addition of the -process of <em>burning in</em> to the ordinary method -of painting with wax colours. Cerae (waxes) -was the ordinary term for painters’ colours -amongst the Romans, but more especially -encaustic colours, and they kept them in -partitioned boxes, as painters do at present.—III. -<em>Polychromy.</em> Ancient statues were often -painted, and what is now termed polychrome -sculpture was very common in Greece. The -practice of colouring statues is undoubtedly -as ancient as the art of statuary itself; -although they were perhaps originally coloured -more from a love of colour than from -any design of improving the resemblance of -the representation. The Jupiter of the Capitol, -placed by Tarquinius Priscus, was coloured -with minium. In later times the custom -seems to have been reduced to a system, and -was practised with more reserve. The practice -also of colouring architecture seems to -have been universal amongst the Greeks, and -very general amongst the Romans.—IV. <em>Vase -Painting.</em> The fictile-vase painting of the -Greeks was an art of itself, and was practised -by a distinct class of artists. The designs -upon these vases (which the Greeks -termed <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λήκυθοι</span>) have been variously interpreted, -but they have been generally considered -to be in some way connected with the -initiation into the Eleusinian and other mysteries. -They were given as prizes to the -victors at the Panathenaea and other games, -and seem to have been always buried with -their owners at their death, for they have -been discovered only in tombs. Even in the -time of the Roman empire painted vases -were termed “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">operis antiqui</span>,” and were then -sought for in the ancient tombs of Campania -and other parts of Magna Graecia. We may -form some idea of their immense value from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296"></a>[296]</span> -the statement of Pliny, that they were more -valuable than the Murrhine vases. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Murrhina">Murrhina -Vasa</a>.</span>] The paintings on the vases, -considered as works of art, vary exceedingly -in the detail of the execution, although in -style of design they may be arranged in two -principal classes, the black and the yellow; -for those which do not come strictly under -either of these heads are either too few or -vary too slightly to require a distinct classification. -The black are the most ancient, the -yellow the most common.—V. <em>Mosaic</em>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pictura de musivo</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opus musivum</i>, was very -general in Rome in the time of the early -emperors. It was also common in Greece -and Asia Minor at an earlier period, but at -the time of the Roman empire it began to a -great extent even to supersede painting. It -was used chiefly for floors, but walls and also -ceilings were sometimes ornamented in the -same way. There are still many great mosaics -of the ancients extant. The most valuable is -the one discovered in Pompeii a few years -ago, which is supposed to represent the battle -of Issus. The composition is simple, forcible, -and beautiful, and the design exhibits in -many respects merits of the highest order.</p> - - -<p id="Pila">PĪLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαῖρα</span>), a ball. The game at ball -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαιριστική</span>) was one of the most favourite -gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and Romans, -from the earliest times to the fall of -the Roman empire. It is mentioned in the -Odyssey, where it is played by the Phaeacian -damsels to the sound of music, and also by -two celebrated performers at the court of -Alcinous in a most artistic manner accompanied -with dancing. The various movements -of the body required in the game of -ball gave elasticity and grace to the figure; -whence it was highly esteemed by the Greeks. -The Athenians set so high a value on it, that -they conferred upon Aristonicus of Carystus -the right of citizenship on account of his -skill in this game. It was equally esteemed -by the other states of Greece; the young -Spartans, when they were leaving the condition -of ephebi, were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαιρεῖς</span>, probably -because their chief exercise was the -game at ball. Every complete gymnasium -had a room (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαιριστήριον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαίριστρα</span>) devoted -to this exercise [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gymnasium">Gymnasium</a></span>], where a -special teacher (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σφαιριστικός</span>) gave instruction -in the art. Among the Romans the -game at ball was generally played at by -persons before taking the bath, in a room -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sphaeristerium</i>) attached to the baths for -the purpose. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pila</i> was used in a general -sense for any kind of ball: but the balls -among the Romans seem to have been of -three kinds; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pila</i> in its narrower sense, -a small ball; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">follis</i>, a great ball filled -with air; and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paganica</i>, of which we -know scarcely anything, but which appears -to have been smaller than the follis and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297"></a>[297]</span> -larger than the pila. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Harpastum</i> (from -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁρπάζω</span>) seems to have been the name of a -ball, which was thrown among the players, -each of whom endeavoured to catch it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80" id="ill296" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill296.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Pila, Game at Ball. (From the Baths of Titus.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Pilani">PĪLĀNI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_168">p. 168</a> <em>b</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Pilentum">PĪLENTUM, a splendid four-wheeled carriage, -furnished with soft cushions, which -conveyed the Roman matrons in sacred processions -and in going to the Circensian and -other games. The pilentum was probably -very like the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Harmamaxa">Harmamaxa</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Carpentum">Carpentum</a></span>, -but open at the sides, so that those who sat -in it might both see and be seen.</p> - - -<p id="Pileus">PĪLĔUS or PĪLĔUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πϊλος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πίλημα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πιλωτόν</span>), -any piece of felt; more especially a -skull-cap of felt, a hat. There seems no -reason to doubt that felting is a more ancient -invention than weaving [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tela">Tela</a></span>], nor that -both of these arts came into Europe from -Asia. From the Greeks, who were acquainted -with this article as early as the age -of Homer, the use of felt passed together -with its name to the Romans. Its principal -use was to make coverings of the head for -the male sex, and the most common one was -a simple skull-cap.—Among the Romans the -cap of felt was the emblem of liberty. When -a slave obtained his freedom he had his head -shaven, and wore instead of his hair an undyed -pileus. This change of attire took -place in the temple of Feronia, who was -the goddess of freedmen. Hence the phrase -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">servos ad pileum vocare</i> is a summons to -liberty, by which slaves were frequently -called upon to take up arms with a promise -of liberty. The figure of Liberty on some -of the coins of Antoninus Pius, struck <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> -145, holds this cap in the right hand. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Petasus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέτασος</span>) differed from the pileus or -simple skull-cap in having a wide brim: the -etymology of the word, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πετάννυμι</span>, expresses -the distinctive shape of these hats. -It was preferred to the skull-cap as a protection -from the sun.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp42" id="ill297" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill297.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Petasus, Cap, worn by a Greek Soldier. (From a Greek -Vase.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Pilum">PĪLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Piscina">PISCĪNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pistor">PISTOR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτοποιός</span>), a baker, from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pinsere</i>, -to pound, since corn was pounded in mortars -before the invention of mills. At Rome -bread was originally made at home by the -women of the house; and there were no -persons at Rome who made baking a trade, -or any slaves specially kept for this purpose -in private houses, till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 173. The name -was also given to pastry-cooks and confectioners, -in which case they were usually -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pistores dulciarii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">candidarii</i>. Bread -was often baked in moulds called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">artoptae</i>, -and the loaves thus baked were termed <span class="smcap">artopticii</span>. -Bread was not generally made at -home at Athens, but was sold in the market-place, -chiefly by women, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτοπώλιδες</span>. -These women seem to have been what the -fish-women of London are at present; they -excelled in abuse.</p> - - -<p id="Plagiarius">PLĂGĬĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plagium">Plagium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Plagium">PLĂGĬUM, the offence of kidnapping, -concealing, and selling freemen and other -persons’ slaves was the subject of a Fabia -Lex (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 183). The penalty of the lex was -pecuniary; but this fell into disuse, and -persons who offended against the lex were -punished according to the nature of their -offence; under the empire they were generally -condemned to the mines. The word -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Plagium</i> is said to come from the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλάγιος</span>, -oblique, indirect, dolosus. He who committed -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plagium</i> was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plagiarius</i>, a word which -Martial applies to a person who falsely gave -himself out as the author of a book; and in -this sense the word has come into common -use in our language.</p> - - -<p id="Plaustrum">PLAUSTRUM or PLOSTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἅμαξα</span>), a -cart or waggon. It had commonly two -wheels, but sometimes four, and it was then -called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plaustrum majus</i>. Besides the -wheels and axle the plaustrum consisted of a -strong pole (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">temo</i>), to the hinder part of -which was fastened a table of wooden planks. -The blocks of stone, or other things to be carried, -were either laid upon this table without -any other support, or an additional security<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298"></a>[298]</span> -was obtained by the use either of boards at -the sides, or of a large wicker basket tied -upon the cart. The annexed cut exhibits a -cart, the body of which is supplied by a -basket. The commonest kind of cart-wheel -was that called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tympanum</i>, “the drum,” from -its resemblance to the musical instrument of -the same name. It was nearly a foot in -thickness, and was made either by sawing -the trunk of a tree across in a horizontal -direction, or by nailing together boards of -the requisite shape and size. (See the cut.) -These wheels advanced slowly, and made a loud -creaking, which was heard to a great distance.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill298" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill298.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Plaustrum, Waggon. (From a Bas-Relief at Rome.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Plebes">PLĒBES or PLEBS. PLĒBĒII. This -word contains the same root as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">im-pleo</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">com-pleo</i>, -&c., and is therefore etymologically -connected with <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλῆθος</span>, a term which was -applied to the plebeians by the more correct -Greek writers on Roman history, while -others wrongly called them <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ δημοτικοί</span>. -The plebeians were the body of commons -or the commonalty of Rome, and thus -constituted one of the two great elements of -which the Roman nation consisted, and -which has given to the earlier periods of -Roman history its peculiar character and -interest. The time when the plebeians first -appear as a distinct class of Roman citizens -in contradistinction to the patricians, is in -the reign of Tullus Hostilius. Alba, the -head of the Latin confederacy, was in his -reign taken by the Romans and razed to the -ground. The most distinguished of its inhabitants -were transplanted to Rome and -received among the patricians; but the great -bulk of Alban citizens, who were likewise -transferred to Rome, received settlements on -the Caelian hill, and were kept in a state of -submission to the populus Romanus or the -patricians. This new population of Rome, -which in number is said to have been equal -to the old inhabitants of the city or the -patricians, were the plebeians. They were -Latins, and consequently of the same blood -as the Ramnes, the noblest of the three -patrician tribes. After the conquest of Alba, -Rome, in the reign of Ancus Martius, acquired -possession of a considerable extent of -country, containing a number of dependent -Latin towns, as Medullia, Fidenae, Politorium, -Tellenae, and Ficana. Great numbers of the -inhabitants of these towns were again transplanted -to Rome, and incorporated with the -plebeians already settled there, and the Aventine -was assigned to them as their habitation. -Some portions of the land which these new -citizens had possessed were given back to -them by the Romans, so that they remained -free land-owners as much as the conquerors -themselves, and thus were distinct from the -clients.—The plebeians were citizens, but not -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">optimo jure</i>; they were perfectly distinct -from the patricians, and were neither contained -in the three tribes, nor in the curiae, -nor in the patrician gentes. The only point -of contact between the two estates was the -army. The plebeians were obliged to fight -and shed their blood in the defence of their -new fellow-citizens, without being allowed -to share any of their rights or privileges, and -without even the right of intermarriage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">connubium</i>). -In all judicial matters they were -entirely at the mercy of the patricians, and -had no right of appeal against any unjust -sentence, though they were not, like the -clients, bound to have a patronus. They -continued to have their own sacra, which they -had had before the conquest, but these were -regulated by the patrician pontiffs. Lastly, -they were free land-owners, and had their -own gentes.—The population of the Roman -state thus consisted of two opposite elements; -a ruling class or an aristocracy, and the -commonalty, which, though of the same -stock as the noblest among the rulers, and -exceeding them in numbers, yet enjoyed none -of the rights which might enable them to -take a part in the management of public -affairs, religious or civil. Their citizenship -resembled the relation of aliens to a state, in -which they are merely tolerated on condition<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299"></a>[299]</span> -of performing certain services, and they are, -in fact, sometimes called peregrini. That -such a state of things could not last, is a -truth which must have been felt by every -one who was not blinded by his own selfishness -and love of dominion. Tarquinius -Priscus was the first who conceived the idea -of placing the plebeians on a footing of equality -with the old burghers, by dividing them -into three tribes, which he intended to call -after his own name and those of his friends. -But this noble plan was frustrated by the -opposition of the augur Attus Navius, who -probably acted the part of a representative of -the patricians. All that Tarquinius could do -was to effect the admission of the noblest -plebeian families into the three old tribes, -who were distinguished from the old patrician -families by the names of Ramnes, Tities, and -Luceres secundi, and their gentes are sometimes -distinguished by the epithet minores, -as they entered into the same relation in -which the Luceres had been to the first two -tribes, before the time of Tarquinius. It was -reserved to his successor, Servius Tullius, to -give to the commonalty a regular internal -organisation, and to determine their relations -to the patricians. He first divided the city -into four, and then the subject country -around, which was inhabited by plebeians, -into twenty-six regions or local tribes, and -in these regions he assigned lots of land to -those plebeians who were yet without landed -property. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>.</span>] Each tribe had its -praefect, called tribunus. The tribes had -also their own sacra, festivals, and meetings -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia tributa</i>), which were convoked by -their tribunes. This division into tribes with -tribunes at their heads was no more than an -internal organisation of the plebeians, analogous -to the division of the patricians into -thirty curiae, without conferring upon them -the right to interfere in any way in the -management of public affairs, or in the elections, -which were left entirely to the senate -and the curiae. These rights, however, they -obtained by another regulation of Servius -Tullius, which was made wholly independent -of the thirty tribes. For this purpose he -instituted a census, and divided the whole -body of Roman citizens, plebeians as well as -patricians, into five classes, according to the -amount of their property. Taxation and the -military duties were arranged according to -these classes in such a manner, that the -heavier burdens fell upon the wealthier -classes. The whole body of citizens thus -divided was formed into a great national -assembly called comitiatus maximus, or comitia -centuriata. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>] In this assembly -the plebeians now met the patricians apparently -on a footing of equality, but the votes -were distributed in such a way that it was -always in the power of the wealthiest classes, -to which the patricians naturally belonged, -to decide a question before it was put to the -vote of the poorer classes. A great number -of such noble plebeian families, as after the -subjugation of the Latin towns had not been -admitted into the curies by Tarquinius Priscus, -were now constituted by Servius into a -number of equites, with twelve suffragia in -the comitia centuriata. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>] In this -constitution, the plebeians, as such, did not -obtain admission to the senate, nor to the -highest magistracy, nor to any of the priestly -offices. To all these offices the patricians -alone thought themselves entitled by divine -right. The plebeians also continued to be -excluded from occupying any portion of the -public land, which as yet was possessed only -by the patricians, and they were only allowed -to keep their cattle upon the common pasture.—In -the early times of the republic there was a -constant struggle between the two orders, the -history of which belongs to a history of Rome, -and cannot be given here. Eventually the -plebeians gained access to all the civil and -religious offices, until at last the two hostile -elements became united into one great body -of Roman citizens with equal rights, and a -state of things arose, totally different from -what had existed before. After the first -secession, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 494, the plebeians gained -several great advantages. First, a law was -passed to prevent the patricians from taking -usurious interest of money, which they frequently -lent to impoverished plebeians; -secondly, tribunes were appointed for the -protection of the plebeians [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribunus">Tribuni</a></span>]; and -lastly, plebeian aediles were appointed. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aediles">Aediles</a>.</span>] Shortly after, they gained the -right to summon before their own comitia -tributa any one who had violated the rights -of their order, and to make decrees (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plebiscita</i>), -which, however, did not become binding -upon the whole nation, free from the control -of the curies, until the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 286. <ins class="corr" id="tn-299" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'In (B.C. 445), the'"> -In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 445, the</ins> tribune Canuleius established, -by his rogations, the connubium between -patricians and plebeians. He also attempted to -divide the consulship between the two orders, -but the patricians frustrated the realisation of -this plan by the appointment of six military -tribunes, who were to be elected from both -orders. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribunus">Tribuni</a>.</span>] But that the plebeians -might have no share in the censorial power, -with which the consuls had been invested, -the military tribunes did not obtain that -power, and a new curule dignity, the censorship, -was established, with which patricians -alone were to be invested. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a>.</span>] In<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300"></a>[300]</span> -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 421 the plebeians were admitted to the -quaestorship, which opened to them the way -into the senate, where henceforth their number -continued to increase. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestor</a></span>; -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a></span>.] In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 367 the tribunes L. -Licinius Stolo and L. Sextius placed themselves -at the head of the commonalty, and -resumed the contest against the patricians. -After a fierce struggle, which lasted for several -years, they at length carried a rogation, -according to which decemvirs were to be -appointed for keeping the Sibylline books -instead of duumvirs, of whom half were to -be plebeians. The next great step was the -restoration of the consulship, on condition -that one consul should always be a plebeian. -A third rogation of Licinius, which was only -intended to afford momentary relief to the -poor plebeians, regulated the rate of interest. -From this time forward the plebeians also -appear in the possession of the right to -occupy parts of the ager publicus. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -366, L. Sextius Lateranus was the first plebeian -consul. The patricians, however, who -always contrived to yield no more than what -it was absolutely impossible for them to -retain, stripped the consulship of a considerable -part of its power, and transferred it to -two new curule offices, viz. that of praetor and -of curule aedile. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aediles">Aediles</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor</a></span>.] But -after such great advantages had been once -gained by the plebeians, it was impossible to -stop them in their progress towards a perfect -equality of political rights with the patricians. -In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 356, C. Marcius Rutilus was the first -plebeian dictator; in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 351 the censorship -was thrown open to the plebeians, and in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -336 the praetorship. The Ogulnian law, in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 300, also opened to them the offices of -pontifex and augur. These advantages were, -as might be supposed, not gained without the -fiercest opposition of the patricians, and even -after they were gained and sanctioned by -law, the patricians exerted every means to -obstruct the operation of the law. Such -fraudulent attempts led, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 286, to the -last secession of the plebeians, after which, -however, the dictator Q. Hortensius successfully -and permanently reconciled the two -orders, secured to the plebeians all the rights -they had acquired until then, and procured -for their plebiscita the full power of leges -binding upon the whole nation. After the -passing of the Hortensian law, the political -distinction between patricians and plebeians -ceased, and, with a few unimportant exceptions, -both orders were placed on a footing of -perfect equality. Henceforth the name populus -is sometimes applied to the plebeians -alone, and sometimes to the whole body of -Roman citizens, as assembled in the comitia -centuriata or tributa. The term plebs or -plebecula, on the other hand, was applied, in -a loose manner of speaking, to the multitude -or populace, in opposition to the nobiles or -the senatorial party.—A person who was -born a plebeian could only be raised to the -rank of a patrician by a lex curiata, as was -sometimes done during the kingly period, -and in the early times of the republic. It -frequently occurs in the history of Rome that -one and the same gens contains plebeian as -well as patrician families. In the gens -Cornelia, for instance, we find the plebeian -families of the Balbi, Mammulae, Merulae, -&c., along with the patrician Scipiones, Sullae, -Lentuli, &c. The occurrence of this -phenomenon may be accounted for in different -ways. It may have been, that one branch of -a plebeian family was made patrician while -the others remained plebeians. It may also -have happened that two families had the -same nomen gentilicium without being actual -members of the same gens. Again, a patrician -family might go over to the plebeians, -and as such a family continued to bear the -name of its patrician gens, this gens apparently -contained a plebeian family. When a -peregrinus obtained the civitas through the -influence of a patrician, or when a slave was -emancipated by his patrician master, they -generally adopted the nomen gentilicium of -their benefactor, and thus appear to belong -to the same gens with him.</p> - - -<p id="Plebiscitum">PLĒBISCĪTUM, a name properly applied -to a law passed at the comitia tributa on the -rogation of a tribune. Originally, a plebiscitum -required confirmation by the comitia -curiata and the senate; but a Lex Hortensia -was passed <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 286, to the effect -that plebiscita should bind all the populus -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">universus populus</i>), and this lex rendered -confirmation unnecessary. The Lex Hortensia -is always referred to as the lex which -put plebiscita as to their binding force exactly -on the same footing as leges. The -principal plebiscita are mentioned under the -article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Plectrum">PLECTRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lyra">Lyra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Plethron">PLETHRON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλέθρον</span>), the fundamental -land measure in the Greek system, being the -square of 100 feet, that is, 10,000 square -feet. The later Greek writers use it as the -translation of the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugerum</i>, probably -because the latter was the standard land -measure in the Roman system; but, in size, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plethron</i> answered more nearly to the -Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actus</i>, or half-jugerum, which was -the older unit of land measures. As frequently -happened with the ancient land -measures, the side of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plethron</i> was taken -as a measure of length, with the same name.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301"></a>[301]</span> -This <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plethron</i> was equal to 100 feet (or about -101 English feet) = 66⅔ <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πήχεις</span> = 10 <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκαιναι</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάλαμοι</span>. It was also introduced into the -system of itinerary measures, being 1-6th of -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stadium</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Pluteus">PLŬTĔUS, was applied in military affairs -to two different objects. (1) A kind of shed -made of hurdles, and covered with raw hides, -which could be moved forward by small -wheels attached to it, and under which the -besiegers of a town made their approaches. -(2) Boards or planks placed on the vallum of -a camp, on moveable towers or other military -engines, as a kind of roof or covering for the -protection of the soldiers.</p> - - -<p id="Plynteria">PLYNTĒRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλυντήρια</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλύνειν</span>, to -wash), a festival celebrated at Athens every -year, on the 25th of Thargelion, in honour of -Athena, surnamed Aglauros, whose temple -stood on the Acropolis. The day of this festival -was at Athens among the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποφράδες</span> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dies nefasti</i>; for the temple of the goddess -was surrounded by a rope to preclude all -communication with it; her statue was -stripped of its garments and ornaments for -the purpose of cleaning them, and was in -the meanwhile covered over, to conceal it -from the sight of man. The city was therefore, -so to speak, on this day without its -protecting divinity, and any undertaking -commenced on it was believed to be necessarily -unsuccessful.</p> - - -<p id="Pnyx">PNYX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ecclesia">Ecclesia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Poculum">PŌCŬLUM, any kind of drinking-cup, to -be distinguished from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Crater</i> or vessel in -which the wine was mixed [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Crater">Crater</a></span>], and -from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cyathus</i>, a kind of ladle or small -cup, used to convey the wine from the Crater -to the Poculum or drinking-cup.</p> - - -<p id="Podium">PŎDĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Poena">POENA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποινή</span>), a general name for any -punishment of any offence. Multa is the -penalty of a particular offence. A Poena was -only inflicted when it was imposed by some -lex or some other legal authority (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quo alio -jure</i>). When no poena was imposed, then a -multa or penalty might be inflicted.</p> - - -<p id="Polemarchus">PŎLĔMARCHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολέμαρχος</span>). Respecting -the polemarchus at Athens, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Archon">Archon</a></span>. -We read also of polemarchs at Sparta, and in -various cities of Boeotia. As their name -denotes, they were originally and properly -connected with military affairs, being entrusted -either with the command of armies -abroad, or the superintendence of the war -department at home; sometimes with both. -The polemarchs of Sparta appear to have -ranked next to the king, when on actual service -abroad, and were generally of the royal -kindred or house (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένος</span>). They commanded -single morae, so that they would appear to -have been six in number, and sometimes -whole armies. They also formed part of the -king’s council in war, and of the royal escort -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">damosia</i>. At Thebes there appear to -have been two polemarchs, perhaps elected, -annually; and in times of peace they seem to -have been invested with the chief executive -power of the state, and the command of the -city, having its military force under their -orders. They are not, however, to be confounded -with the Boeotarchs.</p> - - -<p id="Poletae">PŌLĒTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πωλῆται</span>), a board of ten officers, -or magistrates, whose duty it was to -grant leases of the public lands and mines, -and also to let the revenues arising from the -customs, taxes, confiscations, and forfeitures. -Of such letting the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πωλεῖν</span> (not <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισθοῦν</span>) -was generally used, and also the correlative -words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὠνεῖσθαι</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρίασθαι</span>. One was chosen -from each tribe. In the letting of the revenue -they were assisted by the managers of the -theoric fund (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ θεωρικόν</span>), and they acted -under the authority of the senate of Five -Hundred, who exercised a general control -over the financial department of the administration. -Resident aliens, who did not pay -their residence tax (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετοίκιον</span>), were summoned -before them, and, if found to have -committed default, were sold.</p> - - -<p id="Pollinctores">POLLINCTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pomoerium">PŌMOĒRĬUM. This word is compounded -of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">post</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">moerium</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">murus</i>), in the same -manner as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pomeridiem</i> of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">post</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">meridiem</i>, -and thus signifies a line running by the walls -of a town (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pone</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">post muros</i>). But the -walls of a town here spoken of are not its -actual walls or fortifications, but symbolical -walls, and the course of the pomoerium itself -was marked by stone pillars, erected at certain -intervals. The sacred line of the Roman -pomoerium did not prevent the inhabitants -from building upon or taking into use any -place beyond it, but it was necessary to leave -a certain space on each side of it unoccupied, -so as not to unhallow it by profane use. -Thus we find that the Aventine, although inhabited -from early times, was for many centuries -not included within the pomoerium. -The pomoerium was not the same at all times; -as the city increased the pomoerium also was -extended; but this extension could, according -to ancient usage, only be made by such -men as had by their victories over foreign -nations increased the boundaries of the empire, -and neither could a pomoerium be -formed nor altered without the augurs previously -consulting the will of the gods by -augury: hence the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus pomoerii</i> of the augurs.</p> - - -<p id="Pompa">POMPA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πομπή</span>), a solemn procession, as -on the occasion of a funeral, triumph, &c. -It is, however, more particularly applied to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302"></a>[302]</span> -the grand procession with which the games -of the circus commenced (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pompa Circensis</i>). -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pons">PONS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γέφυρα</span>), a bridge. As the rivers of -Greece were small, and the use of the arch -known to them only to a limited extent, it is -probable that the Greek bridges were built -entirely of wood, or, at best, were nothing -more than a wooden platform supported upon -stone piers at each extremity. Pliny mentions -a bridge over the Acheron 1000 feet in -length; we also know that the island Euboea -was joined to Boeotia by a bridge; but the -only existing specimen of a Greek bridge is -the one over a tributary of the Eurotas. -The Romans regularly applied the arch to the -construction of bridges, by which they were -enabled to erect structures of great beauty -and solidity, as well as utility. The width of -the passage-way in a Roman bridge was commonly -narrow, as compared with modern -structures of the same kind, and corresponded -with the road (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">via</i>) leading to and from it. -It was divided into three parts. The centre -one, for horses and carriages, was denominated -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agger</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">iter</i>; and the raised footpaths -on each side <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decursoria</i>, which were enclosed -by parapet walls similar in use and appearance -to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pluteus</i> in the basilica. There -were eight bridges across the Tiber. I. Of -these the most celebrated, as well as the most -ancient, was the <span class="smcap">Pons Sublicius</span>, so called -because it was built of wood; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sublices</i>, in the -language of the Formiani, meaning wooden -beams. It was built by Ancus Martius, when -he united the Janiculum to the city, and was -situated at the foot of the Aventine.—II. -<span class="smcap">Pons Palatinus</span> formed the communication -between the Palatine and its vicinities and -the Janiculum.—III. IV. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pons Fabricius</i> and -<span class="smcap">Pons Cestius</span> were the two which connected -the Insula Tiberina with the opposite sides of -the river; the first with the city, and the -latter with the Janiculum.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill302a" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill302a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Pons Cestius, and Pons Fabricius, at Rome, with the buildings between restored.</div> -</div> - -<p>Both are still remaining. -They are represented in the preceding -woodcut: that on the right hand is -the pons Fabricius, and that on the left the -pons Cestius.—V. <span class="smcap">Pons Janiculensis</span>, which -led direct to the Janiculum.—VI. <span class="smcap">Pons Vaticanus</span>, -so called because it formed the communication -between the Campus Martius and -Campus Vaticanus.—</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill302b" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill302b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Pons Aelius at Rome.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Vii">VII. <span class="smcap">Pons Aelius</span>, built -by Hadrian, which led from the city to the -mausoleum of that emperor, now the bridge -and castle of St. Angelo.—VIII. <span class="smcap">Pons Milvius</span>, -on the Via Flaminia, now Ponte Molle,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303"></a>[303]</span> -was built by Aemilius Scaurus the censor.—The -Roman bridges without the city were -too many to be enumerated here.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill303" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill303.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Bridge at Arimmum.</div> -</div> - -<p>They formed one of the chief embellishments in all -the public roads; and their frequent and -stupendous remains, still existing in Italy, -Portugal, and Spain, attest, even to the present -day, the scale of grandeur with which -the Roman works of national utility were -always carried on.—When the comitia were -held, the voters, in order to reach the enclosure -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">septum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ovile</i>, passed over a -wooden platform, elevated above the ground, -which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pons suffragiorum</i>, in order -that they might be able to give their votes -without confusion or collusion. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>] -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pons</i> is also used to signify the platform -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιβάθρα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποβάθρα</span>), used for embarking in, -or disembarking from, a ship.</p> - - -<p id="Pontifex">PONTĬFEX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροδιδάσκαλος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερονόμος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροφύλαξ</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱεροφάντης</span>). The origin of this word -is explained in various ways; but it is probably -formed from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pons</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">facere</i> (in the -signification of the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥέζειν</span>, to perform -a sacrifice), and consequently signifies the -priests who offered sacrifices upon the bridge. -The ancient sacrifice to which the name thus -alludes, is that of the Argei on the sacred or -sublician bridge. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Argei">Argei</a>.</span>] The Roman pontiffs -formed the most illustrious among the -great colleges of priests. Their institution, -like that of all important matters of religion, -was ascribed to Numa. The number of pontiffs -appointed by this king was four, and at -their head was the pontifex maximus, who is -generally not included when the number of -pontiffs is mentioned. It is probable that -the original number of four pontiffs (not including -the pontifex maximus) had reference -to the two earliest tribes of the Romans, the -Ramnes and Tities, so that each tribe was -represented by two pontiffs. In the year -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 300 the Ogulnian law raised the number -of pontiffs to eight, or, including the -pontifex maximus, to nine, and four of them -were to be plebeians. The pontifex maximus, -however, continued to be a patrician down -to the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 254, when Tib. Coruncanius -was the first plebeian who was invested with -this dignity. This number of pontiffs remained -for a long time unaltered, until in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 81 the dictator Sulla increased it to -fifteen, and J. Caesar to sixteen. In both -these changes the pontifex maximus is included -in the number. During the empire -the number varied, though on the whole -fifteen appears to have been the regular -number. The mode of appointing the pontiffs -was also different at different times. It appears -that after their institution by Numa, the -college had the right of co-optation, that is, -if a member of the college died (for all the -pontiffs held their office for life), the members -met and elected a successor, who, after -his election, was inaugurated by the augurs. -This election was sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">captio</i>. -In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 104 a Lex Domitia was passed, which -transferred the right of electing the members -of the great colleges of priests to the -people (probably in the comitia tributa); -that is, the people elected a candidate, who -was then made a member of the college by -the co-optatio of the priests themselves, so -that the co-optatio, although still necessary, -became a mere matter of form. The Lex -Domitia was repealed by Sulla in a Lex -Cornelia de Sacerdotiis (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 81), which restored -to the great priestly colleges their -full right of co-optatio. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 63 the law -of Sulla was abolished, and the Domitian -law was restored, but not in its full extent; -for it was now determined, that in case of -a vacancy the college itself should nominate -two candidates, and the people elect one of -them. M. Antonius again restored the right -of co-optatio to the college. The college of -pontiffs had the supreme superintendence of -all matters of religion, and of things and -persons connected with public as well as -private worship. They had the judicial decision -in all matters of religion, whether -private persons, magistrates, or priests were -concerned, and in cases where the existing -laws or customs were found defective or -insufficient, they made new laws and regulations -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decreta pontificum</i>), in which they -always followed their own judgment as to -what was consistent with the existing customs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304"></a>[304]</span> -and usages. The details of these duties -and functions were contained in books called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libri pontificii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pontificales</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">commentarii -sacrorum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacrorum pontificalium</i>, which -they were said to have received from Numa, -and which were sanctioned by Ancus Martius. -As to the rights and duties of the -pontiffs, it must first of all be borne in mind, -that the pontiffs were not priests of any particular -divinity, but a college which stood -above all other priests, and superintended -the whole external worship of the gods. -One of their principal duties was the regulation -of the sacra, both publica and privata, -and to watch that they were observed at the -proper times (for which purpose the pontiffs -had the whole regulation of the calendar, -see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium</a></span>), and in their proper form. -In the management of the sacra publica they -were in later times assisted in certain duties -by the Triumviri Epulones. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epulones">Epulones</a>.</span>] -The pontiffs convoked the assembly of the -curies (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comitia calata</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiata</i>) in cases -where priests were to be appointed, and -flamines or a rex sacrorum were to be inaugurated; -also when wills were to be received, -and when a detestatio sacrorum and adoption -by adrogatio took place. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio</a>.</span>] -In most cases the sentence of the pontiffs -only inflicted a fine upon the offenders; but -the person fined had the right of appealing -to the people, who might release him from -the fine. In regard to the vestal virgins, -and the persons who committed incest with -them, the pontiffs had criminal jurisdiction, -and might pronounce sentence of death. A -man who had violated a vestal virgin was, -according to an ancient law, scourged to -death by the pontifex maximus in the comitium, -and it appears that originally neither -the vestal virgins nor the male offenders in -such a case had any right of appeal. In -later times we find that, even when the -pontiffs had passed sentence upon vestal -virgins, a tribune interfered, and induced -the people to appoint a quaestor for the purpose -of making a fresh inquiry into the case; -and it sometimes happened that after this -new trial the sentence of the pontiffs was -modified or annulled. Such cases, however, -seem to have been mere irregularities, -founded upon an abuse of the tribunitian -power. In the early times the pontiffs were -in the exclusive possession of the civil as -well as religious law, until the former was -made public by Cn. Flavius. The regulations -which served as a guide to the pontiffs -in their judicial proceedings, formed a large -collection of laws, which was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus -pontificium</i>, and formed part of the Libri -Pontificii. The meetings of the college of -pontiffs, to which in some instances the famines -and the rex sacrorum were summoned, -were held in the curia regia on the Via -Sacra, to which was attached the residence -of the pontifex maximus and of the rex sacrorum. -As the chief pontiff was obliged to -live in a domus publica, Augustus, when he -assumed this dignity, changed part of his -own house into a domus publica. All the -pontiffs were in their appearance distinguished -by the conic cap, called tutulus or -galerus, with an apex upon it, and the toga -praetexta. The pontifex maximus was the -president of the college, and acted in its -name, whence he alone is frequently mentioned -in cases in which he must be considered -only as the organ of the college. He was generally -chosen from among the most distinguished -persons, and such as had held a -curule magistracy, or were already members -of the college. Two of his especial duties -were to appoint (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capere</i>) the vestal virgins -and the flamines [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vestales">Vestales</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Flamen">Flamen</a></span>], and -to be present at every marriage by confarreatio. -When festive games were vowed, -or a dedication made, the chief pontiff had -to repeat over, before the persons who made -the vow or the dedication, the formula in -which it was to be performed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praeire -verba</i>). During the period of the republic, -when the people exercised sovereign power -in every respect, we find that if the pontiff, -on constitutional or religious grounds, refused -to perform this solemnity, he might -be compelled by the people. The pontifex -maximus wrote down what occurred in his -year on tablets, which were hung up in his -dwelling for the information of the people, -and called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Annales Maximi</i>. A pontifex -might, like all the members of the great -priestly colleges, hold any other military, -civil, or priestly office, provided the different -offices did not interfere with one another. -Thus we find one and the same person being -pontiff, augur, and decemvir sacrorum; instances -of a pontifex maximus being at the -same time consul are very numerous. But -whatever might be the civil or military office -which a pontifex maximus held beside his -pontificate, he was not allowed originally to -leave Italy. The college of pontiffs continued -to exist until the overthrow of paganism. -The emperors themselves were always -chief pontiffs, and as such the presidents of -the college; hence the title of pontifex maximus -(P. M. or PON. M.) appears on several -coins of the emperors. If there were several -emperors at a time, only one bore the title -of pontifex maximus; but in the year <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> -238 we find that each of the two emperors -Maximus and Balbinus assumed this dignity.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305"></a>[305]</span> -From the time of Theodosius the emperors -no longer appear with the dignity of pontiff; -but at last the title was assumed by the -Christian bishop of Rome.—There were other -pontiffs at Rome, who were distinguished by -the epithet <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Minores</i>. They appear to have -been originally only the secretaries of the -pontiffs; and when the real pontiffs began to -neglect their duties, and to leave the principal -business to be done by their secretaries, -it became customary to designate these -scribes by the name of Pontifices Minores. -The number of these secretaries is uncertain.</p> - - -<p id="Popa">PŎPA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacrificium">Sacrificium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Popina">PŎPĪNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caupona">Caupona</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Popularia">POPŬLĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Populus">PŎPŬLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Populifugia">PŎPŬLĬFŬGĬA or POPLĬFŬGĬA, the -day of the people’s flight, was celebrated on -the nones of July, according to an ancient -tradition, in commemoration of the flight of -the people, when the inhabitants of Ficulae, -Fidenae, and other places round about, appeared -in arms against Rome shortly after -the departure of the Gauls, and produced -such a panic that the Romans suddenly fled -before them. Other writers say that the -Populifugia was celebrated in commemoration -of the flight of the people before the -Tuscans; while others again refer its origin -to the flight of the people on the death of -Romulus.</p> - - -<p id="Poristae">PŎRISTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πορισταί</span>), magistrates at -Athens, who probably levied the extraordinary -supplies.</p> - - -<p id="Porta">PORTA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύλη</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυλίς</span>), the gate of a -city, citadel, or other open space inclosed by -a wall, in contradistinction to <span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a></span>, which -was the door of a house or any covered edifice. -The terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">porta</i> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύλη</span> are often -found in the plural, even when applied to a -single gate, because it consisted of two leaves. -The gates of a city were of course various in -their number and position. Thus Megara -had 5 gates; Thebes, in Boeotia, had 7; -Athens had 8; and Rome 20, or perhaps -even more. The jambs of the gate were -surmounted, 1. by a lintel, which was large -and strong in proportion to the width of the -gate. 2. By an arch, as we see exemplified -at Pompeii, Paestum, Sepianum, Volterra, -Suza, Autun, Besançon, and Treves. 3. At -Arpinum, one of the gates now remaining is -arched, whilst another is constructed with -the stones projecting one beyond another. -Gates sometimes had two passages close together, -the one designed for carriages entering, -and the other for carriages leaving the -city. In other instances we find only one -gate for carriages, but a smaller one on each -side of it (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραπυλίς</span>) for foot-passengers. -When there were no sideways, one of the -valves of the large gate sometimes contained -a wicket (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portula</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυλίς: ῥινοπύλη</span>), large -enough to admit a single person. The gateway -had commonly a chamber (called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυλών</span>) -either on one side or on both, which served -as the residence of the porter or guard. Statues -of the gods were often placed near the -gate, or even within it in the barbican, so as -to be ready to receive the adoration of those -who entered the city.</p> - - -<p id="Porticus">PORTĬCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στοά</span>), a walk covered with a -roof, and supported by columns, at least on -one side. Such shaded walks and places of -resort are almost indispensable in the southern -countries of Europe, where people live -much in the open air, as a protection from -the heat of the sun and from rain. The -porticoes attached to the temples were either -constructed only in front of them, or went -round the whole building, as is the case in -the so-called Temple of Theseus at Athens. -They were originally intended as places for -those persons to assemble and converse in -who visited the temple for various purposes. -As such temple-porticoes, however, were -found too small, or not suited for the various -purposes of private and public life, most -Grecian towns had independent porticoes, -some of which were very extensive; and in -most of these <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stoae</i>, seats (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exedrae</i>) were -placed, that those who were tired might sit -down. They were frequented not only by -idle loungers, but also by philosophers, rhetoricians, -and other persons fond of intellectual -conversation. The Stoic school of philosophy -derived its name from the circumstance, -that the founder of it used to -converse with his disciples in a stoa. The -Romans derived their great fondness for -such covered walks from the Greeks; and as -luxuries among them were carried in everything -to a greater extent than in Greece, -wealthy Romans had their private porticoes, -sometimes in the city itself, and sometimes -in their country-seats. In the public porticoes -of Rome, which were exceedingly numerous -and very extensive (as those around -the Forum and the Campus Martius), a -variety of business was occasionally transacted: -we find that law-suits were conducted -here, meetings of the senate held, goods exhibited -for sale, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Portisculus">PORTISCŬLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κελευστής</span>), an officer in -a ship, who gave the signal to the rowers, -that they might keep time in rowing. This -officer is sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hortator</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pausarius</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Portitores">PORTĬTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Publicani">Publicani</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Portorium">PORTŌRĬUM, a branch of the regular -revenues of the Roman state, consisting of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306"></a>[306]</span> -the duties paid on imported and exported -goods. A portorium, or duty upon imported -goods, appears to have been paid at a very -early period, for it is said that Valerius Publicola -exempted the plebes from the portoria -at the time when the republic was threatened -with an invasion by Porsena. The time of -its introduction is uncertain; but the abolition -of it, ascribed to Publicola, can only -have been a temporary measure; and as the -expenditure of the republic increased, new -portoria must have been introduced. In -conquered places, and in the provinces, the -import and export duties, which had been -paid there before, were generally not only -retained, but increased, and appropriated to -the aerarium. Sicily, and above all, Asia, -furnished to the Roman treasury large sums, -which were raised as portoria. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 60 -all the portoria in the ports of Italy were -done away with by a Lex Caecilia, but were -restored by Julius Caesar and the subsequent -emperors. Respecting the amount of the -import or export duties we have but little -information. In the time of Cicero the portorium -in the ports of Sicily was one-twentieth -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vicesima</i>) of the value of taxable articles; -and it is probable that this was the -average sum raised in all the other provinces. -In the times of the emperors the -ordinary rate of the portorium appears to -have been the fortieth part (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadragesima</i>) -of the value of imported goods; and at a -later period the exorbitant sum of one-eighth -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">octava</i>) is mentioned. The portorium was, -like all other vectigalia, farmed out by the -censors to the publicani, who collected it -through the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portitores</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vectigalia">Vectigalia</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Publicani">Publicani</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Possessio">POSSESSĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ager">Ager Publicus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Posticum">POSTĪCUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Postliminium">POSTLĪMĬNĬUM, POSTLĪMĬNII JUS. -If a Roman citizen during war came into -the possession of an enemy, he sustained a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diminutio capitis maxima</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a></span>], and all -his civil rights were in abeyance. Being -captured by the enemy, he became a slave; -but his rights over his children, if he had -any, were not destroyed, but were said to be -in abeyance (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pendere</i>) by virtue of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus -Postliminii</i>: when he returned, his children -were again in his power; and if he died in -captivity, they became sui juris. Sometimes -by an act of the state a man was given up -bound to an enemy, and if the enemy would -not receive him, it was a question whether -he had the Jus Postliminii. This was the -case with Sp. Postumius, who was given up -to the Samnites, and with C. Hostilius Mancinus, -who was given up to the Numantines; -but the better opinion was, that they had no -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jus Postliminii</i>, and Mancinus was restored -to his civic rights by a lex. It appears that -the Jus Postliminii was founded on the fiction -of the captive having never been absent from -home; a fiction which was of easy application, -for, as the captive during his absence -could not do any legal act, the interval of -captivity was a period of legal non-activity, -which was terminated by his showing himself -again.</p> - - -<p id="Potestas">PŎTESTAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patria">Patria Potestas</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Practores">PRACTŎRES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πράκτορες</span>), subordinate officers -at Athens, who collected the fines and -penalties (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιβολάς</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμήματα</span>) imposed by -magistrates and courts of justice, and payable -to the state.</p> - - -<p id="Praecinctio">PRAECINCTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praecones">PRAECŌNES, criers, were employed for -various purposes: 1. In sales by auction, they -frequently advertised the time, place, and -conditions of sale: they seem also to have -acted the part of the modern auctioneer, so -far as calling out the biddings and amusing -the company, though the property was -knocked down by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister auctionis</i>. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Auctio">Auctio</a>.</span>] 2. In all public assemblies they -ordered silence. 3. In the comitia they -called the centuries one by one to give their -votes, pronounced the vote of each century, -and called out the names of those who were -elected. They also recited the laws that -were to be passed. 4. In trials, they summoned -the accuser and the accused, the -plaintiff and defendant. 5. In the public -games, they invited the people to attend, -and proclaimed the victors. 6. In solemn -funerals they also invited people to attend -by a certain form; hence these funerals were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funera indictiva</i>. 7. When things -were lost, they cried them and searched for -them. 8. In the infliction of capital punishment, -they sometimes conveyed the commands -of the magistrates to the lictors. -Their office, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praeconium</i>, appears to -have been regarded as rather disreputable: -in the time of Cicero a law was passed preventing -all persons who had been praecones -from becoming decuriones in the municipia. -Under the early emperors, however, it became -very profitable, which was no doubt -partly owing to fees, to which they were -entitled in the courts of justice, and partly -to the bribes which they received from the -suitors, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Praeda">PRAEDA signifies moveable things taken -by an enemy in war. Such things were -either distributed by the Imperator among -the soldiers or sold by the quaestors, and -the produce was brought into the Aerarium. -The difference between Praeda and -Manubiae is this:—Praeda is the things<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307"></a>[307]</span> -themselves that are taken in war, and Manubiae -is the money realized by their sale. -It was the practice to set up a spear at such -sales, which was afterwards used at all sales -of things by a magistrates in the name of -the people. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sectio">Sectio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praefectura">PRAEFECTŪRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praefectus">PRAEFECTUS AERĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praefectus_a">PRAEFECTUS ANNŌNAE, the praefect -of the provisions, especially of the corn-market, -was not a regular magistrate under -the republic, but was only appointed in cases -of extraordinary scarcity, when he seems to -have regulated the prices at which corn was -to be sold. Augustus created an officer under -the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praefectus Annonae</i>, who had -jurisdiction over all matters appertaining -to the corn-market, and, like the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praefectus -Vigilum</i>, was chosen from the equites, and -was not reckoned among the ordinary magistrates.</p> - - -<p id="Praefectus_q">PRAEFECTUS ĂQUĀRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aquae">Aquae -Ductus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praefectus_c">PRAEFECTUS CASTRŌRUM, praefect of -the camp, is first mentioned in the reign of -Augustus. There was one to each legion.</p> - - -<p id="Praefectus_s">PRAEFECTUS CLASSIS, the commander -of a fleet. This title was frequently given -in the times of the republic to the commander -of a fleet; but Augustus appointed -two permanent officers with this title, one -of whom was stationed at Ravenna on the -Adriatic, and the other at Misenum on the -Tuscan sea, each having the command of a -fleet.</p> - - -<p id="Praefectus_f">PRAEFECTUS FABRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fabri">Fabri</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praefectus_j">PRAEFECTUS JŪRI DĪCUNDO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praefectus_l">PRAEFECTUS LĔGĬŌNIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praefectus_p">PRAEFECTUS PRAETŌRĬO, was the -commander of the troops who guarded the -emperor’s person. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetoriani">Praetoriani</a>.</span>] This -office was instituted by Augustus, and was -at first only military, and had comparatively -small power attached to it; but under Tiberius, -who made Sejanus commander of the -praetorian troops, it became of much greater -importance, till at length the power of these -praefects became only second to that of the -emperors. From the reign of Severus to that -of Diocletian, the praefects, like the vizirs -of the east, had the superintendence of all -departments of the state, the palace, the -army, the finances, and the law: they also -had a court in which they decided cases. -The office of praefect of the praetorium was -not confined to military officers; it was filled -by Ulpian and Papinian, and other distinguished -jurists. Originally there were two -praefects; afterwards sometimes one and -sometimes two; from the time of Commodus -sometimes three, and even four. They were, -as a regular rule, chosen only from the equites; -but from the time of Alexander Severus the -dignity of senator was always joined with -their office.</p> - - -<p id="Praefectus_v">PRAEFECTUS VĬGĬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, -<a href="#Page_171">p. 171</a>, <em>a</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Praefectus_u">PRAEFECTUS URBI, praefect or warden -of the city, was originally called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Custos -Urbis</i>. The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praefectus urbi</i> does not -seem to have been used till after the time of -the decemvirs. The dignity of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos urbis</i>, -being combined with that of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">princeps senatus</i>, -was conferred by the king, as he had to -appoint one of the decem primi as princeps -senatus. The functions of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos urbis</i>, -however, were not exercised except in the -absence of the king from Rome; and then he -acted as the representative of the king: he -convoked the senate, held the comitia, if -necessary, and on any emergency, might -take such measures as he thought proper; -in short, he had the imperium in the city. -During the kingly period, the office of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos -urbis</i> was probably for life. Under the republic, -the office, and its name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos urbis</i>, -remained unaltered; but in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 487 it was -elevated into a magistracy, to be bestowed -by election. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos urbis</i> was, in all -probability, elected by the curiae. Persons -of consular rank were alone eligible. In the -early period of the republic the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">custos urbis</i> -exercised within the city all the powers of -the consuls, if they were absent: he convoked -the senate, held the comitia, and, in -times of war, even levied civic legions, -which were commanded by him. When the -office of praetor urbanus was instituted, the -wardenship of the city was swallowed up in -it; but as the Romans were at all times -averse to dropping altogether any of their -old institutions, a praefectus urbi, though a -mere shadow of the former office, was henceforth -appointed every year, only for the time -that the consuls were absent from Rome for -the purpose of celebrating the Feriae Latinae. -This praefectus had neither the power -of convoking the senate nor the right of -speaking in it; in most cases he was a person -below the senatorial age, and was not -appointed by the people, but by the consuls. -An office very different from this, though -bearing the same name, was instituted by -Augustus on the suggestion of Maecenas. -This new praefectus urbi was a regular and -permanent magistrate, whom Augustus invested -with all the powers necessary to -maintain peace and order in the city. He -had the superintendence of butchers, bankers, -guardians, theatres, &c.; and to enable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308"></a>[308]</span> -him to exercise his power, he had distributed -throughout the city a number of -milites stationarii, whom we may compare -to a modern police. His jurisdiction, however, -became gradually extended; and as -the powers of the ancient republican praefectus -urbi had been swallowed up by the -office of the praetor urbanus, so now the -power of the praetor urbanus was gradually -absorbed by that of the praefectus urbi; and -at last there was no appeal from his sentence, -except to the person of the princeps himself, -while any body might appeal from the sentence -of any other city magistrate, and, at a -later period, even from that of a governor of a -province, to the tribunal of the praefectus urbi.</p> - - -<p id="Praeficae">PRAEFĬCAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praejudicium">PRAEJŪDĬCĬUM is used both in the sense -of a precedent, in which case it is rather -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exemplum</i> than <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praejudicium</i> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">res ex paribus -causis judicatae</i>); and also in the sense of a -preliminary inquiry and determination about -something which belongs to the matter in -dispute (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judiciis ad ipsam causam pertinentibus</i>), -from whence also comes the name -Praejudicium.</p> - - -<p id="Praelusio">PRAELŪSĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praenomen">PRAENŌMEN. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nomen">Nomen</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praerogativa">PRAERŎGĀTĪVA TRIBUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>, -<a href="#Page_109">p. 109</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Praes">PRAES, is a surety for one who buys of -the state. The goods of a Praes were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praedia</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praediator</i> was a person who -bought a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praedium</i>, that is, a thing given to -the state as a security by a praes.</p> - - -<p id="Praescriptio">PRAESCRIPTĬO, or rather TEMPŎRIS -PRAESCRIPTĬO, signifies the Exceptio or -answer which a defendant has to the demand -of a plaintiff, founded on the circumstance of -the lapse of time. The word has properly no -reference to the plaintiff’s loss of right, but to -the defendant’s acquisition of a right by -which he excludes the plaintiff from prosecuting -his suit. This right of a defendant did -not exist in the old Roman law.</p> - - -<p id="Praeses">PRAESES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Provincia">Provincia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praesul">PRAESUL. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Salii">Salii</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praetexta">PRAETEXTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Toga">Toga</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praetor">PRAETOR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατηγός</span>), was originally a -title which designated the consuls as the -leaders of the armies of the state. The -period and office of the command of the consuls -might appropriately be called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praetorium</i>. -Praetor was also a title of office among -the Latins. The first praetor specially so -called was appointed in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 366, and he was -chosen only from the patricians, who had -this new office created as a kind of indemnification -to themselves for being compelled to -share the consulship with the plebeians. No -plebeian praetor was appointed till the year -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 337. The praetor was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">collega -consulibus</i>, and was elected with the same -auspices at the comitia centuriata. The praetorship -was originally a kind of third consulship, -and the chief functions of the praetor -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus in urbe dicere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jura reddere</i>) were a portion -of the functions of the consuls. The -praetor sometimes commanded the armies of -the state; and while the consuls were absent -with the armies, he exercised their functions -within the city. He was a magistratus curulis, -and he had the imperium, and consequently -was one of the magistratus majores: -but he owed respect and obedience to the -consuls. His insignia of office were six lictors; -but at a later period he had only two -lictors in Rome. The praetorship was at first -given to a consul of the preceding year.—In -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 246 another praetor was appointed, -whose business was to administer justice in -matters in dispute between peregrini, or -peregrini and Roman citizens; and accordingly -he was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor peregrinus</i>. The -other praetor was then called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor urbanus, -qui jus inter cives dicit</i>, and sometimes -simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor urbanus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetor urbis</i>. -The two praetors determined by lot which -functions they should respectively exercise. -If either of them was at the head of the army, -the other performed all the duties of both -within the city. Sometimes the military imperium -of a praetor was prolonged for a -second year. When the territories of the -state were extended beyond the limits of -Italy, new praetors were made. Thus, two -praetors were created <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 227, for the -administration of Sicily and Sardinia, and -two more were added when the two Spanish -provinces were formed, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 197. When -there were six praetors, two stayed in the -city, and the other four went abroad. The -senate determined their provinces, which -were distributed among them by lot. After -the discharge of his judicial functions in the -city, a praetor often had the administration -of a province, with the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propraetor</i>. -Sulla increased the number of praetors to -eight, which Julius Caesar raised successively -to ten, twelve, fourteen, and sixteen. Augustus, -after several changes, fixed the number -at twelve. Under Tiberius there were -sixteen. Two praetors were appointed by -Claudius for matters relating to fideicommissa, -when the business in this department of the -law had become considerable, but Titus reduced -the number to one; and Nerva added -a praetor for the decision of matters between -the fiscus and individuals. Thus there were -eventually eighteen praetors, who administered -justice in the state.—The praetor urbanus -was specially named praetor, and he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309"></a>[309]</span> -was the first in rank. His duties confined -him to Rome, as is implied by the name, and -he could only leave the city for ten days at a -time. It was part of his duty to superintend -the Ludi Apollinares. He was also the chief -magistrate for the administration of justice; -and to the edicta of the successive praetors -the Roman law owes in a great degree its -development and improvement. Both the -praetor urbanus and the praetor peregrinus -had the jus edicendi, and their functions in -this respect do not appear to have been limited -on the establishment of the imperial -power, though it must have been gradually -restricted, as the practice of imperial constitutions -and rescripts became common. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Edictum">Edictum</a>.</span>] The chief judicial functions of -the praetor in civil matters consisted in giving -a judex. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>] It was only in the case -of interdicts that he decided in a summary -way. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Interdictum">Interdictum</a>.</span>] Proceedings before -the praetor were technically said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in -jure</i>. The praetors also presided at trials of -criminal matters. These were the quaestiones -perpetuae, or the trials for repetundae, -ambitus, majestas, and peculatus, which, -when there were six praetors, were assigned -to four out of the number. Sulla added to -these quaestiones those of falsum, de sicariis -et veneficis, and de parricidis, and for this -purpose he added two, or, according to some -accounts, four praetors. On these occasions -the praetor presided, but a body of judices -determined by a majority of votes the condemnation -or acquittal of the accused. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>] -The praetor, when he administered -justice, sat on a sella curulis in a tribunal, -which was that part of the court which was -appropriated to the praetor and his assessors -and friends, and is opposed to the subsellia, -or part occupied by the judices, and others -who were present.</p> - - -<p id="Praetoria">PRAETŌRĬA CŎHORS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetoriani">Praetoriani</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Praetoriani">PRAETŌRĬĀNI, sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">milites</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetoriae -cohortes</i>, a body of troops instituted by Augustus -to protect his person and his power, -and called by that name in imitation of the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetoria cohors</i>, or select troops which attended -the person of the praetor or general of -the Roman army. They originally consisted -of nine or ten cohorts, each comprising a -thousand men, horse and foot. Augustus, in -accordance with his general policy of avoiding -the appearance of despotism, stationed -only three of these cohorts in the capital, and -dispersed the remainder in the adjacent -towns of Italy. Tiberius, however, under -pretence of introducing a stricter discipline -among them, assembled them all at Rome in -a permanent camp, which was strongly fortified. -Their number was increased by Vitellius -to sixteen cohorts, or 16,000 men. The -praetorians were distinguished by double pay -and especial privileges. Their term of service -was originally fixed by Augustus at -twelve years, but was afterwards increased -to sixteen years; and when they had served -their time, each soldier received 20,000 -sesterces. They soon became the most -powerful body in the state, and, like the -janissaries at Constantinople, frequently deposed -and elevated emperors according to -their pleasure. Even the most powerful of -the emperors were obliged to court their -favour; and they always obtained a liberal -donation upon the accession of each sovereign. -After the death of Pertinax (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> -193) they even offered the empire for sale, -which was purchased by Didius Julianus; -but upon the accession of Severus in the -same year they were disbanded, on account -of the part they had taken in the death of -Pertinax, and banished from the city. The -emperors, however, could not dispense with -guards, and accordingly the praetorians were -restored on a new model by Severus, and -increased to four times their ancient number. -Diocletian reduced their numbers and abolished -their privileges; they were still allowed -to remain at Rome, but had no longer the -guard of the emperor’s person, as he never -resided in the capital. Their numbers were -again increased by Maxentius; but after his -defeat by Constantine, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 312, they were -entirely suppressed by the latter, their fortified -camp destroyed, and those who had not -perished in the battle between Constantine -and Maxentius were dispersed among the -legions. The commander of the praetorians -was called <span class="smcap"><a href="#Praefectus_p">Praefectus Praetorio</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Praetorium">PRAETŌRĬUM, the name of the general’s -tent in the camp, and so called because the -name of the chief Roman magistrate was -originally praetor, and not consul. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>] -The officers who attended on the general in the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetorium</i>, and formed his council of war, -were called by the same name. The word was -also used in several other significations, which -were derived from the original one. Thus -the residence of a governor of a province was -called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetorium</i>; and the same name -was also given to any large house or palace. -The camp of the praetorian troops at Rome, and -frequently the praetorian troops themselves, -were called by this name. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetoriani">Praetoriani</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Prandium">PRANDĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a></span>, <a href="#Page_96">p. 96</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Prelum">PRĒLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vinum">Vinum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Primipilus">PRĪMĬPĪLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Centurio">Centurio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Princeps">PRINCEPS JŬVENTŪTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Princeps_s">PRINCEPS SĔNĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Principes">PRINCĬPES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_168">p. 168</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Principia">PRINCĬPĬA, PRINCĬPĀLIS VIA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310"></a>[310]</span></p> - - -<p id="Privilegium">PRĪVĬLĒGĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Probole">PRŎBŎLĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προβολή</span>), an accusation of a -criminal nature, preferred before the people -of Athens in assembly, with a view to obtain -their sanction for bringing the charge before -a judicial tribunal. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probolé</i> was reserved -for those cases where the public had sustained -an injury, or where, from the station, power, -or influence of the delinquent, the prosecutor -might deem it hazardous to proceed in the -ordinary way without being authorised by a -vote of the sovereign assembly. In this point -it differed from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">eisangelia</i>, that in the -latter the people were called upon either to -pronounce final judgment, or to direct some -peculiar method of trial; whereas, in the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probolé</i> after the judgment of the assembly, -the parties proceeded to trial in the usual -manner. The cases to which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probolé</i> was -applied were, complaints against magistrates -for official misconduct of oppression; against -those public informers and mischief-makers -who were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sycophantae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συκοφάνται</span>); -against those who outraged public decency at -the religious festivals; and against all such -as by evil practices exhibited disaffection to -the state.</p> - - -<p id="Probouleuma">PRŎBOULEUMA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boule</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Probouli">PRŎBOULI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόβουλοι</span>), a name applicable -to any persons who are appointed to consult -or take measures for the benefit of the people. -Ten <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">probouli</i> were appointed at Athens, after -the end of the Sicilian war, to act as a -committee of public safety. Their authority -did not last much longer than a year; for a -year and a half afterwards Pisander and his -colleagues established the council of Four -Hundred, by which the democracy was overthrown.</p> - - -<p id="Proconsul">PRŌCONSUL (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνθύπατος</span>), an officer who -acted in the place of a consul, without holding -the office of consul itself. The proconsul, -however, was generally one who had held -the office of consul, so that the proconsulship -was a continuation, though a modified one, -of the consulship. The first time when the -imperium of a consul was prolonged, was in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 327, in the case of Q. Publilius Philo, -whose return to Rome would have been -followed by the loss of most of the advantages -that had been gained in his campaign. The -power of proconsul was conferred by a senatusconsultum -and plebiscitum, and was nearly -equal to that of a regular consul, for he had -the imperium and jurisdictio, but it differed -inasmuch as it did not extend over the city -and its immediate vicinity, and was conferred, -without the auspicia, by a mere decree of the -senate and people, and not in the comitia for -elections. When the number of Roman -provinces had become great, it was customary -for the consuls, who during the latter period -of the republic spent the year of their consulship -at Rome, to undertake at its close the -conduct of a war in a province, or its peaceful -administration, with the title of proconsuls. -There are some extraordinary cases on record -in which a man obtained a province with the -title of proconsul without having held the -consulship before. The first case of this kind -occurred in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 211, when young P. Cornelius -Scipio was created proconsul of Spain in -the comitia centuriata.</p> - - -<p id="Procurator">PRŌCŪRĀTOR, a person who has the -management of any business committed to -him by another. Thus it is applied to a -person who maintains or defends an action -on behalf of another, or, as we should say, -an attorney [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a></span>]: to a steward in a family -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calculator">Calculator</a></span>]: to an officer in the provinces -belonging to the Caesar, who attended to the -duties discharged by the quaestor in the -other provinces [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Provincia">Provincia</a></span>]: to an officer -engaged in the administration of the fiscus -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fiscus">Fiscus</a></span>]: and to various other officers under -the empire.</p> - - -<p id="Prodigium">PRŌDĬGĬUM, in its widest acceptation, -denotes any sign by which the gods indicated -to men a future event, whether good or evil, -and thus includes omens and auguries of -every description. It is, however, generally -employed in a more restricted sense, to signify -some strange incident or wonderful -appearance which was supposed to herald the -approach of misfortune, and happened under -such circumstances as to announce that the -calamity was impending over a whole community -or nation rather than over private -individuals. The word may be considered -synonymous with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostentum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">monstrum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portentum</i>. -Since prodigies were viewed as -direct manifestations of the wrath of heaven, -it was believed that this wrath might be appeased -by prayers and sacrifices duly offered -to the offended powers. This being a matter -which deeply concerned the public welfare, -the necessary rites were in ancient times -regularly performed, under the direction of -the pontifices, by the consuls before they left -the city, the solemnities being called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procuratio -prodigiorum</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Prodosia">PRODŎSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προδοσία</span>) included not only -every species of treason, but also every such -crime as (in the opinion of the Greeks) would -amount to a betraying or desertion of the -interest of a man’s country. The highest -sort of treason was the attempt to establish a -despotism (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τυραννίς</span>), or to subvert the constitution -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταλύειν τὴν πολιτείαν</span>), and in democracies -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταλύειν τὸν δῆμον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ πλῆθος</span>. Other -kinds of treason were a secret correspondence -with a foreign enemy; a betraying of an<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311"></a>[311]</span> -important trust, such, as a fleet, army, or -fortress, a desertion of post, a disobedience of -orders, or any other act of treachery, or breach -of duty in the public service. But not only -would <em>overt acts</em> of disobedience or treachery -amount to the crime of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προδοσία</span>, but also the -neglect to perform those active duties which -the Greeks in general expected of every good -citizen. Cowardice in battle (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δειλία</span>) would -be an instance of this kind; so would any -breach of the oath taken by the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔφηβοι</span> at -Athens; or any line of conduct for which a -charge of disaffection to the people (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισοδημία</span>) -might be successfully maintained. -The regular punishment appointed by the -law for most kinds of treason appears to have -been death, which, no doubt, might be mitigated -by decree of the people, as in the case -of Miltiades and many others. The goods of -traitors, who suffered death, were confiscated, -and their houses razed to the ground; nor -were they permitted to be buried in the -country, but had their bodies cast out in some -place on the confines of Attica and Megara. -Therefore it was that the bones of Themistocles, -who had been condemned for treason, -were brought over and buried secretly by his -friends. The posterity of a traitor became -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄτιμοι</span>, and those of a tyrant were liable to -share the fate of their ancestor.</p> - - -<p id="Proedri">PRŎĔDRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boule</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Profesti">PRŌFESTI DĬES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dies">Dies</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Proletarii">PRŌLĒTĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caput">Caput</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Prometheia">PRŎMĒTHEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προμήθεια</span>), a festival -celebrated at Athens in honour of Prometheus. -It was one of the five Attic festivals, -which were held with a torch-race in the -Ceramicus [comp. <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lampadephoria">Lampadephoria</a></span>], for -which the gymnasiarchs had to supply the -youths from the gymnasia. Prometheus -himself was believed to have instituted this -torch-race, whence he was called the torch-bearer.</p> - - -<p id="Promulsis">PRŌMULSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coena">Coena</a></span>, <a href="#Page_96">p. 96</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Pronubae">PRŌNŬBAE, PRŌNŬBI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Propraetor">PROPRAETOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Propylaea">PRŎPỸLAEA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προπύλαια</span>), the entrance to -a temple, or sacred enclosure, consisted of a -gateway flanked by buildings, whence the -plural form of the word. The Egyptian -temples generally had magnificent <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propylaea</i>, -consisting of a pair of oblong truncated pyramids -of solid masonry, the faces of which -were sculptured with hieroglyphics. In -Greek, except when the Egyptian temples -are spoken of, the word is generally used to -signify the entrance to the Acropolis of -Athens, which was executed under the administration -of Pericles.</p> - - -<p id="Proquaestor">PRŌQUAESTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestor</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Prora">PRŌRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a></span>, <a href="#Page_263">p. 263</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Proscenium">PRŌSCĒNĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Proscriptio">PRŌSCRIPTĬO. The verb <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proscribere</i> -properly signifies to exhibit a thing for sale -by means of a bill or advertisement. But -in the time of Sulla it assumed a very different -meaning, for he applied it to a measure -of his own invention (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 82), namely, the -sale of the property of those who were put to -death at his command, and who were themselves -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proscripti</i>. After this example -of a proscription had once been set, it was -readily adopted by those in power during the -civil commotions of subsequent years. In -the proscription of Antonius, Caesar, and Lepidus -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 43), Cicero and some of the most -distinguished Romans were put to death.</p> - - -<p id="Prostates">PRŎSTĂTĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Libertus">Libertus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Prostates_t">PRŎSTĂTĒS TOU DĒMOU (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης τοῦ -δήμου</span>), a leader of the people, denoted at -Athens and in other democratical states, a -person who by his character and eloquence -placed himself at the head of the people, and -whose opinion had the greatest sway amongst -them: such was Pericles. It appears, however, -that <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης τοῦ δήμου</span> was also the -title of a public officer in those Dorian states -in which the government was democratical.</p> - - -<p id="Prothesmia">PRŎTHESMĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προθεσμία</span>), the term limited -for bringing actions and prosecutions -at Athens. The Athenian expression <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προθεσμίας -νόμος</span> corresponds to our <em>statute of limitations</em>. -The time for commencing actions to -recover debts, or compensation for injuries, -appears to have been limited to five years at -Athens.</p> - - -<p id="Provincia">PRŌVINCĬA. This word is merely a -shortened form of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">providentia</i>, and was frequently -used in the sense of “a duty” or -“matter entrusted to a person.” But it is -ordinarily employed to denote a part of the -Roman dominion beyond Italy, which had a -regular organisation, and was under Roman -administration. Livy likewise uses the word -to denote a district or enemy’s country, -which was assigned to a general as the field -of his operations, before the establishment of -any provincial governments.—The Roman -state in its complete development consisted -of two parts with a distinct organisation, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Italia</i> and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Provinciae</i>. There were no -Provinciae in this sense of the word till the -Romans had extended their conquests beyond -Italy; and Sicily was the first country that -was made a Roman province: Sardinia was -made a province <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 235. The Roman province -of Gallia Ulterior in the time of Caesar -was sometimes designated simply by the term -Provincia, a name which has been perpetuated -in the modern Provence. A conquered country -received its provincial organisation either<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312"></a>[312]</span> -from the Roman commander, whose acts required -the approval of the senate; or the -government was organised by the commander -and a body of commissioners appointed by -the senate out of their own number. The -mode of dealing with a conquered country -was not uniform. When constituted a provincia, -it did not become to all purposes an -integral part of the Roman state; it retained -its national existence, though it lost its sovereignty. -The organisation of Sicily was -completed by P. Rupilius with the aid of ten -legates. The island was formed into two -districts, with Syracuse for the chief town of -the eastern and Lilybaeum of the western -district: the whole island was administered -by a governor annually sent from Rome. -He was assisted by two quaestors, and was -accompanied by a train of praecones, scribae, -haruspices, and other persons, who formed -his cohors. The quaestors received from the -Roman aerarium the necessary sums for the -administration of the island, and they also -collected the taxes, except those which were -farmed by the censors at Rome. One quaestor -resided at Lilybaeum, and the other with the -governor or praetor at Syracuse. For the -administration of justice the island was divided -into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fora</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Conventus</i>, which were -territorial divisions. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Conventus">Conventus</a>.</span>] The island -was bound to furnish and maintain soldiers -and sailors for the service of Rome, and to -pay tributum for the carrying on of wars. -The governor could take provisions for the -use of himself and his cohors on condition of -paying for them. The Roman state had also -the portoria which were let to farm to Romans -at Rome. The governor had complete -jurisdictio in the island, with the imperium -and potestas. He could delegate these powers -to his quaestors, but there was always an -appeal to him, and for this and other purposes -he made circuits through the different -conventus.—Such was the organisation of -Sicilia as a province, which may be taken as -a sample of the general character of Roman -provincial government. The governor, upon -entering on his duties, published an edict, -which was often framed upon the Edictum -Urbanum. Cicero, when proconsul of Cilicia, -says that on some matters he framed an -edict of his own, and that as to others he -referred to the Edicta Urbana. There was -one great distinction between Italy and the -provinces as to the nature of property in -land. Provincial land could not be an object -of Quiritarian ownership, and it was accordingly -appropriately called Possessio. Provincial -land could be transferred without the -forms required in the case of Italian land, -but it was subject to the payment of a land-tax -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigal</i>).—The Roman provinces up to -the battle of Actium are: Sicilia, Sardinia -et Corsica; Hispania Citerior et Ulterior; -Gallia Citerior; Gallia Narbonensis et Comata; -Illyricum; Macedonia; Achaia; -Asia; Cilicia; Syria; Bithynia et Pontus; -Cyprus; Africa; Cyrenaica et Creta; Numidia; -Mauritania. Those of a subsequent -date, which were either new or arose from -division, are: Rhaetia; Noricum; Pannonia; -Moesia; Dacia; Britannia; Mauritania -Caesariensis and Tingitana; Aegyptus; Cappadocia; -Galatia; Rhodus; Lycia; Commagene; -Judaea; Arabia; Mesopotamia; -Armenia; Assyria.—At first praetors were -appointed as governors of provinces, but -afterwards they were appointed to the government -of provinces, upon the expiration -of their year of office at Rome, and with the -title of propraetores. In the later times of -the republic, the consuls also, after the expiration -of their year of office, received the -government of a province, with the title of -proconsules: such provinces were called consulares. -The provinces were generally distributed -by lot, but the distribution was sometimes -arranged by agreement among the persons -entitled to them. By a Sempronian Lex -the proconsular provinces were annually determined -before the election of the consuls, -the object of which was to prevent all disputes. -A senatus consultum of the year 55 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -provided that no consul or praetor should -have a province till after the expiration of -five years from the time of his consulship or -praetorship. A province was generally held -for a year, but the time was often prolonged. -When a new governor arrived in his province, -his predecessor was required to leave -it within thirty days. The governor of a -province had originally to account at Rome -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad urbem</i>) for his administration, from his -own books and those of his quaestors; but -after the passing of a Lex Julia, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 61, he -was bound to deposit two copies of his accounts -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rationes</i>) in the two chief cities of his -province, and to forward one (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">totidem verbis</i>) -to the aerarium. If the governor misconducted -himself in the administration of the -province, the provincials applied to the Roman -senate, and to the powerful Romans -who were their patroni. The offences of -repetundae and peculatus were the usual -grounds of complaint by the provincials; -and if a governor had betrayed the interests -of the state, he was also liable to the penalties -attached to majestas. Quaestiones were established -for inquiries into these offences; -yet it was not always an easy matter to bring -a guilty governor to the punishment that he -deserved.—With the establishment of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313"></a>[313]</span> -imperial power under Augustus, a considerable -change was made in the administration -of the provinces. Augustus took the charge -of those provinces where a large military -force was required; the rest were left to the -care of the senate and the Roman people. -Accordingly we find in the older jurists the -division of provinciae into those which were -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propriae populi Romani</i>, and those which -were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propriae Caesaris</i>; and this division, -with some modifications, continued to the -third century. The senatorian provinces -were distributed among consulares and those -who had filled the office of praetor, two provinces -being given to the consulares and the -rest to the praetorii: these governors were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proconsules</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praesides</i>, which latter -is the usual term employed by the old jurists -for a provincial governor. The praesides had -the jurisdictio of the praetor urbanus and -the praetor peregrinus: and their quaestors -had the same jurisdiction that the curule -aediles had at Rome. The imperial provinces -were governed by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">legati Caesaris</i>, with praetorian -power, the proconsular power being -in the Caesar himself, and the legati being -his deputies and representatives. The legati -were selected from those who had been consuls -or praetors, or from the senators. They -held their office and their power at the pleasure -of the emperor; and he delegated to -them both military command and jurisdictio, -just as a proconsul in the republican period -delegated these powers to his legati. These -legati had also legati under them. No quaestors -were sent to the provinces of the Caesar. -In place of the quaestors, there were <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procuratores -Caesaris</i>, who were either equites -or freedmen of the Caesar. Egypt was governed -by an eques with the title of praefectus. -The procuratores looked after the -taxes, paid the troops, and generally were -intrusted with the interests of the fiscus. -Judaea, which was a part of the province -of Syria, was governed by a procurator, who -had the powers of a legatus. It appears that -there were also procuratores Caesaris in the -senatorian provinces, who collected certain -dues of the fiscus, which were independent -of what was due to the aerarium. The regular -taxes, as in the republican period, were -the poll-tax and land-tax. The taxation was -founded on a census of persons and property, -which was established by Augustus. The -portoria and other dues were farmed by the -publicani, as in the republican period.</p> - - -<p id="Provocatio">PRŌVŎCĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Appellatio">Appellatio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Provocatores">PRŌVŎCĀTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Proxenus">PROXĔNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόξενος</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hospitium">Hospitium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Prytaneium">PRỸTĂNEIUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτανεῖον</span>), the public -hall or town-hall in a Greek state. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytaneia</i> of the ancient Greek states and -cities were to the communities living around -them, what private houses were to the families -which occupied them. Just as the house -of each family was its home, so was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytaneium</i> -of every state or city the common -home of its members or inhabitants. This -correspondence between the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytaneium</i> or -home of the city, and the private home of -a man’s family, was at Athens very remarkable. -A perpetual fire was kept burning on -the public altar of the city in the prytaneium, -just as in private houses a fire was -kept up on the domestic altar in the inner -court of the house. Moreover, the city of -Athens exercised in its prytaneium the duties -of hospitality, both to its own citizens and to -strangers. Thus foreign ambassadors were -entertained here, as well as Athenian envoys, -on their return home from a successful or -well-conducted mission. Here, too, were entertained -from day to day the successive prytanes -or presidents of the senate, together -with those citizens who, whether from personal -or ancestral services to the state, were -honoured with what was called the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σίτησις ἐν -πρυτανείῳ</span>, or the privilege of taking their -meals there at the public cost. This was -granted sometimes for a limited period, sometimes -for life, in which latter case the parties -enjoying it were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀείσιτοι</span>. Moreover, -from the ever-burning fire of the prytaneium, -or home of a mother state, was carried the -sacred fire which was to be kept burning in -the prytaneia of her colonies; and if it happened -that this was ever extinguished, the -flame was rekindled from the prytaneium of -the parent city. Lastly, a prytaneium was -also a distinguishing mark of an independent -state. The prytaneium of Athens lay under -the Acropolis on its northern side (near the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγορά</span>), and was, as its name denotes, originally -the place of assembly of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytanes</i>; -in the earliest times it probably stood on the -Acropolis. Officers called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytanes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτανεῖς</span>) -were entrusted with the chief magistracy -in several states of Greece, as Corcyra, -Corinth, Miletus. At Athens they were in -early times probably a magistracy of the -second rank in the state (next to the archon), -acting as judges in various cases (perhaps in -conjunction with him), and sitting in the -prytaneium. That this was the case is rendered -probable by the fact, that even in after-times -the fees paid into court by plaintiff and -defendant, before they could proceed to trial, -and received by the dicasts, were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prytaneia</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Prytanes">PRỸTĂNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Prytaneium">Prytaneium</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boule</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Psephisma">PSĒPHISMA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boule</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Nomothetae">Nomothetes</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Psephus">PSĒPHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψῆφος</span>), a ball of stone, used by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314"></a>[314]</span> -the Athenian dicasts in giving their verdict. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cadus">Cadiscus</a>.</span>] Hence <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψηφίζεσθαι</span> and its various -derivatives are used so often to signify <em>voting</em>, -<em>determining</em>, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Pseudengraphes">PSEUDENGRĂPHĒS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψευδεγγραφῆς -γραφή</span>). The name of every state -debtor at Athens was entered in a register by -the praetores, whose duty it was to collect -the debts, and erase the name of the party -when he had paid it. If they made a false -entry, either wilfully, or upon the suggestion -of another person, the aggrieved party might -institute a prosecution against them, or -against the person upon whose suggestion it -was made. Such prosecution was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφὴ -ψευδεγγραφῆς</span>. It would lie also, where a man -was registered as debtor for more than was -really due from him.</p> - - -<p id="Pseudocleteias">PSEUDŎCLĒTEIAS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψευδοκλητείας -γραφή</span>), a prosecution against one, who -had appeared as a witness (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλητήρ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλήτωρ</span>) -to prove that a defendant had been duly summoned, -and thereby enabled the plaintiff to -get a judgment by default. The false witness -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλητήρ</span>) was liable to be criminally prosecuted, -and punished at the discretion of the -court. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφὴ ψευδοκλητείας</span> came before -the Thesmothetae, and the question at the -trial simply was, whether the defendant in -the former cause had been summoned or not.</p> - - -<p id="Psili">PSĪLI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψιλοί</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arma">Arma</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Psycter">PSYCTĒR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψυκτήρ</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψυκτηρίδιον</span>), a -wine-cooler, was sometimes made of bronze -or silver. One of earthenware is preserved -in the Museum of Antiquities at Copenhagen. -It consists of one deep vessel for holding ice, -which is fixed within another for holding -wine. The wine was poured in at the top. -It thus surrounded the vessel of ice and was -cooled by the contact. It was drawn off so -as to fill the drinking-cups by means of a -cock at the bottom.</p> - - -<p id="Pubes">PŪBES, PŪBERTAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Impubes">Impubes</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Infans">Infans</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Publicani">PUBLĬCĀNI, farmers of the public revenues -of the Roman state (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigalia</i>). Their -name is formed from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">publicum</i>, which signifies -all that belongs to the state, and is sometimes -used by Roman writers as synonymous -with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vectigal</i>. The revenues which Rome -derived from conquered countries, consisting -chiefly of tolls, tithes, harbour duties, the -scriptura, or the tax which was paid for the -use of the public pasture lands, and the duties -paid for the use of mines and salt-works (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salinae</i>), -were let out, or, as the Romans expressed -it, were sold by the censors in Rome itself to -the highest bidder. This sale generally took -place in the month of Quinctilis, and was -made for a lustrum. The terms on which -the revenues were let, were fixed by the censors -in the so-called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">leges censoriae</i>. The -people or the senate, however, sometimes -modified the terms fixed by the censors, in -order to raise the credit of the publicani; -and in some cases even the tribunes of the -people interfered in this branch of the administration. -The tithes raised in the province -of Sicily alone, with the exception of those of -wine, oil, and garden produce, were not sold -at Rome, but in the districts of Sicily itself, -according to a practice established by Hiero. -The persons who undertook the farming of -the public revenue of course belonged to the -wealthiest Romans, and during the latter -period of the republic they belonged almost -exclusively to the equestrian order. Their -wealth and consequent influence may be seen -from the fact, that as early as the second -Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, when -the aerarium was entirely exhausted, the -publicani advanced large sums of money to -the state, on condition of repayment after -the end of the war. The words equites and -publicani are sometimes used as synonymous. -The publicani had to give security to the -state for the sum at which they bought one or -more branches of the revenue in a province; -but as for this reason the property of even -the wealthiest individual must have been inadequate, -a number of equites generally -united together, and formed a company (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">socii</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">societas</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corpus</i>), which was recognised by -the state, and by which they were enabled to -carry on their undertakings upon a large -scale. Such companies appear as early as the -second Punic war. The shares which each -partner of such a company took in the business -were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">partes</i>, and if they were -small, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">particulae</i>. The responsible person in -each company, and the one who contracted -with the state, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manceps</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Manceps">Manceps</a></span>]; -but there was also a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister</i> to -manage the business of each society, who -resided at Rome, and kept an extensive correspondence -with the agents in the provinces. -He seems to have held his office only for one -year; his representative in the provinces was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub magistro</i>, who had to travel about, -and superintend the actual business of collecting -the revenues. Nobody but a Roman citizen -was allowed to become a member of a company -of publicani; freedmen and slaves were -excluded. No Roman magistrate, however, -or governor of a province, was allowed to -take any share whatever in a company of -publicani, a regulation which was chiefly -intended as a protection against the oppression -of the provincials. The collection of -the taxes in the provinces was performed by -an inferior class of men, who were said -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">operas publicanis dare</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">esse in operis societatis</i>. -They were engaged by the publicani,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315"></a>[315]</span> -and consisted of freemen as well as slaves, -Romans as well as provincials. The separate -branches of the public revenue in the provinces -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decumae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portoria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptura</i>, and the -revenues from the mines and salt-works) -were mostly leased to separate companies of -publicani; whence they were distinguished -by names derived from that particular branch -which they had taken in farm; <em>e.g.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decumani</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecuarii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scripturarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salinarii</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipes salinarum</i>, &c. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Decumae">Decumae</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Portorium">Portorium</a></span>; -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Salinae">Salinas</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Scriptura">Scriptura</a></span>.] The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">portitores</i> -were not publicani properly so called, -but only their servants engaged in examining -the goods imported or exported, and levying -the custom-duties upon them. They belonged -to the same class as the publicans of the New -Testament.</p> - - -<p id="Publicum">PUBLĬCUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Publicani">Publicani</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pugilatus">PŬGĬLĀTUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύξ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμαχία</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυγμοσύνη</span>), boxing, was one of the earliest -athletic games among the Greeks, and is -frequently mentioned in Homer. In the -earliest times boxers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pugiles</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύκται</span>) fought -naked, with the exception of a girdle (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζῶμα</span>) -round their loins; but this was not used -when boxing was introduced at Olympia, as -the contests in wrestling and racing had been -carried on there by persons entirely naked -ever since Ol. 15. Respecting the leathern -thongs with which pugilists surrounded their -fists, see Cestus, where its various forms are -illustrated by woodcuts. The Ionians, especially -those of Samos, were at all times more -distinguished pugilists than the Dorians, and -at Sparta boxing is said to have been forbidden -by the laws of Lycurgus. But the -ancients generally considered boxing as a -useful training for military purposes, and a -part of education no less important than any -other gymnastic exercise.</p> - - -<p id="Pugillares">PŬGILLĀRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabulae">Tabulae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pugio">PŬGĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μάχαιρα</span>), a dagger; a two-edged -knife, commonly of bronze, with the hand in -many cases variously ornamented or enriched.</p> - - -<p id="Pullarius">PULLĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Auspicium">Auspicium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pulpitum">PULPĬTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pulvinar">PULVĪNAR, a couch provided with cushions -or pillows (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulvini</i>), on which the Romans -placed the statues of the gods at the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lectisternia</i>. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epulones">Epulones</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lectisternium">Lectisternium</a></span>.] There -was also a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulvinar</i>, on which the images of -the gods were laid, in the Circus.</p> - - -<p id="Pupilla">PŪPILLA, PŪPILLUS, the name given -to every <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">impubes</i> not in the power of their -father, but subject to a guardian. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Impubes">Impubes</a></span>; -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tutor">Tutela</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Puppis">PUPPIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Puteal">PŬTĔAL, properly means the enclosure -surrounding the opening of a well, to protect -persons from falling into it. It was either -round or square, and seems usually to have -been of the height of three or four feet from -the ground. It was the practice in some -cases to surround a sacred place with an enclosure -open at the top, and such enclosures, -from the great similarity they bore to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">putealia</i>, -were called by this name. There were -two such places in the Roman forum; one of -these was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Puteal Libonis</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Scribonianum</i>, -because a chapel (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacellum</i>) in that -place had been struck by lightning, and -Scribonius Libo expiated it by proper ceremonies, -and erected a puteal around it, open -at the top, to preserve the memory of the -place. The form of this puteal is preserved -on several coins of the Scribonian gens. -This puteal seems to have been near the -atrium of Vesta, and was a common place of -meeting for usurers. The other puteal was -in the comitium, on the left side of the senate-house, -and in it were deposited the whetstone -and razor of <span class="smcap">Attus Navius</span>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp67" id="ill315" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill315.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Puteal on a Coin of the Scribonia Gens. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Puticuli">PUTĬCŬLI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pyanepsia">PỸANEPSIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυανέψια</span>), a festival celebrated -at Athens every year on the seventh -of Pyanepsion, in honour of Apollo, said to -have been instituted by Theseus after his -return from Crete. The festival, as well as -the month in which it took place, are said -to have derived their names from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύαμος</span>, -another form for <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύαμος</span>, <em>i.e.</em> pulse or beans, -which were cooked at this season and carried -about.</p> - - -<p id="Pylagorae">PỸLĂGŎRAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphictyones">Amphictyones</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pyra">PỸRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pyrrhica">PYRRHĬCA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Saltatio">Saltatio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Pythia">PȲTHĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύθια</span>), one of the four great -national festivals of the Greeks. It was -celebrated in the neighbourhood of Delphi, -anciently called Pytho, in honour of Apollo, -Artemis, and Leto. The place of this solemnity -was the Crissaean plain, which for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316"></a>[316]</span> -this purpose contained a hippodromus or -race-course, a stadium of 1000 feet in length, -and a theatre, in which the musical contests -took place. The Pythian games were, according -to most legends, instituted by Apollo -himself. They were originally perhaps nothing -more than a religious panegyris, occasioned -by the oracle of Delphi, and the -sacred games are said to have been at first -only a musical contest, which consisted in -singing a hymn to the honour of the Pythian -god, with the accompaniment of the cithara. -They must, on account of the celebrity of the -Delphic oracle, have become a national festival -for all the Greeks at a very early period, -and gradually all the various contests were -introduced which occur in the Olympic games. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Olympia">Olympia</a>.</span>] Down to Ol. 48. the Delphians -had been the agonothetae at the Pythian -games; but in the third year of this Olympiad, -after the Crissaean war, the Amphictyons -took the management under their care, -and appointed certain persons, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epimeletae</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμεληταί</span>), to conduct them. Some of -the ancients date the institution of the -Pythian games from this time. Previous to -Ol. 48. the Pythian games had been an <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνναετηρίς</span>, -that is, they had been celebrated at the -end of every eighth year; but in Ol. 48. 3. -they became, like the Olympia, a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πενταετηρίς</span>, -<em>i.e.</em> they were held at the end of every fourth -year; and a Pythiad, therefore, from the -time that it was used as an aera, comprehended -a space of four years, commencing -with the third year of every Olympiad. -They were in all probability held in the -spring, and took place in the month of Bucatius, -which corresponded to the Attic Munychion.</p> - - -<p id="Pythii">PȲTHĬI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύθιοι</span>), four persons appointed -by the Spartan kings, two by each, as messengers -to the temple of Delphi. Their office -was highly honourable and important; they -were always the messmates of the Spartan -kings.</p> - - -<p id="Pyxis">PYXIS, <em>dim.</em> PYXĬDŬLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύξις</span>, dim. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυξίδιον</span>), -a casket; a jewel-box. The caskets in -which the ladies of ancient times kept their -jewels and other ornaments, were made of -gold, silver, ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, -&c. They were also much enriched -with sculpture. The annexed woodcut represents -a very plain jewel-box, out of which a -dove is extracting a riband or fillet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill316" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill316.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Pyxis, jewel-box. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Q_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">Q</span></h2> - -<p id="Quadragesima" class="drop-capy">QUADRĀGĒSĬMA, the fortieth part of the -imported goods, was the ordinary rate -of the Portorium under the empire. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Portorium">Portorium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quadrans">QUADRANS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quadrantal">QUADRANTAL, or AMPHŎRA QUADRANTAL, -or AMPHŎRA only, was the principal -Roman measure of capacity for fluids. -A standard model of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Amphora</i> was kept -with great care in the temple of Jupiter in -the Capitol, and was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amphora Capitolina</i>. -It contained 5·77 imperial gallons, or -a little more than 5¾ gallons, or than 5 gallons -and 6 pints.</p> - - -<p id="Quadriga">QUADRĪGA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Currus">Currus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quadrigatus">QUADRĪGĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quadruplatores">QUADRŬPLĀTŌRES: public informers or -accusers were so called, either because they -received a fourth part of the criminal’s property, -or because those who were convicted -were condemned to pay fourfold (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrupli -damnari</i>), as in cases of violation of the laws -respecting gambling, usury, &c.</p> - - -<p id="Quaestiones">QUAESTIŌNES, QUAESTIŌNES PERPĔTUAE. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a></span>: <span class="smcap"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Quaestor">QUAESTOR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίας</span>), a name given to two -distinct classes of Roman officers. It is -derived from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quaero</i>, and Varro gives a -definition which embraces the principal functions -of both classes of officers: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores a -quaerendo, qui conquirerent publicas pecunias -et maleficia</i>. The one class, therefore, had -to do with the collecting and keeping of the -public revenues, and the others were a kind -of public accusers. The former bore the -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores Classici</i>, the latter of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores Parricidii</i>.—The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores Parricidii</i> -were public accusers, two in number, -who conducted the accusation of persons -guilty of murder or any other capital offence, -and carried the sentence into execution. In -the early period of the republic the quaestores -parricidii appear to have become a -standing office, which, like others, was held -only for one year. They were appointed by -the populus or the curies on the presentation -of the consuls. When these quaestores -discovered that a capital offence had been -committed, they had to bring the charge -before the comitia for trial. When the -sentence had been pronounced by the people, -the quaestores parricidii executed it; thus -they threw Spurius Cassius from the Tarpeian -rock. They were mentioned in the laws of -the Twelve Tables, and after the time of the -decemvirate they still continued to be appointed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317"></a>[317]</span> -though probably no longer by the -curies, but either in the comitia centuriata or -tribute, which they therefore must have had -the right of assembling in cases of emergency. -From the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 366 they are no longer -mentioned in Roman history, as their functions -were gradually transferred to the -triumviri capitales. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Triumviri">Triumviri Capitales</a>.</span>]—The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores Classici</i>, usually called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestores</i> -simply, were officers entrusted with the -care of the public money. They were elected -by the centuries, and the office is said to -have been first instituted by Valerius Publicola. -They were at first only two in number, -and of course taken only from the patricians. -As the senate had the supreme administration -of the finances, the quaestors were in some -measure only its agents or paymasters, for -they could not dispose of any part of the -public money without being directed by the -senate. Their duties consequently consisted -in making the necessary payments from the -aerarium, and receiving the public revenues. -Of both they had to keep correct accounts in -their <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae publicae</i>. Demands which any -one might have on the aerarium, and outstanding -debts, were likewise registered by -them. Fines to be paid to the public treasury -were registered and exacted by them. Another -branch of their duties, which, however, was -likewise connected with the treasury, was to -provide the proper accommodation for foreign -ambassadors, and such persons as were connected -with the republic by ties of public hospitality.—In -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 421 the number of quaestors was -doubled, and the tribunes tried to effect, by -an amendment of the law, that a part (probably -two) of the quaestores should be plebeians. -This attempt was indeed frustrated, but the -interrex L. Papirius effected a compromise, -that the election should not be restricted to -either order. After this law was carried, -eleven years passed without any plebeian -being elected to the office: at last, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -409, three of the four quaestors were plebeians. -A person who had held the office of -quaestor had undoubtedly, as in later times, -the right to take his seat in the senate, unless -he was excluded as unworthy by the next -censors. And this was probably the reason -why the patricians so resolutely opposed the -admission of plebeians to this office. Henceforth -the consuls, whenever they took the -field against an enemy, were accompanied -by one quaestor each, who at first had only -to superintend the sale of the booty, the -produce of which was either divided among -the legion, or was transferred to the aerarium. -Subsequently, however, we find that these -quaestors also kept the funds of the army, -which they had received from the treasury at -Rome, and gave the soldiers their pay; they -were in fact the paymasters of the army. -The two other quaestors, who remained at -Rome, continued to discharge the same duties -as before, and were distinguished from those -who accompanied the consuls by the epithet -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">urbani</i>. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 265, after the Romans had -made themselves masters of Italy, and when, -in consequence, the administration of the -treasury and the raising of the revenues -became more laborious and important, the -number of quaestors was again doubled to -eight; and it is probable that henceforth -their number continued to be increased in -proportion as the empire became extended. -One of the eight quaestors was appointed by -lot to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaestura Ostiensis</i>, a most laborious -and important post, as he had to provide -Rome with corn. Besides the quaestor -Ostiensis, who resided at Ostia, three other -quaestors were distributed in Italy, to raise -those parts of the revenue which were not -farmed by the publicani, and to control the -latter. One of them resided at Cales, and -the two others probably in towns on the -Upper Sea. The two remaining quaestors -were sent to Sicily.—Sulla, in his dictatorship, -raised the number of quaestors to -twenty, that he might have a large number -of candidates for the senate, and J. Caesar -even to forty. In the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 49 no quaestors -were elected, and Caesar transferred the -keeping of the aerarium to the aediles. From -this time forward the treasury was sometimes -entrusted to the praetors, sometimes to the -praetorii, and sometimes again to quaestors. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a>.</span>] Quaestors, however, both in -the city and in the provinces, occur down to -the latest period of the empire. The proconsul -or praetor, who had the administration -of a province, was attended by a quaestor. -This quaestor had undoubtedly to perform -the same functions as those who accompanied -the armies into the field; they were in fact -the same officers, with the exception that the -former were stationary in their province -during the time of their office, and had consequently -rights and duties which those who -accompanied the armies could not have. In -the provinces the quaestors had the same -jurisdiction as the curule aediles at Rome. -The relation existing between a praetor or -proconsul of a province and his quaestor was, -according to ancient custom, regarded as -resembling that between a father and his -son. When a quaestor died in his province, -the praetors had the right of appointing a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proquaestor</i> in his stead; and when the -praetor was absent, the quaestor supplied his -place, and was then attended by lictors. In -what manner the provinces were assigned to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318"></a>[318]</span> -the quaestors after their election at Rome, -is not mentioned, though it was probably -by lot, as in the case of the quaestor Ostiensis.</p> - - -<p id="Quaestorium">QUAESTŌRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Qualus">QUĀLUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calathus">Calathus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quartarius">QUARTĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sextarius">Sextarius</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quasillariae">QUĂSILLĀRĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calathus">Calathus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quasillum">QUĂSILLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calathus">Calathus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quatuorviri">QUĂTŬORVĬRI JŪRI DĪCUNDO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quatuorviri_v">QUĂTŬORVĬRI VĬĀRUM CŪRANDĀRUM, -four officers who had the superintendence -of the roads (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viae</i>), were first appointed -after the war with Pyrrhus, when so many -public roads were made by the Romans.</p> - - -<p id="Quinarius">QUĪNĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quincunx">QUINCUNX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quindecimviri">QUINDĔCIMVĬRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Decemviri">Decimviri</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quinquatrus">QUINQUATRUS or QUINQUATRĬA, a -festival sacred to Minerva, which was celebrated -on the 19th of March. Ovid says -that it was celebrated for five days, that on -the first day no blood was shed, but that on -the last four there were contests of gladiators. -It would appear, however, that only the first -day was the festival properly so called, and -that the last four were merely an addition -made perhaps in the time of Caesar, to gratify -the people, who became so passionately fond -of gladiatorial combats. On the fifth day of -the festival, according to Ovid, the trumpets -used in sacred rites were purified; but this -seems to have been originally a separate -festival called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tubilustrium</i>, which was celebrated, -as we know from the ancient calendars, -on the 23rd of March, and would of -course, when the Quinquatrus was extended -to five days, fall on the last day of that festival. -There was also another festival of this -name, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quinquatrus Minusculae</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quinquatrus Minores</i>, celebrated on the Ides -of June, on which the tibicines went through -the city in procession to the temple of -Minerva.</p> - - -<p id="Quinquennalia">QUINQUENNĀLĬA, were games instituted -by Nero, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 60, in imitation of the Greek -festivals, and celebrated like the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πενταετηρίδες</span>, -at the end of every four years: -they consisted of musical, gymnastic, and -equestrian contests.</p> - - -<p id="Quinquennalis">QUINQUENNĀLIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_101">p. 101</a>, <em>a</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Quinqueremis">QUINQUĔRĒMIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quinquertium">QUINQUERTĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pentathlon">Pentathlon</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quinqueviri">QUINQUĔVĬRI, or five commissioners, -were frequently appointed under the republic -as extraordinary magistrates to carry any -measure into effect.</p> - - -<p id="Quintana">QUINTĀNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Quirinalia">QUĬRĪNĀLĬA, a festival sacred to Quirinus, -which was celebrated on the 17th of -February, on which day Romulus (Quirinus) -was said to have been carried up to heaven. -This festival was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Stultorum feriae</i>, -respecting the meaning of which see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Fornacalia">Fornacalia</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Quiritium">QUĬRĪTĬUM JUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jus">Jus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="R_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">R</span></h2> - -<p id="Ramnes" class="drop-capy">RAMNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Rapina">RĂPĪNA. [<span class="smcap">Furtum.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Recuperatores">RĔCŬPĔRĀTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Redemptor">RĔDEMPTOR, the general name for a -contractor, who undertook the building and -repairing of public works, private houses, &c., -and in fact of any kind of work. The farmers -of the public taxes were also called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Redemptores</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Redimiculum">RĔDĬMĪCULUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καθετήρ</span>), a fillet attached -to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">calautica</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diadema</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mitra</i>, or -other head-dress at the occiput, and passed -over the shoulders, so as to hang on each -side over the breast. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Redimicula</i> were properly -female ornaments.</p> - - -<p id="Regifugium">RĒGĬFŬGĬUM or FŬGĀLIA, the king’s -flight, a festival which was held by the Romans -every year on the 24th of February, -and, according to some ancient writers, in -commemoration of the flight of king Tarquinius -Superbus from Rome. The day is -marked in the Fasti as nefastus. In some -ancient calendars the 24th of May is likewise -called Regifugium. It is doubtful whether -either of these days had anything to do with -the flight of king Tarquinius: they may have -derived their name from the symbolical flight -of the Rex Sacrorum from the comitium; for -this king-priest was generally not allowed to -appear in the comitium, which was destined -for the transaction of political matters in -which he could not take part. But on certain -days in the year, and certainly on the two -days mentioned above, he had to go to the -comitium for the purpose of offering certain -sacrifices, and immediately after he had performed -his functions there, he hastily fled -from it; and this symbolical flight was called -Regifugium.</p> - - -<p id="Relegatio">RĔLĒGĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Remancipatio">RĔMANCĬPĀTIO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Emancipatio">Emancipatio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Remulcum">RĔMULCUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥυμουλκηῖν τὰς ναῦς</span>), a rope -for towing a ship, and likewise a tow-barge.</p> - - -<p id="Remuria">RĔMŪRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lemuria">Lemuria</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Remus">RĒMUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Repetundae">RĔPĔTUNDAE, or PĔCŪNĬAE RĔPĔTUNDAE, -was the term used to designate -such sums of money as the socii of the Roman -state or individuals claimed to recover -from magistratus, judices, or publici curatores, -which they had improperly taken or -received in the Provinciae, or in the Urbs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319"></a>[319]</span> -Roma, either in the discharge of their jurisdictio, -or in their capacity of judices, or in -respect of any other public function. Sometimes -the word Repetundae was used to express -the illegal act for which compensation -was sought, as in the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">repetundarum -insimulari, damnari</i>; and Pecuniae meant -not only money, but anything that had value. -The first lex on the subject was the Calpurnia, -which was proposed and carried by -the tribunus plebis L. Calpurnius Piso (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -149). By this lex a praetor was appointed -for trying persons charged with this crime. -It seems that the penalties of the Lex Calpurnia -were merely pecuniary, and at least -did not comprise exsilium. Various leges de -repetundis were passed after the Lex Calpurnia, -and the penalties were continually made -heavier. The Lex Junia was passed probably -about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 126, on the proposal of M. Junius -Pennus, tribunus plebis. The Lex Servilia -Glaucia was proposed and carried by C. Servilius -Glaucia, praetor, in the sixth consulship -of Marius, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 100. This lex applied -to any magistratus who had improperly taken -or received money from any private person; -but a magistratus could not be accused during -the term of office. The lex enacted that the -praetor peregrinus should annually appoint -450 judices for the trial of this offence: -the judices were not to be senators. The -penalties of the lex were pecuniary and exsilium; -the law allowed a comperendinatio. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Judex">Judex</a>.</span>] Before the Lex Servilia, the pecuniary -penalty was simply restitution of what -had been wrongfully taken; this lex seems -to have raised the penalty to double the -amount of what had been wrongfully taken; -and subsequently it was made quadruple. -Exsilium was only the punishment in case a -man did not abide his trial, but withdrew -from Rome. The lex gave the civitas to any -person on whose complaint a person was convicted -of repetundae. The Lex Acilia, which -seems to be of uncertain date, was proposed -and carried by M’. Acilius Glabrio, a tribune -of the plebs, and enacted that there should be -neither ampliatio nor comperendinatio. The -Lex Cornelia was passed in the dictatorship -of Sulla, and continued in force to the time of -C. Julius Caesar. It extended the penalties -of repetundae to other illegal acts committed -in the provinces, and to judices who received -bribes, to those to whose hands the money -came, and to those who did not give into the -aerarium their proconsular accounts (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proconsulares -rationes</i>). The praetor who presided -over this quaestio chose the judges by lot -from the senators, whence it appears that the -Servilia Lex was repealed by this lex, at -least so far as related to the constitution of -the court. This lex also allowed ampliatio -and comperendinatio. The penalties were -pecuniary (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">litis aestimatio</i>) and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquae et -ignis interdictio</i>. Under this lex were tried -L. Dolabella, Cn. Piso, C. Verres, C. Macer, -M. Fonteius, and L. Flaccus, the two last of -whom were defended by Cicero. In the Verrine -Orations Cicero complains of the comperendinatio -or double hearing of the cause, -which the Lex Cornelia allowed, and refers to -the practice under the Lex Acilia, according -to which the case for the prosecution, the -defence, and the evidence were only heard -once, and so the matter was decided. The -last lex de repetundis was the Lex Julia, -passed in the first consulship of C. Julius -Caesar, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 59. This lex repealed the penalty -of exsilium, but in addition to the litis aestimatio, -it enacted that persons convicted under -this lex should lose their rank, and be disqualified -from being witnesses, judices, or -senators. The lex had been passed when -Cicero made his oration against Piso, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 55. -A. Gabinius was convicted under this lex. -Under the empire the offence was punishable -with exile.</p> - - -<p id="Repotia">RĔPŌTĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Repudium">RĔPŬDĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Divortium">Divortium</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p id="Retiarii">RĒTĬĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Reticulum">RĒTĬCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill320a" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill320a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Retia, Nets (From a Bas-Relief at Ince-Blundell.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Retis">RĒTIS and RĒTE; <em>dim.</em> RĒTĬCŬLUM -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκτυον</span>), a net. Nets were made most commonly -of flax or hemp, whence they are sometimes -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lina</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λίνα</span>). The meshes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">maculae</i>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βρόχοι</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βροχίδες</span>) were great or -small according to the purposes intended. -By far the most important application of net-work -was to the three kindred arts of fowling, -hunting, and fishing. In fowling the use of -nets was comparatively limited. In hunting -it was usual to extend nets in a curved line -of considerable length, so as in part to surround -a space into which the beasts of chace, -such as the hare, the boar, the deer, the -lion, and the bear, were driven through the -opening left on one side. This range of nets -was flanked by cords, to which feathers dyed -scarlet and of other bright colours were tied, -so as to flare and flutter in the wind. The -hunters then sallied forth with their dogs, -dislodged the animals from their coverts, and -by shouts and barking drove them first -within the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">formido</i>, as the apparatus of string -and feathers was called, and then, as they -were scared with this appearance, within the -circuit of the nets. In the drawing below -three servants with staves carry on their -shoulders a large net, which is intended to be -set up as already described. In the lower -figure the net is set up. At each end of it -stands a watchman holding a staff. Being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320"></a>[320]</span> -intended to take such large quadrupeds as -boars and deer (which are seen within it), -the meshes are very wide (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">retia rara</i>). The -net is supported by three stakes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στάλικες</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ancones</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vari</i>). To dispose the nets in this -manner was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">retia ponere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">retia tendere</i>. -Comparing it with the stature of the -attendants, we perceive the net to be between -five and six feet high. The upper border of -the net consists of a strong rope, which was -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαρδών</span>. Fishing-nets (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλιευτικὰ δίκτυα</span>) -were of different kinds. Of these the -most common were the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφίβληστρον</span>, or -casting-net (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funda</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jaculum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">retinaculum</i>) -and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαγήνη</span>, <em>i.e.</em> the drag-net, or sean -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tragum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tragula</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verriculum</i>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill320b" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill320b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Retia, Nets. (From the same.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Reus">RĔUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actor">Actor</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Rex">REX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλεύς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄναξ</span>), king.—(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> -In the heroic age, as depicted in the poems of -Homer, the kingly form of government was -universal. The authority of these kings and -its limitations were derived not from any definite -scheme, or written code, but from the -force of traditionary usage, and the natural -influence of the circumstances in which the -kings were placed, surrounded as they were -by a body of chiefs or nobles, whose power -was but little inferior to that of the kings -themselves. Even the title <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλῆες</span> is applied -to them as well as to the king. The -maintenance of regal authority doubtless depended -greatly on the possession of personal -superiority in bravery, military prowess, -wisdom in council and eloquence in debate. -When old age had blunted his powers and -activity, a king ran a great chance of losing -his influence. There was, however, an undefined -notion of a sort of divine right connected -with the kingly office, whence the -epithet <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διοτρεφής</span>, so commonly applied to -kings in Homer. The characteristic emblem -of the kingly office was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκῆπτρον</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sceptrum">Sceptrum</a>.</span>] -Our information respecting the -Grecian kings in the more historical age is -not ample or minute enough to enable us to -draw out a detailed scheme of their functions. -Respecting the kings of Sparta the reader is -referred to the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Ephori">Ephori</a></span>. As an illustration -of the gradual limitation of the prerogatives -of the king or chief magistrate, the -reader may consult the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Archon">Archon</a></span>. The -title <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Basileus</i> was sometimes applied to an -officer who discharged the priestly functions -of the more ancient kings, as in Athens. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Archon">Archon</a>.</span>]—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> Rome was originally -governed by kings. All the ancient -writers agree in representing the king as -elected by the people for life, and as voluntarily -entrusted by them with the supreme -power in the state. No reference is made to -the hereditary principle in the election of the -first four kings; and it is not until the fifth -king Tarquinius Priscus obtained the sovereignty, -that anything is said about the -children of the deceased king. Since the -people had conferred the regal power, it -returned to them upon the death of the king. -But as a new king could not be immediately -appointed, an Interrex forthwith stepped into -his place. The necessity for an immediate -successor to the king arose from the circumstance -that he alone had had the power of -taking the auspicia on behalf of the state; -and as the auspicia devolved upon the people -at his death, it was imperative upon them to -create a magistrate, to whom they could -delegate the auspicia, and who would thus -possess the power of mediating between the -gods and the state. Originally the people -consisted only of the patres or patricii; and -accordingly on the death of the king, we read -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">res ad patres redit</i>, or, what is nearly the -same thing, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicia ad patres redeunt</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a>.</span>] -The interrex was elected by the whole -body of the patricians, and he appointed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prodebat</i>) -his successor, as it was a rule that the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321"></a>[321]</span> -first interrex could not hold the comitia for -the election; but it frequently happened that -the second interrex appointed a third, the -third a fourth, and so on, till the election took -place. The Interrex presided over the comitia -curiata, which were assembled for the election -of the king. The person whom the senate had -selected was proposed by the interrex to the -people in a regular <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rogatio</i>, which the people -could only accept or reject, for they had not -the initiative and could not themselves propose -any name. If the people voted in favour -of the rogation, they were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">creare regem</i>, -and their acceptance of him was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jussus -populi</i>. But the king did not immediately -enter upon his office. Two other acts had -still to take place before he was invested with -the full regal authority and power. First, -his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inauguratio</i> had to be performed, as it -was necessary to obtain the divine will respecting -his appointment by means of the -auspices, since he was the high priest of the -people. This ceremony was performed by an -augur, who conducted the newly-elected king -to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arx</i>, or citadel, and there placed him -on a stone seat with his face turned to the -south, while the people waited below in -anxious suspense until the augur announced -that the gods had sent the favourable tokens -confirming the king in his priestly character. -The inauguratio did not confer upon him the -auspicia; for these he obtained by his election -to the royalty, as the comitia were held -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auspicato</i>. The second act which had to be -performed was the conferring of the imperium -upon the king. The curiae had only determined -by their previous vote who was to be -king, and had not by that act bestowed the -necessary power upon him; they had, therefore, -to grant him the imperium by a distinct -vote. Accordingly the king himself proposed -to the curiae a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex curiata de imperio</i>, and -the curiae by voting in favour of it gave him -the imperium. Livy in his first book makes -no mention of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex curiata de imperio</i>, but -he uses the expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores fierent</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres auctores facti</i>; but these expressions -are equivalent to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex curiata de imperio</i> -in the kingly period.—The king possessed -the supreme power in the earliest times, and -the senate and the comitia of the curiae were -very slight checks upon its exercise. In the -first place, the king alone possessed the right -of taking the auspices on behalf of the state; -and as no public business of any kind could -be performed without the approbation of the -gods expressed by the auspices, the king -stood as mediator between the gods and the -people, and in an early stage of society must -necessarily have been regarded with religious -awe. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Augur">Augur</a>.</span>] Secondly, the people surrendered -to the king the supreme military -and judicial authority by conferring the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">imperium</i> -upon him. The king was not only -the commander in war, but the supreme -judge in peace. Seated on his throne in the -comitium, he administered justice to all -comers, and decided in all cases which were -brought before him, civil as well as criminal. -Again, all the magistrates in the kingly -period appear to have been appointed by the -king and not elected by the curiae. Further, -the king was not dependent upon the people -for his support; but a large portion of the -ager publicus belonged to him, which was -cultivated at the expense of the state on his -behalf. He had also the absolute disposal of -the booty taken in war and of the conquered -lands. It must not, however, be supposed -that the authority of the king was absolute. -The senate and the assembly of the people -must have formed some check upon his power. -But these were not independent bodies possessing -the right of meeting at certain times -and discussing questions of state. They could -only be called together when the king chose, -and further could only determine upon matters -which the king submitted to them. The -only public matter in which the king could -not dispense with the co-operation of the -senate and the curiae was in declarations of -war. There is no trace of the people having -had anything to do with the conclusion of -treaties of peace.—The insignia of the king -were the fasces with the axes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secures</i>), which -twelve lictors carried before him as often as he -appeared in public, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabea</i>, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella curulis</i>, -and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga praetexta</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">picta</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabea</i> -appears to have been the most ancient official -dress, and is assigned especially to Romulus: -it was of Latin origin, and is therefore -represented by Virgil as worn by the -Latin kings. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga praetexta</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">picta</i> -were borrowed, together with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella curulis</i>, -from the Etruscans, and their introduction -is variously ascribed to Tullus Hostilius or -Tarquinius Priscus.</p> - - -<p id="Rex_s">REX SACRĬFĬCŬLUS, REX SACRĬFĬCUS, -or REX SACRORUM. When the civil -and military powers of the king were transferred -to two praetors or consuls, upon the -establishment of the republican government -at Rome, these magistrates were not invested -with that part of the royal dignity by virtue -of which the king had been the high priest -of his nation and had conducted several -of the sacra publica, but this priestly part -of his office was transferred to a priest -called Rex Sacrificulus or Rex Sacrorum. -The first rex sacrorum was designated, at the -command of the consuls, by the college of -pontiffs, and inaugurated by the augurs. He<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322"></a>[322]</span> -was always elected and inaugurated in the -comitia curiata under the presidency of the -pontiffs, and as long as a rex sacrificulus was -appointed at Rome, he was always a patrician, -for as he had no influence upon the -management of political affairs, the plebeians -never coveted this dignity. Considering that -this priest was the religious representative of -the kings, he ranked indeed higher than all -other priests, and even higher than the -pontifex maximus, but in power and influence -he was far inferior to him. He held his -office for life, was not allowed to hold any -civil or military dignity, and was at the same -time exempted from all military and civil -duties. His principal functions were: 1. To -perform those sacra publica which had before -been performed by the kings; and his wife, -who bore the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">regina sacrorum</i>, had -also, like the queens of former days, to perform -certain priestly functions. These sacra -publica he or his wife had to perform on all -the Calends, Ides, and the Nundines; he to -Jupiter, and she to Juno in the regia. 2. On -the days called regifugium he had to offer a -sacrifice in the comitium. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Regifugium">Regifugium</a>.</span>] -3. When extraordinary portenta seemed to -announce some general calamity, it was his -duty to try to propitiate the anger of the gods. -4. On the nundines, when the people assembled -in the city, the rex sacrorum announced -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">edicebat</i>) to them the succession of the festivals -for the month. This part of his functions, -however, must have ceased after the time of -Cn. Flavius. He lived in a domus publica on -the via sacra, near the regia and the house of -the vestal virgins.</p> - - -<p id="Rheda">RHĒDA or RĒDA, a travelling carriage -with four wheels. Like the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Covinus">Covinus</a></span> and the -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Esseda">Essedum</a></span> it was of Gallic origin, and may -perhaps contain the same root as the German -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">reiten</i> and our <em>ride</em>. It was the common -carriage used by the Romans for travelling, -and was frequently made large enough not -only to contain many persons, but also baggage -and utensils of various kinds. The -word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epirhedium</i>, which was formed by the -Romans from the Greek preposition <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπι</span> and -the Gallic <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rheda</i>, is explained by the Scholiast -on Juvenal as “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ornamentum rhedarum aut -plaustrum</span>.”</p> - - -<p id="Rhetrae">RHĒTRAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥῆτραι</span>), specially the name of -the ordinances of Lycurgus. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rhetra</i> -means a solemn compact, either originally -emanating from, or subsequently sanctioned -by the gods, who are always parties to such -agreements. The Rhetra of Lycurgus emanated -from the Delphian god: but the kings, -senators, and people all bound themselves, -both to each other and to the gods, to -obey it.</p> - - -<p id="Rhyton">RHYTON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥυτόν</span>), a drinking-horn (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέρας</span>). -Its original form was probably the horn of -the ox, but one end of it was afterwards -ornamented with the heads of various animals -and birds. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rhyton</i> had a small -opening at the bottom, which the person who -drank put into his mouth, and allowed the -wine to run in: hence it derived its name.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="ill322" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill322.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Rhyton, drinking-horn. (Museo Borbonico.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Rica">RĪCA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Flamen">Flamen</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ricinium">RĪCĪNĬUM, an article of female dress, -appears to have been a kind of mantle, with -a sort of cowl attached to it, in order to cover -the head. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mavortium</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mavorte</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mavors</i> -of later times was thought to be only -another name for what had formerly been -called ricinium.</p> - - -<p id="Robigalia">RŌBĪGĀLĬA, a public festival in honour -of the god Robigus, to preserve the fields -from mildew, is said to have been instituted -by Numa, and was celebrated April 25th. -The sacrifices offered on this occasion consisted -of the entrails of a dog and a sheep, -accompanied with frankincense and wine: -a prayer was presented by a flamen in the -grove of the ancient deity, whom Ovid and -Columella make a goddess. A god Robigus -or a goddess Robigo is a mere invention from -the name of this festival, for the Romans -paid no divine honours to evil deities.</p> - - -<p id="Rogatio">RŎGĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lex">Lex</a></span>, <a href="#Page_225">p. 225</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Rogatores">RŎGĀTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_107">p. 107</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Rogus">RŎGUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_188">p. 188</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Romphea">ROMPHEA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Rorarii">RŌRĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_165">p. 165</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Rostra">ROSTRA, or The Beaks, was the name applied -to the stage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suggestus</i>) in the Forum, -from which the orators addressed the people. -This stage was originally called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i>, because -it was consecrated by the augurs, but -obtained its name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rostra</i> at the conclusion -of the great Latin war, when it was adorned -with the beaks (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rostra</i>) of the ships of the -Antiates. The Greeks also mutilated galleys -in the same way for the purpose of trophies: -this was called by them <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρωτηριάζειν</span>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Acroterium">Acroterium</a>.</span>] -The rostra lay between the Comitium -or place of meeting for the curies, and -the Forum or place of meeting for the tribes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323"></a>[323]</span> -so that the speaker might turn either to the -one or the other; but down to the time of -C. Gracchus, even the tribunes in speaking -used to front the Comitium; he first turned -his back to it and spoke with his face towards -the forum. The rostra was a circular building, -raised on arches, with a stand or platform -on the top, bordered by a parapet, the -access to it being by two flights of steps, one -on each side. It fronted towards the comitium, -and the rostra were affixed to the front -of it, just under the arches. Its form has -been in all the main points preserved in the -ambones or circular pulpits of the most ancient -churches, which also had two flights of -steps leading up to them, one on the east -side, by which the preacher ascended, and -another on the west side, for his descent. -The speaker was thus enabled to walk to -and fro, while addressing his audience. The -suggestus or rostra was transferred by Julius -Caesar to a corner of the Forum, but the -spot where the ancient rostra had stood still -continued to be called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rostra Vetera</i>, while -the other was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rostra Nova</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rostra -Julia</i>. Both the rostra contained statues of -illustrious men.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill323" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill323.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Rostra on Coin of M. Lollius Palicanus. (British Museum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Rostrum">ROSTRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Rota">RŎTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Currus">Currus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Rudiarii">RŬDĬĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Rudis">RŬDIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="S_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">S</span></h2> - -<p id="Saccus" class="drop-capy">SACCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span>) signified in general any -kind of sack or bag made of hair, cloth, or -other materials. We have only to notice here -its meaning as—(1) A head-dress. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coma">Coma</a>.</span>]—(2) -A sieve for straining wine. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colum">Colum</a>.</span>]—(3) -A purse for holding money. Hence the phrase -in Plautus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ire ad saccum</i>, “to go a begging.”</p> - - -<p id="Sacellum">SĂCELLUM is a diminutive of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacer</i>, and -signifies a small place consecrated to a god, -containing an altar, and sometimes also a -statue of the god to whom it was dedicated, -but it was without a roof. It was therefore -a sacred inclosure surrounded by a fence -or wall, and thus answered to the Greek -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίβολος</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Sacerdos">SĂCERDOS, SĂCERDŌTĬUM. As all the -different kinds of priests are treated of separately -in this work, it is only necessary here -to make some general remarks. In comparison -with the civil magistrates, all priests -at Rome were regarded as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">homines privati</i>, -though all of them, as priests, were sacerdotes -publici, in as far as their office (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacerdotium</i>) -was connected with any worship recognised -by the state. The appellation of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacerdos -publicus</i> was, however, given principally to -the chief pontiff and the flamen dialis, who -were at the same time the only priests who -were members of the senate by virtue of -their office. All priestly offices or sacerdotia -were held for life, without responsibility to -any civil magistrate. A priest was generally -allowed to hold any other civil or military -office besides his priestly dignity; some -priests, however, formed an exception, for -the duumviri, the rex sacrorum, and the -flamen dialis were not allowed to hold any -state office, and were also exempt from -service in the armies. Their priestly character -was, generally speaking, inseparable -from their person as long as they lived: -hence the augurs and fratres arvales retained -their character even when sent into exile, or -when they were taken prisoners. It also -occurs that one and the same person held -two or three priestly offices at a time. Thus -we find the three dignities of pontifex maximus, -augur, and decemvir sacrorum united -in one individual. Bodily defects incapacitated -a person at Rome, as among all ancient -nations, from holding any priestly office. All -priests were originally patricians, but from -the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 367 the plebeians also began to -take part in the sacerdotia [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Plebes">Plebes</a></span>]; and -those priestly offices which down to the latest -times remained in the hands of the patricians -alone, such as that of the rex sacrorum, the -flamines, salii, and others, had no influence -upon the affairs of the state. As regards the -appointment of priests, the ancients unanimously -state, that at first they were appointed -by the kings, but after the sacerdotia were -once instituted, each college of priests—for -nearly all priests constituted certain corporations -called collegia—had the right of filling -up, by cooptatio, the vacancies which occurred. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pontifex">Pontifex</a>.</span>] Other priests, on the -contrary, such as the vestal virgins and the -flamines, were appointed (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capiebantur</i>) by -the pontifex maximus, a rule which appears -to have been observed down to the latest -times; others again, such as the duumviri -sacrorum, were elected by the people, or by -the curiae, as the curiones. But in whatever -manner they were appointed, all priests after -their appointment required to be inaugurated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324"></a>[324]</span> -by the pontiffs and the augurs, or by the -latter alone. Those priests who formed colleges -had originally, as we have already -observed, the right of cooptatio; but in the -course of time they were deprived of this -right, or at least the cooptatio was reduced -to a mere form, by several leges, called leges -de sacerdotiis, such as the Lex Domitia, Cornelia, -and Julia; their nature is described in -the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pontifex">Pontifex</a></span>, and what is there said -in regard to the appointment of pontiffs applies -equally to all the other colleges. All -priests had some external distinction, as the -apex, tutulus, or galerus, the toga praetexta, -as well as honorary seats in the theatres, -circuses, and amphitheatres. Most of the -priestly colleges possessed landed property, -and some priests had also a regular annual -salary (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendium</i>), which was paid to them -from the public treasury. This is expressly -stated in regard to the vestal virgins, the -augurs, and the curiones, and may therefore -be supposed to have been the case with other -priests also. The pontifex maximus, the rex -sacrorum, and the vestal virgins had moreover -a domus publica as their place of residence.</p> - - -<p id="Sacra">SACRA. This word, in its widest sense, -expresses what we call divine worship. In -ancient times, the state, as well as all its -subdivisions, had their own peculiar forms -of worship, whence at Rome we find sacra -of the whole Roman people, of the curies, -gentes, families, and even of private individuals. -All these sacra, however, were -divided into two great classes, the public -and private sacra (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacra publica et privata</i>), -that is, they were performed either on behalf -of the whole nation, and at the expense of -the state, or on behalf of individuals, families, -or gentes, which had also to defray their -expenses. This division is ascribed to Numa. -All sacra, publica as well as privata, were -superintended and regulated by the pontiffs.</p> - - -<p id="Sacramentum">SACRĀMENTUM, the military oath, which -was administered in the following manner:—Each -tribunus militum assembled his legion, -and picked out one of the men, to whom -he put the oath, that he would obey the -commands of his generals, and execute them -punctually. The other men then came forward, -one after another, and repeated the same -oath, saying that they would do like the first.</p> - - -<p id="Sacrarium">SACRĀRĬUM was any place in which sacred -things were deposited and kept, whether this -place was a part of a temple or of a private house.</p> - - -<p id="Sacrificium">SACRIFĬCĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερεῖον</span>), a sacrifice. Sacrifices -or offerings formed the chief part of the -worship of the ancients. They were partly -signs of gratitude, partly a means of propitiating -the gods, and partly also intended to -induce the deity to bestow some favour upon -the sacrificer, or upon those on whose behalf -the sacrifice was offered. Sacrifices in a -wider sense would also embrace the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Donaria">Donaria</a></span>; -in a narrower sense sacrificia were -things offered to the gods, which merely -afforded momentary gratification, and which -were burnt upon their altars, or were believed -to be consumed by the gods. All sacrifices -may be divided into bloody sacrifices -and unbloody sacrifices.—<em>Bloody sacrifices.</em> -In the early times of Greece we find mention -of human sacrifices, but with a few exceptions -these had ceased in the historical ages. -Owing to the influence of civilisation, in -many cases animals were substituted for human -beings; in others, a few drops of human -blood were thought sufficient to propitiate -the gods. The custom of sacrificing human -life to the gods arose from the belief that the -nobler the sacrifice and the dearer to its -possessor, the more pleasing it would be to -the gods. Hence the frequent instances in -Grecian story of persons sacrificing their own -children, or of persons devoting themselves -to the gods of the lower world. That the -Romans also believed human sacrifices to be -pleasing to the gods, might be inferred from -the story of Curtius and from the self-sacrifice -of the Decii. The symbolic sacrifice of -human figures made of rushes at the Lemuralia -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lemuria">Lemuralia</a></span>] also shows that in the -early history of Italy human sacrifices were -not uncommon. For another proof of this -practice, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Ver">Ver Sacrum</a></span>. A second kind of -bloody sacrifices were those of animals of -various kinds, according to the nature and -character of the divinity. The sacrifices of -animals were the most common among the -Greeks and Romans. The victim was called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερεῖον</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hostia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">victima</i>. In -the early times it appears to have been the -general custom to burn the whole victim -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁλοκαυτεῖν</span>) upon the altars of the gods, and -the same was in some cases also observed in -later times. But as early as the time of -Homer it was the almost general practice to -burn only the legs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μηροί, μηρία, μῆρα</span>) enclosed -in fat, and certain parts of the intestines, -while the remaining parts of the victim -were consumed by men at a festive meal. -The gods delighted chiefly in the smoke -arising from the burning victims, and the -greater the number of victims, the more -pleasing was the sacrifice. Hence it was not -uncommon to offer a sacrifice of one hundred -bulls (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑκατόμβη</span>) at once, though it must not -be supposed that a hecatomb always signifies -a sacrifice of a hundred bulls, for the name -was used in a general way to designate any -great sacrifice. Such great sacrifices were -not less pleasing to men than to the gods,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325"></a>[325]</span> -for in regard to the former they were in -reality a donation of meat. Hence at Athens -the partiality for such sacrifices rose to the -highest degree. The animals which were -sacrificed were mostly of the domestic kind, -as bulls, cows, sheep, rams, lambs, goats, -pigs, dogs, and horses; and each god had -his favourite animals which he liked best as -sacrifices. The head of the victim, before it -was killed, was in most cases strewed with -roasted barley meal (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐλόχυτα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐλοχύται</span>) -mixed with salt (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mola salsa</i>). The persons -who offered the sacrifice wore generally garlands -round their heads, and sometimes also -carried them in their hands, and before they -touched anything belonging to the sacrifice -they washed their hands in water. The -victim itself was likewise adorned with garlands, -and its horns were sometimes gilt. -Before the animal was killed, a bunch of -hair was cut from its forehead, and thrown -into the fire as primitiae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατάρχεσθαι</span>). In -the heroic ages the princes, as the high -priests of their people, killed the victim; in -later times this was done by the priests themselves. -When the sacrifice was to be offered -to the Olympic gods, the head of the animal -was drawn heavenward; when to the gods -of the lower world, to heroes, or to the dead, -it was drawn downwards. While the flesh -was burning upon the altar, wine and incense -were thrown upon it, and prayers and -music accompanied the solemnity. The most -common animal sacrifices at Rome were the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suovetaurilia</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">solitaurilia</i>, consisting of a -pig, a sheep, and an ox. They were performed -in all cases of a lustration, and the -victims were carried around the thing to be -lustrated, whether it was a city, a people, or -a piece of land. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lustratio">Lustratio</a>.</span>] The Greek -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trittya</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριττύα</span>), which likewise consisted of -an ox, a sheep, and a pig, was the same sacrifice -as the Roman suovetaurilia. The -customs observed before and during the -sacrifice of an animal were on the whole the -same as those observed in Greece. But the -victim was in most cases not killed by the -priests who conducted the sacrifice, but by a -person called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">popa</i>, who struck the animal -with a hammer before the knife was used. -The better parts of the intestines (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exta</i>) were -strewed with barley meal, wine, and incense, -and were burnt upon the altar. Those parts -of the animal which were burnt were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prosecta</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prosiciae</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ablegmina</i>. When a -sacrifice was offered to gods of rivers, or of -the sea, these parts were not burnt, but -thrown into the water. Respecting the use -which the ancients made of sacrifices to learn -the will of the gods, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Haruspices">Haruspex</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Divinatio">Divinatio</a></span>.—<em>Unbloody -sacrifices.</em> Among these we -may first mention the libations (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libationes</i>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λοιβαί</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπονδαί</span>). Bloody sacrifices were -usually accompanied by libations, as wine -was poured upon them. The wine was -usually poured out in three separate streams. -Libations always accompanied a sacrifice -which was offered in concluding a treaty -with a foreign nation, and that here they -formed a prominent part of the solemnity, is -clear from the fact that the treaty itself was -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπονδαί</span>. But libations were also made -independent of any other sacrifice, as in solemn -prayers, and on many other occasions -of public and private life, as before drinking -at meals, and the like. Libations usually -consisted of unmixed wine (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνσπονδος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">merum</i>), -but sometimes also of milk, honey, and -other fluids, either pure or diluted with -water. The libations offered to the Furies -were always without wine. Incense was -likewise an offering which usually accompanied -bloody sacrifices, but it was also burned -as an offering for itself. A third class of -unbloody sacrifices consisted of fruit and -cakes. The former were mostly offered to -the gods as primitiae or tithes of the harvest, -and as a sign of gratitude. They were sometimes -offered in their natural state, sometimes -also adorned or prepared in various -ways. Cakes were peculiar to the worship -of certain deities, as to that of Apollo. They -were either simple cakes of flour, sometimes -also of wax, or they were made in the shape -of some animal, and were then offered as symbolical -sacrifices in the place of real animals, -either because they could not easily be procured, -or were too expensive for the sacrificer.</p> - - -<p id="Sacrilegium">SACRĬLĔGĬUM, the crime of stealing things -consecrated to the gods, or things deposited in -a consecrated place. A Lex Julia appears to -have placed the crime of sacrilegium on an -equality with peculatus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Peculatus">Peculatus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Saeculum">SAECŬLUM was, according to the calculation -of the Etruscans, which was adopted -by the Romans, a space of time containing -110 lunar years. The return of each saeculum -at Rome was announced by the pontiffs, -who also made the necessary intercalations -in such a manner, that at the commencement -of a new saeculum the beginning of -the ten months’ year, of the twelve months’ -year, and of the solar year coincided. But -in these arrangements the greatest caprice -and irregularity appear to have prevailed -at Rome, as may be seen from the unequal -intervals at which the ludi saeculares were -celebrated. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Saeculares">Ludi Saeculares</a>.</span>] This also -accounts for the various ways in which a -saeculum was defined by the ancients; some -believed that it contained thirty, and others -that it contained a hundred years: the latter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_326"></a>[326]</span> -opinion appears to have been the most common -in later times, so that saeculum answered -to our century.</p> - - -<p id="Sagittarii">SĂGITTĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sagmina">SAGMĬNA, were the same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">verbenae</i>, -namely, herbs torn up by their roots from -within the inclosure of the Capitoline, which -were always carried by the Fetiales or ambassadors, -when they went to a foreign -people to demand restitution for wrongs -committed against the Romans, or to make a -treaty. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fetiales">Fetiales</a>.</span>] They served to mark -the sacred character of the ambassadors, and -answered the same purpose as the Greek -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηρύκεια</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Sagum">SĂGUM, the cloak worn by the Roman -soldiers and inferior officers, in contradistinction -to the paludamentum of the general -and superior officers. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Paludamentum">Paludamentum</a>.</span>] It -is used in opposition to the toga or garb of -peace, and we accordingly find, that when -there was a war in Italy, all citizens put on -the sagum even in the city, with the exception -of those of consular rank (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saga sumere</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad saga ire</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in sagis esse</i>). The sagum was -open in the front, and usually fastened across -the shoulders by a clasp: it resembled in -form the paludamentum (see cut, <a href="#ill281b">p. 281</a>). -The cloak worn by the general and superior -officers is sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sagum</i>, but the -diminutive <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sagulum</i> is more commonly used in -such cases. The cloak worn by the northern -nations of Europe is also called sagum. The -German sagum is mentioned by Tacitus: that -worn by the Gauls seems to have been a species -of plaid (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">versicolor sagum</i>).</p> - - -<p id="Salaminia">SĂLĂMINĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Paralus">Paralus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Salii">SĂLĬI, priests of Mars Gradivus, said to -have been instituted by Numa. They were -twelve in number, chosen from the patricians -even in the latest times, and formed an ecclesiastical -corporation. They had the care of -the twelve Ancilia, which were kept in the -temple of Mars on the Palatine hill, whence -these priests were sometimes called Salii Palatini, -to distinguish them from the other -Salii mentioned below. The distinguishing -dress of the Salii was an embroidered tunic -bound with a brazen belt, the trabea, and -the apex, also worn by the Flamines. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Apex">Apex</a>.</span>] -Each had a sword by his side, and in his -right hand a spear or staff. The festival of -Mars was celebrated by the Salii on the 1st -of March and for several successive days; on -which occasion they were accustomed to go -through the city in their official dress, carrying -the ancilia in their left hands or suspended -from their shoulders, and at the same -time singing and dancing, whence comes -their name. The songs or hymns which -they sang on this occasion were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Asamenta, -ssamenta</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Axamenta</i>, and were -chiefly in praise of Mamurius Veturius, generally -said to be the armourer, who made -eleven ancilia like the one that was sent -from heaven (ancile), though some modern -writers suppose it to be merely another name -of Mars. The praises of the gods were also -celebrated in the songs of the Salii. In later -times these songs were scarcely understood -even by the priests themselves. At the conclusion -of the festival the Salii were accustomed -to partake of a splendid entertainment -in the temple of Mars, which was proverbial -for its excellence. The members of the collegium -were elected by co-optation. We read -of the dignities of praesul, vates, and magister -in the collegium. The shape of the -ancile is exhibited in the annexed cut, which -illustrates the accounts of the ancient writers -that its form was oval, but with the two -sides receding inwards with an even curvature, -and so as to make it broader at the -ends than in the middle. The persons engaged -in carrying these ancilia on their -shoulders, suspended from a pole, are probably -servants of the Salii. At the top of -the cut is represented one of the rods with -which the Salii were accustomed to beat the -shield in their dance, as already described.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="ill326" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill326.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Salii carrying the Ancilia. (From an ancient Gem.)</div> -</div> - -<p>Tullus Hostilius established another collegium -of Salii, in fulfilment of a vow which -he made in a war with the Sabines. These -Salii were also twelve in number, chosen -from the patricians, and appear to have been -dedicated to the service of Quirinus. They -were called the Salii Collini, Agonales or -Agonenses. It is supposed that the oldest -and most illustrious college, the Palatine -Salii, were chosen originally from the oldest -tribe, the Ramnes, and the one instituted by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_327"></a>[327]</span> -Tullus Hostilius, or the Quirinalian, from -the Tities alone: a third college for the Luceres -was never established.</p> - - -<p id="Salinae">SĂLĪNAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλαὶ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἁλοπήγιον</span>), a salt-work. -Throughout the Roman empire the salt-works -were commonly public property, and were -let by the government to the highest bidder. -The first salt-works are said to have been -established by Ancus Marcius at Ostia. The -publicani who farmed these works appear to -have sold this most necessary of all commodities -at a very high price, whence the -censors M. Livius and C. Claudius (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 204) -fixed the price at which those who took the -lease of them were obliged to sell the salt to -the people. At Rome the medius was, according -to this regulation, sold for a sextans, -while in other parts of Italy the price was -higher and varied. The salt-works in Italy -and in the provinces were very numerous.</p> - - -<p id="Salinum">SĂLĪNUM, a salt-cellar. All Romans who -were raised above poverty had one of silver, -which descended from father to son, and was -accompanied by a silver plate, which was -used together with the salt-cellar in the -domestic sacrifices. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patera">Patera</a>.</span>] These two -articles of silver were alone compatible with -the simplicity of Roman manners in the early -times of the republic.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill327" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill327.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">A Dance. (Lamberti, Villa Borghese.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Saltatio">SALTĀTĬO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄρχησις</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀρχηστύς</span>), dancing. -The dancing of the Greeks as well as of the -Romans had very little in common with the -exercise which goes by that name in modern -times. It may be divided into two kinds, -gymnastic and mimetic; that is, it was intended -either to represent bodily activity, or -to express by gestures, movements, and attitudes -certain ideas or feelings, and also single -events, or a series of events, as in the modern -ballet. All these movements, however, were -accompanied by music; but the terms <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄρχησις</span> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltatio</i> were used in so much wider a -sense than our word dancing, that they were -applied to designate gestures, even when the -body did not move at all. We find dancing -prevalent among the Greeks from the earliest -times. It was originally closely connected -with religion. In all the public festivals, -which were so numerous among the Greeks, -dancing formed a very prominent part. We -find from the earliest times that the worship -of Apollo was connected with a religious -dance, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hyporchema</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόρχημα</span>). All -the religious dances, with the exception of -the Bacchic and the Corybantian, were very -simple, and consisted of gentle movements of -the body, with various turnings and windings -around the altar: such a dance was the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Geranus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γέρανος</span>), which Theseus is said to -have performed at Delos on his return from -Crete. The Dionysiac or Bacchic, and the -Corybantian, were of a very different nature.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill328a" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill328a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Corybantian Dance. (Visconti, Mus. Pio Clem., vol. iv. tav. 9.)</div> -</div> - -<p>In the former the life and adventures of the -god were represented by mimetic dancing. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>] The Corybantian was of a very -wild character: it was chiefly danced in -Phrygia and in Crete; the dancers were -armed, struck their swords against their -shields, and displayed the most extravagant -fury; it was accompanied chiefly by the flute. -Respecting the dances in the theatre, see -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a></span>. Dancing was applied to gymnastic -purposes and to training for war, especially -in the Doric states, and was believed to have -contributed very much to the success of the -Dorians in war, as it enabled them to perform -their evolutions simultaneously and in -order. There were various dances in early -times, which served as a preparation for war: -hence Homer calls the Hoplites <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυλέες</span>, a -war-dance having been called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρύλις</span> by the -Cretans. Of such dances the most celebrated -was the Pyrrhic (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ πυῤῥίχη</span>), of which the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρύλις</span> was probably only another name. It -was danced to the sound of the flute, and its -time was very quick and light, as is shown<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_328"></a>[328]</span> -by the name of the Pyrrhic foot (˘˘), which -must be connected with this dance. In the -non-Doric states it was probably not practised -as a training for war, but only as a -mimetic dance: thus we read of its being -danced by women to entertain a company. -It was also performed at Athens at the -greater and lesser Panathenaea by ephebi, -who were called Pyrrhichists (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυῤῥιχισταί</span>), -and were trained at the expense of the choragus. -In the mountainous parts of Thessaly -and Macedon dances are performed at the -present day by men armed with muskets and -swords. The Pyrrhic dance was introduced -in the public games at Rome by Julius Caesar, -when it was danced by the children of the -leading men in Asia and Bithynia. There -were other dances, besides the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pyrrhica">Pyrrhic</a></span>, in -which the performers had arms; but these -seem to have been entirely mimetic, and not -practised with any view to training for war. -Such was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carpaea</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καρπαία</span>), peculiar to -the Aenianians and Magnetes, and described -by Xenophon in the Anabasis. Such dances -were frequently performed at banquets for -the entertainment of the guests, where also -the tumblers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυβιστῆρες</span>) were often introduced, -who in the course of their dance flung -themselves on their head and alighted again -upon their feet. These tumblers were also -accustomed to make their somersets over -knives and swords, which was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυβιστάν -εἰς μαχαίρας</span>. We learn from Tacitus that the -German youths also used to dance among -swords and spears pointed at them. Other -kinds of dances were frequently performed at -entertainments, in Rome as well as in Greece, -by courtezans, many of which were of a very -indecent and lascivious nature. Among the -dances performed without arms one of the -most important was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hormos</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅρμος</span>), -which was danced at Sparta by youths and -maidens together: the youth danced first -some movements suited to his age, and of a -military nature; the maiden followed in -measured steps and with feminine gestures. -Another common dance at Sparta was the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bibasis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βίβασις</span>), in which the dancer sprang -rapidly from the ground and struck the feet -behind.—Dancing was common among the -Romans in ancient times, in connection with -religious festivals and rites, because the ancients -thought that no part of the body should -be free from the influence of religion. The -dances of the Salii, which were performed -by men of patrician families, are described -elsewhere. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ancile">Ancile</a>.</span>] Dancing, however, -was not performed by any Roman citizens -except in connection with religion, and it -was considered disgraceful for any freeman -to dance. The mimetic dances of the Romans, -which were carried to such perfection under -the empire, are described under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pantomimus">Pantomimus</a></span>. -The dancers on the tight-rope (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">funambuli</i>) -under the empire were as skilful as they are -in the present day.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp70" id="ill328b" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill328b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Tumbler. (Museo Borbonico, vol. <span class="allsmcap">VII.</span> tav. 58.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Salutatores">SĂLŪTATŌRES, the name given in the later<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_329"></a>[329]</span> -times of the republic, and under the empire, -to a class of men who obtained their living by -visiting the houses of the wealthy early in -the morning, to pay their respects to them -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salutare</i>), and to accompany them when they -went abroad. This arose from the visits -which the clients were accustomed to pay to -their patrons, and degenerated in later times -into the above-mentioned practice: such persons -seem to have obtained a good living -among the great number of wealthy and vain -persons at Rome, who were gratified by this -attention. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sportula">Sportula</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sambuca">SAMBŪCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαμβύκη</span>), a harp, was of -oriental origin. The performances of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sambucistriae</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαμβυκίστριαι</span>) were only known to -the early Romans as luxuries brought over -from Asia. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sambuca</i> was also the name of a -military engine, used to scale the walls and -towers of besieged cities. It was called by -this name on account of its general resemblance -to the form of a harp.</p> - - -<p id="Samnites">SAMNĪTES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sandalium">SANDĂLĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σανδάλιον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάνδαλον</span>), a -kind of shoe worn only by women. The -sandalium must be distinguished from the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hypodema</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπόδημα</span>), which was a simple -sole bound under the foot, whereas the sandalium -was a sole with a piece of leather -covering the toes, so that it formed the transition -from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hypodema</i> to real shoes. The -piece of leather over the toes was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζυγός</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζυγόν</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Sandapila">SANDĂPĬLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sarcophagus">SARCŎPHĂGUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sarissa">SARISSA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sarracum">SARRĀCUM, a kind of common cart or -waggon, which was used by the country-people -of Italy for conveying the produce of -their fields, trees, and the like, from one -place to another.</p> - - -<p id="Satura_a">SĂTŬRA, the root of which is <em>sat</em>, literally -means a mixture of all sorts of things. The -name was accordingly applied by the Romans -in many ways, but always to things consisting -of various parts or ingredients, <em>e.g.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lanx -satura</i>, an offering consisting of various -fruits, such as were offered at harvest festivals -and to Ceres; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex per saturam lata</i>, a -law which contained several distinct regulations -at once, and to a species of poetry, afterwards -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Satira</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Saturnalia">SĀTURNĀLĬA, the festival of Saturnus, to -whom the inhabitants of Latium attributed -the introduction of agriculture and the arts -of civilized life. Falling towards the end of -December, at the season when the agricultural -labours of the year were fully completed, -it was celebrated in ancient times by -the rustic population as a sort of joyous -harvest-home, and in every age was viewed -by all classes of the community as a period of -absolute relaxation and unrestrained merriment. -During its continuance no public -business could be transacted, the law courts -were closed, the schools kept holiday, to -commence a war was impious, to punish a -malefactor involved pollution. Special indulgences -were granted to the slaves of each -domestic establishment; they were relieved -from all ordinary toils, were permitted to -wear the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pileus</i>, the badge of freedom, were -granted full freedom of speech, and partook -of a banquet attired in the clothes of their -masters, and were waited upon by them at -table. All ranks devoted themselves to -feasting and mirth, presents were interchanged -among friends, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cerei</i> or wax tapers -being the common offering of the more -humble to their superiors, and crowds -thronged the streets, shouting, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Io Saturnalia</i> -(this was termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clamare Saturnalia</i>), while -sacrifices were offered with uncovered head, -from a conviction that no ill-omened sight -would interrupt the rites of such a happy -day. Many of the peculiar customs of this -festival exhibit a remarkable resemblance to -the sports of our own Christmas and of the -Italian Carnival. Thus on the Saturnalia -public gambling was allowed by the aediles, -just as in the days of our ancestors the most -rigid were wont to countenance card-playing -on Christmas-eve; the whole population -threw off the toga, wore a loose gown, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">synthesis</i>, and walked about with the pileus -on their heads, which reminds us of the -dominos, the peaked caps, and other disguises -worn by masques and mummers; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cerei</i> -were probably employed as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">moccoli</i> now -are on the last night of the Carnival; and -lastly, one of the amusements in private -society was the election of a mock king, -which at once calls to recollection the characteristic -ceremony of Twelfth-night. During -the republic, although the whole month of -December was considered as dedicated to -Saturn, only one day, the <span class="allsmcap">XIV.</span> Kal. Jan., was -set apart for the sacred rites of the divinity. -When the month was lengthened by the addition -of two days upon the adoption of the -Julian Calendar, the Saturnalia fell on the -<span class="allsmcap">XVI.</span> Kal. Jan., which gave rise to confusion -and mistakes among the more ignorant portion -of the people. To obviate this inconvenience, -and allay all religious scruples, -Augustus enacted that three whole days, the -17th, 18th, and 19th of December, should in -all time coming be hallowed, thus embracing -both the old and new style. Under the empire -the merry-making lasted for seven days, -and three different festivals were celebrated -during this period. First came the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Saturnalia</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_330"></a>[330]</span> -proper, commencing on <span class="allsmcap">XVI.</span> Kal. Dec., -followed by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Opalia</i>, anciently coincident -with the Saturnalia, on <span class="allsmcap">XIV.</span> Kal. Jan.; these -two together lasted for five days, and the -sixth and seventh were occupied with the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sigillaria</i>, so called from little earthenware -figures (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sigilla</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oscilla</i>) exposed for sale at -this season, and given as toys to children.</p> - - -<p id="Scalptura">SCALPTŪRA or SCULPTŪRA, originally -signified cutting figures out of a solid material, -but was more particularly applied to the -art of cutting figures into the material (intaglios), -which was chiefly applied to producing -seals and matrices for the mints; and 2. the -art of producing raised figures (cameos), -which served for the most part as ornaments. -<em>Sculpture</em> in our sense of the word was -usually designated by the term <span class="smcap"><a href="#Statuaria">Statuaria</a></span>. -The first artist who is mentioned as an engraver -of stones is Theodoras, the son of -Telecles, the Samian, who engraved the stone -in the ring of Polycrates. The most celebrated -among them was Pyrgoteles, who -engraved the seal-rings for Alexander the -Great. Several of the successors of Alexander -and other wealthy persons adopted the custom -of adorning their gold and silver vessels, -craters, candelabras, and the like, with precious -stones on which raised figures (cameos) -were worked. The art was in a particularly -flourishing state at Rome under Augustus -and his successors, in the hands of Dioscurides -and other artists, many of whose works -are still preserved. Numerous specimens of -intaglios and cameos are still preserved in -the various museums of Europe.</p> - - -<p id="Scamnum">SCAMNUM, <em>dim.</em> SCĂBELLTUM, a step -which was placed before the beds of the -ancients in order to assist persons in getting -into them, as some were very high: -others which were lower required also lower -steps, which were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scabella</i>. A scamnum -was also used as a footstool. A scamnum -extended in length becomes a bench, -and in this sense the word is frequently -used. The benches in ships were sometimes -called scamna.</p> - - -<p id="Scena">SCĒNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sceptrum">SCEPTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκῆπτρον</span>), which originally -denoted a simple staff or walking-stick, was -emblematic of station and authority. In -ancient authors the sceptre is represented as -belonging more especially to kings, princes, -and leaders of tribes: but it is also borne by -judges, by heralds, and by priests and seers. -The sceptre descended from father to son, -and might be committed to any one in order -to express the transfer of authority. Those -who bore the sceptre swore by it, solemnly -taking it in the right hand and raising it -towards heaven. The ivory sceptre of the -kings of Rome, which descended to the consuls, -was surmounted by an eagle.</p> - - -<p id="Schoenus">SCHOENUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχοῖνος</span>), an Egyptian -and Persian measure, the length of which is -stated by Herodotus at 60 stadia, or 2 parasangs. -It was used especially for measuring -land.</p> - - -<p id="Scorpio">SCORPĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Scribae">SCRĪBAE, public notaries or clerks, in -the pay of the Roman state. They were -chiefly employed in making up the public -accounts, copying out laws, and recording the -proceedings of the different functionaries of -the state. The phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptum facere</i> was -used to denote their occupation. Being very -numerous, they were divided into companies -or classes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decuriae</i>), and were assigned by -lot to different magistrates, whence they -were named Quaestorii, Aedilicii, or Praetorii, -from the officers of state to whom they were -attached. The appointment to the office of a -“<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriba</span>” seems to have been either made on -the nomination of a magistrate, or purchased. -Horace, for instance, bought for himself a -“patent place as clerk in the treasury” -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptum quaestorium comparavit</i>). In Cicero’s -time, indeed, it seems that any one -might become a scriba or public clerk by -purchase, and consequently, as freedmen and -their sons were eligible, and constituted a -great portion of the public clerks at Rome, -the office was not highly esteemed, though -frequently held by ingenui or free-born citizens. -Very few instances are recorded of -the scribae being raised to the higher dignities -of the state. Cn. Flavius, the scribe of -Appius Claudius, was raised to the office of -curule aedile in gratitude for his making -public the various forms of actions, which -had previously been the exclusive property -of the patricians [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a></span>]; but the returning -officer refused to acquiesce in his election -till he had given up his books and left his -profession.</p> - - -<p id="Scrinium">SCRĪNĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Capsa">Capsa</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Scripta">SCRIPTA DUŎDĔCIM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Latrunculi">Latrunculi</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Scriptura">SCRIPTŪRA, that part of the revenue of -the Roman Republic which was derived from -letting out, as pasture land, those portions of -the ager publicus which were not taken into -cultivation. The names for such parts of the -ager publicus were, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pascua publica</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saltus</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silvae</i>. They were let by the censors to the -publicani, like all other vectigalia; and the -persons who sent their cattle to graze on -such public pastures had to pay a certain tax -or duty to the publicani, which of course -varied according to the number and quality -of the cattle which they kept upon them. -The publicani had to keep the lists of persons -who sent their cattle upon the public pastures,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_331"></a>[331]</span> -together with the number and quality -of the cattle. From this registering (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scribere</i>) -the duty itself was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scriptura</i>, the public -pasture land <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ager scripturarius</i>, and the -publicani, or their agents who raised the tax, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scripturarii</i>. The Lex Thoria (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 111) did -away with the scriptura in Italy, where the -public pastures were very numerous and -extensive, especially in Apulia, and the lands -themselves were now sold or distributed. In -the provinces, where the public pastures -were also let out in the same manner, the -practice continued until the time of the empire; -but afterwards the scriptura is no longer -mentioned.</p> - - -<p id="Scrupulum">SCRŪPŬLUM, or more properly <span class="smcap">Scripulum</span> -or <span class="smcap">Scriplum</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γράμμα</span>), the smallest -denomination of weight among the Romans. -It was the 24th part of the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia</a></span>, or the -288th of the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra">Libra</a></span>, and therefore = 18·06 -grains English, which is about the average -weight of the scrupular aurei still in existence. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum</a>.</span>] As a square measure, it was the -smallest division of the jugerum, which contained -288 scrupula. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jugerum">Jugerum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Scutum">SCŪTUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυρεός</span>), the Roman shield worn -by the heavy-armed infantry, instead of being -round, like the Greek <span class="smcap"><a href="#Clipeus">Clipeus</a></span>, was adapted -to the form of the human body, by being -made either oval or of the shape of a door, -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύρα</span>), which it also resembled in being -made of wood or wicker-work, and from -which consequently its Greek name was -derived. Polybius says that the dimensions -of the scutum were 4 feet by 2½.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp52" id="ill331a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill331a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Scuta, shields. (Bartoli, Arcus Triumph.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Scytale">SCỸTĂLĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκυτάλη</span>) is the name applied -to a secret mode of writing, by which the -Spartan ephors communicated with their -kings and generals when abroad. When a -king or general left Sparta, the ephors gave -to him a staff of a definite length and thickness, -and retained for themselves another of -precisely the same size. When they had -any communications to make to him, they cut -the material upon which they intended to -write into the shape of a narrow riband, -wound it round their staff, and then wrote -upon it the message which they had to send -to him. When the strip of writing material -was taken from the staff, nothing but single -letters appeared, and in this state the strip was -sent to the general, who, after having wound -it round his staff, was able to read the communication.</p> - - -<p id="Scythae">SCỸTHAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκύθαι</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Demosii">Demosii</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Secespita">SĔCESPĬTA, an instrument used by the -Roman priests in killing the victims at sacrifices, -probably an axe. In the annexed coin, -the reverse represents a culter, a simpuvium, -and a secespita.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill331b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill331b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Secespita, Culter, and Simpuvium. (Coin of Sulpicia Gens.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Sectio">SECTĬO, the sale of a man’s property by -the state (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">publice</i>). This was done in consequence -of a condemnatio, and for the purpose -of repayment to the state of such sums of -money as the condemned person had improperly -appropriated; or in consequence of -a proscriptio. Sometimes the things sold -were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sectio</i>. Those who bought the -property were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sectores</i>. The property -was sold <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub hasta</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Sector">SECTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sectio">Sectio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Securis">SĔCŪRIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀξινη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέλεκυς</span>), an axe or -hatchet. The axe was either made with a -single edge, or with a blade or head on -each side of the haft, the latter kind being -denominated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bipennis</i>. The axe was used as -a weapon of war chiefly by the Asiatic nations. -It was a part of the Roman fasces. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fasces">Fasces</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Secutores">SĔCŪTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp99" id="ill332a" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill332a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Sellae Curules. (The top figure from the Vatican collection;<br />the two bottom figures from the Museum at Naples.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Sella">SELLA, the general term for a seat or -chair of any description.—(1) <span id="Sella_cu" class="smcap">Sella Curulis</span>, -the chair of state. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Curulis</i> is derived by the -ancient writers from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">currus</i>, but it more -probably contains the same root as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curia</i>. -The sella curulis is said to have been used at -Rome from a very remote period as an emblem -of kingly power, having been imported, -along with various other insignia of royalty, -from Etruria. Under the republic the right<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_332"></a>[332]</span> -of sitting upon this chair belonged to the -consuls, praetors, curule aediles, and censors; -to the flamen dialis; to the dictator, and to -those whom he deputed to act under himself, -as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister equitum</i>, since he might be -said to comprehend all magistracies within -himself. After <ins class="corr" id="tn-332" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'the downfal of'"> -the downfall of</ins> the constitution, -it was assigned to the emperors also, or -to their statues in their absence; to the -augustales, and perhaps, to the praefectus -urbi. It was displayed upon all great public -occasions, especially in the circus and theatre; -and it was the seat of the praetor when -he administered justice. In the provinces it -was assumed by inferior magistrates, when -they exercised proconsular or propraetorian -authority. We find it occasionally exhibited -on the medals of foreign monarchs likewise, -as on those of Ariobarzanes II. of Cappadocia, -for it was the practice of the Romans to -present a curule chair, an ivory sceptre, a -toga praetexta, and such-like ornaments, as -tokens of respect and confidence to those -rulers whose friendship they desired to cultivate. -The sella curulis appears from the -first to have been ornamented with ivory; and -at a later period it was overlaid with gold. -In shape it was extremely plain, closely resembling -a common folding camp-stool with -crooked legs. The sella curulis is frequently -represented upon the denarii of Roman families. -In the following cut are represented -two pair of bronze legs, belonging to a sella -curulis, and likewise a sella curulis itself.—(2) -<span id="Sella_ge" class="smcap">Sella Gestatoria</span>, or <span class="smcap">Fertoria</span>, a -sedan used both in town and country, -and by men as well as by women. It -is expressly distinguished from the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lectica">Lectica</a></span>, -a portable bed or sofa, in which the person -carried lay in a recumbent position, -while the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sella</i> was a portable chair, in -which the occupant sat upright. It differed -from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cathedra</i> also, but in what the difference -consisted, it is not easy to determine. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cathedra">Cathedra</a>.</span>] It appears not to have been -introduced until long after the lectica was -common, since we scarcely, if ever, find any -allusion to it until the period of the empire. -The sella was sometimes entirely open, but -more frequently shut in. It was made sometimes -of plain leather, and sometimes ornamented -with bone, ivory, silver, or gold, -according to the fortune of the proprietor. -It was furnished with a pillow to support the -head and neck (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cervical</i>); the motion was so -easy that one might study without inconvenience, -while at the same time it afforded a -healthful exercise.—(3) Chairs for ordinary -domestic purposes have been discovered in -excavations, or are seen represented in ancient -frescoes, many displaying great taste.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill332b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill332b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Sellae, Chairs. (The right-hand figure from the Vatican -collection;<br />the left-hand figure from a Painting at -Pompeii.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Semis">SĒMIS, SĒMISSIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Semuncia">SĒMUNCĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Semunciarium">SĒMUNCIĀRĬUM FĒNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Senatus">SĔNĀTUS. In all the republics of antiquity -the government was divided between -a senate and a popular assembly; and in -cases where a king stood at the head of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_333"></a>[333]</span> -affairs, as at Sparta and in early Rome, the -king had little more than the executive. A -senate in the early times was always regarded -as an assembly of elders, which is in fact -the meaning of the Roman senatus, as of the -Spartan (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γερουσία</span>), and its members were -elected from among the nobles of the nation. -The number of senators in the ancient republics -always bore a distinct relation to the -number of tribes of which the nation was -composed. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Boule">Boule</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Gerousia">Gerousia</a></span>.] Hence in -the earliest times, when Rome consisted of only -one tribe, its senate consisted of one hundred -members (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatores</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres</i>; compare <span class="smcap"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii</a></span>), -and when the Sabine tribe or the -Tities became united with the Latin tribe or -the Ramnes, the number of senators was increased -to two hundred. This number was -again augmented to three hundred by Tarquinius -Priscus, when the third tribe or the -Luceres became incorporated with the Roman -state. The new senators added by Tarquinius -Priscus were distinguished from those -belonging to the two older tribes by the appellation -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patres minorum gentium</i>, as previously -those who represented the Tities had -been distinguished, by the same name, from -those who represented the Ramnes. Under -Tarquinius Superbus the number of senators -is said to have become very much diminished, -as he is reported to have put many -to death and sent others into exile. This -account however appears to be greatly exaggerated, -and it is probable that several vacancies -in the senate arose from many of the -senators accompanying the tyrant into his -exile. The vacancies which had thus arisen -were filled up immediately after the establishment -of the republic, when several noble -plebeians of equestrian rank were made senators. -These new senators were distinguished -from the old ones by the name of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Conscripti</i>; and hence the customary mode -of addressing the whole senate henceforth -always was: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Patres Conscripti</i>, that is, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Patres -et Conscripti</i>.—The number of 300 senators -appears to have remained unaltered -for several centuries. The first permanent -increase to their number was made by Sulla, -and the senate seems henceforth to have consisted -of between five and six hundred. -Julius Caesar augmented the number to 900, -and raised to this dignity even common soldiers, -freedmen, and peregrini. Augustus -cleared the senate of the unworthy members, -who were contemptuously called by the -people <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Orcini senatores</i>, and reduced its number -to 600.—In the time of the kings the -senate was probably elected by the gentes, -each gens appointing one member as its representative; -and as there were 300 gentes, -there were consequently 300 senators. The -whole senate was divided into decuries, each -of which corresponded to a curia. When the -senate consisted of only one hundred members, -there were accordingly only ten decuries -of senators; and ten senators, one -being taken from each decury, formed the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Decem Primi</i>, who represented the ten curies. -When subsequently the representatives of -the two other tribes were admitted into the -senate, the Ramnes with their decem primi -retained for a time their superiority over the -two other tribes, and gave their votes first. -The first among the decem primi was the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">princeps senatus</i>, who was appointed by the -king, and was at the same time custos urbis. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praefectus_u">Praefectus urbi</a>.</span>] Respecting the age at -which a person might be elected into the -senate during the kingly period, we know no -more than what is indicated by the name -senator itself, that is, that they were persons -of advanced age.—Soon after the establishment -of the republic, though at what time is -uncertain, the right of appointing senators -passed from the gentes into the hands of the -consuls, consular tribunes, and subsequently -of the censors. At the same time, the right -which the magistrates possessed of electing -senators was by no means an arbitrary -power, for the senators were usually taken -from among those whom the people had previously -invested with a magistracy, so that -in reality the people themselves always nominated -the candidates for the senate, which -on this account remained, as before, a representative -assembly. After the institution of -the censorship, the censors alone had the -right of introducing new members into the -senate from among the ex-magistrates, and -of excluding such as they deemed unworthy. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a>.</span>] The exclusion was effected by -simply passing over the names, and not entering -them on the lists of senators, whence -such men were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praeteriti Senatores</i>. -On one extraordinary occasion the eldest -among the ex-censors was invested with dictatorial -power for the purpose of filling up -vacancies in the senate.—As all curule magistrates, -and also the quaestors, had by -virtue of their office a seat in the senate, -even if they had not been elected senators, -we must distinguish between two classes of -senators, viz., real senators, or such as had -been regularly raised to their dignity by the -magistrates or the censors, and such as had, -by virtue of the office which they held or -had held, a right to take their seats in the -senate and to speak (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sententiam dicere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus -sententiae</i>), but not to vote. To this ordo -senatorius also belonged the pontifex maximus -and the flamen dialis. Though these<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_334"></a>[334]</span> -senators had no right to vote, they might, -when the real senators had voted, step over -or join the one or the other party, whence -they were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Senatores Pedarii</i>, an appellation -which had in former times been applied -to those juniores who were not consulars. -When at length all the state offices had become -equally accessible to the plebeians and -the patricians, and when the majority of -offices were held by the former, their number -in the senate naturally increased in proportion. -The senate had gradually become an -assembly representing the people, as formerly -it had represented the populus, and down to -the last century of the republic the senatorial -dignity was only regarded as one conferred -by the people. But notwithstanding this -apparently popular character of the senate, -it was never a popular or democratic assembly, -for now its members belonged to the -nobiles, who were as aristocratic as the patricians. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles</a>.</span>] The office of princeps -senatus, which had become independent of -that of praetor urbanus, was now given -by the censors, and at first always to the -eldest among the ex-censors, but afterwards -to any other senator whom they thought -most worthy; and unless there was any -charge to be made against him, he was -re-elected at the next lustrum. This distinction, -however, great as it was, afforded -neither power nor advantages, and did not -even confer the privilege of presiding at the -meetings of the senate, which only belonged -to those magistrates who had the right of -convoking the senate.—During the republican -period no senatorial census existed, -although senators naturally always belonged -to the wealthiest classes. The institution of -a census for senators belongs to the time of -the empire. Augustus first fixed it at 400,000 -sesterces, afterwards increased it to double -this sum, and at last even to 1,200,000 sesterces. -Those senators whose property did -not amount to this sum received grants from -the emperor to make it up. As regards the -age at which a person might become a senator, -we have no express statement for the -time of the republic, although it appears to -have been fixed by some custom or law, as -the aetas senatoria is frequently mentioned, -especially during the latter period of the -republic. But we may by induction discover -the probable age. We know that, according -to the lex annalis of the tribune Villius, the -age fixed for the quaestorship was 31. Now -as it might happen that a quaestor was made -a senator immediately after the expiration -of his office, we may presume that the -earliest age at which a man could become a -senator was 32. Augustus at last fixed the -senatorial age at 25, which appears to have -remained unaltered throughout the time of -the empire.—No senator was allowed to -carry on any mercantile business. About -the commencement of the second Punic war, -some senators appear to have violated this -law or custom, and in order to prevent its -recurrence a law was passed, with the vehement -opposition of the senate, that none of -its members should be permitted to possess a -ship of more than 300 amphorae in tonnage, -as this was thought sufficiently large to convey -to Rome the produce of their estates -abroad. It is clear, however, that this law -was frequently violated.—Regular meetings -of the senate (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus legitimus</i>) took place -during the republic, and probably during the -kingly period also, on the calends, nones, -and ides of every month: extraordinary -meetings (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus indictus</i>) might be convoked -on any other day, with the exception -of those which were atri, and those on which -comitia were held. The right of convoking -the senate during the kingly period belonged -to the king, or to his vicegerent, the custos -urbis. This right was during the republic -transferred to the curule magistrates, and at -last to the tribunes also. If a senator did -not appear on a day of meeting, he was -liable to a fine, for which a pledge was taken -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pignoris captio</i>) until it was paid. Towards -the end of the republic it was decreed, that -during the whole month of February the senate -should give audience to foreign ambassadors -on all days on which the senate could lawfully -meet, and that no other matters -should be discussed until these affairs were -settled.—The places where the meetings of the -senate were held (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senacula</i>) were -always inaugurated by the augurs. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>] -The most ancient place was the -Curia Hostilia, in which alone originally a -senatus-consultum could be made. Afterwards, -however, several temples were used -for this purpose, such as the temple of Concordia, -a place near the temple of Bellona -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Legatus">Legatus</a></span>], and one near the porta Capena. -Under the emperors the senate also met in -other places: under Caesar, the Curia Julia, -a building of extraordinary splendour, was -commenced; but subsequently meetings of -the senate were frequently held in the house of -a consul.—The subjects laid before the senate -belonged partly to the internal affairs of the -state, partly to legislation, and partly to -finance; and no measure could be brought -before the populus without having previously -been discussed and prepared by the senate. -The senate was thus the medium through -which all affairs of the whole government -had to pass: it considered and discussed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_335"></a>[335]</span> -whatever measures the king thought proper -to introduce, and had, on the other hand, a -perfect control over the assembly of the populus, -which could only accept or reject what -the senate brought before it. When a king -died, the royal dignity, until a successor was -elected, was transferred to the Decem Primi, -each of whom in rotation held this dignity -for five days. Under the republic, the senate -had at first the right of proposing to the -comitia the candidates for magistracies, but -this right was subsequently lost: the comitia -centuriata became quite free in regard to -elections, and were no longer dependent upon -the proposal of the senate. The curies only -still possessed the right of sanctioning the -election; but in the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 299 they were -compelled to sanction any election of magistrates -which the comitia might make, before -it took place, and this soon after became law -by the Lex Maenia. When at last the curies -no longer assembled for this empty show of -power, the senate stepped into their place, and -henceforth in elections, and soon after also in -matters of legislation, the senate had previously -to sanction whatever the comitia -might decide. After the Lex Hortensia a -decree of the comitia tributa became law, -even without the sanction of the senate. The -original state of things had thus gradually -become reversed, and the senate had lost very -important branches of its power, which had -all been gained by the comitia tributa. In -its relation to the comitia centuriata, however, -the ancient rules were still in force, as -laws, declarations of war, conclusions of -peace, treaties, &c., were brought before -them, and decided by them on the proposal -of the senate.—The powers of the senate, -after both orders were placed upon a perfect -equality, may be thus briefly summed -up. The senate continued to have the supreme -superintendence in all matters of religion; -it determined upon the manner in -which a war was to be conducted, what -legions were to be placed at the disposal of a -commander, and whether new ones were to -be levied; it decreed into what provinces the -consuls and praetors were to be sent [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Provincia">Provincia</a></span>], -and whose imperium was to be prolonged. -The commissioners who were generally -sent out to settle the administration of -a newly-conquered country, were always appointed -by the senate. All embassies for the -conclusion of peace or treaties with foreign -states were sent out by the senate, and such -ambassadors were generally senators themselves, -and ten in number. The senate alone -carried on the negotiations with foreign ambassadors, -and received the complaints of -subject or allied nations, who always regarded -the senate as their common protector. -By virtue of this office of protector it also -settled all disputes which might arise among -the municipia and colonies of Italy, and -punished all heavy crimes committed in -Italy, which might endanger the public peace -and security. Even in Rome itself, the judices -to whom the praetor referred important -cases, both public and private, were taken -from among the senators, and in extraordinary -cases the senate appointed especial commissions -to investigate them; but such a -commission, if the case in question was a -capital offence committed by a citizen, required -the sanction of the people. When -the republic was in danger, the senate might -confer unlimited power upon the magistrates -by the formula, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Videant consules, ne quid -respublica detrimenti capiat</i>, which was -equivalent to a declaration of martial law -within the city. This general care for the -internal and external welfare of the republic -included, as before, the right of disposing of -the finances requisite for these purposes. -Hence all the revenue and expenditure of the -republic were under the direct administration -of the senate, and the censors and quaestors -were only its ministers or agents. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a></span>; -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestor</a></span>.] All the expenses necessary for -the maintenance of the armies required the -sanction of the senate, before anything could -be done, and it might even prevent the triumph -of a returning general, by refusing to -assign the money necessary for it. There -are, however, instances of a general triumphing -without the consent of the senate.—How -many members were required to be present -in order to constitute a legal assembly, is -uncertain, though it appears that there existed -some regulations on this point, and -there is one instance on record, in which at -least one hundred senators were required to -be present. The presiding magistrate opened -the business with the words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quod bonum, -faustum, felix fortunatumque sit populo Romano -Quiritibus</i>, and then laid before the -assembly (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">referre</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">relatio</i>) what he had to -propose. Towards the end of the republic -the order in which the question was put to -the senators appears to have depended upon -the discretion of the presiding consul, who -called upon each member by pronouncing his -name; but he usually began with the princeps -senatus, or if consules designati were -present, with them. The consul generally -observed all the year round the same order in -which he had commenced on the first of -January. A senator when called upon to -speak might do so at full length, and even -introduce subjects not directly connected with -the point at issue. It depended upon the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336"></a>[336]</span> -president which of the opinions expressed he -would put to the vote, and which he would -pass over. The majority of votes always -decided a question. The majority was ascertained -either by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">numeratio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">discessio</i>; that -is, the president either counted the votes, or -the members who voted on the same side -separated from those who voted otherwise. -The latter mode seems to have been the -usual one. What the senate determined was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatus consultum</i>, because the consul, -who introduced the business, was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatum -consulere</i>. In the enacting part of a lex -the populus were said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jubere</i>, and in a plebiscitum -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scire</i>; in a senatusconsultum the senate -was said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">censere</i>. Certain forms were observed -in drawing up a senatusconsultum, of -which there is an example in Cicero: “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">S. C. -Auctoritates Pridie Kal. Octob. in Aede -Apollinis, scribendo adfuerunt L. Domitius -Cn. Filius Ahenobarbus, &c. Quod M. Marcellus -Consul V. F. (<em>verba fecit</em>) de prov. -Cons. D. E. R. I. C. (<em>de ea re ita censuerunt -Uti, &c.</em>)</span>” The names of the persons who -were witnesses to the drawing up of the -senatusconsultum were called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctoritates</i>, -and these auctoritates were cited as evidence -of the fact of the persons named in them -having been present at the drawing up of the -S.C. There can be no doubt that certain -persons were required to be present <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scribendo</i>, -but others might assist if they chose, and a -person in this way might testify his regard -for another on behalf of whom or with reference -to whom the S. C. was made. Besides -the phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scribendo adesse</i>, there are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">esse ad -scribendum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">poni ad scribendum</i>. When -a S. C. was made on the motion of a person, -it was said to be made <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in sententiam ejus</i>. -If the S. C. was carried, it was written on -tablets, and placed in the Aerarium. Senatusconsulta -were, properly speaking, laws, -for it is clear that the senate had legislative -power even in the republican period; but it -is difficult to determine how far their legislative -power extended. A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decretum</i> of the -senate was a rule made by the senate as to -some matter which was strictly within its -competence, and thus differed from a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">senatusconsultum</i>, -which was a law; but these words -are often used indiscriminately and with -little precision. Many of the senatusconsulta -of the republican period were only determinations -of the senate, which became leges by -being carried in the comitia. One instance -of this kind occurred on the occasion of the -trial of Clodius for violating the mysteries of -the Bona Dea. A rogatio on the subject of -the trial was proposed to the comitia ex -senatusconsulto, which is also spoken of as -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auctoritas</i> of the senate. A senate was -not allowed to be held before sunrise or to be -prolonged after sunset: on extraordinary -emergencies, however, this regulation was set -aside.—During the latter part of the republic -the senate was degraded in various ways by -Sulla, Caesar, and others, and on many occasions -it was only an instrument in the hands -of the men in power. In this way it became -prepared for the despotic government of the -emperors, when it was altogether the creature -and obedient instrument of the princeps. -The emperor himself was generally also -princeps senatus, and had the power of convoking -both ordinary and extraordinary -meetings, although the consuls, praetors and -tribunes continued to have the same right. The -ordinary meetings, according to a regulation -of Augustus, were held twice in every -month. In the reign of Tiberius the election -of magistrates was transferred from the people -to the senate, which, however, was enjoined -to take especial notice of those candidates -who were recommended to it by the -emperor. At the demise of an emperor the -senate had the right of appointing his successor, -in case no one had been nominated by -the emperor himself; but the senate very -rarely had an opportunity of exercising this -right, as it was usurped by the soldiers. The -aerarium at first still continued nominally to -be under the control of the senate, but the -emperors gradually took it under their own -exclusive management, and the senate retained -nothing but the administration of the -funds of the city (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arca publica</i>), which were -distinct both from the aerarium and from -the fiscus. Augustus ordained that no accusations -should any longer be brought before -the comitia, and instead of them he raised -the senate to a high court of justice, upon -which he conferred the right of taking cognisance -of capital offences committed by senators, -of crimes against the state and the person -of the emperors, and of crimes committed -by the provincial magistrates in the administration -of their provinces. Respecting the -provinces of the senate, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Provincia">Provincia</a></span>. -Under the empire, senatusconsulta began to -take the place of leges, properly so called, -and as the senate was, with the exception of -the emperor, the only legislating body, such -senatusconsulta are frequently designated by -the name of the consuls in whose year of -office they were passed.—The distinctions and -privileges enjoyed by senators were: 1. The -tunica with a broad purple stripe (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">latus -clavus</i>) in front, which was woven in it, and -not, as is commonly believed, sewed upon it. -2. A kind of short boot, with the letter C. on -the front of the foot. This C. is generally -supposed to mean <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centum</i>, and to refer to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_337"></a>[337]</span> -original number of 100 (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centum</i>) senators. -3. The right of sitting in the orchestra in the -theatres and amphitheatres. This distinction -was first procured for the senators by Scipio -Africanus Major, 194 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 4. On a certain -day in the year a sacrifice was offered to -Jupiter in the Capitol, and on this occasion -the senators alone had a feast in the Capitol; -the right was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus publice epulandi</i>. -5. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus liberae legationis</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Legatus">Legatus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_224">p. 224</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Seniores">SĔNĬŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Septemviri">SEPTEMVĬRI ĔPŬLŌNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epulones">Epulones</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Septimontium">SEPTĬMONTĬUM, a Roman festival which -was held in the month of December. It was -celebrated by the montani, or the inhabitants -of the seven ancient hills or rather districts -of Rome, who offered on this day sacrifices to -the gods in their respective districts. These -sacra were, like the Paganalia, not sacra -publica, but privata. They were believed to -have been instituted to commemorate the -enclosure of the seven hills of Rome within -the walls of the city, and must certainly be -referred to a time when the Capitoline, Quirinal, -and Viminal were not yet incorporated -with Rome.</p> - - -<p id="Septum">SEPTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_107">p. 107</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Septunx">SEPTUNX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sepulcrum">SĔPULCRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sera">SĔRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sericum">SĒRĬCUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σηρικόν</span>), silk, also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bombycinum</i>. -Raw silk was brought from the -interior of Asia, and manufactured in Cos, as -early as the fourth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> From this -island it appears that the Roman ladies obtained -their most splendid garments [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Coa">Coa -Vestis</a></span>], which were remarkably thin, sometimes -of a fine purple dye, and variegated -with transverse stripes of gold. Silk was -supposed to come from the country of the Seres -in Asia, whence a silk garment is usually -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Serica vestis</i>. Under the empire the -rage for such garments was constantly on the -increase. Even men aspired to be adorned -with silk, and hence the senate, early in the -reign of Tiberius, enacted <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ne vestis Serica viros -fœdaret</i>. The eggs of the silkworm were first -brought into Europe in the age of Justinian, -<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 530, in the hollow stem of a plant from -“Serinda,” which was probably Khotan in -Little Bucharia, by some monks who had learnt -the method of hatching and rearing them.</p> - - -<p id="Serta">SERTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Corona">Corona</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Servus">SERVUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοῦλος</span>), a slave. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> -Slavery existed almost throughout the whole -of Greece; and Aristotle says that a complete -household is that which consists of slaves -and freemen, and he defines a slave to be a -living working-tool and possession. None -of the Greek philosophers ever seem to have -objected to slavery as a thing morally wrong; -Plato in his perfect state only desires that no -Greeks should be made slaves by Greeks, and -Aristotle defends the justice of the institution -on the ground of a diversity of race, and -divides mankind into the free and those who -are slaves by nature; under the latter description -he appears to have regarded all -barbarians in the Greek sense of the word, -and therefore considers their slavery justifiable. -In the most ancient times there are -said to have been no slaves in Greece, but we -find them in the Homeric poems, though by -no means so generally as in later times. -They are usually prisoners taken in war, -who serve their conquerors: but we also -read as well of the purchase and sale of -slaves. They were, however, at that time -mostly confined to the houses of the wealthy. -There were two kinds of slavery among the -Greeks. One species arose when the inhabitants -of a country were subdued by an invading -tribe, and reduced to the condition of -serfs or bondsmen. They lived upon and -cultivated the land which their masters had -appropriated to themselves, and paid them a -certain rent. They also attended their -masters in war. They could not be sold out -of the country or separated from their families, -and could acquire property. Such were -the Helots of Sparta [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Helotes">Helotes</a></span>], and the -Penestae of Thessaly [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Penestae">Penestae</a></span>]. The other -species of slavery consisted of domestic slaves -acquired by purchase, who were entirely the -property of their masters, and could be disposed -of like any other goods and chattels: -these were the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δοῦλοι</span> properly so called, and -were the kind of slaves that existed at Athens -and Corinth. In commercial cities slaves -were very numerous, as they performed the -work of the artisans and manufacturers of -modern towns. In poorer republics, which -had little or no capital, and which subsisted -wholly by agriculture, they would be few: -thus in Phocis and Locris there are said to -have been originally no domestic slaves. -The majority of slaves was purchased; few -comparatively were born in the family of the -master, partly because the number of female -slaves was very small in comparison with the -male, and partly because the cohabitation of -slaves was discouraged, as it was considered -cheaper to purchase than to rear slaves. It -was a recognised rule of Greek national law -that the persons of those who were taken -prisoners in war became the property of the -conqueror, but it was the practice for Greeks -to give liberty to those of their own nation -on payment of a ransom. Consequently -almost all slaves in Greece, with the exception -of the serfs above-mentioned, were barbarians.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_338"></a>[338]</span> -The chief supply seems to have -come from the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, -which had abundant opportunities of obtaining -them from their own neighbourhood and -the interior of Asia. A considerable number -of slaves also came from Thrace, where -the parents frequently sold their children.—At -Athens, as well as in other states, there -was a regular slave-market, called the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύκλος</span>, because the slaves stood round in -a circle. They were also sometimes sold by -auction, and were then placed on a stone, -as is now done when slaves are sold in the -United States of North America: the same -was also the practice in Rome, whence the -phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">homo de lapide emtus</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Auctio">Auctio</a>.</span>] At -Athens the number of slaves was far greater -than the free population. Even the poorest -citizen had a slave for the care of his household, -and in every moderate establishment -many were employed for all possible occupations, -as bakers, cooks, tailors, &c.—Slaves -either worked on their masters’ account or -their own (in the latter case they paid their -masters a certain sum a day); or they were -let out by their master on hire, either for the -mines or any other kind of labour, or as hired -servants for wages. The rowers on board -the ships were usually slaves, who either -belonged to the state or to private persons, -who let them out to the state on payment of -a certain sum. It appears that a considerable -number of persons kept large gangs of -slaves merely for the purpose of letting out, -and found this a profitable mode of investing -their capital. Great numbers were required -for the mines, and in most cases the mine-lessees -would be obliged to hire some, as they -would not have sufficient capital to purchase -as many as they wanted. The rights of possession -with regard to slaves differed in no -respect from any other property; they could -be given or taken as pledges. The condition, -however, of Greek slaves was upon the whole -better than that of Roman ones, with the -exception perhaps of Sparta, where, according -to Plutarch, it is the best place in the -world to be a freeman, and the worst to be a -slave. At Athens especially the slaves seem -to have been allowed a degree of liberty and -indulgence which was never granted to them -at Rome. The life and person of a slave at -Athens were also protected by the law: a -person who struck or maltreated a slave was -liable to an action; a slave too could not be -put to death without legal sentence. He -could even take shelter from the cruelty of -his master in the temple of Theseus, and -there claim the privilege of being sold by -him. The person of a slave was, of course, -not considered so sacred as that of a freeman: -his offences were punished with corporal -chastisement, which was the last mode -of punishment inflicted on a freeman; he -was not believed upon his oath, but his evidence -in courts of justice was always taken -with torture. Notwithstanding the generally -mild treatment of slaves in Greece, their -insurrection was not unfrequent: but these -insurrections in Attica were usually confined -to the mining slaves, who were treated with -more severity than the others. Slaves were -sometimes manumitted at Athens, though not -so frequently as at Rome. Those who were -manumitted (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπελεύθεροι</span>) did not become -citizens, as they might at Rome, but passed -into the condition of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metoici</i>. They were -obliged to honour their former master -as their patron (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστάτης</span>), and to fulfil -certain duties towards him, the neglect of -which rendered them liable to the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη ἀποστασίου</span>, -by which they might again be sold into -slavery. Respecting the public slaves at -Athens, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Demosii">Demosii</a></span>. It appears that there -was a tax upon slaves at Athens, which was -probably three oboli a year for each slave.—(2) -<span id="Serv_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span> The Romans viewed liberty as -the natural state, and slavery as a condition -which was contrary to the natural state. The -mutual relation of slave and master among the -Romans was expressed by the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Servus</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dominus</i>; and the power and interest which -the dominus had over and in the slave was expressed -by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dominium</i>. Slaves existed at Rome -in the earliest times of which we have any -record; but they do not appear to have been -numerous under the kings and in the earliest -ages of the republic. The different trades -and the mechanical arts were chiefly carried -on by the clients of the patricians, and the -small farms in the country were cultivated -for the most part by the labours of the -proprietor and of his own family. But as -the territories of the Roman state were extended, -the patricians obtained possession -of large estates out of the ager publicus, -since it was the practice of the Romans to -deprive a conquered people of part of their -land. These estates probably required a -larger number of hands for their cultivation -than could readily be obtained among the -free population, and since the freemen were -constantly liable to be called away from their -work to serve in the armies, the lands began -to be cultivated almost entirely by slave -labour. Through war and commerce slaves -could easily be obtained, and at a cheap rate, -and their number soon became so great, that -the poorer class of freemen was thrown -almost entirely out of employment. This -state of things was one of the chief arguments -used by Licinius and the Gracchi for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_339"></a>[339]</span> -limiting the quantity of public land which a -person might possess. In Sicily, which supplied -Rome with so great a quantity of corn, -the number of agricultural slaves was immense: -the oppressions to which they were -exposed drove them twice to open rebellion, -and their numbers enabled them to defy for -a time the Roman power. The first of these -servile wars began in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 134 and ended in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 132, and the second commenced in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -102 and lasted almost four years. Long, -however, after it had become the custom to -employ large gangs of slaves in the cultivation -of the land, the number of those who -served as personal attendants still continued -to be small. Persons in good circumstances -seem usually to have had one only to wait -upon them, who was generally called by the -name of his master with the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">por</i> (that -is, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puer</i>) affixed to it, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caipor</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lucipor</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Marcipor</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Publipor</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quintipor</i>, &c. But -during the latter times of the republic and -under the empire the number of domestic -slaves greatly increased, and in every family -of importance there were separate slaves to -attend to all the necessities of domestic life. -It was considered a reproach to a man not to -keep a considerable number of slaves. The -first question asked respecting a person’s -fortune was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quot pascit servos</i>, “How many -slaves does he keep?” Ten slaves seem to -have been the lowest number which a person -could keep in the age of Augustus, with a -proper regard to respectability in society. -The immense number of prisoners taken in -the constant wars of the republic, and the -increase of wealth and luxury, augmented -the number of slaves to a prodigious extent. -A freedman under Augustus, who had lost -much property in the civil wars, left at his -death as many as 4,116. Two hundred was -no uncommon number for one person to keep. -The mechanical arts, which were formerly -in the hands of the clients, were now entirely -exercised by slaves: a natural growth of -things, for where slaves perform certain -duties or practise certain arts, such duties or -arts are thought degrading to a freeman. -It must not be forgotten, that the games of -the amphitheatre required an immense number -of slaves trained for the purpose. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>] -Like the slaves in Sicily, the -gladiators in Italy rose in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 73 against -their oppressors, and under the able generalship -of Spartacus, defeated a Roman consular -army, and were not subdued till B.C. -71, when 60,000 of them are said to have -fallen in battle.—A slave could not contract -a marriage. His cohabitation with a woman -was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">contubernium</i>; and no legal relation -between him and his children was recognized. -A slave could have no property. He was -not incapable of acquiring property, but his -acquisitions belonged to his master. Slaves -were not only employed in the usual domestic -offices and in the labours of the field, -but also as factors or agents for their masters -in the management of business, and as mechanics, -artisans, and in every branch of -industry. It may easily be conceived that, -under these circumstances, especially as they -were often entrusted with property to a large -amount, there must have arisen a practice of -allowing the slave to consider part of his -gains as his own; this was his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Peculium</i>, a -term also applicable to such acquisitions of a -filius-familias as his father allowed him to -consider as his own. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patria">Patria Potestas</a>.</span>] -According to strict law, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peculium</i> was -the property of the master, but according to -usage, it was considered to be the property -of the slave. Sometimes it was agreed between -master and slave, that the slave -should purchase his freedom with his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peculium</i> -when it amounted to a certain sum. A -runaway slave (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fugitivus</i>) could not lawfully -be received or harboured. The master was -entitled to pursue him wherever he pleased; -and it was the duty of all authorities to give -him aid in recovering the slave. It was the -object of various laws to check the running -away of slaves in every way, and accordingly -a runaway slave could not legally be -an object of sale. A class of persons called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fugitivarii</i> made it their business to recover -runaway slaves. A person was a slave either -jure gentium or jure civili. Under the republic, -the chief supply of slaves arose from -prisoners taken in war, who were sold by -the quaestors with a crown on their heads -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub corona venire, vendere</i>), and usually on -the spot where they were taken, as the care -of a large number of captives was inconvenient. -Consequently slave-dealers usually -accompanied an army, and frequently after a -great battle had been gained many thousands -were sold at once, when the slave-dealers -obtained them for a mere nothing. The -slave trade was also carried on to a great -extent, and after the fall of Corinth and -Carthage, Delos was the chief mart for this -traffic. When the Cilician pirates had possession -of the Mediterranean, as many as -10,000 slaves are said to have been imported -and sold there in one day. A large number -came from Thrace and the countries in the -north of Europe, but the chief supply was -from Africa, and more especially Asia, -whence we frequently read of Phrygians, -Lycians, Cappadocians, &c. as slaves. The -trade of slave-dealers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mangones</i>) was considered -disreputable; but it was very lucrative,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_340"></a>[340]</span> -and great fortunes were frequently -realised from it. Slaves were usually sold -by auction at Rome. They were placed -either on a raised stone (hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de lapide -emtus</i>), or a raised platform (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">catasta</i>), so that -every one might see and handle them, even -if they did not wish to purchase them. Purchasers -usually took care to have them -stripped naked, for slave-dealers had recourse -to as many tricks to conceal personal defects -as the horse-jockeys of modern times: sometimes -purchasers called in the advice of medical -men. Newly imported slaves had their -feet whitened with chalk, and those that -came from the East had their ears bored, -which we know was a sign of slavery among -many eastern nations. The slave-market, -like all other markets, was under the jurisdiction -of the aediles, who made many regulations -by edicts respecting the sale of slaves. -The character of the slave was set forth in -a scroll (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">titulus</i>) hanging around his neck, -which was a warranty to the purchaser: the -vendor was bound to announce fairly all his -defects, and if he gave a false account had to -take him back within six months from the -time of his sale, or make up to the purchaser -what the latter had lost through obtaining -an inferior kind of slave to what had been -warranted. The chief points which the -vendor had to warrant, were the health of the -slave, especially freedom from epilepsy, and -that he had not a tendency to thievery, running -away, or committing suicide. Slaves -sold without any warranty wore at the time -of sale a cap (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pileus</i>) upon their head. -Slaves newly imported were generally preferred -for common work: those who had -served long were considered artful (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">veteratores</i>); -and the pertness and impudence of -those born in their master’s house, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vernae</i>, were proverbial. The value of slaves -depended of course upon their qualifications; -but under the empire the increase of luxury -and the corruption of morals led purchasers -to pay immense sums for beautiful slaves, -or such as ministered to the caprice or whim -of the purchaser. Eunuchs always fetched -a very high price, and Martial speaks of -beautiful boys who sold for as much as -100,000 or 200,000 sesterces each (885<em>l.</em> 8<em>s.</em> 4<em>d.</em> -and 1770<em>l.</em> 16<em>s.</em> 8<em>d.</em>). Slaves who possessed -a knowledge of any art which might bring -profit to their owners, also sold for a large -sum. Thus literary men and doctors frequently -fetched a high price, and also slaves -fitted for the stage.—Slaves were divided into -many various classes: the first division was -into public or private. The former belonged -to the state and public bodies, and their condition -was preferable to that of the common -slaves. They were less liable to be sold, and -under less control, than ordinary slaves: -they also possessed the privilege of the testamenti -factio to the amount of one half of -their property, which shows that they were -regarded in a different light from other slaves. -Public slaves were employed to take care of -the public buildings, and to attend upon magistrates -and priests. A body of slaves belonging -to one person was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i>, but -two were not considered sufficient to constitute -a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia</i>. Private slaves were divided -into urban (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia urbana</i>) and rustic -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">familia rustica</i>); but the name of urban -was given to those slaves who served in the -villa or country residence as well as in the -town house; so that the words urban and -rustic rather characterised the nature of their -occupations than the place where they served. -Slaves were also arranged in certain classes, -which held a higher or a lower rank according -to the nature of their occupation. These -classes are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordinarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vulgares</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mediastini</i>.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ordinarii</i> -seem to have been those slaves -who had the superintendence of certain parts of -the housekeeping. They were always chosen -from those who had the confidence of their -master, and they generally had certain slaves -under them. To this class the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">actores</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procuratores</i>, -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dispensatores</i> belong, who -occur in the familia rustica as well as the -familia urbana, but in the former are almost -the same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">villici</i>. They were stewards -or bailiffs. To the same class also belong the -slaves who had the charge of the different -stores, and who correspond to our house-keepers -and butlers: they are called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cellarii</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">condi</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procuratores peni</i>, &c.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vulgares</i> -included the great body of slaves in a house -who had to attend to any particular duty in -the house, and to minister to the domestic -wants of their master. As there were distinct -slaves or a distinct slave for almost -every department of household economy, as -bakers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pistores</i>), cooks (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coqui</i>), confectioners -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dulciarii</i>), picklers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">salmentarii</i>), &c., it is -unnecessary to mention these more particularly. -This class also included the porters -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ostiarii</i>), the bed-chamber slaves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cubicularii</i>), -the litter-bearers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lecticarii</i>), and all -personal attendants of any kind.—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mediastini</i>, -the name given to slaves used for any -common purpose, was chiefly applied to certain -slaves belonging to the familia rustica.—The -treatment of slaves of course varied -greatly, according to the disposition of their -masters, but they were upon the whole, as -has been already remarked, treated with -greater severity and cruelty than among the -Athenians. Originally the master could use -the slave as he pleased; under the republic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_341"></a>[341]</span> -the law does not seem to have protected the -person or life of the slave at all; but the -cruelty of masters was to some extent restrained -under the empire by various enactments. -In early times, when the number of -slaves was small, they were treated with -more indulgence, and more like members of -the family: they joined their masters in -offering up prayers and thanksgivings to the -gods, and partook of their meals in common -with their masters, though not at the same -table with them, but upon benches (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subsellia</i>) -placed at the foot of the lectus. But with -the increase of numbers and of luxury among -masters, the ancient simplicity of manners -was changed: a certain quantity of food was -allowed them (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dimensum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demensum</i>), which -was granted to them either monthly (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">menstruum</i>) -or daily (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diarium</i>). Their chief food -was the corn called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">far</i>, of which either four -or five modii were granted them a month, or -one Roman pound (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libra</i>) a day. They also -obtained an allowance of salt and oil: Cato -allowed his slaves a sextarius of oil a month -and a modius of salt a year. They also got -a small quantity of wine, with an additional -allowance on the Saturnalia and Compitalia, -and sometimes fruit, but seldom vegetables. -Butcher’s meat seems to have been hardly -ever given them. Under the republic they -were not allowed to serve in the army, -though after the battle of Cannae, when the -state was in imminent danger, 8000 slaves -were purchased by the state for the army, -and subsequently manumitted on account of -their bravery. The offences of slaves were -punished with severity, and frequently with -the utmost barbarity. One of the mildest -punishments was the removal from the -familia urbana to the rustica, where they -were obliged to work in chains or fetters. -They were frequently beaten with sticks or -scourged with the whip. Runaway slaves -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fugitivi</i>) and thieves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fures</i>) were branded -on the forehead with a mark (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stigma</i>), whence -they are said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">notati</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inscripti</i>. Slaves -were also punished by being hung up by their -hands with weights suspended to their feet, -or by being sent to work in the Ergastulum -or Pistrinum. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ergastulum">Ergastulum</a>.</span>] The carrying -of the furca was a very common mode of -punishment. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Furca">Furca</a>.</span>] The toilet of the -Roman ladies was a dreadful ordeal to the -female slaves, who were often barbarously -punished by their mistresses for the slightest -mistake in the arrangement of the hair or a -part of the dress. Masters might work their -slaves as many hours in the day as they -pleased, but they usually allowed them holidays -on the public festivals. At the festival -of Saturnus, in particular, special indulgences -were granted to all slaves, of which an account -is given under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Saturnalia">Saturnalia</a></span>. There -was no distinctive dress for slaves. It was -once proposed in the senate to give slaves a -distinctive costume, but it was rejected, since -it was considered dangerous to show them -their number. Male slaves were not allowed -to wear the toga or bulla, nor females the -stola, but otherwise they were dressed nearly -in the same way as poor people, in clothes of -a dark colour (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pullati</i>) and slippers (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crepidae</i>). -The rights of burial, however, were -not denied to slaves, for, as the Romans regarded -slavery as an institution of society, -death was considered to put an end to the distinction -between slaves and freemen. Slaves -were sometimes even buried with their masters, -and we find funeral inscriptions addressed to -the Dii Manes of slaves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dis Manibus</i>).</p> - - -<p id="Sescunx">SESCUNX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sestertius">SESTERTĬUS, a Roman coin, which properly -belonged to the silver coinage, in which -it was one-fourth of the denarius, and therefore -equal to 2½ asses. Hence the name, -which is an abbreviation of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">semis tertius</i> -(sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummus</i>), the Roman mode of expressing -2½. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummus</i> is often expressed -with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertius</i>, and often it stands alone, -meaning <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertius</i>. Hence the symbol HS -or IIS, which is used to designate the sestertius. -It stands either for LLS (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libra -Libra et Semis</i>), or for IIS, the two I’s -merely forming the numeral two (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">asses</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librae</i>), and the whole being in either case -equivalent to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dupondius et semis</i>. When the -as was reduced to half an ounce, and the -number of asses in the denarius was made -sixteen instead of ten [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a></span>], the -sestertius was still ¼ of the denarius, and -therefore contained no longer 2½, but 4 asses. -The old reckoning of 10 asses to the denarius -was kept, however, in paying the troops. -After this change the sestertius was coined -in brass as well as in silver; the metal used -for it was that called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aurichalcum</i>, which -was much finer than the common <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i>, of -which the asses were made. The sum of -1000 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertii</i> was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i>. This -was also denoted by the symbol HS, the -obvious explanation of which is “IIS (2½ -millia).” The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i> was always a sum of -money, never a <em>coin</em>; the <em>coin</em> used in the payment -of large sums was the denarius. According -to the value we have assigned to the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a></span>, -up to the time of Augustus, we have—</p> - -<table class="autotable" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad6"> </td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr"><em>£.</em></td> -<td class="tdr"><em>s.</em></td> -<td class="tdr"><em>d.</em></td> -<td class="tdc"><em> farth.</em></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">the sestertius</td> -<td class="tdl">=</td> -<td class="tdr">0</td> -<td class="tdr">0</td> -<td class="tdr">2</td> -<td class="tdc">·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">the sestertium</td> -<td class="tdl">=</td> -<td class="tdr">8</td> -<td class="tdr">17</td> -<td class="tdr">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7">After the reign of Augustus—</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">the sestertius</td> -<td class="tdl">=</td> -<td class="tdr">0</td> -<td class="tdr">0</td> -<td class="tdr">1</td> -<td class="tdc">3·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">the sestertium</td> -<td class="tdl">=</td> -<td class="tdr">7</td> -<td class="tdr">16</td> -<td class="tdr">3</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_342"></a>[342]</span></p> - -<p class="noindent">The sestertius was the denomination of money -almost always used in reckoning considerable -amounts. There are a very few examples of -the use of the denarius for this purpose. -The mode of reckoning was as follows:—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sestertius</i> -= <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertius nummus</i> = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummus</i>. -Sums below 1000 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertii</i> were expressed by -the numeral adjectives joined with either of -these forms. The sum of 1000 sestertii = -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mille sestertii</i> = M <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i> (for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertiorum</i>) -= M <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummi</i> = M <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummum</i> (for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummorum</i>) -= M <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertii nummi</i> = M <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium -nummum</i> = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i>. These forms are used -with the numeral adjectives below 1000: -sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">millia</i> is used instead of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertia</i>: -sometimes both words are omitted: sometimes -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i> is added. For -example, 600,000 sestertii = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sescenta sestertia</i> -= <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sescenta millia</i> = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sescenta</i> = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sescenta sestertia -nummum</i>. For sums of a thousand -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertia</i> (<em>i.e.</em> a million <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertii</i>) and upwards, -the numeral adverbs in <em>ies</em> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decies, undecies, -vicies, &c.</i>) are used, with which the words -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centena millia</i> (a hundred thousand) must be -understood. With these adverbs the neuter -singular <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i> is joined in the case required -by the construction. Thus, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decies -sestertium</i> = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decies centena millia sestertium</i> -= <em>ten times a hundred thousand sestertii</em> = -1,000,000 sestertii = 1000 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertia</i>: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">millies</i> -HS = <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">millies centena millia sestertium</i> = a -thousand times one hundred thousand sestertii -= 100,000,000 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertii</i> = 100,000 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertia</i>. -When the numbers are written in cypher, it -is often difficult to know whether <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertii</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertia</i> are meant. A distinction is sometimes -made by a line placed over the numeral -when <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertia</i> are intended, or in other -words, when the numeral is an adverb in <em>ies</em>. -Thus</p> - -<table class="autotable" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">HS. M.C.</td> -<td class="tdl">=</td> -<td class="tdl">1100 sestertii, but</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">HS. M̄.C̄.</td> -<td class="tdl">=</td> -<td class="tdl">HS millies centies</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">=</td> -<td class="tdl">110,000 sestertia</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">=</td> -<td class="tdl">110,000,000 sestertii.</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="noindent"><em>Sesterce</em> is sometimes used as an English -word. If so, it ought to be used only as the -translation of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertius</i>, never of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sestertium</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Sevir">SĒVIR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sex">SEX SUFFRĀGĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sextans">SEXTANS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sextarius">SEXTĀRĬUS, a Roman dry and liquid -measure. It was one-sixth of the congius, -and hence its name. It was divided, in the -same manner as the As, into parts named -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">uncia, sextans, quadrans, triens, quincunx, -semissis, &c.</i> The uncia, or twelfth part of -the sextarius, was the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus</a></span>; its <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sextans</i> -was therefore two cyathi, its <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quadrans</i> three, -its <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triens</i> four, its <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quincunx</i> five, &c. (See -<a href="#TABLES">Tables</a>.)</p> - - -<p id="Sibyllini">SĬBYLLĪNI LIBRI. These books are said -to have been obtained in the reign of Tarquinius -Priscus, or according to other accounts -in that of Tarquinius Superbus, when a -Sibyl (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σίβυλλα</span>), or prophetic woman, presented -herself before the king, and offered nine -books for sale. Upon the king refusing to -purchase them, she went and burnt three, -and then returned and demanded the same -price for the remaining six as she had done -for the nine. The king again refused to -purchase them, whereupon she burnt three -more, and demanded the same sum for the -remaining three as she had done at first for -the nine; the king’s curiosity now became -excited, so that he purchased the books, and -then the Sibyl vanished. These books were -probably written in Greek, as the later ones -undoubtedly were. They were kept in a -stone chest under ground in the temple of -Jupiter Capitolinus, under the custody of -certain officers, at first only two in number, -but afterwards increased successively to ten -and fifteen, of whom an account is given -under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Decemviri">Decemviri</a></span>. The public were not -allowed to inspect the books, and they were -only consulted by the officers, who had the -charge of them, at the special command of -the senate. They were not consulted, as the -Greek oracles were, for the purpose of getting -light concerning future events; but to learn -what worship was required by the gods, when -they had manifested their wrath by national -calamities or prodigies. Accordingly we find -that the instruction they give is in the same -spirit; prescribing what honour was to be -paid to the deities already recognised, or -what new ones were to be imported from -abroad. When the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus -was burnt in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 82, the Sibylline -books perished in the fire; and in order to -restore them, ambassadors were sent to various -towns in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, to -make fresh collections, which on the rebuilding -of the temple were deposited in the same -place that the former had occupied. The -Sibylline books were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fata Sibyllina</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Libri Fatales</i>. Along with the -Sibylline books were preserved, under the -guard of the same officers, the books of the -two prophetic brothers, the Marcii, the Etruscan -prophecies of the nymph Bygoe, and -those of Albuna or Albunea of Tibur. Those -of the Marcii, which had not been placed -there at the time of the battle of Cannae, -were written in Latin.</p> - - -<p id="Sica">SĪCA, <em>dim.</em> SĪCĪLA, whence the English -<em>sickle</em>, a curved dagger, adapted by its form -to be concealed under the clothes, and therefore -carried by robbers and murderers. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sica</i> -may be translated <em>a scimitar</em>, to distinguish<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_343"></a>[343]</span> -it from <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pugio">Pugio</a></span>, which denoted a dagger of the -common kind. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sicarius</i>, though properly -meaning one who murdered with the sica, -was applied to murderers in general. Hence -the forms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">de sicariis</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">inter sicarios</i> were -used in the criminal courts in reference to -murder. Thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judicium inter sicarios</i>, “a -trial for murder;” <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">defendere inter sicarios</i>, -“to defend against a charge of murder.”</p> - - -<p id="Sigillaria">SĬGILLĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Saturnalia">Saturnalia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Signa">SIGNA MĪLĬTĀRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σημεῖα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σημαίαι</span>), -military ensigns or standards. The most -ancient standard employed by the Romans is -said to have been a handful of straw fixed to -the top of a spear or pole. Hence the company -of soldiers belonging to it was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Manipulus</i>. The bundle of hay or fern was -soon succeeded by the figures of animals, viz. -the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, -and the boar. These appear to have corresponded -to the five divisions of the Roman -army as shown on <a href="#ill165">p. 165</a>. The eagle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquila</i>) -was carried by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquilifer</i> in the midst of -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hastati</i>, and we may suppose the wolf to -have been carried among the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">principes</i>, and -so on. In the second consulship of Marius, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 104, the four quadrupeds were entirely -laid aside as standards, the eagle being alone -retained. It was made of silver, or bronze, -and with expanded wings, but was probably -of a small size, since a standard-bearer (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signifer</i>) -under Julius Caesar is said in circumstances -of danger to have wrenched the eagle -from its staff, and concealed it in the folds of -his girdle. Under the later emperors the -eagle was carried, as it had been for many -centuries, with the legion, a legion being on -that account sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquila</i>, and at -the same time each cohort had for its own -ensign the serpent or dragon (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">draco</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δράκων</span>), -which was woven on a square piece of cloth, -elevated on a gilt staff, to which a cross-bar -was adapted for the purpose, and carried by -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">draconarius</i>. Another figure used in the -standards was a ball (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pila</i>), supposed to have -been emblematic of the dominion of Rome -over the world; and for the same reason -a bronze figure of Victory was sometimes -fixed at the top of the staff. Under the -eagle or other emblem was often placed a -head of the reigning emperor, which was -to the army the object of idolatrous adoration. -The minor divisions of a cohort, -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centuries</i>, had also each an ensign, -inscribed with the number both of the cohort -and of the century. By this provision every -soldier was enabled with the greatest ease to -take his place. The standard of the cavalry, -properly called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillum</i>, was a square piece -of cloth expanded upon a cross in the manner -already indicated, and perhaps surmounted -by some figure. The following cut, containing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_344"></a>[344]</span> -several standards, represents the performance -of the sacrifice called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suovetaurilia</i>. -The imperial standard from the time of Constantine -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">labarum</i>; on it a figure -or emblem of Christ was woven in gold upon -purple cloth, and this was substituted for the -head of the emperor. Since the movements -of a body of troops and of every portion of it -were regulated by the standards, all the evolutions, -acts, and incidents of the Roman -army were expressed by phrases derived from -this circumstance. Thus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signa inferre</i> meant -to advance, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">referre</i> to retreat, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">convertere</i> -to face about; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">efferre</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">castris vellere</i>, to -march out of the camp; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad signa convenire</i>, -to re-assemble. Notwithstanding some obscurity -in the use of terms, it appears that, -whilst the standard of the legion was properly -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aquila</i>, those of the cohorts were in a -special sense of the term called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signa</i>, their -bearers being <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signiferi</i>, and that those of the -manipuli or smaller divisions of the cohort -were denominated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexilla</i>, their bearers being -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillarii</i>. In time of peace the standards -were kept in the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a></span>, under the care -of the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestor</a></span>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp61" id="ill343" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill343.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Military Standards. (Bellori, Vet. Arc. Aug.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Silicernium">SĬLĬCERNĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Simpulum">SIMPŬLUM or SIMPŬVĬUM, the name of -a small cup used in sacrifices, by which libations -of wine were offered to the gods. It is -represented on the coin figured under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Secespita">Secespita</a></span>. -There was a proverbial expression <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">excitare -fluctus in simpulo</i>, “to make much ado -about nothing.”</p> - - -<p id="Siparium">SĪPĂRĬUM, a piece of tapestry stretched -on a frame, which rose before the stage of the -theatre, and consequently answered the purpose -of the drop-scene with us, although, -contrary to our practice, it was depressed -when the play began, so as to go below the -level of the stage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aulaea premuntur</i>), and -was raised again when the performance was -concluded (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tolluntur</i>). It appears that human -figures were represented upon it, whose feet -seemed to rest upon the stage when this -screen was drawn up. These figures were -sometimes those of Britons woven in the -canvass, and raising their arms in the attitude -of lifting up a purple curtain, so as to -be introduced in the same manner as Atlantes, -Persae, and Caryatides. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Caryatides">Caryatides</a>.</span>] In -a more general sense, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">siparium</i> denoted any -piece of cloth or canvass stretched upon a -frame.</p> - - -<p id="Sistrum">SISTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σεῖστρον</span>), a mystical instrument -of music, used by the ancient Egyptians -in their ceremonies, and especially in -the worship of Isis. It was held in the right -hand (see cut), and shaken, from which circumstance -it derived its name. The introduction -of the worship of Isis into Italy -shortly before the commencement of the -Christian aera made the Romans familiar -with this instrument.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp74" id="ill344" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill344.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Sistra. (The two figures on the left hand from paintings -found at Portici;<br />the right-hand figure represents a Sistrum -formerly belonging to the library of St. Genovefa at -Paris.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Sitella">SĬTELLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Situla">Situla</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sitophylaces">SĪTŎPHỸLĂCES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτοφύλακες</span>), a board of -officers, chosen by lot, at Athens. They were -at first three, afterwards increased to fifteen, -of whom ten were for the city, five for the -Peiraeus. Their business was partly to watch -the arrival of the corn ships, take account of -the quantity imported, and see that the import -laws were duly observed; partly to -watch the sales of corn in the market, and -take care that the prices were fair and reasonable, -and none but legal weights and measures -used by the factors; in which respect -their duties were much the same as those of -the Agoranomi and Metronomi with regard to -other saleable articles.</p> - - -<p id="Sitos">SĪTOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σῖτος</span>), corn. The soil of Attica, -though favourable to the production of figs, -olives, and grapes, was not so favourable for -corn; and accordingly a large quantity of -corn was annually imported. Exportation -was entirely prohibited, nor was any Athenian -or resident alien allowed to carry corn -to any other place than Athens. Whoever -did so, was punishable with death. Of the -corn brought into the Athenian port two-thirds -was to be brought into the city and -sold there. No one might lend money on a -ship that did not sail with an express condition -to bring a return cargo, part of it corn, -to Athens. Strict regulations were made with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_345"></a>[345]</span> -respect to the sale of corn in the market. -Conspiracies among the corn-dealers (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτοπῶλαι</span>) -to buy up the corn (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνωνεῖσθαι</span>), or -raise the price (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνιστάναι τὰς τιμὰς</span>), were -punished with death. The sale of corn was -placed under the supervision of a special -board of officers called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sitophylaces</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτοφύλακες</span>), -while that of all other marketable -commodities was superintended by the agoranomi. -It was their business to see that meal -and bread were of the proper quality, and -sold at the legal weight and price. Notwithstanding -these careful provisions, scarcities -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτοδεῖαι</span>) frequently occurred at Athens. -The state then made great efforts to supply -the wants of the people by importing large -quantities of corn, and selling it at a low -price. Public granaries were kept in the -Odeum, Pompeum, Long Porch, and naval -storehouse near the sea. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sitonae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιτῶναι</span>) -were appointed to get in the supply and -manage the sale. Persons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apodectae</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποδέκται</span>) received the corn, measured it out, -and distributed it in certain quantities.</p> - - -<p id="Sitou">SĪTOU DĬCĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σίτου δίκη</span>). If anything -happened to sever a marriage contract, the -husband or his representative was bound to -repay the marriage portion (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προῖξ</span>); or, if he -failed to do so, he was liable to pay interest -upon it at the rate of eighteen per cent. per -annum. A woman’s fortune was usually -secured by a mortgage of the husband’s property; -but whether this was so or not, her -guardian might bring an action against the -party who unjustly withheld it; <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη προικὸς</span>, -to recover the principal, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκη σίτου</span>, for the -interest. The interest was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σῖτος</span> (alimony -or maintenance), because it was the -income out of which the woman had to be -maintained. The word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σῖτος</span> is often used -generally for provisions, just as we use the -word <em>bread</em>.</p> - - -<p id="Situla">SĬTŬLA, <em>dim.</em> SĬTELLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδρία</span>), was probably -a bucket or pail for drawing and -carrying water, but was more usually applied -to the vessel from which lots were drawn. -The diminutive <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sitella</i>, however, was more -commonly used in this signification. It appears -that the vessel was filled with water (as -among the Greeks, whence the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδρία</span>), -and that the lots (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sortes</i>) were made of wood; -and as, though increasing in size below, it -had a narrow neck, only one lot could come -to the top of the water at the same time, -when it was shaken. The vessel used for -drawing lots was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">urna</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">orca</i> as -well as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Situla</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sitella</i>. It is important to understand -the difference in meaning, between -Sitella and Cista, in their use in the comitia -and courts of justice, since they have been -frequently confounded. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sitella</i> was the -urn, from which the names of the tribes or -centuries were drawn out by lot, so that each -might have its proper place in voting, and -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cista</i> was the ballot-box into which the -tabellae were cast in voting. The Cista -seems to have been made of wicker or similar -work.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill345a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill345a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Cista. <span class="pad10">Sitella.</span></div> -</div> - - -<p id="Soccus">SOCCUS, <em>dim.</em> SOCCŬLUS, was nearly if -not altogether equivalent in meaning to <span class="smcap"><a href="#Crepida">Crepida</a></span>, -and denoted a slipper or low shoe, -which did not fit closely, and was not fastened -by any tie. The Soccus was worn by -comic actors, and was in this respect opposed -to the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cothurnus">Cothurnus</a></span>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="ill345b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill345b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Socci, slippers, worn by a Mimus or Buffoon. (From an -ancient Painting.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Socii">SŎCĬI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύμμαχοι</span>). In the early times, -when Rome formed equal alliances with any -of the surrounding nations, these nations -were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii</i>. After the dissolution of -the Latin league, when the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Latini</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nomen Latinum</i>, was artificially applied to a -great number of Italians, only a few of whom -were real inhabitants of the old Latin towns, -and the majority of whom had been made -Latins by the will and the law of Rome, -there necessarily arose a difference between -these Latins and the Socii, and the expression -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii Nomen Latinum</i> is one of the old -asyndeta, instead of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Socii et Nomen Latinum</i>. -The Italian allies again must be distinguished -from foreign allies. The Italian allies consisted, -for the most part, of such nations as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_346"></a>[346]</span> -had either been conquered by the Romans, -or had come under their dominion through -other circumstances. When such nations -formed an alliance with Rome, they generally -retained their own laws; or if they -were not allowed this privilege at first, they -usually obtained it subsequently. The condition -of the Italian allies varied, and mainly -depended upon the manner in which they -had come under the Roman dominion; but -in reality they were always dependent upon -Rome. The following are the principal duties -which the Italian Socii had to perform towards -Rome: they had to send subsidies in -troops, money, corn, ships, and other things, -whenever Rome demanded them. The number -of troops requisite for completing or increasing -the Roman armies was decreed -every year by the senate, and the consuls -fixed the amount which each allied nation -had to send; in proportion to its population -capable of bearing arms, of which each nation -was obliged to draw up accurate lists, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">formulae</i>. The consul also appointed the -place and time at which the troops of the -socii, each part under its own leader, had to -meet him and his legions. The infantry of -the allies in a consular army was usually -equal in numbers to that of the Romans; the -cavalry was generally three times the number -of the Romans: but these numerical proportions -were not always observed. The consuls -appointed twelve praefects as commanders of -the socii, and their power answered to that -of the twelve military tribunes in the consular -legions. These praefects, who were -probably taken from the allies themselves, -and not from the Romans, selected a third of -the cavalry, and a fifth of the infantry of the -socii, who formed a select detachment for -extraordinary cases, and who were called the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">extraordinarii</i>. The remaining body of the -socii was then divided into two parts, called -the right and the left wing. The infantry of -the wings was, as usual, divided into cohorts, -and the cavalry into turmae. In some cases -also legions were formed of the socii. Pay -and clothing were given to the allied troops -by the states or towns to which they belonged, -and which appointed quaestors or -paymasters for this purpose: but Rome furnished -them with provisions at the expense -of the republic: the infantry received the -same as the Roman infantry, but the cavalry -only received two-thirds of what was given -to the Roman cavalry. In the distribution -of the spoil and of conquered lands they frequently -received the same share as the Romans. -They were never allowed to take up -arms of their own accord, and disputes among -them were settled by the senate. Notwithstanding -all this, the socii fell gradually -under the arbitrary rule of the senate and -the magistrates of Rome; and after the year -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 173, it even became customary for magistrates, -when they travelled through Italy, -to demand of the authorities of allied towns -to pay homage to them, to provide them with -a residence, and to furnish them with beasts -of burden when they continued their journey. -The only way for the allies to obtain any -protection against such arbitrary proceedings, -was to enter into a kind of clientela with -some influential and powerful Roman. Socii -who revolted against Rome were frequently -punished with the loss of their freedom, or -of the honour of serving in the Roman -armies. Such punishments however varied -according to circumstances. After the civitas -had been granted to all the Italians by the -Lex Julia de Civitate (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 90), the relation -of the Italian socii to Rome ceased. But -Rome had long before this event applied the -name Socii to foreign nations also which were -allied with Rome, though the meaning of the -word in this case differed from that of the -Socii Italici. There were two principal kinds -of alliances with foreign nations: 1. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foedus -aequum</i>, such as might be concluded either -after a war in which neither party had -gained a decisive victory, or with a nation -with which Rome had never been at war; -2. a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foedus iniquum</i>, when a foreign nation -conquered by the Romans was obliged to -form the alliance on any terms proposed by -the conquerors. In the latter case the foreign -nation was to some extent subject to Rome, -and obliged to comply with anything that -Rome might demand. But all foreign socii, -whether they had an equal or unequal alliance, -were obliged to send subsidies in troops -when Rome demanded them; these troops, -however, did not, like those of the Italian -socii, serve in the line, but were employed -as light-armed soldiers, and were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">milites auxiliares</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxiliarii</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxilia</i>, or sometimes -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxilia externa</i>. Towards the end of -the republic all the Roman allies, whether -they were nations or kings, sank down to the -condition of mere subjects or vassals of Rome, -whose freedom and independence consisted in -nothing but a name. [Compare <span class="smcap"><a href="#Foederatae">Foederatae -Civitates</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Sodalitium">SŎDĀLĬTĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Solarium">SŌLĀRIUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Horologium">Horologium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Solea">SŎLĔA was the simplest kind of sandal -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sandalium">Sandalium</a></span>], consisting of a sole with little -more to fasten it to the foot than a strap -across the instep.</p> - - -<p id="Solidus">SŎLĬDUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Solitaurilia">SOLĬTAURĪLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacrificium">Sacrificium</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Lustratio">Lustratio</a></span>; -and woodcut on <a href="#ill343">p. 343</a>.]</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_347"></a>[347]</span></p> - - -<p id="Sophronistae">SOPHRŌNISTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gymnasium">Gymnasium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sortes">SORTES, lots. It was a frequent practice -among the Italian nations to endeavour to -ascertain a knowledge of future events by -drawing lots (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sortes</i>): in many of the ancient -Italian temples the will of the gods was consulted -in this way, as at Praeneste, Caere, -&c. These sortes or lots were usually little -tablets or counters, made of wood or other -materials, and were commonly thrown into -a sitella or urn, filled with water, as is explained -under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Situla">Situla</a></span>. The lots were sometimes -thrown like dice. The name of sortes -was in fact given to anything used to determine -chances, and was also applied to any -verbal response of an oracle. Various things -were written upon the lots according to circumstances, -as for instance the names of the -persons using them, &c.: it seems to have -been a favourite practice in later times to -write the verses of illustrious poets upon -little tablets, and to draw them out of the -urn like other lots, the verses which a person -thus obtained being supposed to be applicable -to him.</p> - - -<p id="Specularia">SPĔCŬLĀRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Speculatores">SPĔCŬLĀTŌRES, or EXPLŌRĀTŌRES, -were scouts or spies sent before an army, to -reconnoitre the ground and observe the -movements of the enemy. Under the emperors -there was a body of troops called Speculatores, -who formed part of the praetorian -cohorts, and had the especial care of the emperor’s -person.</p> - - -<p id="Speculum">SPĔCŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάτοπτρον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔσοπτρον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνοπτρον</span>), -a mirror, a looking-glass. The looking-glasses -of the ancients were usually made -of metal, at first of a composition of tin and -copper, but afterwards more frequently of -silver. The ancients seem to have had glass -mirrors also like ours, consisting of a glass -plate covered at the back with a thin leaf of -metal. They were manufactured as early as -the time of Pliny at the celebrated glass-houses -of Sidon, but they must have been inferior -to those of metal, since they never -came into general use, and are never mentioned -by ancient writers among costly -pieces of furniture, whereas metal mirrors -frequently are. Looking-glasses were generally -small, and such as could be carried in -the hand. Instead of their being fixed so as -to be hung against the wall or to stand upon -the table or floor, they were generally held -by female slaves before their mistresses when -dressing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp38" id="ill347a" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill347a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Looking-glass held by a Nymph. (From a Painting at -Herculaneum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Specus">SPĔCUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aquae">Aquae Ductus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sphaeristerium">SPHAERISTĒRIUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gymnasium">Gymnasium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Spiculum">SPĪCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Spira">SPĪRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπεῖρα</span>), <em>dim.</em> SPĪRŬLA, the base -of a column. This member did not exist in -the Doric order of Greek architecture, but -was always present in the Ionic and Corinthian, -and, besides the bases properly -belonging to those orders, there was one -called the Attic, which may be regarded as a -variety of the Ionic [<span class="smcap">Atticurges</span>]. In the -Ionic and Attic the base commonly consisted -of two tori (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torus superior</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torus inferior</i>) -divided by a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scotia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρόχιλος</span>), and in the -Corinthian of two tori divided by two scotiae. -The upper torus was often fluted (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ῥαβδωτός</span>), -and surmounted by an astragal [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Astragalus">Astragalus</a></span>], -as in the left-hand figure of the annexed -woodcut, which shows the form of the base -in the Ionic temple of Panops on the Ilissus. -The right-hand figure in the same woodcut -shows the corresponding part in the temple -of Minerva Polias at Athens. In this the -upper torus is wrought with a plaited ornament, -perhaps designed to represent a rope -or cable. In these two temples the spira -rests not upon a plinth (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plinthus</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλίνθος</span>), but -on a podium.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill347b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill347b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Spirae (bases) of Columns. (From ancient Columns.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Spolia">SPŎLĬA. Four words are commonly employed -to denote booty taken in war, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praeda,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_348"></a>[348]</span> -anubiae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Exuviae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Spolia</i>. Of these <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praeda</i> -bears the most comprehensive meaning, being -used for plunder of every description. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Manubiae</i> -would seem strictly to signify that portion -of the spoil which fell to the share of -the commander-in-chief, the proceeds of -which were frequently applied to the erection -of some public building. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Exuviae</i> indicates -anything stripped from the person of a foe, -while <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Spolia</i>, properly speaking, ought to be -confined to armour and weapons, although -both words are applied loosely to trophies, -such as chariots, standards, beaks of ships -and the like, which might be preserved and -displayed. Spoils collected on the battlefield -after an engagement, or found in a -captured town, were employed to decorate -the temples of the gods, triumphal arches, -porticoes, and other places of public resort, -and sometimes in the hour of extreme need -served to arm the people; but those which -were gained by individual prowess were -considered the undoubted property of the -successful combatant, and were exhibited in -the most conspicuous part of his dwelling, -being hung up in the atrium, suspended -from the door-posts, or arranged in the vestibulum, -with appropriate inscriptions. They -were regarded as peculiarly sacred, so that -even if the house was sold the new possessor -was not permitted to remove them. But -while on the one hand it was unlawful to -remove spoils, so it was forbidden to <em>replace</em> -or <em>repair</em> them when they had fallen down or -become decayed through age; the object of -this regulation being doubtless to guard -against the frauds of false pretenders. Of -all spoils the most important were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spolia -opima</i>, a term applied to those only which -the commander-in-chief of a Roman army -stripped in a field of battle from the leader -of the foe. Plutarch expressly asserts that -Roman history up to his own time afforded -but three examples of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spolia opima</i>. The -first were said to have been won by Romulus -from Acro, king of the Caeninenses, the -second by Aulus Cornelius Cossus from Lar -Tolumnius, king of the Veientes, the third by -M. Claudius Marcellus from Viridomarus, -king of the Gaesatae. In all these cases, in -accordance with the original institution, the -spoils were dedicated to Jupiter Feretrius.</p> - - -<p id="Sponsa">SPONSA, SPONSUS, SPONSĀLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Sportula">SPORTŬLA. In the days of Roman freedom, -clients were in the habit of testifying -respect for their patron by thronging his -atrium at an early hour, and escorting him -to places of public resort when he went -abroad. As an acknowledgment of these -courtesies, some of the number were usually -invited to partake of the evening meal. -After the extinction of liberty, the presence -of such guests, who had now lost all political -importance, was soon regarded as an irksome -restraint, while at the same time many of -the noble and wealthy were unwilling to -sacrifice the pompous display of a numerous -body of retainers. Hence the practice was -introduced under the empire of bestowing on -each client, when he presented himself for his -morning visit, a certain portion of food as a substitute -and compensation for the occasional invitation -to a regular supper (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coena recta</i>), and -this dole, being carried off in a little basket provided -for the purpose, received the name of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sportula</i>. For the sake of convenience it -soon became common to give an equivalent -in money, the sum established by general -usage being a hundred quadrantes. The -donation in money, however, did not entirely -supersede the sportula given in kind, for we -find in Juvenal a lively description of a great -man’s vestibule crowded with dependents, -each attended by a slave bearing a portable -kitchen to receive the viands and keep them -hot while they were carried home. Under -the empire great numbers of the lower orders -derived their whole sustenance, and the -funds for ordinary expenditure, exclusively -from this source, while even the highborn -did not scruple to increase their incomes by -taking advantage of the ostentatious profusion -of the rich and vain.</p> - - -<p id="Stadium">STĂDĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ στάδιος</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ στάδιον</span>), a -Greek measure of length, and the chief one -used for itinerary distances. It was equal to -600 Greek or 625 Roman feet, or to 125 -Roman paces; and the Roman mile contained -8 stadia. Hence the stadium contained 606 -feet 9 inches English. This standard prevailed -throughout Greece, under the name of -the Olympic stadium, so called because it was -the exact length of the stadium or foot-race -course at Olympia, measured between the -pillars at the two extremities of the course. -The first use of the measure seems to be contemporaneous -with the formation of the -stadium at Olympia when the Olympic games -were revived by Iphitus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 884 or 828). -This distance doubled formed the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίαυλος</span>, the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππικον</span> was 4 stadia, and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δόλιχος</span> is differently -stated at 6, 7, 8, 12, 20, and 24 -stadia. A day’s journey by land was reckoned -at 200 or 180 stadia, or for an army 150 -stadia. The stadium at Olympia was used -not only for the foot-race, but also for the -other contests which were added to the games -from time to time [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Olympia">Olympia</a></span>], except the -horse-races, for which a place was set apart, -of a similar form with the stadium, but -larger; this was called the Hippodrome (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱππόδρομος</span>).<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_349"></a>[349]</span> -The name stadium was also given -to all other places throughout Greece wherever -games were celebrated. The stadium was an -oblong area terminated at one end by a straight -line, at the other by a semicircle having the -breadth of the stadium for its base. Round -this area were ranges of seats rising above -one another in steps.</p> - - -<p id="Stater">STĀTĒR (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στατῆρ</span>), which means simply <em>a -standard</em> (in this case both of weight and -more particularly of money), was the name -of the principal gold coin of Greece, which -was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chrysus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρυσοῦς</span>). The stater -is said to have been first coined in Lydia by -Croesus, and probably did not differ materially -from the stater which was afterwards -current in Greece, and which was equal <em>in -weight</em> to <em>two</em> drachmae, and <em>in value</em> to -<em>twenty</em>. The Macedonian stater, which was -the one most in use after the time of Philip -and his son Alexander the Great, was of the -value of about 1<em>l.</em> 3<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em> In calculating the -value of the stater in our money the ratio of -gold to silver must not be overlooked. Thus -the stater of Alexander, which we have -valued, according to the present worth of gold, -at 1<em>l.</em> 3<em>s.</em> 6<em>d.</em>, passed for twenty drachmae, -which, according to the present value of -silver, were worth only 16<em>s.</em> 3<em>d.</em> But the -former is the true worth of the stater, the -difference arising from the greater value of -silver in ancient times than now.</p> - - -<p id="Stationes">STĂTĬŌNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Stator">STĂTOR, a public servant, who attended -on the Roman magistrates in the provinces. -The Statores seem to have derived their name -from standing by the side of the magistrate, -and thus being at hand to execute all his -commands; they appear to have been chiefly -employed in carrying letters and messages.</p> - - -<p id="Statuaria">STĀTŬĀRĬA ARS is in its proper sense -the art of making statues or busts, whether -they consist of stone or metal or other materials, -and includes the art of making the -various kinds of reliefs (alto, basso, and -mezzo relievo). These arts in their infant -state existed among the Greeks from time -immemorial. There is no material applicable -to statuary which was not used by the Greeks. -As <em>soft clay</em> is capable of being shaped without -difficulty into any form, and is easily -dried, either by being exposed to the sun or -by being baked, we may consider this substance -to have been the earliest material of -which figures were made. The name plastic -art (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡ πλαστική</span>), by which the ancients sometimes -designate the art of statuary, properly -signifies to form or shape a thing of clay. -The second material was <em>wood</em>, and figures -made of wood were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξόανα</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξέω</span>, -“polish” or “carve.” It was chiefly used -for making images of the gods, and probably -more on account of the facility of working in -it, than for any other reason. <em>Stone</em> was -little used in statuary during the early ages -of Greece, though it was not altogether unknown, -as we may infer from the relief on -the Lion-gate of Mycenae. In Italy, where -the soft peperino afforded an easy material -for working, stone appears to have been used -at an earlier period and more commonly than -in Greece. But in the historical times the -Greeks used all the principal varieties of -marble for their statues. Different kinds of -marble and of different colours were sometimes -used in one and the same statue, in -which case the work is called Polylithic statuary. -<em>Bronze</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χάλκος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aes</i>), <em>silver</em>, and <em>gold</em> -were used profusely in the state of society -described in the Homeric poems. At that -period, however, and long after, the works -executed in metal were made by means of the -hammer, and the different pieces were joined -together by pins, rivets, cramps, or other -mechanical fastenings, and, as the art advanced, -by a kind of glue, cement, or solder. -Iron came into use much later, and the art of -casting both bronze and iron is ascribed to -Rhoecus and to Theodoras of Samos. <em>Ivory</em> -was employed at a later period than any of -the before-mentioned materials, and then was -highly valued both for its beauty and rarity. -In its application to statuary, ivory was -generally combined with gold, and was used -for the parts representing the flesh. The -history of ancient art, and of statuary in particular, -may be divided into five periods.</p> - -<p>I. <em>First Period, from the earliest times till -about 580</em> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>—Three kinds of artists may -be distinguished in the mythical period. -The first consists of gods and daemons; such -as Athena, Hephaestus, the Phrygian or Dardanian -Dactyli, and the Cabiri. The second -contains whole tribes of men distinguished -from others by the mysterious possession of -superior skill in the practice of the arts, such -as the Telchines and the Cyclopes. The -third consists of individuals who are indeed -described as human beings, but yet are -nothing more than personifications of particular -branches of art, or the representatives -of families of artists. Of the latter the most -celebrated is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Daedalus</i>, whose name indicates -nothing but a smith, or an artist in general, -and who is himself the mythical ancestor of -a numerous family of artists (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Daedalids</i>), -which can be traced from the time of Homer -to that of Plato, for even Socrates is said to -have been a descendant of this family. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Smilis</i> -(from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σμίλη</span>, a carving-knife) exercised his -art in Samos, Aegina, and other places, and -some remarkable works were attributed to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_350"></a>[350]</span> -him. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Endoeus</i> of Athens is called a disciple -of Daedalus. According to the popular traditions -of Greece, there was no period in -which the gods were not represented in some -form or other, and there is no doubt that for -a long time there existed no other statues in -Greece than those of the gods. The earliest -representations of the gods, however, were -only symbolic. The presence of a god was -indicated by the simplest and most shapeless -symbols, such as unhewn blocks of stone (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λίθοι -ἀργοί</span>), and by simple pillars or pieces of wood. -The general name for a representation of a -god not consisting of such a rude symbol was -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγαλμα</span>. In the Homeric poems there are sufficient -traces of the existence of statues of the -gods; but they probably did not display any -artistic beauty. The only work of art which -has come down to us from the heroic age is -the relief above the ancient gate of Mycenae, -representing two lions standing on their hind -legs, with a sort of pillar between them (woodcut -under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Murus">Murus</a></span>). The time which elapsed -between the composition of the Homeric -poems and the beginning of the fifth century -before our aera may be termed the age of discovery; -for nearly all the inventions, upon -the application of which <ins class="corr" id="tn-350" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'the developement of'"> -the development of</ins> -the arts is dependent, are assigned to this -period. Glaucus of Chios or Samos is said to -have invented the art of soldering metal -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σιδήρου κόλλησις</span>). The two artists most -celebrated for their discoveries were the two -brothers Telecles and Theodoras of Samos, -about the time of Polycrates. They invented -the art of casting figures of metal. During -the whole of this period, though marble and -bronze began to be extensively applied, yet -wood was more generally used for representations -of the gods. These statues were -painted [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pictura">Pictura</a></span>], and in most cases dressed -in the most gorgeous attire. The style in -which they are executed is called the <em>archaic</em> -or the <em>hieratic</em> style. The figures are stiff -and clumsy, the countenances have little or -no individuality, the eyes long and small, and -the outer angles turned a little upwards; the -mouth, which is likewise drawn upwards at -the two corners, has a smiling appearance. -The hair is carefully worked, but looks stiff -and wiry, and hangs generally down in -straight lines, which are curled at the ends. -The arms hang down the sides of the body, -unless the figure carries something in its -hands. The drapery is likewise stiff, and the -folds are very symmetrical and worked with -little regard to nature.</p> - -<p>II. <em>Second Period, from 580 to 480</em> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>—The -number of artists who flourished during -this period is truly astonishing. The Ionians -of Asia Minor and the islanders of the Aegean, -who had previously been in advance of the -other Greeks in the exercise of the fine -arts, had their last flourishing period from -560 to 528 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Works in metal were -produced in high perfection in Samos, in -Aegina and Argos, while Chios gained the -greatest reputation from its possessing the -earliest great school of sculptors in marble, in -which Bupalus and Anthermus were the -most distinguished about 540 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Their -works were scattered over various parts of -Greece, and their value may be inferred from -the fact that Augustus adorned with them -the pediment of the temple of Apollo on the -Palatine. Sicyon also possessed a celebrated -school of sculptors in marble, and about 580 -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Dipoenus and Scyllis, who had come from -Crete, were at the head of it, and executed -several marble statues of gods. Respecting -Magna Graecia and Sicily we know few particulars, -though it appears that the arts here -went on improving and continued to be in advance -of the mother-country. The most celebrated -artists in southern Italy were Dameas -of Croton, and Pythagoras of Rhegium. In -Athens the arts made great progress under -the patronage of the Pisistratids. The most -celebrated among the Athenian sculptors of -this period were Critias and Hegias, or Hegesias, -both distinguished for their works in -bronze. The former of them made in 477 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton. -Argos also distinguished itself, and it is a -curious circumstance, that the greatest Attic -artists with whom the third period opens, and -who brought the Attic art to its culminating -point, are disciples of the Argive Ageladas -(about 516 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) In the statues of the gods -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγάλματα</span>), which were made for temples as -objects of worship, the hieratic style was more -or less conscientiously retained, and it is therefore -not in these statues that we have to seek -for proofs of the progress of art. But even in -temple-statues wood began to give way to -other and better materials. Besides bronze, -marble also, and ivory and gold were now -applied to statues of the gods, and it was not -uncommon to form the body of a statue of -wood, and to make its head, arms, and feet -of stone (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀκρόλιθοι</span>), or to cover the whole of -such a wooden figure with ivory and gold. -From the statues of the gods erected for worship -we must distinguish those statues which -were dedicated in temples as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναθήματα</span>, and -which now became customary instead of -craters, tripods, &c. In these the artists -were not only not bound to any traditional or -conventional forms, but were, like the poets, -allowed to make free use of mythological subjects, -to add, and to omit, or to modify the -stories, so as to render them more adapted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_351"></a>[351]</span> -for their artistic purposes. A third class of -statues, which were erected during this -period in great numbers, were those of the -victors in the national games, and, though -more rarely, of other distinguished persons -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδριάντες</span>). Those of the latter kind appear -generally to have been portraits (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰκόνες</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">statuae iconicae</i>). The first iconic statues -of Harmodius and Aristogiton were made -by Antenor in 509 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and in 477 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -new statues of the same persons were made -by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Critias</i>. It was also at the period we -are now describing that it became customary -to adorn the pediments, friezes, and other -parts of temples with reliefs or groups of -statues of marble. We still possess two -great works of this kind which are sufficient -to show their general character during this -period. 1. The <em>Selinuntine Marbles</em>, or the -metopes of two temples on the acropolis of -Selinus in Sicily, which were discovered in -1823, and are at present in the Museum -of Palermo. 2. The <em>Aeginetan Marbles</em>, -which were discovered in 1812 in the island -of Aegina, and are now at Munich. They -consist of eleven statues, which adorned -two pediments of a temple of Athena, and -represent the goddess leading the Aeacids -against Troy, and contain manifest allusions -to the war of the Greeks with the Persians.</p> - -<p id="Iii">III. <em>Third Period, from 480 to 336</em> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>—During -this period Athens was the centre -of the fine arts in Greece. Statuary went -hand in hand with the other arts and with -literature: it became emancipated from its -ancient fetters, from the stiffness and conventional -forms of former times, and reached -its culminating point in the sublime and -mighty works of Phidias. His career begins -about 452 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> The genius of this artist -was so great and so generally recognised, -that all the great works which were executed -in the age of Pericles were placed -under his direction, and thus the whole host -of artists who were at that time assembled at -Athens were engaged in working out his designs -and ideas. Of these we have still -some remains:—1. Parts of the eighteen -sculptured metopes, together with the frieze -of the small sides of the cella of the temple of -Theseus. Ten of the metopes represent the -exploits of Hercules, and the eight others -those of Theseus. The figures in the frieze -are manifestly gods, but their meaning is uncertain. -Casts of these figures are in the -British Museum. 2. A considerable number -of the metopes of the Parthenon, which are -all adorned with reliefs in marble, a great -part of the frieze of the cella, some colossal -figures, and a number of fragments of the -two pediments of this temple. The greater -part of these works is now in the British -Museum, where they are collected under the -name of the Elgin Marbles. Besides the -sculptures of these temples, there are also -similar ornaments of other temples extant, -which show the influence which the school of -Phidias exercised in various parts of Greece. -Of these the most important are, the Phigalian -marbles, which belonged to the temple of Apollo -Epicurius, built about 436 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, by Ictinus. -They were discovered in 1812, and consist of -twenty-three plates of marble belonging to -the inner frieze of the cella. They are now -in the British Museum. The subjects represented -in them are fights with Centaurs and -Amazons, and one plate shows Apollo and -Artemis drawn in a chariot by stags. About -the same time that the Attic school rose -to its highest perfection under Phidias, the -school of Argos was likewise raised to its -summit by Polycletus. The art of making -bronze statues of athletes was carried by him -to the greatest perfection: ideal youthful and -manly beauty was the sphere in which he excelled. -One of his statues, a youthful Doryphorus, -was made with such accurate observation -of the proportions of the parts of the -body, that it was looked upon by the ancient -artists as a canon of rules on this point. -Myron of Eleutherae, about 432 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, adhered -to a closer imitation of nature than Polycletus, -and as far as the impression upon the -senses was concerned, his works were most -pleasing. The cow of Myron in bronze was -celebrated in all antiquity. The change which -took place after the Peloponnesian war in the -public mind at Athens could not fail to show -its influence upon the arts also. It was especially -Scopas of Paros and Praxiteles of -Athens, about one generation after Myron -and Polycletus, who gave the reflex of their -time in their productions. Their works expressed -the softer feelings and an excited state -of mind, such as would make a strong impression -upon and captivate the senses of the -beholders. Both were distinguished as sculptors -in marble, and both worked in the same -style; the legendary circles to which most of -their ideal productions belong are those of -Dionysus and Aphrodite, a fact which also -shows the character of the age. Cephissodorus -and Timarchus were sons of Praxiteles. -There were several works of the former at -Rome in the time of Pliny; he made his art -subservient to passions and sensual desires. -Most of the above-mentioned artists, however -widely their works differed from those of the -school of Phidias, may yet be regarded as -having only continued and developed its -principles of art in a certain direction; but -towards the end of this period Euphranor and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_352"></a>[352]</span> -Lysippus of Sicyon carried out the principles -of the Argive school of Polycletus. Their -principal object was to represent the highest -possible degree of physical beauty and of athletic -and heroic power. The chief characteristic -of Lysippus and his school is a close -imitation of nature, which even contrived to -represent bodily defects in some interesting -manner, as in his statues of Alexander.</p> - -<p id="Iv">IV. <em>Fourth Period, from 336 to 146</em> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>—During -the first fifty years of this period -the schools of Praxiteles and Lysippus continued -to flourish, especially in works of -bronze; but after this time bronze statues -were seldom made, until the art was carried -on with new vigour at Athens about the -end of the period. The school of Lysippus -gave rise to that of Rhodes, where his disciple -Chares formed the most celebrated -among the hundred colossal statues of the -sun. It was seventy cubits high, and partly -of metal. It stood near the harbour, and was -thrown down by an earthquake about 225 -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Antiquarians assign to this part of the -fourth period several very beautiful works -still extant, as the magnificent group of Laocoon -and his sons, which was discovered in -1506 near the baths of Titus, and is at present -at Rome. This is, next to the Niobe, the most -beautiful group among the extant works of -ancient art; it was according to Pliny the -work of three Rhodian artists: Agesander, -Polydorus, and Athenodorus. The celebrated -Farnesian bull is likewise the work of two -Rhodian artists, Apollonius and Tauriscus. -In the various kingdoms which arose out of -the conquests of Alexander the arts were -more or less cultivated. Not only were the -great master-works of former times copied to -adorn the new capitals, but new schools of -artists sprang up in several of them. At -Pergamus the celebrated groups were composed -which represented the victories of Attalus -and Eumenes over the Gauls. It is -believed by some that the so-called dying -gladiator at Rome is a statue of a Gaul, which -originally belonged to one of these groups. -The Borghese gladiator in the Louvre is supposed -to be the work of an Ephesian Agasias, -and to have originally formed a part of such a -battle-scene. About the close of this period, -and for more than a century afterwards, the -Romans, in the conquest of the countries -where the arts had flourished, made it a -regular practice to carry away the works of -art. The triumphs over Philip, Antiochus, -the Aetolians, the Gauls in Asia, Perseus, -Pseudo-Philip, and above all the taking of -Corinth, and subsequently the victories over -Mithridates and Cleopatra, filled the Roman -temples and porticoes with the greatest -variety of works of art. The sacrilegious -plunder of temples and the carrying away of -the sacred statues from the public sanctuaries -became afterwards a common practice. The -manner in which Verres acted in Sicily is but -one of many instances of the extent to which -these robberies were carried on. The emperors, -especially Augustus, Caligula, and -Nero, followed these examples, and the immense -number of statues which, notwithstanding -all this, remained at Rhodes, Delphi, -Athens, and Olympia, is truly astonishing.—We -can only briefly advert to the history of -statuary among the Etruscans and Romans -down to the year 146 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> The Etruscans -were on the whole an industrious and enterprising -people. With the works of Grecian -art they must have become acquainted at an -early time through their intercourse with the -Greeks of southern Italy, whose influence -upon the art of the Etruscans is evident in -numerous cases. The whole range of the -fine arts was cultivated by the Etruscans at -an early period. Statuary in clay (which -here supplied the place of wood, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξόανα</span>, used -in Greece) and in bronze appears to have -acquired a high degree of perfection. In 267 -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> no fewer than 2000 bronze statues are -said to have existed at Volsinii, and numerous -works of Etruscan art are still extant, which -show great vigour and life, though they do -not possess a very high degree of beauty. -Some of their statues are worked in a Greek -style; others are of a character peculiar to -themselves, and entirely different from works -of Grecian art, being stiff and ugly: others -again are exaggerated and forced in their -movements and attitudes, and resemble the -figures which we meet with in the representations -of Asiatic nations. The Romans -previously to the time of the first Tarquin -are said to have had no images of the gods; -and for a long time afterwards their statues -of gods in clay or wood were made by Etruscan -artists. During the early part of the -republic the works executed at Rome were -altogether of a useful and practical, and not -of an ornamental character; and statuary was -in consequence little cultivated. But in the -course of time the senate and the people, as -well as foreign states which desired to show -their gratitude to some Roman, began to -erect bronze statues to distinguished persons -in the Forum and other places.</p> - -<p id="V">V. <em>fifth period, from</em> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> <em>146 to the fall -of the Western Empire.</em>—During this period -Rome was the capital of nearly the whole of -the ancient world, not through its intellectual -superiority, but by its military and political -power. But it nevertheless became the centre -of art and literature, as the artists resorted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_353"></a>[353]</span> -thither from all parts of the empire for -the purpose of seeking employment in the -houses of the great. The mass of the people, -however, had as little taste for and were -as little concerned about the arts as ever. -In the time of Nero, who did much for the -arts, we meet with Zenodorus, a founder of -metal statues, who was commissioned by the -emperor to execute a colossal statue of 110 -feet high, representing Nero as the Sun. In -the reign of Hadrian the arts seem to begin -a new aera. He himself was undoubtedly a -real lover of art, and encouraged it not only -at Rome, but in Greece and Asia Minor. -The great Villa of Hadrian below Tivoli, the -ruins of which cover an extent of ten Roman -miles in circumference, was richer in works -of art than any other place in Italy. Here -more works of art have been dug out of the -ground than anywhere else within the same -compass. Some statues executed at this time -are worthy of the highest admiration. Foremost -among these stand the statues and busts -of Antinous, for whom the emperor entertained -a passionate partiality, and who was -represented in innumerable works of art. -The colossal bust of Antinous in the Louvre -is reckoned one of the finest works of ancient -art, and is placed by some critics on an -equality with the best works that Greece has -produced. There are also some very good -works in red marble which are referred to -this period, as that material is not known to -have been used before the age of Hadrian. -As the arts had received such encouragement -and brought forth such fruits in the reign of -Hadrian, the effects remained visible for some -time during the reigns of the Antonines. -The frieze of a temple, which the senate -caused to be erected to Antoninus Pius and -Faustina, is adorned with griffins and vessels -of very exquisite workmanship. The best -among the extant works of this time are the -equestrian statue of M. Aurelius of gilt -bronze, which stands on the Capitol, and the -column of M. Aurelius with reliefs representing -scenes of his war against the Marcomanni. -After the time of the Antonines the -symptoms of decline in the arts became more -and more visible. The most numerous works -continued to be busts and statues of the emperors, -but the best among them are not free -from affectation and mannerism. In the time -of Caracalla many statues were made, especially -of Alexander the Great. Alexander -Severus was a great admirer of statues, not -from a genuine love of art, but because he -delighted in the representations of great and -good men. The reliefs on the triumphal -arch of Septimius Severus, representing his -victories over the Parthians, Arabs, and Adiabenians, -have scarcely any artistic merits. -Art now declined with great rapidity: busts -and statues were more seldom made than -before, and are awkward and poor; the hair -is frequently indicated by nothing else but -holes bored in the stone. The reliefs on the -sarcophagi gradually become monotonous and -lifeless. The reliefs on the arch of Constantine, -which are not taken from that of Trajan, -are perfectly rude and worthless, and those -on the column of Theodosius were not better. -Before concluding, it remains to say a few -words on the destruction of ancient works of -art. During the latter part of the reign of -Constantine many statues of the gods were -destroyed, and not long after his time a systematic -destruction began, which under Theodosius -spread to all parts of the empire. The -spirit of destruction, however, was not directed -against works of art in general and as -such, but only against the pagan idols. The -opinion, therefore, which is entertained by -some, that the losses we have sustained in -works of ancient art, are mainly attributable -to the introduction of Christianity, is too -sweeping and general. Of the same character -is another opinion, according to which -the final decay of ancient art was a consequence -of the spiritual nature of the new religion. -The coincidence of the general introduction -of Christianity with the decay of the arts is -merely accidental. That the early Christians -did not despise the arts as such, is clear from -several facts. We know that they erected -statues to their martyrs, of which we have a -specimen in that of St. Hippolytus in the -Vatican library. The numerous works, lastly, -which have been found in the Christian catacombs -at Rome, might alone be a sufficient -proof that the early Christians were not hostile -towards the representation of the heroes -of their religion in works of art. In fact, -Christianity during the middle ages became -as much the mother of the arts of modern -times, as the religion of Greece was the mother -of ancient art. Another very general -and yet incorrect notion is, that the northern -barbarians after the conquest of Rome intentionally -destroyed works of art. This opinion -is not supported by any of the contemporary -historians, nor is it at all probable. The barbarians -were only anxious to carry with -them the most precious treasures in order to -enrich themselves; a statue must have been -an object of indifference to them. What perished, -perished naturally by the circumstances -and calamities of the times. In times -of need bronze statues were melted down and -the material used for other purposes; marble -statues were frequently broken to pieces and -used for building materials. If we consider<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_354"></a>[354]</span> -the history of Rome during the first centuries -after the conquest of Italy by the Germans, -we have every reason to wonder that so -many specimens of ancient art have come -down to our times. The greatest destruction, -at one time, of ancient works of art is supposed -to have occurred at the taking of Constantinople, -in the beginning of the thirteenth -century. Among the few works saved from -this devastation are the celebrated bronze -horses which now decorate the exterior of -St. Mark’s church at Venice. They have -been ascribed, but without sufficient authority, -to Lysippus.</p> - - -<p id="Stilus">STĬLUS or STỸLUS is in all probability -the same word with the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στύλος</span>, and -conveys the general idea of an object tapering -like an architectural column. It signifies, -(1) An iron instrument, resembling a -pencil in size and shape, used for writing -upon waxed tablets. At one end it was -sharpened to a point for scratching the -characters upon the wax, while the other -end, being flat and circular, served to render -the surface of the tablets smooth again, and -so to obliterate what had been written. -Thus, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vertere stilum</i> means <em>to erase</em>, and -hence <em>to correct</em>. The stylus was also termed -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">graphium</i>, and the case in which it was kept -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">graphiarium</i>.—(2) A sharp stake or spike -placed in pitfalls before an entrenchment, -to embarrass the progress of an attacking -enemy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="ill354" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill354.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Stilus. (Museo Borbonico, vol. vi. tav. 35.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Stipendiarii">STIPENDĬĀRĬI. The stipendiariae urbes -of the Roman provinces were so denominated, -as being subject to the payment of a fixed -money-tribute, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendium</i>, in contradistinction -to the vectigales, who paid a certain -portion as a tenth or twentieth of the produce -of their lands, their cattle, or customs. -The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendium</i> was used to signify the -tribute paid, as it was originally imposed for -and afterwards appropriated to the purpose -of furnishing the Roman soldiers with pay. -The condition of the urbes stipendiariae is -generally thought to have been more honourable -than that of the vectigales, but the distinction -between the two terms was not -always observed. The word stipendiarius is -also applied to a person who receives a fixed -salary or pay, as a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendiarius miles</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Stipendium">STĪPENDĬUM, a pension or pay, from -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipem</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pendo</i>, because before silver was -coined at Rome the copper-money in use was -paid by weight and not by tale. According -to Livy, the practice of giving pay to the -Roman soldiers was not introduced till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -405, on the occasion of the taking of Tarracina -or Anxur. It is probable, however, that -they received pay before this time, but, since -it was not paid regularly, its first institution -was referred to this year. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 403 a -certain amount of pay was assigned to the -knights also, or <span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a></span>, <a href="#Page_156">p. 156</a>, <em>b</em>. This, -however, had reference to the citizens who -possessed an equestrian fortune, but had no -horse (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">equus publicus</i>) assigned to them by -the state, for it had always been customary -for the knights of the 18 centuries to receive -pay out of the common treasury, in the shape -of an allowance for the purchase of a horse, -and a yearly pension of 2000 asses for its -keep. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_e">Aes Equestre</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_e">Aes Hordearium</a></span>.] -In the time of the republic the pay of a -legionary soldier amounted to two oboli, or -3⅓ asses; a centurion received double, and -an eques or horseman triple. Polybius states -that foot soldiers also received in corn every -month an allowance (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demensum</i>) of ⅔ of an -Attic medimnus, or about 2 bushels of wheat: -the horsemen 7 medimni of barley and 2 of -wheat. The infantry of the allies received -the same allowance as the Roman: the horsemen -1⅓ medimni of wheat and 5 of barley. -But there was this difference, that the allied -forces received their allowances as a gratuity; -the Roman soldiers, on the contrary, -had deducted from their pay the money value -of whatever they received in corn, armour, -or clothes. There was indeed a law passed -by C. Gracchus, which provided that besides -their pay the soldiers should receive from -the treasury an allowance for clothes; but -this law seems either to have been repealed -or to have fallen into disuse. The pay was -doubled for the legionaries by Julius Caesar -before the civil war. He also gave them -corn whenever he had the means, without -any restrictions. Under Augustus it appears -to have been raised to 10 asses a day (three -times the original sum). It was still further -increased by Domitian. The praetorian -cohorts received twice as much as the -legionaries.</p> - - -<p id="Stola">STŎLA, a female dress worn over the -tunic; it came as low as the ankles or feet,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_355"></a>[355]</span> -and was fastened round the body by a girdle, -leaving above the breast broad folds. The -tunic did not reach much below the knee, -but the essential distinction between the tunic -and stola seems to have been that the latter -always had an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">instita</i> or flounce sewed to -the bottom and reaching to the instep. Over -the stola the palla or pallium was worn -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pallium">Pallium</a></span>], as we see in the cut annexed. -The stola was the characteristic dress of the -Roman matrons, as the toga was of the -Roman men. Hence the meretrices were -not allowed to wear it, but only a dark-coloured -toga; and accordingly Horace speaks -of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">matrona</i> in contradistinction to the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">togata</i>. For the same reason, women who -had been divorced from their husbands on -account of adultery, were not allowed to wear -the stola, but only the toga.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp36" id="ill355" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill355.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Stola, female dress. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iii. tav. 37.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Strategus">STRĂTĒGUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατηγός</span>), general. This -office and title seems to have been more -especially peculiar to the democratic states -of ancient Greece: we read of them, for -instance, at Athens, Tarentum, Syracuse, -Argos, and Thurii; and when the tyrants of -the Ionian cities in Asia Minor were deposed -by Aristagoras, he established strategi in -their room, to act as chief magistrates. The -strategi at Athens were instituted after the -remodelling of the constitution by Clisthenes, -to discharge the duties which had in former -times been performed either by the king or -the archon polemarchus. They were ten in -number, one for each of the ten tribes, and -chosen by the suffrages (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>) of the -people. Before entering on their duties they -were required to submit to a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">docimasia</i>, or -examination of their character; and no one -was eligible to the office unless he had legitimate -children, and was possessed of landed -property in Attica. They were, as their name -denotes, entrusted with the command on military -expeditions, with the superintendence of -all warlike preparations, and with the regulation -of all matters in any way connected -with the war department of the state. They -levied and enlisted the soldiers, either personally -or with the assistance of the taxiarchs. -They were entrusted with the collection and -management of the property-taxes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφοραί</span>) -raised for the purposes of war; and also presided -over the courts of justice in which any -disputes connected with this subject or the -trierarchy were decided. They nominated -from year to year persons to serve as -trierarchs. They had the power of convening -extraordinary assemblies of the people -in cases of emergency. But their most important -trust was the command in war, and -it depended upon circumstances to how many -of the number it was given. At Marathon -all the ten were present, and the chief command -came to each of them in turn. The -archon polemarchus also was there associated -with them, and, according to the ancient -custom, his vote in a council of war was -equal to that of any of the generals. Usually, -however, three only were sent out; one of -these (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίτος αὐτός</span>) was considered as the -commander-in-chief, but his colleagues had -an equal voice in a council of war. The -military chiefs of the Aetolian and Achaean -leagues were also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strategi</i>. The -Achaean <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strategi</i> had the power of convening -a general assembly of the league on extraordinary -occasions. Greek writers on Roman -affairs give the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strategi</i> to the -praetors.</p> - - -<p id="Strena">STRĒNA, a present given on a festive -day, and for the sake of good omen. It was -chiefly applied to a new year’s gift, to a -present made on the calends of January. In -accordance with a senatusconsultum, new -year’s gifts had to be presented to Augustus -in the Capitol, even when he was absent.</p> - - -<p id="Strigil">STRĬGIL. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Strophium">STRŎPHĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταινία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταινίδιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπόδεσμος</span>), -a girdle or belt worn by women round -the breast and over the inner tunic or chemise. -It appears to have been usually made -of leather.</p> - - -<p id="Stuprum">STUPRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Adulterium">Adulterium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Subsignani">SUBSIGNĀNI, privileged soldiers in the -time of the empire, who fought under a -standard by themselves, and did not form -part of the legion. They seem to have been -the same as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexillarii</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Suffragia">SUFFRĀGĬA SEX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Suffragium">SUFFRĀGĬUM, a vote. At Athens the -voting in the popular assemblies and the -courts of justice was either by show of hands<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_356"></a>[356]</span> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>) or by ballot (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψῆφος</span>). Respecting -the mode of voting at Rome, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia">Comitia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_107">p. -107</a>, and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabellariae">Leges Tabellariae</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Suggestus">SUGGESTUS, means in general any elevated -place made of materials heaped up -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gero</i>), and is specially applied: (1) -To the stage or pulpit from which the orators -addressed the people in the comitia. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Rostra">Rostra</a>.</span>]—(2) -To the elevation from which a -general addressed the soldiers.—(3) To the -elevated seat from which the emperor beheld -the public games, also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cubiculum</i>. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cubiculum">Cubiculum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Suovetaurilia">SUOVĔTAURĪLĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacrificium">Sacrificium</a></span>, <a href="#Page_325">p. 325</a>; -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lustratio">Lustratio</a></span>; and woodcut on <a href="#ill343">p. 343</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Supparum">SUPPĂRUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a></span>, <a href="#Page_267">p. 267</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Supplicatio">SUPPLĬCĀTĬO, a solemn thanksgiving or -supplication to the gods, decreed by the senate, -when all the temples were opened, and -the statues of the gods frequently placed in -public upon couches (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulvinaria</i>), to which -the people offered up their thanksgivings and -prayers. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lectisternium">Lectisternium</a>.</span>] A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">supplicatio</i> was -decreed for two different reasons. 1. As a -thanksgiving, when a great victory had been -gained: it was usually decreed as soon as -official intelligence of the victory had been -received by a letter from the general in command. -The number of days during which it -was to last was proportioned to the importance -of the victory. Sometimes it was decreed -for only one day, but more commonly for -three or five days. A supplication of ten -days was first decreed in honour of Pompey -at the conclusion of the war with Mithridates, -and one of fifteen days after the victory over -the Belgae by Caesar, an honour which had -never been granted to any one before. Subsequently -a supplicatio of twenty days was -decreed after his conquest of Vercingetorix. -A supplicatio was usually regarded as a prelude -to a triumph, but it was not always -followed by one. This honour was conferred -upon Cicero on account of his suppression of -the conspiracy of Catiline, which had never -been decreed to any one before in a civil capacity -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">togatus</i>).—2. A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">supplicatio</i>, a solemn -supplication and humiliation, was also decreed -in times of public danger and distress, and on -account of prodigies, to avert the anger of -the gods.</p> - - -<p id="Sycophantes">SȲCŎPHANTĒS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συκοφάντης</span>). At an early -period in Attic history a law was made prohibiting -the exportation of figs. Whether it -was made in a time of dearth, or through -the foolish policy of preserving to the natives -the most valuable of their productions, we -cannot say. It appears, however, that the -law continued in force long after the cause of -its enactment, or the general belief of its -utility, had ceased to exist; and Attic fig-growers -exported their fruit in spite of prohibitions -and penalties. To inform against -a man for so doing was considered harsh and -vexatious; as all people are apt to think that -obsolete statutes may be infringed with impunity. -Hence the term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συκοφαντεῖν</span>, which -originally signified <em>to lay an information -against another for exporting figs</em>, came to -be applied to all ill-natured, malicious, groundless, -and vexatious accusations. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sycophantes</i> -in the time of Aristophanes and Demosthenes -designated a person of a peculiar class, not -capable of being described by any single word -in our language, but well understood and -appreciated by an Athenian. He had not -much in common with our <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sycophant</i>, but -was a happy compound of the <em>common barrator, -informer, pettifogger, busybody, rogue, -liar, and slanderer</em>. The Athenian law permitted -any citizen (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸν βουλόμενον</span>) to give -information against public offenders, and -prosecute them in courts of justice. It was -the policy of the legislator to encourage the -detection of crime, and a reward (such as -half the penalty) was frequently given to the -successful accuser. Such a power, with such -a temptation, was likely to be abused, unless -checked by the force of public opinion, or -the vigilance of the judicial tribunals. Unfortunately, -the character of the Athenian -democracy and the temper of the judges -furnished additional incentives to the informer. -Eminent statesmen, orators, generals, -magistrates, and all persons of wealth -and influence were regarded with jealousy -by the people. The more causes came into -court, the more fees accrued to the judges, -and fines and confiscations enriched the -public treasury. The prosecutor therefore in -public causes, as well as the plaintiff in civil, -was looked on with a more favourable eye -than the defendant, and the chances of success -made the employment a lucrative one. -It was not always necessary to go to trial, -or even to commence legal proceedings. -The timid defendant was glad to compromise -the cause, and the conscious delinquent to -avert the threat of a prosecution, by paying -a sum of money to his opponent. Thriving -informers found it not very difficult to procure -witnesses, and the profits were divided -between them.</p> - - -<p id="Sylae">SȲLAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σῦλαι</span>). When a Greek state, or -any of its members, had received an injury or -insult from some other state or some of its -members, and the former was unwilling, or -not in a condition, to declare open war, it -was not unusual to give a commission, or -grant public authority to individuals to make -reprisals. This was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύλας</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σῦλα</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διδόναι</span>. This ancient practice may be compared<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_357"></a>[357]</span> -with the modern one of granting letters -of marque and reprisal.</p> - - -<p id="Syllogeis">SYLLOGEIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συλλογεῖς</span>), usually called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συλλογεῖς τοῦ δήμου</span>, or the Collectors of the -People, were special commissioners at Athens, -who made out a list of the property of the -oligarchs previously to its confiscation.</p> - - -<p id="Symbolaeon">SYMBOLAEON, SỸNALLAGMA, SYNTHĒCĒ -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμβόλαιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνάλλαγμα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνθήκη</span>), -are all words used to signify a contract, but -are distinguishable from one another. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συμβόλαιον</span> -is used of contracts and bargains -between private persons, and peculiarly of -loans of money. Thus, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμβαλεῖν εἰς ἀνδράποδον</span> -is, to lend upon the security of a slave. -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνάλλαγμα</span> signifies any matter negotiated -or transacted between two or more persons, -whether a contract or anything else. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνθήκη</span> -is used of more solemn and important -contracts, not only of those made between -private individuals, but also of treaties and -conventions between kings and states.</p> - - -<p id="Symposium">SYMPŎSĬUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμπόσιον</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comissatio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">convivium</i>), -a drinking-party. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">symposium</i> -must be distinguished from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deipnon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεῖπνον</span>), -for though drinking almost always followed -a dinner-party, yet the former was -regarded as entirely distinct from the latter, -was regulated by different customs, and frequently -received the addition of many guests, -who were not present at the dinner. For -the Greeks did not usually drink at their -dinner, and it was not till the conclusion of -the meal that wine was introduced. Symposia -were very frequent at Athens. Their -enjoyment was heightened by agreeable conversation, -by the introduction of music and -dancing, and by games and amusements of -various kinds: sometimes, too, philosophical -subjects were discussed at them. The symposia -of Plato and Xenophon give us a lively -idea of such entertainments at Athens. The -name itself shows, that the enjoyment of -drinking was the main object of the symposia: -wine from the juice of the grape (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἴνος -ἀμπέλινος</span>) was the only drink partaken of by -the Greeks, with the exception of water. -The wine was almost invariably mixed with -water, and to drink it unmixed (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄκρατον</span>) was -considered a characteristic of barbarians. -The mixture was made in a large vessel -called the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Crater">Crater</a></span>, from which it was conveyed -into the drinking-cups. The guests at -a symposium reclined on couches, and were -crowned with garlands of flowers. A master -of the revels (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων τῆς πόσεως</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμποσίαρχος</span>, -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλεύς</span>) was usually chosen to conduct -the symposium, whose commands the whole -company had to obey, and who regulated the -whole order of the entertainment, proposed -the amusements, &c. The same practice -prevailed among the Romans, and their symposiarch -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Magister</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rex Convivii</i>, -or the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arbiter Bibendi</i>. The choice -was generally determined by the throwing of -astragali or tali. The proportion in which -the wine and water were mixed was fixed by -him, and also how much each of the company -was to drink, for it was not usually -left to the option of each of the company to -drink as much or as little as he pleased. -The cups were always carried round from -right to left (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπὶ δεξιά</span>), and the same order -was observed in the conversation, and in -everything that took place in the entertainment. -The company frequently drank to the -health of one another, and each did it especially -to the one to whom he handed the -same cup. Respecting the games and amusements -by which the symposia were enlivened, -it is unnecessary to say much here, as most -of them are described in separate articles in -this work. Enigmas or riddles (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰνίγματα</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γρῖφοι</span>) were among the most usual and -favourite modes of diversion. Each of the -company proposed one in turn to his right-hand<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_358"></a>[358]</span> -neighbour; if he solved it, he was rewarded -with a crown, a garland, a cake, or -something of a similar kind, and sometimes -with a kiss; if he failed, he had to drink a -cup of unmixed wine, or of wine mixed with -salt water, at one draught. The cottabos -was also another favourite game at symposia, -and was played at in various ways. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cottabus">Cottabus</a>.</span>] -Representations of symposia are -very common on ancient vases. Two guests -usually reclined on each couch (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλίνη</span>), as -is explained on <a href="#Page_95">p. 95</a>, but sometimes there -were five persons on one couch. A drinking-party -among the Romans was sometimes -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">convivium</i>, but the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">comissatio</i> -more nearly corresponds to the Greek symposium. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comissatio">Comissatio</a>.</span>] The Romans, however, -usually drank during their dinner -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coena</i>), which they frequently prolonged -during many hours, in the later times of the -republic and under the empire. Their customs -connected with drinking differed little -from those of the Greeks, and have been incidentally -noticed above.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill357" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill357.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Symposium (From a Painting on a Vase.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Syndicus">SYNDĬCUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνδικος</span>), <em>an advocate</em>, is frequently -used as synonymous with the word -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">synegorus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγορος</span>), to denote any one who -pleads the cause of another, whether in a -court of justice or elsewhere, but was peculiarly -applied to those orators who were sent -by the state to plead the cause of their countrymen -before a foreign tribunal. Aeschines, -for example, was appointed to plead before -the Amphictyonic council on the subject of -the Delian temple; but a certain discovery -having been made, not very creditable to his -patriotism, the court of Arciopagus took upon -themselves to remove him, and appoint Hyperides -in his stead. There were other <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">syndici</i>, -who acted rather as magistrates or judges -than as advocates, though they probably -derived their name from the circumstance of -their being appointed to protect the interests -of the state. These were extraordinary functionaries, -created from time to time to exercise -a jurisdiction in disputes concerning -confiscated property.</p> - - -<p id="Synedri">SỸNĔDRI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνεδροι</span>), a name given to the -members of any council, or any body of men -who sat together to consult or deliberate. -The congress of Greeks at Salamis is called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνέδριον</span>. Frequent reference is made to the -general assembly of the Greeks, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ κοινὸν τῶν -Ἑλλήνων συνέδριον</span>, at Corinth, Thermopylae, -or elsewhere. The congress of the states -belonging to the new Athenian alliance, -formed after <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 377, was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνέδριον</span>, -and the deputies <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνεδροι</span>, and the sums furnished -by the allies <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συντάξεις</span>, in order to -avoid the old and hateful name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φόρος</span> or -tribute. The name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνέδριον</span> was given at -Athens to any magisterial or official body, as -to the court of Areiopagus, or to the place -where they transacted business, their board -or council-room.</p> - - -<p id="Synegorus">SỸNĒGŎRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγορος</span>). In causes of -importance, wherein the state was materially -interested, more especially in those which -were brought before the court upon an <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσαγγελία</span>, -it was usual to appoint public advocates -(called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγοροι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνδικοι</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατήγοροι</span>) -to manage the prosecution. In ordinary cases -however the accuser or prosecutor (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατήγορος</span>) -was a distinct person from the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγορος</span>, -who acted only as auxiliary to him. It -might be, indeed, that the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγορος</span> performed -the most important part at the trial, -or it might be that he performed a subordinate -part, making only a short speech in -support of the prosecution, which was called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίλογος</span>. But however this might be, he -was in point of law an auxiliary only, and -was neither entitled to a share of the reward -(if any) given by the law to a successful accuser, -nor liable, on the other hand, to a -penalty of a thousand drachms, or the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτιμία</span> -consequent upon a failure to get a fifth part -of the votes. The fee of a drachm (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ συνηγορικόν</span>) -mentioned by Aristophanes was -probably the sum paid to the public advocate -whenever he was employed on behalf of the -state. There appears to have been (at least -at one period) a regular appointment of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγοροι</span>, -ten in number. For what purpose -they were appointed, is a matter about which -we have no certain information: but it is not -unreasonable to suppose that these ten <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνήγοροι</span> -were no other than the public advocates -who were employed to conduct state prosecutions.</p> - - -<p id="Syngraphe">SYNGRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συγγραφή</span>), signifies a written -contract: whereas <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνθήκη</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμβόλαιον</span> -do not necessarily import that the -contract is in writing; and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁμολογία</span> is, -strictly speaking, a verbal agreement. At -Athens important contracts were usually reduced -to writing; such as leases (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μισθώσεις</span>), -loans of money, and all executory agreements, -where certain conditions were to be -performed. The whole was contained in a -little tablet of wax or wood (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βιβλίον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραμματεῖον</span>, -sometimes double, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίπτυχον</span>), which -was sealed, and deposited with some third -person, mutually agreed on between the -parties.</p> - - -<p id="Synoikia">SỸNOIKĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνοίκια</span>).—(1) A festival celebrated -every year at Athens on the 16th of -Hecatombaeon in honour of Athena. It was -believed to have been instituted by Theseus -to commemorate the concentration of the -government of the various towns of Attica -at Athens.—(2) A house adapted to hold<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_359"></a>[359]</span> -several families, a lodging-house, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">insula</i>, as -the Romans would say. The lodging-houses -were let mostly to foreigners who came to -Athens on business, and especially to the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέτοικοι</span>, whom the law did not allow to -acquire real property, and who therefore -could not purchase houses of their own. The -rent was commonly paid by the month. -Lodging-houses were frequently taken on -speculation by persons called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναύκληροι</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σταθμοῦχοι</span>, who made a profit by underletting -them.</p> - - -<p id="Synthesis">SYNTHĔSIS, a garment frequently worn -at dinner, and sometimes also on other occasions. -As it was inconvenient to wear the -toga at table, on account of its many folds, it -was customary to have dresses especially appropriated -to this purpose, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestes coenatoriae</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coenatoria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">accubitoria</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">syntheses</i>. -The synthesis appears to have been a -kind of tunic, an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">indumentum</i> rather than an -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amictus</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amictus">Amictus</a>.</span>] That it was, however, -an easy and comfortable kind of dress, as we -should say, seems to be evident from its use -at table above mentioned, and also from its -being worn by all classes at the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Saturnalia">Saturnalia</a></span>, -a season of universal relaxation and -enjoyment. More than this respecting its -form we cannot say; it was usually dyed -with some colour, and was not white, like the -toga.</p> - - -<p id="Syrinx">SȲRINX (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύριγξ</span>), the Pan’s pipe, or Pandean -pipe, was the appropriate musical instrument -of the Arcadian and other Grecian -shepherds, and was regarded by them as the -invention of Pan, their tutelary god. When -the Roman poets had occasion to mention it, -they called it <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fistula</i>. It was formed in -general of seven hollow stems of cane or -reed, fitted together by means of wax, having -been previously cut to the proper lengths, -and adjusted so as to form an octave; but -sometimes nine were admitted, giving an -equal number of notes. A syrinx of eight -reeds is represented on <a href="#ill278b">p. 278</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80" id="ill359" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill359.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Pan with a Syrinx. (Mus. Worsleyanum, pl. 9.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Syrma">SYRMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύρμα</span>), which properly means -that which is drawn or dragged (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύρω</span>), -is applied to a dress with a train. It was -more especially the name of the dress worn -by the tragic actors, which had a train to it -trailing upon the ground. Hence we find -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">syrma</i> used metaphorically for tragedy itself.</p> - - -<p id="Syssitia">SYSSĪTĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συσσίτια</span>). The custom of -taking the principal meal of the day in -public prevailed extensively amongst the -Greeks from very early ages, but more particularly -in Crete and at Sparta. The Cretan -name for the syssitia was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Andreia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνδρεῖα</span>), -the singular of which is used to denote the -building or public hall where they were -given. This title affords of itself a sufficient -indication that they were confined to men -and youths only. All the adult citizens partook -of the public meals amongst the Cretans, -and were divided into companies or “messes,” -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hetaeriae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑταιρίαι</span>), or sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">andreia</i>. -The syssitia of the Cretans were -distinguished by simplicity and temperance. -They always <em>sat</em> at their tables, even in later -times, when the custom of reclining had been -introduced at Sparta. In most of the Cretan -cities, the expenses of the syssitia were defrayed -out of the revenues of the public -lands, and the tribute paid by the perioeci, -the money arising from which was applied -partly to the service of the gods, and partly -to the maintenance of all the citizens, both -male and female; so that in this respect -there might be no difference between the rich -and the poor. The Spartan syssitia were in the -main so similar to those of Crete, that one was -said to be borrowed from the other. They differed -from the Cretan in the following respects. -The expenses of the tables at Sparta were not -defrayed out of the public revenues, but every -head of a family was obliged to contribute a -certain portion at his own cost and charge; -those who were not able to do so were excluded -from the public tables. The guests were -divided into companies, generally of fifteen -persons each, and all vacancies were filled up -by ballot, in which unanimous consent was -indispensable for election. No persons, not -even the kings, were excused from attendance -at the public tables, except for some -satisfactory reason, as when engaged in a -sacrifice, or a chase, in which latter case the -individual was required to send a present to -his table. Each person was supplied with a -cup of mixed wine, which was filled again -when required: but drinking to excess was -prohibited at Sparta as well as in Crete. -The repast was of a plain and simple character,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_360"></a>[360]</span> -and the contribution of each member -of a mess (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φειδίτης</span>) was settled by law. The -principal dish was the black broth (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέλας -ζωμός</span>), with pork. Moreover, the entertainment -was enlivened by cheerful conversation, -though on public matters. Singing also was -frequently introduced. The arrangements -were under the superintendence of the polemarchs.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="T_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">T</span></h2> - -<p id="Tabella" class="drop-capy">TĂBELLA, <em>dim.</em> of TĂBŬLA, a billet or -tablet, with which each citizen and judex -voted in the comitia and courts of justice. -For details see pp. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</p> - - -<p id="Tabellarius">TĂBELLĀRĬUS, a letter-carrier. As the -Romans had no public post, they were obliged -to employ special messengers, who were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabellarii</i>, to convey their letters (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabellae</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">literae</i>), when they had not an opportunity -of sending them otherwise.</p> - - -<p id="Tabernaculum">TĂBERNĀCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Templum">Templum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tablinum">TABLĪNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tabulae">TĂBŬLAE. This word properly means -planks or boards, whence it is applied to -several objects, as gaming-tables, pictures, -but more especially to tablets used for writing. -Generally, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabellae</i> signify waxen -tablets (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae ceratae</i>), which were thin -pieces of wood, usually of an oblong shape, -covered over with wax (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cera</i>). The wax was -written on by means of the stilus. These -tabulae were sometimes made of ivory and -citron-wood, but generally of the wood of a -more common tree, as the beech, fir, &c. The -outer sides of the tablets consisted merely of -the wood; it was only the inner sides that -were covered over with wax. They were -fastened together at the back by means of -wires, which answered the purpose of hinges, -so that they opened and shut like our books; -and to prevent the wax of one tablet nibbing -against the wax of the other, there was a -raised margin around each, as is clearly seen -in the woodcut on <a href="#ill354">p. 354</a>. There were -sometimes two, three, four, five, or even -more, tablets fastened together in the above-mentioned -manner. Two such tablets were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diptycha</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίπτυχα</span>), which merely -means “twice-folded” (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πτύσσω</span>, “to -fold”), whence we have <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πτυκτίον</span>, or with -the τ omitted, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πυκτίον</span>. The Latin word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pugillares</i>, -which is the name frequently given -to tablets covered with wax, may perhaps be -connected with the same root, though it is -usually derived from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pugillus</i>, because they -were small enough to be held in the hand. -Three tablets fastened together were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triptycha</i>; in the same way we also read of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pentaptycha</i>, and of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">polyptycha</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">multiplices</i> -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cerae</i>). The pages of these tablets were -frequently called by the name of cerae alone; -thus we read of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prima cera</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">altera cera</i>, -“first page,” “second page.” In tablets -containing important legal documents, especially -wills, the outer edges were pierced -through with holes (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">foramina</i>), through -which a triple thread (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">linum</i>) was passed, -and upon which a seal was then placed. -This was intended to guard against forgery, -and if it was not done such documents were -null and void. Waxen tablets were used -among the Romans for almost every species -of writing, where great length was not required. -Thus letters were frequently written -upon them, which were secured by being -fastened together with packthread and sealed -with wax. Legal documents, and especially -wills, were almost always written on waxen -tablets. Such tablets were also used for accounts, -in which a person entered what he -received and expended (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">codex -accepti et expensi</i>), whence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">novae tabulae</i> -mean an abolition of debts either wholly or -in part. The tablets used in voting in the -comitia and the courts of justice were also -called tabulae, as well as tabellae. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tabella">Tabella</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tabularii">TĂBŬLĀRĬI were notaries or accountants, -who are first mentioned under this name in -the time of the empire. Public notaries, -who had the charge of public documents, -were also called tabularii. They were first -established by M. Antoninus in the provinces, -who ordained that the births of all children -were to be announced to the tabularii within -thirty days from the birth.</p> - - -<p id="Tabularium">TĂBŬLĀRĬUM, a place where the public -records (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulae publicae</i>) were kept. These -records were of various kinds, as for instance -senatusconsulta, tabulae censoriae, registers -of births, deaths, of the names of those who -assumed the toga virilis, &c. There were -various tabularia at Rome, all of which were -in temples; we find mention made of tabularia -in the temples of the Nymphs, of -Lucina, of Juventus, of Libitina, of Ceres, -and more especially in that of Saturn, which -was also the public treasury.</p> - - -<p id="Tagus">TAGUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταγός</span>), a leader or general, was -more especially the name of the military -leader of the Thessalians. He is sometimes -called <em>king</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλεύς</span>). His command was of -a military rather than of a civil nature, and -he seems only to have been appointed when -there was a war or one was apprehended. -We do not know the extent of the power -which the Tagus possessed constitutionally, -nor the time for which he held the office; -probably neither was precisely fixed, and depended -on the circumstances of the times -and the character of the individual.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_361"></a>[361]</span></p> - - -<p id="Talaria">TĀLĀRĬA, small wings, fixed to the ancles -of Hermes and reckoned among his attributes -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πέδιλα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πτηνοπέδιλος</span>). In many works -of ancient art they are represented growing -from his ancles (see cut, <a href="#ill063">p. 63</a>); but more -frequently he is represented with sandals, -which have wings fastened to them on each -side over the ancles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp87" id="ill361a" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill361a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Talaria. (From a Statue of Hermes at Naples.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Talassio">TĂLASSĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Talentum">TĂLENTUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάλαντον</span>) meant originally -<em>a balance</em> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra">Libra</a></span>], then the substance -weighed, and lastly and commonly a certain -weight, <em>the talent</em>. The Greek system of -money, as well as the Roman [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a></span>], was -founded on a reference to weight. A certain -weight of silver among the Greeks, as -of copper among the Romans, was used as a -representative of a value, which was originally -and generally that of the metal itself. -The talent therefore and its divisions are -denominations of money as well as of weight. -The Greek system of weights contained four -principal denominations, which, though different -in different times and places, and even -at the same place for different substances, -always bore the same relation <em>to each other</em>. -These were the talent (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάλαντον</span>), which was -the largest, then the mina (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μνᾶ</span>), the drachma -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δραχμή</span>), and the obolus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀβολός</span>). [See -<a href="#TABLES">Tables</a>.] The Attic and Aeginetan were the -two standards of money most in use in Greece. -The Attic mina was 4<em>l.</em> 1<em>s.</em> 3<em>d.</em>, and the talent -243<em>l.</em> 15<em>s.</em> The Aeginetan mina was 5<em>l.</em> 14<em>s.</em> 7<em>d.</em>, -and the talent 343<em>l.</em> 15<em>s.</em> The Euboic talent -was of nearly the same weight as the Attic. -A much smaller talent was in use for gold. -It was equal to six Attic drachmae, or about -¾ oz. and 71 grs. It was called the <em>gold -talent</em>, or the <em>Sicilian talent</em>, from its being -much used by the Greeks of Italy and Sicily. -This is the talent always meant when the -word occurs in Homer. This small talent -explains the use of the term <em>great talent</em> -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magnum talentum</i>), which we find in Latin -authors, for the silver Attic talent was <em>great</em> -in comparison with this. But the use of the -word by the Romans is altogether very inexact. -Where talents are mentioned in the -classical writers without any specification of -the standard, we must generally understand -the Attic.</p> - - -<p id="Talio">TĀLĬO, from Talis, signifies an equivalent, -but it is used only in the sense of a punishment -or penalty the same in kind and degree -as the mischief which the guilty person has -done to the body of another. Talio, as a -punishment, was a part of the Mosaic law.</p> - - -<p id="Talus">TĀLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀστράγαλος</span>), a huckle-bone. The -huckle-bones of sheep and goats were used -to play with from the earliest times, principally -by women and children, occasionally by -old men. To play at this game was sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_362"></a>[362]</span> -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πενταλιθίζειν</span>, because five bones -or other objects of a similar kind were employed; -and this number is retained among -ourselves. When the sides of the bone were -marked with different values, the game became -one of chance. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Alea">Alea</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Tessera">Tessera</a></span>.] The -two ends were left blank, because the bone -could not rest upon either of them on account -of its curvature. The four remaining sides -were marked with the numbers 1, 3, 4, 6; -1 and 6 being on two opposite sides, and -3 and 4 on the other two opposite sides. -The Greek and Latin names of the numbers -were as follows:—1. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μονάς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἶς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύων</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χῖος</span>; -Ion. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἴνη</span>: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Unio</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vulturius</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">canis</i>: 3. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίας</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ternio</i>; 4. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετράς</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quaternio</i>; 6. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑξάς</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑξίτης</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κῷος</span>; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Senio</i>. Two persons played together -at this game, using four bones, which they -threw up into the air, or emptied out of a -dice-box, and observing the numbers on the -uppermost sides. The numbers on the four -sides of the four bones admitted of thirty-five -different combinations. The lowest throw -of all was four aces (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jacere vultorios quatuor</i>). -But the value of a throw was not in -all cases the sum of the four numbers turned -up. The highest in value was that called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Venus</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jactus Venereus</i>, in which the -numbers cast up were all different, the sum -of them being only fourteen. It was by obtaining -this throw that the king of the feast -was appointed among the Romans [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium</a></span>], -and hence it was also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Basilicus</i>. -Certain other throws were called by particular -names, taken from gods, illustrious men -and women, and heroes. Thus the throw, -consisting of two aces and two trays, making -eight, which number, like the jactus Venereus, -could be obtained only once, was denominated -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Stesichorus</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill361b" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill361b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Game of Tali. (From an ancient Painting.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Tamiae">TĂMĬAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίαι</span>), the treasurers of the -temples and the revenue at Athens. The -wealthiest of all the temples at Athens was -that of Athena on the Acropolis, the treasures -of which were under the guardianship of ten -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tamiae</i>, who were chosen annually by lot -from the class of pentacosiomedimni, and -afterwards, when the distinction of classes -had ceased to exist, from among the wealthiest -of Athenian citizens. The treasurers of -the other gods were chosen in like manner; -but they, about the 90th Olympiad, were all -united into one board, while those of Athena -remained distinct. Their treasury, however, -was transferred to the same place as that of -Athena, viz., to the opisthodomus of the -Parthenon, where were kept not only all the -treasures belonging to the temples, but also -the state treasure (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὅσια χρήματα</span>, as contra-distinguished -from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερά</span>), under the care of -the treasurers of Athena. All the funds of -the state were considered as being in a manner -consecrated to Athena; while on the -other hand the people reserved to themselves -the right of making use of the sacred monies, -as well as the other property of the -temples, if the safety of the state should require -it. Payments made to the temples -were received by the treasurers in the presence -of some members of the senate, just as -public monies were by the Apodectae; and -then the treasurers became responsible for -their safe custody.—The treasurer of the -revenue (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίας</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιμελητής τῆς κοινῆς -προσόδου</span>) was a more important personage -than those last mentioned. He was not a -mere keeper of monies, like them, nor a -mere receiver, like the apodectae; but a -general paymaster, who received through the -apodectae all money which was to be disbursed -for the purposes of the administration -(except the property-taxes, which were paid -into the war-office, and the tribute from the -allies, which was paid to the hellenotamiae -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hellenotamiae">Hellenotamiae</a></span>]), and then distributed it in -such manner as he was required to do by the -law; the surplus (if any) he paid into the -war-office or the theoric fund. As this person -knew all the channels in which the -public money had to flow, and exercised a -general superintendence over the expenditure, -he was competent to give advice to the -people upon financial measures, with a view -to improve the revenue, introduce economy, -and prevent abuses; he is sometimes called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίας τῆς διοικήσεως</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς διοικήσεως</span>, -and may be regarded as a sort of minister -of finance. He was elected by vote (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>), -and held his office for four years, but -was capable of being re-elected. A law, -however, was passed during the administration -of Lycurgus, the orator, prohibiting re-election; -so that Lycurgus, who is reported -to have continued in office for twelve years, -must have held it for the last eight years -under fictitious names. The power of this -officer was by no means free from control; -inasmuch as any individual was at liberty to -propose financial measures, or institute criminal -proceedings for malversation or waste of -the public funds; and there was an <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιγραφεὺς -τῆς διοικήσεως</span> appointed to check the -accounts of his superior. Anciently there -were persons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Poristae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πορίσται</span>), who -appear to have assisted the tamiae in some -part of their duties. The money disbursed -by the treasurer of the revenue was sometimes -paid directly to the various persons in -the employ of the government, sometimes -through subordinate pay offices. Many public -functionaries had their own paymasters, -who were dependent on the treasurer of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_363"></a>[363]</span> -revenue, receiving their funds from him, -and then distributing them in their respective -departments. Such were the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριηροποιοί</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τειχοποιοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁδοποιοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταφροποιοί</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπεμεληταὶ -νεωρίων</span>, who received through their -own tamiae such sums as they required from -time to time for the prosecution of their -works. The payment of the judicial fees -was made by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Colacretae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κωλακρέται</span>), -which, and the providing for the meals in -the Prytaneium, were the only duties that -remained to them after the establishment of -the apodectae by Cleisthenes. The tamiae -of the sacred vessels (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῆς Παράλου</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῆς -Σαλαμινίας</span>) acted not only as treasurers, but -as trierarchs, the expenses (amounting for -the two ships together to about sixteen talents) -being provided by the state. They -were elected by vote. Other trierarchs had -their own private tamiae.—The war fund at -Athens (independently of the tribute) was -provided from two sources: first, the property-tax -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφορά</span>), and secondly, the surplus -of the yearly revenue, which remained -after defraying the expenses of the civil -administration. Of the ten strategi, who -were annually elected to preside over the -war department, one was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρατηγὸς ὁ -ἐπὶ τῆς διοικήσεως</span>, to whom the management -of the war fund was entrusted. He had -under him a treasurer, called the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίας τῶν -στρατιωτικῶν</span>, who gave out the pay of the -troops, and defrayed all other expenses incident -to the service. So much of the surplus -revenue as was not required for the purposes -of war, was to be paid by the treasurer -of the revenue into the theoric fund; of -which, after the archonship of Euclides, -special managers were created. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theorica">Theorica</a>.</span>]—Lastly, -we have to notice the treasurers of -the demi (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δήμων ταμίαι</span>), and those of the -tribes (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλῶν ταμίαι</span>), who had the care of -the funds belonging to their respective communities, -and performed duties analogous -to those of the state treasurers. The demi, -as well as the tribes, had their common lands, -which were usually let to farm. The rents of -these formed the principal part of their revenue.</p> - - -<p id="Taxiarchi">TAXIARCHI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταξίαρχοι</span>), military officers -at Athens, next in rank to the strategi. -They were ten in number, like the strategi, -one for each tribe, and were elected by vote -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>). In war each commanded the -infantry of his own tribe, and they were frequently -called to assist the strategi with their -advice at the war-council. In peace they -assisted the strategi in levying and enlisting -soldiers, and seem to have also assisted the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">strategi</i> in the discharge of many of their -other duties. The taxiarchs were so called -from their commanding <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taxeis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάξεις</span>), which -were the principal divisions of the hoplites -in the Athenian army. Each tribe (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλή</span>) -formed a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taxis</i>. As there were ten tribes, -there were consequently in a complete Athenian -army ten <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taxeis</i>, but the number of men -contained in each would of course vary according -to the importance of the war. Among -the other Greeks, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taxis</i> was the name of -a much smaller division of troops. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lochus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόχος</span>) among the Athenians was a -subdivision of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">taxis</i>, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lochagi</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λοχαγοί</span>) were probably appointed by the -taxiarchs.</p> - - -<p id="Tegula">TĒGŬLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέραμος</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεραμίς</span>), a roofing-tile. -Roofing-tiles were originally made, -like bricks, of baked clay (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γῆς ὀπτῆς</span>). Byzes -of Naxos first introduced tiles of marble -about the year 620 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> A still more expensive -and magnificent method of roofing -consisted in the use of tiles made of bronze -and gilt. At Rome the houses were originally -roofed with shingles, and continued to -be so down to the time of the war with -Pyrrhus, when tiles began to supersede the -old roofing material.</p> - - -<p id="Teichopoii">TEICHŎPOII (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τειχοποιοί</span>), magistrates at -Athens, whose business it was to build and -keep in repair the public walls. They appear -to have been elected by vote (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χειροτονία</span>), -one from each tribe, and probably -for a year. Funds were put at their disposal, -for which they had their treasurer -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταμίας</span>) dependent on the treasurer of the -revenue. They were liable to render an -account (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὐθύνη</span>) of their management of -these funds, and also of their general conduct, -like other magistrates. This office -has been invested with peculiar interest in -modern times, on account of its having been -held by Demosthenes, and its having given -occasion to the famous prosecution of Ctesiphon, -who proposed that Demosthenes should -receive the honour of a crown before he had -rendered his account according to law.</p> - - -<p id="Tela">TĒLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστός</span>), a loom. Although weaving -was among the Greeks and Romans a -distinct trade, carried on by a separate class -of persons (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑφάνται</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">textores</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">textrices</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">linteones</i>), yet every considerable domestic -establishment, especially in the country, contained -a loom, together with the whole apparatus -necessary for the working of wool -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lanificium</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ταλασία, ταλασιουργία</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Calathus">Calathus</a>.</span>] -These occupations were all supposed -to be carried on under the protection of -Athena or Minerva, specially denominated -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ergane</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐργάνη</span>). When the farm or the -palace was sufficiently large to admit of it, a -portion of it called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">histon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστῶν</span>) or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">textrinum</i> -was devoted to this purpose. The -work was there principally carried on by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_364"></a>[364]</span> -female slaves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quasillariae</i>), under the superintendence -of the mistress of the house. -Every thing woven consists of two essential -parts, the warp and the woof, called in Latin -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stamen</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subtegmen</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subtemen</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trama</i>; -in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στήμων</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κροκή</span>. The warp was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stamen</i> in Latin (from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stare</i>) on account -of its erect posture in the loom. The -corresponding Greek term <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στήμων</span>, and likewise -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστός</span>, have evidently the same derivation. -For the same reason, the very first -operation in weaving was to set up the loom -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱστὸν στήσασθαι</span>); and the web or cloth, -before it was cut down or “descended” from -the loom, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestis pendens</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pendula -tela</i>, because it hung from the transverse -beam, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugum</i>. These particulars -are all clearly exhibited in the picture of -Circe’s loom given in the annexed cut. We -observe in the preceding woodcut, about the -middle of the apparatus, a transverse rod -passing through the warp. A straight cane -was well adapted to be so used, and its application -is clearly expressed by Ovid in the -words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stamen secernit arundo</i>. In plain -weaving it was inserted between the threads -of the warp so as to divide them into two -portions, the threads on one side of the rod -alternating with those on the other side -throughout the whole breadth of the warp. -In a very ancient form of the loom there was -a roller underneath the jugum, turned by a -handle, and on which the web was wound as -the work advanced. The threads of the warp, -besides being separated by a transverse rod -or plank, were divided into thirty or forty parcels, -to each of which a stone was suspended for -the purpose of keeping the warp in a perpendicular -position, and allowing the necessary -play to the strokes of the spatha. Whilst -the comparatively coarse, strong, and much-twisted -thread designed for the warp was -thus arranged in parallel lines, the woof remained -upon the spindle [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fusus">Fusus</a></span>], forming a -<em>spool</em>, <em>bobbin</em>, or <em>pen</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πήνη</span>). This was either -conveyed through the warp without any -additional contrivance, or it was made to -revolve in a shuttle (<em>radius</em>). This was -made of box brought from the shores of the -Euxine, and was pointed at its extremities, -that it might easily force its way through -the warp. All that is effected by the shuttle -is the conveyance of the woof across the -warp. To keep every thread of the woof in its -proper place, it is necessary that the threads -of the warp should be decussated. This was -done by the leashes, called in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">licia</i>, in -Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτοι</span>. By a leash we are to understand -a thread having at one end a loop, -through which a thread of the warp was -passed, the other end being fastened to a -straight rod called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liciatorium</i>, and in Greek -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κανών</span>. The warp, having been divided by -the arundo, as already mentioned, into two -sets of threads, all those of the same set were -passed through the loops of the corresponding -set of leashes, and all these leashes were -fastened at their other end to the same -wooden rod. At least one set of leashes was -necessary to decussate the warp, even in the -plainest and simplest weaving. The number -of sets was increased according to the complexity -of the pattern, which was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bilix</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trilix</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίμιτος, τρίμιτος</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολύμιτος</span>, -according as the number was two, -three, or more. The process of annexing -the leashes to the warp was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordiri telam</i>, -also <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">licia telae addere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adnectere</i>. It -occupied two women at the same time, one -of whom took in regular succession each -separate thread of the warp, and handed it -over to the other (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραφέρειν</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραδίδοναι</span>, or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσφωρεῖσθαι</span>); the other, as she received -each thread, passed it through the loop in -proper order; an act which we call “entering,” -in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διάζεσθαι</span>. Supposing the warp -to have been thus adjusted, and the pen or -the shuttle to have been carried through it, it -was then decussated by drawing forwards the -proper rod, so as to carry one set of the threads -of the warp across the rest, after which the -woof was shot back again, and by the continual -repetition of this process the warp and -woof were interlaced. Two staves were occasionally -used to fix the rods in such a position -as was most convenient to assist the weaver -in drawing her woof across her warp. After -the woof had been conveyed by the shuttle -through the warp, it was driven sometimes -downwards, as is represented in the woodcut, -but more commonly upwards. Two different -instruments were used in this part of the process. -The simplest, and probably the most -ancient, was in the form of a large wooden -sword (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">spatha</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σπάθη</span>). The spatha was, however, -in a great degree superseded by the comb -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecten</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κερκίς</span>), the teeth of which were inserted -between the threads of the warp, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_365"></a>[365]</span> -thus made by a forcible impulse to drive the -threads of the woof close together.—The lyre, -the favourite musical instrument of the -Greeks, was only known to the Romans as a -foreign invention. Hence they appear to -have described its parts by a comparison -with the loom, with which they were familiar. -The terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jugum</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stamina</i> were -transferred by an obvious resemblance from -the latter to the former object; and, although -they adopted into their own language the -Greek word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">plectrum</i>, they used the Latin -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pecten</i> to denote the same thing, not because -the instrument used in striking the lyre was -at all like a comb in shape and appearance, -but because it was held in the right -hand, and inserted between the stamina of -the lyre, as the comb was between the stamina -of the loom.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp67" id="ill364" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill364.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Tela, Loom. (From the Vatican MS. of Virgil.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Telamones">TĔLAMŌNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Atlantes">Atlantes</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Telones">TĔLŌNES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελώνης</span>), a farmer of the public -taxes at Athens. The taxes were let by -auction to the highest bidder. Companies -often took them in the name of one person, -who was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχώνης</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελωνάρχης</span>, and -was their representative to the state. Sureties -were required of the farmer for the payment -of his dues. The office was frequently -undertaken by resident aliens, citizens not -liking it, on account of the vexatious proceedings -to which it often led. The farmer -was armed with considerable powers: he -carried with him his books, searched for contraband -or uncustomed goods, watched the -harbour, markets, and other places, to prevent -smuggling, or unlawful and clandestine -sales; brought a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phasis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φάσις</span>) or other legal -process against those whom he suspected of -defrauding the revenue; or even seized their -persons on some occasions, and took them -before the magistrate. To enable him to -perform these duties, he was exempted from -military service. Collectors (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκλογεῖς</span>) were -sometimes employed by the farmers; but -frequently the farmer and the collector were -the same person. The taxes were let by the -commissioners (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πωλῆται</span>), acting under the -authority of the senate. The payments were -made by the farmer on stated prytaneias in -the senate-house. There was usually one -payment made in advance, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προκαταβολή</span>, and -one or more afterwards, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσκατάβλημα</span>. -Upon any default of payment, the farmer -became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">atimus</i>, if a citizen, and he was liable -to be imprisoned at the discretion of the -court, upon an information laid against him. -If the debt was not paid by the expiration of -the ninth prytaneia, it was doubled; and if -not then paid, his property became forfeited -to the state, and proceedings to confiscation -might be taken forthwith. Upon this subject, -see the speech of Demosthenes against -Timocrates.</p> - - -<p id="Telos">TĔLOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέλος</span>), a tax. The taxes imposed -by the Athenians, and collected at home, were -either ordinary or extraordinary. The former -constituted a regular or permanent source of -income; the latter were only raised in time -of war or other emergency. The ordinary -taxes were laid mostly upon <em>property</em>, and -upon citizens <em>indirectly</em>, in the shape of toll -or customs; though the resident aliens paid -a poll-tax (called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μετοίκιον</span>), for the liberty of -residing at Athens under protection of the -state. There was a duty of two per cent. -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεντηκοστή</span>), levied upon all exports and imports. -An excise was paid on all sales in -the market (called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπωνία</span>), though we know -not what the amount was. Slave-owners -paid a duty of three obols for every slave they -kept; and slaves who had been emancipated -paid the same. This was a very productive -tax before the fortification of Deceleia by the -Lacedaemonians. The justice fees (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρυτανεῖα</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραστασις</span>, &c.) were a lucrative tax in time -of peace. The extraordinary taxes were the -property-tax, and the compulsory services -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liturgies</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λειτουργίαι</span>). Some of these -last were regular, and recurred annually; -the most important, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trierarchia</i>, was a -war-service, and performed as occasion required. -As these services were all performed, -wholly or partly, at the expense of the individual, -they may be regarded as a species of -tax. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Eisphora">Eisphora</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Leiturgia">Leitourgia</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Trierarchia">Trierarchia</a></span>.] -The tribute (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φόρος</span>) paid by the allied states -to the Athenians formed, in the flourishing -period of the republic, a regular and most -important source of revenue. In Olymp. 91 -2, the Athenians substituted for the tribute a -duty of five per cent. (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰκοστή</span>) on all commodities -exported or imported by the subject -states, thinking to raise by this means a -larger income than by direct taxation. This -was terminated by the issue of the Peloponnesian -war, though the tribute was afterwards -revived, on more equitable principles, -under the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνταξις</span>. Other sources -of revenue were derived by the Athenians -from their mines and public lands, fines, and -confiscations. The public demesne lands, -whether pasture or arable, houses or other -buildings, were usually let by auction to private -persons. The conditions of the lease -were engraven on stone. The rent was payable -by prytaneias. These various sources of -revenue produced, according to Aristophanes, -an annual income of two thousand talents in -the most flourishing period of Athenian empire. -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τελεῖν</span> signifies “to settle, complete, or -perfect,” and hence “to settle an account,” -and generally “to pay.” Thus <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τέλος</span> comes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_366"></a>[366]</span> -to mean any payment in the nature of a tax -or duty. The words are connected with -<i lang="de" xml:lang="de">zahlen</i> in German, and the old sense of <em>tale</em> -in English, and the modern word <em>toll</em>. Though -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέλος</span> may signify any payment in the nature -of a tax or duty, it is more commonly used of -the ordinary taxes, as customs, &c. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰσοτέλεια</span> -signifies the right of being taxed on the same -footing, and having other privileges, the same -as the citizens; a right sometimes granted to -resident aliens. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀτέλεια</span> signifies an exemption -from taxes, or other duties and services; an -honour very rarely granted by the Athenians. -As to the farming of the taxes, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Telones">Telones</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Templum">TEMPLUM is the same word as the Greek -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Temenos</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέμενος</span>, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέμνω</span>, to cut off); for -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i> was any place which was circumscribed -and separated by the augurs from the -rest of the land by a certain solemn formula. -The technical terms for this act of the augurs -are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">liberare</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">effari</i>, and hence a templum -itself is a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">locus liberatus et effatus</i>. A place -thus set apart and hallowed by the augurs -was always intended to serve religious purposes, -but chiefly for taking the auguries. -The place in the heavens within which the -observations were to be made was likewise -called templum, as it was marked out and -separated from the rest by the staff of the -augur. When the augur had defined the -templum within which he intended to make -his observations, he fixed his tent in it (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabernaculum -capere</i>), and this tent was likewise -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i>, or, more accurately, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum -minus</i>. The place chosen for a templum was -generally an eminence, and in the city it was -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">arx</i>, where the fixing of a tent does not -appear to have been necessary, because here -a place called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auguraculum</i> was once for all -consecrated for this purpose. Besides this -meaning of the word templum in the language -of the augurs, it also had that of a temple -in the common acceptation. In this case, -however, the sacred precinct within which a -temple was built, was always a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">locus liberatus -et effatus</i> by the augurs, that is, a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">templum</i> or -a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fanum</i>; the consecration was completed by -the pontiffs, and not until inauguration and -consecration had taken place, could sacra be -performed or meetings of the senate be held -in it. It was necessary then for a temple to -be sanctioned by the gods, whose will was -ascertained by the augurs, and to be consecrated -or dedicated by the will of man (pontiffs). -Where the sanction of the gods had -not been obtained, and where the mere act of -man had consecrated a place to the gods, such -a place was only a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacrum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacrarium</i>, or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacellum</i>. The ceremony performed by the -augurs was essential to a temple, as the consecration -by the pontiffs took place also in -other sanctuaries which were not templa, but -mere <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sacra</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aedes sacrae</i>. Thus the sanctuary -of Vesta was not a templum, but an -aedes sacra, and the various curiae (Hostilia, -Pompeia, Julia) required to be made templa -by the augurs before senatusconsulta could be -made in them. It is impossible to determine -with certainty in what respects a templum -differed from a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">delubrum</i>.—Temples appear to -have existed in Greece from the earliest -times. They were separated from the profane -land around them (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόπος βέβηλος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰ -βέβηλα</span>), because every one was allowed to -walk in the latter. This separation was in -early times indicated by very simple means, -such as a string or a rope. Subsequently, -however, they were surrounded by more efficient -fences, or even by a wall (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕρκος, περίβολος</span>). -The whole space enclosed in such a -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περίβολος</span> was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τέμενος</span>, or sometimes -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱερόν</span>; and contained, besides the temple -itself, other sacred buildings, and sacred -ground planted with groves, &c. Within -the precincts of the sacred enclosure no -dead were generally allowed to be buried, -though there were some exceptions to this -rule, and we have instances of persons being -buried in or at least near certain temples. -The religious laws of the island of Delos did -not allow any corpses to be buried within the -whole extent of the island, and when this -law had been violated, a part of the island -was first purified by Pisistratus, and subsequently -the whole island by the Athenian -people. The temple itself was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναός</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεώς</span>, and at its entrance fonts (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περιῤῥαντήρια</span>) -were generally placed, that those who entered -the sanctuary to pray or to offer sacrifices -might first purify themselves. The act of -consecration, by which a temple was dedicated -to a god, was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἵδρυσις</span>. The character -of the early Greek temples was dark -and mysterious, for they had no windows, -and they received light only through the -door, which was very large, or from lamps -burning in them. Architecture in the construction -of magnificent temples, however, -made great progress even at an earlier time -than either painting or statuary, and long -before the Persian wars we hear of temples of -extraordinary grandeur and beauty. All -temples were built either in an oblong or -round form, and were mostly adorned with -columns. Those of an oblong form had -columns either in the front alone, in the fore -and back fronts, or on all the four sides. -Respecting the original use of these porticoes -see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Porticus">Porticus</a></span>. The friezes and metopes were -adorned with various sculptures, and no expense -was spared in embellishing the abodes -of the gods. The light, which was formerly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_367"></a>[367]</span> -let in at the door, was now frequently let in -from above through an opening in the middle. -Most of the great temples consisted of three -parts: 1. the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόναος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόδομος</span>, the vestibule; -2. the cella (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σηκός</span>); and 3. the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀπισθόδομος</span>. The cella was the most important -part, as it was, properly speaking, the temple -or the habitation of the deity whose statue -it contained. In one and the same cella -there were sometimes the statues of two or -more divinities, as in the Erechtheum at -Athens, the statues of Poseidon, Hephaestus, -and Butas. The statues always faced the entrance, -which was in the centre of the prostylus. -The place where the statue stood was -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕδος</span>, and was surrounded by a balustrade -or railings. Some temples also had -more than one cella, in which case the one -was generally behind the other, as in the -temple of Athena Polias at Athens. In temples -where oracles were given, or where the -worship was connected with mysteries, the -cella was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄδυτον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέγαρον</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκτορον</span>, -and to it only the priests and the initiated -had access. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀπισθόδομος</span> was a building -which was sometimes attached to the back -front of a temple, and served as a place in -which the treasures of the temple were kept, -and thus supplied the place of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θησαυροί</span>, -which were attached to some temples.—<em>Quadrangular -Temples</em> were described by the following -terms, according to the number and -arrangement of the columns on the fronts -and sides. 1. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">astyle</i>, without any -columns. 2. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐν παραστάσι</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in antis</i>, with -two columns in front between the antae. 3. -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prostyle</i>, with four columns in -front. 4. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφιπρόστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amphiprostyle</i>, with -four columns at each end. 5. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίπτερος</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀμφικίων</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">peripteral</i>, with columns at each -end and along each side. 6. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίπτερος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dipteral</i>, -with two ranges of columns (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πτερά</span>) all -round, the one within the other. 7. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψευδοδίπτερος</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pseudodipteral</i>, with one range only, -but at the same distance from the walls of -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i> as the outer range of a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίπτερος</span>. To -these must be added a sort of sham invented -by the Roman architects, namely: 8. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψευδοπερίπτερος</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pseudoperipteral</i>, where the sides -had only half-columns (at the angles three-quarter -columns), attached to the walls of the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i>, the object being to have the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella</i> large -without enlarging the whole building, and -yet to keep up something of the splendour of -a peripteral temple. Names were also applied -to the temples, as well as to the porticoes -themselves, according to the number of -columns in the portico at either end of the -temple: namely, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετράστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tetrastyle</i>, when -there were <em>four</em> columns in front, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑξάστυλος</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hexastyle</i>, when there were <em>six</em>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀκτάστυλος</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">octastyle</i>, when there were <em>eight</em>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεκάστυλος</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">decastyle</i>, when there were <em>ten</em>. There were -never more than ten columns in the end portico -of a temple; and when there were only -two, they were always arranged in that peculiar -form called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in antis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐν παραστάσι</span>). The -number of columns in the end porticoes was -never uneven, but the number along the -sides of a temple was generally uneven. The -number of the side columns varied: where -the end portico was tetrastyle, there were -never any columns at the sides, except false -ones, attached to the walls: where it was -hexastyle or octastyle, there were generally -13 or 17 columns at the sides, counting in -the corner columns: sometimes a hexastyle -temple had only eleven columns on the sides. -The last arrangement resulted from the rule -adopted by the Roman architects, who counted -by intercolumniations (the spaces between -the columns), and whose rule was to have <em>twice -as many intercolumniations along the sides of -the building as in front</em>. The Greek architects -on the contrary, counted by columns, and -their rule was to have <em>twice as many columns -along the sides as in front, and one more</em>, -counting the corner columns in each case. -Another set of terms, applied to temples and -other buildings having porticoes, as well as -to the porticoes themselves, was derived from -the distances between the columns as compared -with the lower diameters of the columns. -They were the following:—1. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυκνόστυλος</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pycnostyle</i>, the distance between the -columns a diameter of a column and half a -diameter. 2. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">systyle</i>, the distance -between the columns two diameters of a -column. 3. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὔστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">eustyle</i>, the distance -between the columns two diameters and a -quarter, except in the centre of the front and -back of the building, where each intercolumniation -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intercolumnium</i>) was three diameters; -called eustyle, because it was best -adapted both for beauty and convenience. 4. -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diastyle</i>, the intercolumniation, or -distance between the columns, three diameters. -5. <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀραιόστυλος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">araeostyle</i>, the distances -excessive, so that it was necessary to -make the epistyle (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστύλιον</span>), or architrave, -not of stone, but of timber. These five kinds -of intercolumniation are illustrated by the -following diagram.</p> - -<table class="autotable" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdc"><span class="pad4">⬤</span></td> -<td class="tdc pad2">1½</td> -<td class="tdc">⬤</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc"><span class="pad3">⬤</span></td> -<td class="tdc pad2">2</td> -<td class="tdc"><span class="pad1">⬤</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc"><span class="pad2">⬤</span></td> -<td class="tdc pad2">2¼</td> -<td class="tdc"><span class="pad2">⬤</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc"><span class="pad1">⬤</span></td> -<td class="tdc pad2">3</td> -<td class="tdc"><span class="pad3">⬤</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdcvt">⬤</td> -<td class="tdcvt pad2">{ 4 }<br />{or more}</td> -<td class="tdcvt"><span class="pad4">⬤</span></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>Independently of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_368"></a>[368]</span> -immense treasures contained in many of the -Greek temples, which were either utensils or -ornaments, and of the tithes of spoils, &c., -the property of temples, from which they derived -a regular income, consisted of lands -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τεμένη</span>), either fields, pastures, or forests. -These lands were generally let out to farm, -unless they were, by some curse which lay -on them, prevented from being taken into -cultivation. Respecting the persons entrusted -with the superintendence, keeping, -cleaning, &c., see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aeditui">Aeditui</a></span>. In the earliest -times there appear to have been very few -temples at Rome, and on many spots the -worship of a certain divinity had been established -from time immemorial, while we hear -of the building of a temple for the same divinity -at a comparatively late period. Thus -the foundation of a temple to the old Italian -divinity Saturnus, on the Capitoline, did not -take place till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 498. In the same manner, -Quirinus and Mars had temples built to them -at a late period. Jupiter also had no temple -till the time of Ancus Martius, and the one -then built was certainly very insignificant. -We may therefore suppose that the places of -worship among the earliest Romans were in -most cases simple altars or sacella. The -Roman temples of later times were constructed -in the Greek style. As regards the -property of temples, it is stated that in early -times lands were assigned to each temple, -but these lands were probably intended for -the maintenance of the priests alone. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacerdos">Sacerdos</a>.</span>] -The supreme superintendence of the -temples of Rome, and of all things connected -with them, belonged to the college of pontiffs. -Those persons who had the immediate care of -the temples were the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aeditui">Aeditui</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Tepidarium">TĔPĬDĀRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a></span>, <a href="#Page_56">p. 56</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Terminalia">TERMĬNĀLĬA, a festival in honour of the -god Terminus, who presided over boundaries. -His statue was merely a stone or post stuck -in the ground to distinguish between properties. -On the festival the two owners of -adjacent property crowned the statue with -garlands, and raised a rude altar, on which -they offered up some corn, honeycombs, and -wine, and sacrificed a lamb or a sucking-pig. -They concluded with singing the praises of -the god. The public festival in honour of -this god was celebrated at the sixth mile-stone -on the road towards Laurentum, doubtless -because this was originally the extent of -the Roman territory in that direction. The -festival of the Terminalia was celebrated on -the 23rd of February, on the day before the -Regifugium. The Terminalia was celebrated -on the last day of the old Roman -year, whence some derive its name. We -know that February was the last month of the -Roman year, and that when the intercalary -month Mercedonius was added, the last five -days of February were added to the intercalary -month, making the 23rd of February the -last day of the year.</p> - - -<p id="Teruncius">TĔRUNCĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tessera">TESSĔRA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύβος</span>), a square or cube; a -die; a token. The dice used in games of -chance were tesserae, small squares or cubes, -and were commonly made of ivory, bone, or -wood. They were numbered on all the six -sides, like the dice still in use; and in this -respect as well as in their form they differed -from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tali</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Talus">Talus</a>.</span>] Whilst four tali were -used in playing, only three tesserae were anciently -employed. Objects of the same materials -with dice, and either formed like -them, or of an oblong shape, were used as -tokens for different purposes. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tessera -hospitalis</i> was the token of mutual hospitality, -and is spoken of under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Hospitium">Hospitium</a></span>. -This token was probably in many cases of -earthenware, having the head of Jupiter -Hospitalis stamped upon it. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tesserae frumentariae</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nummariae</i> were tokens given -at certain times by the Roman magistrates -to the poor, in exchange for which they received -a fixed amount of corn or money. -From the application of this term to tokens -of various kinds, it was transferred to <em>the -word</em> used as a token among soldiers. This -was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tessera militaris</i>, the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύνθημα</span> of the -Greeks. Before joining battle it was given -out and passed through the ranks, as a method -by which the soldiers might be able to -distinguish friends from foes.</p> - - -<p id="Testamentum">TESTĀMENTUM, a will. In order to be -able to make a valid Roman will, the Testator -must have the Testamentifactio, which -term expresses the legal capacity to make a -valid will. The testamentifactio was the privilege -only of Roman citizens who were patresfamilias. -The following persons consequently -had not the testamentifactio: those -who were in the Potestas or Manus of another, -or in Mancipii causa, as sons and -daughters, wives In manu and slaves: Latini -Juniani, Dediticii: Peregrini could not -dispose of their property according to the -form of a Roman will: an Impubes could -not dispose of his property by will even with -the consent of his Tutor; when a male was -fourteen years of age, he obtained the testamentifactio, -and a female obtained the power, -subject to certain restraints, on the completion -of her twelfth year: muti, surdi, furiosi, -and prodigi “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">quibus lege bonis interdictum -est</span>” had not the testamentifactio. In order -to constitute a valid will, it was necessary -that a heres should be instituted, which -might be done in such terms as follow:—Titius<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_369"></a>[369]</span> -heres esto, Titium heredem esse jubeo. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Heres">Heres</a></span> (<span class="smcap">Roman.</span>)] Originally there were -two modes of making wills; either at Calata -Comitia, which were appointed twice a year -for that purpose; or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in procinctu</i>, that is, -when a man was going to battle. A third -mode of making wills was introduced, which -was effected <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per aes et libram</i>, whence the -name of Testamentum per aes et libram. If -a man had neither made his will at Calata -Comitia nor In procinctu, and was in imminent -danger of death, he would mancipate -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mancipio dabat</i>) his Familia, that is, his -Patrimonium to a friend and would tell him -what he wished to be given to each after his -death. There seems to have been no rule of -law that a testament must be written. The -heres might either be made by oral declaration -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nuncupatio</i>) or by writing. Written -wills however were the common form among -the Romans at least in the later republican -and in the imperial periods. They were -written on tablets of wood or wax, whence -the word “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cera</span>” is often used as equivalent -to “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabella</span>;” and the expressions prima, -secunda cera are equivalent to prima, secunda -pagina. The will must have been in -some way so marked as to be recognized, and -the practice of the witnesses (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testes</i>) sealing -and signing the will at last became common. -It was necessary for the witnesses both to -seal (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">signare</i>), that is, to make a mark with -a ring (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">annulus</i>) or something else on the -wax and to add their names (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">adscribere</i>). -Wills were to be tied with a triple thread -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">linum</i>) on the upper part of the margin -which was to be perforated at the middle -part, and the wax was to be put over the -thread and sealed. Tabulae which were produced -in any other way had no validity. -A man might make several copies of his will, -which was often done for the sake of caution. -When sealed, it was deposited with some -friend, or in a temple, or with the Vestal -Virgins; and after the testator’s death it -was opened (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">resignare</i>) in due form. The -witnesses or the major part were present, -and after they had acknowledged their seals, -the thread (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">linum</i>) was broken and the will -was opened and read, and a copy was made; -the original was then sealed with the public -seal and placed in the archium, whence a -fresh copy might be got, if the first copy -should ever be lost.</p> - - -<p id="Testis">TESTIS, a witness.—(1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Martyria">Martyria</a>.</span>]—(2) -<span class="smcap">Roman.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jusjurandum">Jusjurandum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Testudo">TESTŪDO (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χελώνη</span>), a tortoise, was the -name given to several other objects.—(1) To -the Lyra, because it was sometimes made of -a tortoise-shell.—(2) To an arched or vaulted -roof.—(3) To a military machine moving -upon wheels and roofed over, used in besieging -cities, under which the soldiers -worked in undermining the walls or otherwise -destroying them. It was usually covered -with raw hides, or other materials which -could not easily be set on fire. The battering-ram -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aries">Aries</a></span>] was frequently placed under -a testudo of this kind, which was then called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Testudo Arietaria</i>.—(4) The name of testudo -was also applied to the covering made by a -close body of soldiers who placed their shields -over their heads to secure themselves against -the darts of the enemy. The shields fitted so -closely together as to present one unbroken -surface without any interstices between them, -and were also so firm that men could walk -upon them, and even horses and chariots be -driven over them. A testudo was formed -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testudinem facere</i>) either in battle to ward -off the arrows and other missiles of the enemy, -or, which was more frequently the case, -to form a protection to the soldiers when -they advanced to the walls or gates of a town -for the purpose of attacking them. Sometimes -the shields were disposed in such a -way as to make the testudo slope. The soldiers -in the first line stood upright, those in -the second stooped a little, and each line successively -was a little lower than the preceding -down to the last, where the soldiers -rested on one knee. Such a disposition of -the shields was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fastigata testudo</i>, on -account of their sloping like the roof of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_370"></a>[370]</span> -building. The advantages of this plan were -obvious: the stones and missiles thrown upon -the shields rolled off them like water from a -roof; besides which, other soldiers frequently -advanced upon them to attack the enemy upon -the walls. The Romans were accustomed -to form this kind of testudo, as an exercise, -in the games of the circus.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp55" id="ill369" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill369.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Testudo. (From the Antonine Column.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Tetrarches">TĔTRARCHĒS or TĔTRARCHA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετράρχης</span>). -This word was originally used, according -to its etymological meaning, to signify the governor -of the fourth part of a country (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετραρχία</span> -or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετραδαρχία</span>). We have an example -in the ancient division of Thessaly into four -tetrarchies, which was revived by Philip. -Each of the three Gallic tribes which settled -in Galatia was divided into four tetrarchies, -each ruled by a tetrarch. Some of the tribes -of Syria were ruled by tetrarchs, and several -of the princes of the house of Herod ruled in -Palestine with this title. In the later period -of the republic and under the empire, the -Romans seem to have used the title (as also -those of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ethnarch</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phylarch</i>) to designate -those tributary princes who were -not of sufficient importance to be called -kings.</p> - - -<p id="Tettarakonta">TETTĂRĂKONTA, HOI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἱ τετταράκοντα</span>), -<em>the Forty</em>, were certain officers chosen -by lot, who made regular circuits through the -demi of Attica, whence they are called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δικασταὶ -κατὰ δήμους</span>, to decide all cases of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰκία</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰ -περὶ τῶν βιαίων</span>, and also all other private -causes, where the matter in dispute was not -above the value of ten drachmae. Their -number was originally thirty, but was increased -to forty after the expulsion of the -thirty tyrants, and the restoration of the democracy -by Thrasybulus, in consequence, it -is said, of the hatred of the Athenians to the -number of thirty.</p> - - -<p id="Thargelia">THARGĒLĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θαργήλια</span>), a festival celebrated -at Athens on the 6th and 7th of Thargelion, -in honour of Apollo and Artemis. -The real festival, or the Thargelia in a narrower -sense of the word, appears to have -taken place on the 7th; and on the preceding -day, the city of Athens or rather its -inhabitants were purified. The manner in -which this purification was effected is very -extraordinary, and is certainly a remnant of -very ancient rites, for two persons were put -to death on that day, and the one died on -behalf of the men and the other on behalf of -the women of Athens. The name by which -these victims were designated was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pharmaci</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φαρμακοί</span>). It appears probable, however, -that this sacrifice did not take place annually, -but only in case of a heavy calamity having -befallen the city, such as the plague, a famine, -&c. The victims appear to have been -criminals sentenced to death. The second -day of the thargelia was solemnized with a -procession and an agon, which consisted of a -cyclic chorus, performed by men at the expense -of a choragus. The prize of the victor in -this agon was a tripod, which he had to dedicate -in the temple of Apollo which had -been built by Pisistratus. On this day it -was customary for persons who were adopted -into a family to be solemnly registered, and -received into the genos and the phratria of -the adoptive parents. This solemnity was -the same as that of registering one’s own -children at the Apaturia.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp82" id="ill371" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill371.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Plan of Greek Theatre.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Theatrum">THĔĀTRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θέατρον</span>), a theatre. The -Athenians before the time of Aeschylus had -only a wooden scaffolding on which their -dramas were performed. Such a wooden -theatre was only erected for the time of the -Dionysiac festivals, and was afterwards pulled -down. The first drama that Aeschylus brought -upon the stage was performed upon such a -wooden scaffold, and it is recorded as a singular -and ominous coincidence that on that -occasion (500 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) the scaffolding broke -down. To prevent the recurrence of such an -accident, the building of a stone theatre was -forthwith commenced on the south-eastern -descent of the Acropolis, in the Lenaea; -for it should be observed, that throughout -Greece theatres were always built upon eminences, -or on the sloping side of a hill. -The new Athenian theatre was built on a -very large scale, and appears to have been -constructed with great skill in regard to -its acoustic and perspective arrangements. -Subsequently theatres were erected in all -parts of Greece and Asia Minor, although -Athens was the centre of the Greek drama, -and the only place which produced great -masterworks in this department of literature. -All the theatres, however, which were constructed -in Greece were probably built after -the model of that of Athens, and, with slight -deviations and modifications, they all resembled -one another in the main points, as -is seen in the numerous ruins of theatres in -various parts of Greece, Asia Minor, and -Sicily. The Attic theatre was, like all the -Greek theatres, placed in such a manner that -the place for the spectators formed the upper -or north-western, and the stage with all that -belonged to it the south-eastern part, and -between these two parts lay the orchestra. -The annexed plan has been made from the -remains of Greek theatres still extant, and -from a careful examination of the passages -in ancient writers which describe the whole -or parts of a theatre.—1. The place for the -spectators was in a narrower sense of the -word called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">theatrum</i>. The seats for the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_371"></a>[371]</span> -spectators, which were in most cases cut out -of the rock, consisted of rows of benches -rising one above another; the rows themselves -(<em>a</em>) formed parts (nearly three-fourths) -of concentric circles, and were at intervals -divided into compartments by one or more -broad passages (<em>b</em>) running between them, -and parallel with the benches. These passages -were called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διαζώματα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατατομαί</span>, -Lat. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecinctiones</i>, and when the concourse -of people was very great in a theatre, many -persons might stand in them. Across the -rows of benches ran stairs, by which persons -might ascend from the lowest to the highest. -But these stairs ran in straight lines only -from one praecinctio to another; and the -stairs in the next series of rows were just -between the two stairs of the lower series of -benches. By this course of the stairs the -seats were divided into a number of compartments, -resembling cones from which the -tops are cut off; hence they were termed -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεοκίδες</span>, and in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cunei</i>. The whole of -the place for the spectators (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θέατρον</span>) was -sometimes designated by the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κοῖλον</span>, -Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cavea</i>, it being in most cases a real -excavation of the rock. Above the highest -row of benches there rose a covered portico -(<em>c</em>), which of course far exceeded in height -the opposite buildings by which the stage -was surrounded, and appears to have also -contributed to increase the acoustic effect. -The entrances to the seats of the spectators -were partly underground, and led to the -lowest rows of benches, while the upper -rows must have been accessible from above.—2. -The orchestra (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀρχήστρα</span>) was a circular -level space extending in front of the spectators, -and somewhat below the lowest row of -benches. But it was not a complete circle, -one segment of it being appropriated to the -stage. The orchestra was the place for the -chorus, where it performed its evolutions -and dances, for which purpose it was covered -with boards. As the chorus was the element -out of which the drama arose, so the orchestra -was originally the most important -part of a theatre: it formed the centre -around which all the other parts of the -building were grouped. In the centre of -the circle of the orchestra was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thymele</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυμέλη</span>), that is, the altar of Dionysus (<em>d</em>),<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_372"></a>[372]</span> -which was of coarse nearer to the stage than -to the seats of the spectators, the distance -from which was precisely the length of a -radius of the circle. In a wider sense the -orchestra also comprised the broad passages -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάροδοι</span>, <em>e</em>) on each side, between the projecting -wings of the stage and the seats of -the spectators, through which the chorus entered -the orchestra. The chorus generally -arranged itself in the space between the -thymele and the stage. The thymele itself -was of a square form, and was used for -various purposes, according to the nature of -the different plays, such as a funeral monument, -an altar, &c. It was made of boards, -and surrounded on all sides with steps. It -thus stood upon a raised platform, which -was sometimes occupied by the leader of the -chorus, the flute-player, and the rhabdophori. -The orchestra as well as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">theatrum</i> lay -under the open sky; a roof is nowhere mentioned.—3. -The stage. Steps led from each -side of the orchestra to the stage, and by -them the chorus probably ascended the stage -whenever it took a real part in the action -itself. The back side of the stage was closed -by a wall called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scena</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκηνή</span>), from -which on each side a wing projected which -was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">parascenium</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρασκήνιον</span>). -The whole depth of the stage was not very -great, as it only comprised a segment of the -circle of the orchestra. The whole space -from the scena to the orchestra was termed -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proscenium</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσκήνιον</span>), and was what -we should call the real stage. That part of -it which was nearest to the orchestra, and -where the actors stood when they spoke, -was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">logeium</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λογείον</span>), also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ocribas</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀκρίβας</span>), in Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pulpitum</i>, which was of -course raised above the orchestra, and probably -on a level with the thymele. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scena</i> was, as we have already stated, the -wall which closed the stage (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">proscenium</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">logeium</i>) from behind. It represented a suitable -background, or the locality in which the -action was going on. Before the play began -it was covered with a curtain (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παραπέτασμα</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προσκήνιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλαίαι</span>), Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aulaea</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">siparium</i>. -When the play began this curtain was let -down, and was rolled up on a roller underneath -the stage. The proscenium and logeium -were never concealed from the spectators. -As regards the scenery represented -on the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scena</i>, it was different for tragedy, -comedy, and the satyric drama, and for each -of these kinds of poetry the scenery must -have been capable of various modifications, -according to the character of each individual -play; at least that this was the case with the -various tragedies, is evident from the scenes -described in the tragedies still extant. In -the latter however the back-ground (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scena</i>) -in most cases represented the front of a -palace with a door in the centre (<em>i</em>) which -was called the <em>royal door</em>. This palace -generally consisted of two stories, and upon -its flat roof there appears to have been some -elevated place from which persons might -observe what was going on at a distance. -The palace presented on each side a projecting -wing, each of which had its separate -entrance. These wings generally represented -the habitations of guests and visitors. -All the three doors must have been visible -to the spectators. The protagonistes always -entered the stage through the middle or -royal door, the deuteragonistes and tritagonistes -through those on the right and left -wings. In tragedies like the Prometheus, -the Persians, Philoctetes, Oedipus in Colonus, -and others, the back-ground did not -represent a palace. There are other pieces -again in which the scena must have been -changed in the course of the performance, as -in the Eumenides of Aeschylus and the Ajax -of Sophocles. The dramas of Euripides required -a great variety of scenery; and if in -addition to this we recollect that several -pieces were played in one day, it is manifest -that the mechanical parts of stage performance, -at least in the days of Euripides, must -have been brought to great perfection. The -scena in the satyric drama appears to have -always represented a woody district with -hills and grottos; in comedy the scena represented, -at least in later times, the fronts of -private dwellings or the habitations of slaves. -The art of scene-painting must have been -applied long before the time of Sophocles, -although Aristotle ascribes its introduction -to him. The whole of the cavea in the -Attic theatre must have contained about -50,000 spectators. The places for generals, -the archons, priests, foreign ambassadors, -and other distinguished persons, were in the -lowest rows of benches, and nearest to the -orchestra, and they appear to have been -sometimes covered with a sort of canopy. -The rows of benches above these were occupied -by the senate of 500, those next in -succession by the ephebi, and the rest by -the people of Athens. But it would seem -that they did not sit indiscriminately, but -that the better places were let at a higher -price than the others, and that no one had a -right to take a place for which he had not -paid. The usual fee for a place was two -obols, which was subsequently given to the -poorer classes by a law of Pericles. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theorica">Theorica</a>.</span>] -Women were allowed to be present -during the performance of tragedies, but not -of comedies.—The Romans must have become<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_373"></a>[373]</span> -acquainted with the theatres of the -Italian Greeks at an early period, whence -they erected their own theatres in similar -positions upon the sides of hills. This is -still clear from the ruins of very ancient -theatres at Tusculum and Faesulae. The -Romans themselves, however, did not possess -a regular stone theatre until a very late -period, and although dramatic representations -were very popular in earlier times, it -appears that a wooden stage was erected -when necessary, and was afterwards pulled -down again, and the plays of Plautus and -Terence were performed on such temporary -scaffoldings. In the mean while, many of -the neighbouring towns of Rome had their -stone theatres, as the introduction of Greek -customs and manners was less strongly -opposed in them than in the city of Rome -itself. Wooden theatres, adorned with the -most profuse magnificence, were erected at -Rome even during the last period of the -republic. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 55 Cn. Pompey built the -first stone theatre at Rome, near the Campus -Martius. It was of great beauty, and is -said to have been built after the model of -that of Mytilene; it contained 40,000 spectators. -The construction of a Roman theatre -resembled, on the whole, that of a Greek -one. The principal differences are, that -the seats of the spectators, which rose in -the form of an amphitheatre around the -orchestra, did not form more than a semicircle; -and that the whole of the orchestra -likewise formed only a semicircle, the diameter -of which formed the front line of the -stage. The Roman orchestra contained no -thymele, and was not destined for a chorus, -but contained the seats for senators and -other distinguished persons, such as foreign -ambassadors, which are called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">primus subselliorum -ordo</i>. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 68 the tribune L. -Roscius Otho carried a law which regulated -the places in the theatre to be occupied by -the different classes of Roman citizens: it -enacted that fourteen ordines of benches -were to be assigned as seats to the equites. -Hence these quatuordecim ordines are sometimes -mentioned without any further addition, -as the honorary seats of the equites. -They were undoubtedly close behind the -seats of the senators and magistrates, and -thus consisted of the rows of benches immediately -behind the orchestra.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill373" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill373.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Plan of Roman Theatre.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Thensae">THENSAE or TENSAE, highly ornamented -sacred vehicles, which, in the solemn<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_374"></a>[374]</span> -pomp of the Circensian games, conveyed the -statues of certain deities with all their decorations -to the pulvinaria, and after the -sports were over bore them back to their -shrines. We are ignorant of their precise -form. We know that they were drawn by -horses, and escorted (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deducere</i>) by the chief -senators in robes of state, who, along with -pueri patrimi [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patrimi">Patrimi</a></span>], laid hold of the -bridles and traces, or perhaps assisted to -drag the carriage by means of thongs attached -for the purpose (and hence the proposed -derivation from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tendo</i>). So sacred -was this duty considered, that Augustus, -when labouring under sickness, deemed it -necessary to accompany the tensae in a litter. -If one of the horses knocked up, or the -driver took the reins in his left hand, it was -necessary to recommence the procession, and -for one of the attendant boys to let go the -thong, or to stumble, was profanation. The -only gods distinctly named as carried in -tensae are Jupiter and Minerva, though -others appear to have had the same honour -paid them.</p> - - -<p id="Theophania">THĔŎPHĂNĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεοφάνια</span>), a festival celebrated -at Delphi, on the occasion of which -the Delphians filled the huge silver crater -which had been presented to the Delphic god -by Croesus.</p> - - -<p id="Theoria">THĔŌRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theori">Theori</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Theorica">THĔŌRĬCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρικά</span>). Under this name -at Athens were comprised the monies expended -on festivals, sacrifices, and public -entertainments of various kinds; and also -monies distributed among the people in the -shape of largesses from the state. There -were, according to Xenophon, more festivals -at Athens than in all the rest of Greece. At -the most important of the public festivals, -such as the Dionysia, Panathenaea, Eleusinia, -Thargelia, and some others, there were not -only sacrifices, but processions, theatrical exhibitions, -gymnastic contests, and games, -celebrated with great splendour and at a -great expense. A portion of the expense was -defrayed by the individuals upon whom the -burden of the liturgies devolved; but a considerable, -and perhaps the larger, part was -defrayed by the public treasury. Demosthenes -complains, that more money was spent -on a single Panathenaic or Dionysiac festival -than on any military expedition. The religious -embassies to Delos and other places, -and especially those to the Olympian, Nemean, -Isthmian, and Pythian games, drew -largely upon the public exchequer, though a -part of the cost fell upon the wealthier -citizens who conducted them. The largesses -distributed among the people had their origin -at an early period, and in a measure -apparently harmless, though from a small -beginning they afterwards rose to a height -most injurious to the commonwealth. The -Attic drama used to be performed in a -wooden theatre, and the entrance was free to -all citizens who chose to go. It was found, -however, that the crushing to get in led to -much confusion and even danger. On one -occasion, about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 500, the wooden scaffolding -of the theatre fell down, and caused great -alarm. It was then determined that the -entrance should no longer be gratuitous. -The fee for a place was fixed at two obols, -which was paid to the lessee of the theatre, -(called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεατρώνης</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεατροπώλης</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχιτέκτων</span>), -who undertook to keep it in repair, and constantly -ready for use, on condition of being -allowed to receive the profits. This payment -continued to be exacted after the stone -theatre was built. Pericles, to relieve the -poorer classes, passed a law which enabled -them to receive the price of admission from -the state; after which all those citizens who -were too poor to pay for their places applied -for the money in the public assembly, which -was then frequently held in the theatre. In -process of time this donation was extended to -other entertainments besides theatrical ones; -the sum of two oboli being given to each citizen -who attended; if the festival lasted two -days, four oboli; and if three, six oboli; but -not beyond. Hence all theoric largesses received -the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diobelia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διωβελία</span>). It is -calculated that from 25 to 30 talents were -spent upon them annually. So large an expenditure -of the public funds upon shows and -amusements absorbed the resources, which -were demanded for services of a more important -nature. By the ancient law, the -whole surplus of the annual revenue which -remained after the expense of the civil administration -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰ περίοντα χρήματα τῆς διοικήσεως</span>) -was to be carried to the military fund, and -applied to the defence of the commonwealth. -Since the time of Pericles various demagogues -had sprung up, who induced the people to -divert all that could be spared from the other -branches of civil expenditure into the theoric -fund, which at length swallowed up the whole -surplus, and the supplies needed for the purpose -of war or defence were left to depend -upon the extraordinary contributions, or property-tax -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσφοραί</span>). An attempt was made -by the demagogue Eubulus to perpetuate this -system. He passed a law, which made it a -capital offence to propose that the theoric -fund should be applied to military service. -The law of Eubulus was a source of great -embarrassment to Demosthenes, in the prosecution -of his schemes for the national defence; -and he seems at last, but not before<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_375"></a>[375]</span> -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 339, to have succeeded in repealing it. -In the earlier times there was no person, or -board of persons, expressly appointed to -manage the theoric fund. The money thus -appropriated was disbursed by the Hellenotamiae. -After the anarchy, the largess system -having been restored by Agyrrhius, a -board of managers was appointed. They were -elected by show of hands at the period of the -great Dionysia, one from each tribe.</p> - -<p id="Theori">THĔŌRI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωροί</span>), persons sent on special -missions (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρίαι</span>) to perform some religious -duty, as to consult an oracle, or to offer a -sacrifice, on behalf of the state. There were -among some of the Dorian states, as the Aeginetans, -Troezenians, Messenians, and Mantineans, -official priests called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Theori</i>, whose -duty it was to consult oracles, interpret the -responses, &c., as among the Spartans there -were men called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pythii</i>, chosen by the kings -to consult the oracle at Delphi. At Athens -there were no official persons called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Theori</i>, -but the name was given to those citizens who -were appointed from time to time to conduct -religious embassies to various places; of -which the most important were those that -were sent to the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, -and Isthmian games, those that went to consult -the God at Delphi, and those that led -the solemn procession to Delos, where the -Athenians established a quadriennial festival, -in revival of the ancient Ionian one, of which -Homer speaks. The expense of these embassies -was defrayed partly by the state, and -partly by wealthy citizens, to whom the management -of them was entrusted, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Architheori</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρχιθέωροι</span>), chiefs of the embassy. -This was a sort of liturgy, and frequently a -very costly one; as the chief conductor represented -the state, and was expected to -appear with a suitable degree of splendour; -for instance, to wear a golden crown, to drive -into the city with a handsome chariot, retinue, -&c. The Salaminian, or Delian, ship -was also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεωρὶς ναῦς</span>, and was principally -used for conveying embassies to Delos, -though, like the Paralus, it was employed on -other expeditions besides.</p> - - -<p id="Thermae">THERMAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Thesaurus">THĒSAURUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θησαυρός</span>), a treasure-house. -Tradition points to subterranean buildings in -Greece, of unknown antiquity and of peculiar -formation, as having been erected during -the heroic period, for the purpose of preserving -precious metals, arms, and other property -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κειμήλια</span>). Such are the treasury of -Minyas, at Orchomenus, of which some remains -still exist, and those of Atreus and -his sons at Mycenae, the chief one of which, -the so-called Treasury of Atreus, still exists -almost in a perfect state. It is, however, -very questionable whether these edifices were -treasuries at all: some of the best archaeologists -maintain that they were tombs. In -the historical times, the public treasury was -either in a building attached to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agora</i>, or in -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opisthodomus</i> of some temple. Respecting -the public treasury at Rome, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Theseia">THĒSEIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θησεῖα</span>), a festival celebrated by -the Athenians in honour of their national -hero Theseus, whom they believed to have -been the author of their democratical form of -government. In consequence of this belief -donations of bread and meat were given to -the poor people at the Theseia, which was -thus for them a feast at which they felt no -want, and might fancy themselves equal to -the wealthiest citizens. The day on which -this festival was held was the eighth of every -month (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀγδόαι</span>), but more especially the eighth -of Pyanepsion, whence the festival was sometimes -called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀγδόδιον</span>. It is probable that -the festival of the Theseia was not instituted -till <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 469, when Cimon brought the remains -of Theseus from Scyrus to Athens.</p> - - -<p id="Thesmophoria">THESMŎPHŎRĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεσμοφόρια</span>), a great -festival and mysteries, celebrated in honour -of Demeter in various parts of Greece, and -only by women, though some ceremonies -were also performed by maidens. It was -intended to commemorate the introduction of -the laws and regulations of civilised life, -which was universally ascribed to Demeter. -The Attic thesmophoria probably lasted only -three days, and began on the 11th of Pyanepsion, -which day was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄνοδος</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάθοδος</span>, because the solemnities were opened -by the women with a procession from Athens -to Eleusis. In this procession they carried -on their heads sacred laws (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμιμοι βίβλοι</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θεσμοί</span>), the introduction of which was ascribed -to Demeter (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεσμοφόρος</span>), and other -symbols of civilised life. The women spent -the night at Eleusis in celebrating the mysteries -of the goddess. The second day, called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νηστεία</span>, was a day of mourning, during which -the women sat on the ground around the -statue of Demeter, and took no other food -than cakes made of sesame and honey. On -this day no meetings either of the senate or -the people were held. It was probably in the -afternoon of this day that the women held a -procession at Athens, in which they walked -barefooted behind a waggon, upon which -baskets with mystical symbols were conveyed -to the thesmophorion. The third day, called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλλιγένεια</span>, from the circumstance that Demeter -was invoked under this name, was a -day of merriment and raillery among the -women themselves, in commemoration of -Iambe, who was said to have made the goddess -smile during her grief.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_376"></a>[376]</span></p> - - -<p id="Thesmothetae">THESMŎTHĔTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Archon">Archon</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Thetes">THĒTES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Census">Census</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tholos">THOLOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θόλος</span>, also called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκιάς</span>), a name -given to any round building which terminated -at the top in a point, whatever might -be the purpose for which it was used. At -Athens the name was in particular applied -to the new round prytaneium near the senate-house, -which should not be confounded with -the old prytaneium at the foot of the acropolis. -It was therefore the place in which -the prytanes took their common meals and -offered their sacrifices. It was adorned with -some small silver statues, and near it stood -the ten statues of the Attic Eponymi.</p> - - -<p id="Thorax">THŌRAX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lorica">Lorica</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Thraces">THRĀCES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Thranitae">THRANĪTAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Thronus">THRŎNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θρόνος</span>), a throne, is a Greek -word, for which the proper Latin term is -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Solium</i>. This did not differ from a chair -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καθέδρα</span>) [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cathedra">Cathedra</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Sella">Sella</a></span>] except in being -higher, larger, and in all respects more magnificent. -On account of its elevation it was -always necessarily accompanied by a foot-stool -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">subsellium</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑποπόδιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θράνιον</span>). The -accompanying cut shows two gilded thrones -with cushions and drapery, intended to be -the thrones of Mars and Venus, which is expressed -by the helmet on the one and the -dove on the other.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill376a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill376a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Throni. (From an ancient Painting.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Thymele">THỸMĔLĒ. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Thyrsus">THỸRSUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θύρσος</span>), a pole carried by -Bacchus, and by Satyrs, Maenades, and -others who engaged in Bacchic festivities -and rites. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia</a>.</span>] It was sometimes -terminated by the apple of the pine, or fir-cone, -that tree (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πεύκη</span>) being dedicated to -Bacchus in consequence of the use of the -turpentine which flowed from it, and also -of its cones, in making wine. The monuments -of ancient art, however, most commonly -exhibit, instead of the pine-apple, a -bunch of vine or ivy-leaves, with grapes or -berries, arranged into the form of a cone. -The fabulous history of Bacchus relates that -he converted the thyrsi carried by himself -and his followers into dangerous weapons, -by concealing an iron point in the head of -the leaves. Hence his thyrsus is called -“a spear enveloped in vine-leaves,” and its -point was thought to incite to madness.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp77" id="ill376b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill376b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Tiara. (From a Coin in the British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Tiara">TĬĀRA or TĬĀRAS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιάρα</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιάρας</span>: <em>Att.</em> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυρβασία</span>), a hat with a large high crown. -This was the head-dress which characterised -the north-western Asiatics, and more especially -the Armenians, Parthians, and Persians, -as distinguished from the Greeks and -Romans, whose hats fitted the head, or had -only a low crown. The king of Persia wore -an erect tiara, whilst those of his subjects -were soft and flexible, falling on one side. -The Persian name for this regal head-dress -was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cidaris</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp79" id="ill376c" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill376c.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Tiara. (From a Coin in the British Museum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Tibia">TĪBĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλός</span>), a pipe, the commonest musical -instrument of the Greeks and Romans. It -was very frequently a hollow cane, perforated -with holes in the proper places. In other -instances it was made of some kind of wood, -especially box, and was bored with a gimblet. -When a single pipe was used by itself, the -performer upon it, as well as the instrument, -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">monaulos</i>. Among the varieties -of the single pipe the most remarkable were -the bagpipe, the performer on which was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">utricularius</i> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσκαύλης</span>; and the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀυλὸς πλάγιος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πλαγίαυλος</span>, which, as its -name implies, had a mouth-piece inserted -into it at right angles. Pan was the reputed -inventor of this kind of tibia as well as of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_377"></a>[377]</span> -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fistula</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">syrinx</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Syrinx">Syrinx</a></span>]. But among -the Greeks and Romans it was much more -usual to play on two pipes at the same time. -Hence a performance on this instrument -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tibicinium</i>), even when executed by a single -person, was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">canere</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cantare tibiis</i>. -This act is exhibited in very numerous works -of ancient art, and often in such a way as to -make it manifest that the two pipes were -perfectly distinct, and not connected, as some -have supposed, by a common mouth-piece. -The mouth-pieces of the two pipes often -passed through a capistrum. Three different -kinds of pipes were originally used to produce -music in the Dorian, Phrygian, and -Lydian modes. It appears, also, that to produce -the Phrygian mode the pipe had only -two holes above, and that it terminated in a -horn bending upwards. It thus approached -to the nature of a trumpet, and produced -slow, grave, and solemn tunes. The Lydian -mode was much quicker, and more varied -and animating. Horace mentions “Lydian -pipes” as a proper accompaniment, when he -is celebrating the praise of ancient heroes. -The Lydians themselves used this instrument -in leading their troops to battle; and the -pipes employed for the purpose are distinguished -by Herodotus as “male and female,” -i.e. probably bass and treble, corresponding -to the ordinary sexual difference in the human -voice. The corresponding Latin terms -are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tibia dextra</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sinistra</i>: the respective -instruments are supposed to have been so -called, because the former was more properly -held in the right hand and the latter in the -left. The “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">tibia <em>dextra</em></span>” was used to lead -or commence a piece of music, and the “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sinistra</span>” -followed it as an accompaniment. -The comedies of Terence having been accompanied -by the pipe, the following notices -are prefixed to explain the kind of music -appropriate to each: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tibiis paribus</i>, i.e. with -pipes in the same mode; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tib. imparibus</i>, -pipes in different modes; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tib. duabus dextris</i>, -two pipes of low pitch; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tib. par. dextris et -sinistris</i>, pipes in the same mode, and of both -low and high pitch. The use of the pipe -among the Greeks and Romans was three-fold, -viz. at sacrifices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tibiae sacrificae</i>), entertainments -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ludicrae</i>), and funerals. The -pipe was not confined anciently, as it is with -us, to the male sex, but <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλητρίδες</span>, or female -tibicines were very common.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="ill377" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill377.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Woman Playing on two Pipes, Tibiae. (From a Vase in -the British Museum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Timema">TIMĒMA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τίμημα</span>). The penalty imposed -in a court of criminal justice at Athens, -and also the damages awarded in a civil -action, received the name of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τίμημα</span>, because -they were <em>estimated</em> or <em>assessed</em> according -to the injury which the public or the -individual might respectively have sustained. -The penalty was either fixed by the judge, -or merely declared by him according to some -estimate made before the cause came into -court. In the first case the trial was called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγὼν τιμητὸς</span>, in the second case <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀγὼν ἀτίμητος</span>, -a distinction which applies to civil as -well as to criminal trials. Where a man -sought to recover an estate in land, or a -house, or any specific thing, as a ring, a -horse, a slave, nothing further was required, -than to determine to whom the estate, the -house, or the thing demanded, of right belonged. -The same would be the case in an -action of debt, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρέους δίκη</span>, where a sum certain -was demanded. In these and many -other similar cases the trial was <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτίμητος</span>. -On the other hand, wherever the damages -were in their nature <em>unliquidated</em>, and no -provision had been made concerning them -either by the law or by the agreement of the -parties, they were to be assessed by the dicasts. -The following was the course of proceeding -in the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τιμητοὶ ἀγῶνες</span>. The bill of -indictment (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγκλημα</span>) was always superscribed -with some penalty by the person who -preferred it. He was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιγράφεσθαι -τίμημα</span>, and the penalty proposed is called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίγραμμα</span>. If the defendant was found -guilty, the prosecutor was called upon to -support the allegation in the indictment, -and for that purpose to mount the platform -and address the dicasts (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀναβαίνειν εἰς -τίμημα</span>). If the accused submitted to the -punishment proposed on the other side, there -was no further dispute; if he thought it too<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_378"></a>[378]</span> -severe, he made a counter proposition. -He was then said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀντιτιμᾶσθαι</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἑαυτῷ τιμᾶσθαι</span>. -He was allowed to address the court -in mitigation of punishment. After both -parties had been heard, the dicasts were -called upon to give their verdict. Sometimes -the law expressly empowered the jury -to impose an additional penalty (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστίμημα</span>) -besides the ordinary one. Here the -proposition emanated from the jury themselves, -any one of whom might move that -the punishment allowed by the law should -be awarded. He was said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστιμᾶσθαι</span>, -and the whole dicasts, if (upon a division) they -adopted his proposal, were said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προστιμᾷν</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Tintinnabulum">TINTINNĀBŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κώδων</span>), a bell. Bells -were of various forms among the Greeks and -Romans, as among us.</p> - - -<p id="Tiro">TĪRO, the name given by the Romans to -a newly enlisted soldier, as opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">veteranus</i>, -one who had had experience in war. -The mode of levying troops is described under -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>. The age at which the liability -to military service commenced was 17. -From their first enrolment the Roman soldiers, -when not actually serving against an -enemy, were perpetually occupied in military -exercises. They were exercised every day, -the tirones twice, in the morning and afternoon, -and the veterani once. The state of a -tiro was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tirocinium</i>; and a soldier -who had attained skill in his profession was -then said <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tirocinium ponere</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deponere</i>. In -civil life the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tiro</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tirocinium</i> were -applied to the assumption of the toga virilis, -which was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tirocinium fori</i> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Toga">Toga</a></span>], and -to the first appearance of an orator at the -rostrum, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tirocinum eloquentiae</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Tirocinium">TĪRŌCĬNĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tiro">Tiro</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Titii">TĬTĬI SODĀLES, a sodalitas or college of -priests at Rome, who represented the second -tribe of the Romans, or the Tities, that -is, the Sabines, who, after their union with -the Ramnes or Latins, continued to perform -their own ancient Sabine sacra. To superintend -and preserve these, T. Tatius is said -to have instituted the Titii sodales. During -the time of the republic the Titii sodales are -no longer mentioned, as the sacra of the -three tribes became gradually united into one -common religion. Under the empire we -again meet with a college of priests bearing -the name of Sodales Titii or Titienses, or Sacerdotes -Titiales Flaviales; but they had nothing -to do with the sacra of the ancient tribe -of the Tities, but were priests instituted to -conduct the worship of an emperor, like the -Augustales.</p> - - -<p id="Tities">TĬTĬES or TĬTĬENSES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill378a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill378a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 1.—Form of the Toga spread out.</div> -</div> - -<p id="Toga">TŎGA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τήβεννος</span>), a gown, the name of the -principal outer garment worn by the Romans, -seems to have been received by them from -the Etruscans. The toga was the peculiar -distinction of the Romans, who were thence -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">togati</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gens togata</i>. It was originally -worn only in Rome itself, and the -use of it was forbidden alike to exiles and to -foreigners. Gradually, however, it went out -of common use, and was supplanted by the -pallium and lacerna, or else it was worn in -public under the lacerna. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Lacerna">Lacerna</a>.</span>] But it -was still used by the upper classes, who regarded -it as an honourable distinction, in the -courts of justice, by clients when they received -the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Sportula">Sportula</a></span>, and in the theatre or -at the games, at least when the emperor -was present. The exact form of the toga, -and the manner of wearing it, have occasioned -much dispute; but the following account, -for which the writer is indebted to his -friend Mr. George Scharf, jun., will set these -matters in a clearer light than has hitherto -been the case. The complete arrangement of -this dress may be seen in many antique statues, -but especially in that of Didius Julianus,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_379"></a>[379]</span> -in the Louvre, and a bronze figure of the elder -Drusus discovered at Herculaneum. (See -figs. 2, 3.)</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp35" id="ill378b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill378b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 2.—Statue of Didius Julianus. (From the Louvre.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp40" id="ill379a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill379a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 3.—Bronze of the elder Drusus. (From Herculaneum.)</div> -</div> - -<p>The letters upon particular parts -of the illustrations correspond with each -other, and refer to the same places upon the -general form of the toga given above. The -method of adjusting the toga is simply this: -the straight edge (<em>a b g d</em>) being kept towards -the neck, and the rounded towards the hand, -the first part of the toga hangs in front over -the left shoulder to the ground (<em>a</em>, fig. 4), so -as to cover that entire half of the figure -viewed in front. The remainder falling behind -is wrapped round the body, being carried -<em>under</em> the right arm, and brought upwards, -like a belt, across the chest, covering -the left arm and shoulder for a second time. -It again falls behind, and terminates in the -point <em>d</em> (fig. 5), somewhat higher than the -front portion (<em>a</em>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="ill379b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill379b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 4. <span class="pad6">Fig. 5.</span><br /> -Mode of putting on the Toga.</div> -</div> - -<p>So far any mantle of sufficient -length might be folded, but two distinctive -features of Roman dress, the umbo -(<em>f</em>) and the sinus (<em>c e</em>), have yet to be considered. -The sinus (<em>c e</em>) is that upper hanging -portion with the curved edge downwards -which shows conspicuously upon the right -thigh. When the toga has been brought -round to the front of the right leg, it has -attained its greatest width (<em>e c e</em>), although -on the figure less space is required for it. It -is therefore folded over at the top, the upper -part falling forward, down almost to the -knee. It may be easily raised (see fig. 5) -and used as a lap—hence the name sinus—to -carry fruits and flowers, so often represented -in ancient art. The fold at <em>c</em> thus -becomes the upper edge, and forms the -balteus, which may be made still more -effective by being rolled round and slightly -twisted, as in figs. 2 and 5. A variety again -was sometimes produced by lifting the hanging -edge (<em>e</em>) of this sinus up on to the -shoulder, so as to cover the right arm with -that alone, and Quintilian hints that it is not -ungraceful to throw back the extreme edge -of that again, an effect still to be admired in -some of the ancient sculptures. Fig. 5 is in -the act of raising the edge. The umbo (<em>f</em>), -a projecting mass of folds in front of the -body, like the boss of a shield, was formed -<em>after</em> the rest of the dress had been put on -in a very simple manner: a part of the -front upright line (<em>a b</em>), almost covered up -by the adjustment of the upper shoulder portion -(<em>g</em>), was pulled out and made to hang -down over the balteus or belt-like part -(fig. 6). It is clearly traceable in both statues -here given (figs. 2 and 3), and fig. 4 is -intended to show the formation of the umbo -more clearly by the right hand holding the -edge, which falls over the fingers instead of -the balteus. In proportion as the umbo (<em>f</em>) -projects, so of course the end (<em>a</em>) is raised -from the ground. The smaller figures (4 and -5) are both drawn without under-garments -in order to avoid confusion. During sacrifice, -when necessary to cover the head, the -edge (<em>b</em>) nearest the neck was pulled up and -made to cover the head, as in fig. 3, where -the entire length of the edge, passing from -the umbo into the sinus, is very clearly -visible. The dress here is very ample, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_380"></a>[380]</span> -can spare an extra length, but in the statue -of a priest in the Louvre the head is covered -at the expense of the umbo, which has entirely -disappeared. Fig. 6 is intended to -show the interlacing and arrangement of the -toga by following the course of the straight -edge alone from <em>a</em> to <em>d</em>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp34" id="ill380" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill380.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 6.</div> -</div> - -<p>In many ancient statues -the sleeves and folds of the tunic, being -very full, are apt to be confounded with the -rest, but in the best style of art this is not -the case. Quintilian cautions his orators -against these incumbrances. A difference in -size and fulness of the toga, modified according -to the rank of the wearer, may be detected in -coins and sculpture, but in all cases the mode -of adjustment appears to be the same.—One -mode of wearing the toga was the Cinctus Gabinus. -It consisted in forming a part of the -toga itself into a girdle, by drawing its outer -edge round the body and tying it in a knot -in front, and at the same time covering the -head with another portion of the garment. -It was worn by persons offering sacrifices, -by the consul when he declared war, and by -devoted persons, as in the case of Decius. -Its origin was Etruscan, as its name implies. -Persons wearing this dress were said -to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">procincti</i> (or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">incincti</i>) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cinctu</i> (or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ritu</i>) -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gabino</i>.—The colour of the toga worn by -men (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga virilis</i>) was generally white, that -is, the natural colour of white wool. Hence -it was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pura</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vestimentum purum</i>, in -opposition to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praetexta</i> mentioned below. -A brighter white was given to the toga of -candidates for offices (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">candidati</i> from their -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga candida</i>) by rubbing it with chalk. -There is an allusion to this custom in the -phrase <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cretata ambitio</i>. White togas are -often mentioned as worn at festivals, which -does not imply that they were not worn commonly, -but that new or fresh-cleaned togas -were first put on at festivals. The toga was -kept white and clean by the fuller. When -this was neglected, the toga was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sordida</i>, -and those who wore such garments -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sordidati</i>. This dress (with disarranged hair -and other marks of disorder about the person) -was worn by accused persons, as in the -case of Cicero. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga pulla</i>, which was -of the natural colour of black wool, was worn -in private mourning, and sometimes also by -artificers and others of the lower orders.—The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga picta</i>, which was ornamented with -Phrygian embroidery, was worn by generals -in triumphs [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Triumphus">Triumphus</a></span>], and under the -emperors by the consuls, and by the praetors -when they celebrated the games. It was -also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capitolina</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga palmata</i> -was a kind of toga picta.—The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga praetexta</i> -had a broad purple border. It was worn -with the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Bulla">Bulla</a></span>, by children of both sexes. -It was also worn by magistrates, both those -of Rome, and those of the colonies and municipia; -by the sacerdotes, and by persons engaged -in sacred rites or paying vows. Among -those who possessed the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">jus togae praetextae -habendae</i>, the following may be more particularly -mentioned: the dictator, the consuls, -the praetors (who laid aside the praetexta -when about to condemn a Roman citizen -to death), the augurs (who, however, -are supposed by some to have worn the trabea), -the decemviri sacris faciundis, the -aediles, the triumviri epulones, the senators -on festival days, the magistri collegii, and -the magistri vicorum when celebrating games. -In the case of the tribuni plebis, censors, -and quaestors, there is some doubt upon the -subject. The toga praetexta is said to have -been derived from the Etruscans, and to have -been first adopted, with the latus clavus -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus_l">Clavus Latus</a></span>], by Tullus Hostilius as the -royal robe, whence its use by the magistrates -in the republic. The toga praetexta and the -bulla aurea were first given to boys in the -case of the son of Tarquinius Priscus, who, -at the age of fourteen, in the Sabine war, -slew an enemy with his own hand. Respecting -the leaving off of the toga praetexta, -and the assumption of the toga virilis, see -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Impubes">Impubes</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus_l">Clavus Latus</a></span>. The occasion -was celebrated with great rejoicings by the -friends of the youth, who attended him in a -solemn procession to the Forum and Capitol. -This assumption of the toga virilis was -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tirocinium fori</i>, as being the young -man’s introduction to public life. Girls wore -the praetexta till their marriage.—The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabea</i> -was a toga ornamented with purple horizontal -stripes. There were three kinds of trabeae; -one wholly of purple, which was sacred -to the gods, another of purple and white, -and another of purple and saffron, which belonged -to augurs. The purple and white -trabea was a royal robe, and is assigned to -the Latin and early Roman kings, especially -to Romulus. It was worn by the consuls in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_381"></a>[381]</span> -public solemnities, such as opening the temple -of Janus. The equites wore it at the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">transvectio</i>, and in other public solemnities. -Hence the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trabea</i> is mentioned as the badge -of the equestrian order. Lastly, the toga -worn by the Roman emperors was wholly of -purple. It appears to have been first assumed -by Julius Caesar.—The material of -which the toga was commonly made was -wool. It was sometimes thick and sometimes -thin. The former was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga densa</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pinguis</i>, -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hirta</i>. A new toga, with the nap -neither worn off nor cut close, was called -pexa, to which is opposed the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trita</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rasa</i>, -which was used as a summer dress. The -toga was originally worn by both sexes; but -when the stola came to be worn by matrons, -the toga was only worn by the meretrices, and -by women who had been divorced on account -of adultery. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stola">Stola</a>.</span>] In war the toga was -laid aside, and replaced by the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Paludamentum">Paludamentum</a></span> -and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Sagum">Sagum</a></span>. Hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">togatus</i> is opposed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">miles</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Tonsor">TONSOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Barba">Barba</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Torcular">TORCŬLAR, TORCŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vinum">Vinum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tormentum">TORMENTUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀφετήρια ὄργανα</span>), a military -engine, so called from the twisting -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torquendo</i>) of hairs, thongs, and vegetable -fibres. The principal military engines were -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balista</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">catapulta</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">balista</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πετροβόλος</span>) was used to shoot stones; the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">catapulta</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταπέλτης</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καταπελτική</span>) to project -darts, especially the falarica [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a></span>], and a -kind of missile, 4½ feet long, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trifax</i>. -Whilst in besieging a city the ram [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aries">Aries</a></span>] was -employed in destroying the lower part of the -wall, the balista was used to overthrow the battlements -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">propugnacula</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπαλξεῖς</span>), and the catapult -to shoot any of the besieged who appeared -between them: the forms of these machines -being adapted to the objects which they were -intended to throw; the catapult was long, the -balista nearly square. Instances are recorded -in which the balista threw stones to the distance -of a quarter of a mile. Some balistae -threw stones weighing three hundredweight. -Of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scorpio</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">onager</i>, which was also a species -of tormentum, we know next to nothing.</p> - - -<p id="Tormentum_t">TORMENTUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βάσανος</span>), torture. (1) -<span class="smcap">Greek.</span>—By a decree of Scamandrius it was -ordained that no free Athenian could be put -to the torture, and this appears to have been -the general practice. The evidence of slaves -was, however, always taken with torture, and -their testimony was not otherwise received. -From this circumstance their testimony appears -to have been considered of more value -than that of freemen. Any person might -offer his own slave to be examined by torture, -or demand that of his adversary, and -the offer or demand was equally called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόκλησις εἰς βάσανον</span>. The parties interested -either superintended the torture themselves, -or chose certain persons for this purpose, -hence called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασανισταὶ</span>, who took the evidence -of the slaves. (2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span>—During the -time of the republic freemen were never put -to the torture, and slaves only were exposed -to this punishment. Slaves, moreover, could -not be tortured to prove the guilt of their -own master, except in the case of incestus, -which was a crime against the gods, or unless -the senate made an exception in some -special instance. At a later time slaves -might be tortured to bear witness against -their masters in cases of majestas and adultery. -Under the emperors even free persons -were put to the torture to extract evidence -from them in cases of majestas; and although -this indignity was confined for the most part -to persons in humble circumstances, we read -of cases in which even Roman senators and -equites were exposed to it.</p> - - -<p id="Torques">TORQUES or TORQUIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στρεπτός</span>), an -ornament of gold, twisted spirally and bent -into a circular form, which was worn round -the neck by men of distinction among the -Persians, the Gauls, and other Asiatic and -northern nations. It was by taking a collar -from a Gallic warrior that T. Manlius obtained -the cognomen of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Torquatus</i>. Such -collars were among the rewards of valour -bestowed after an engagement upon those -who had most distinguished themselves.</p> - - -<p id="Torus">TŎRUS, a bed covered with sheets or -blankets, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Toralia</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Trabea">TRĂBEA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Toga">Toga</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tragoedia">TRĂGOEDIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τραγῳδία</span>), tragedy. (1) -<span class="smcap">Greek.</span> The tragedy of the ancient Greeks -as well as their comedy confessedly originated -in the worship of the god Dionysus. -The peculiarity which most strikingly distinguishes -the Greek tragedy from that of -modern times, is the lyrical or choral part. -This was the offspring of the dithyrambic -and choral odes from which, as applied to -the worship of Dionysus, Greek tragedy took -its rise. The name of Tragedy (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τραγῳδία</span>) -is probably derived from the goatlike appearance -of the Satyrs who sang or acted with -mimetic gesticulations (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄρχησις</span>) the old Bacchic -songs, with Silenus, the constant companion -of Dionysus, for their leader. The -Dionysian dithyrambs were sometimes of a -gay and at other times of a mournful character: -it was from the latter that the stately -and solemn tragedy of the Greeks arose. -Great improvements were introduced in the -dithyramb by Arion, a contemporary of Periander. -Before his time the dithyramb was -sung in a wild and irregular manner; but he -is said to have invented the Cyclic chorus, -by which we are to understand that the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_382"></a>[382]</span> -Dithyramb was danced by a chorus of fifty -men round an altar. The choral Dithyrambic -songs prevailed to some extent, as all -choral poetry did, amongst the Dorians of -the Peloponnesus; whence the choral element -of the Attic tragedy was always written -in the Dorian dialect, thus showing its -origin. The lyrical poetry was, however, -especially popular at Sicyon and Corinth. In -the latter city Arion made his improvements; -in the former “tragic choruses,” i.e. dithyrambs -of a sad and plaintive character, were -very ancient. From the more solemn Dithyrambs -then, as improved by Arion, ultimately -sprang the dramatic tragedy of Athens, somewhat -in the following manner. The choruses -were under the direction of a leader -or exarchus, who, it may be supposed, came -forward separately, and whose part was -sometimes taken by the poet himself. We -may also conjecture that the exarchus in -each case led off by singing or reciting his -part in a solo, and that the chorus dancing -round the altar then expressed their feelings -of joy or sorrow at his story, representing -the perils and sufferings of Dionysus, or some -hero, as it might be. The subjects of this -Dithyrambic tragedy were not, however, -always confined to Dionysus. Even Arion -wrote Dithyrambs, relating to different -heroes, a practice in which he was followed -by succeeding poets. It is easy to conceive -how the introduction of an actor or speaker -independent of the chorus might have been -suggested by the exarchs coming forward -separately and making short off-hand speeches, -whether learnt by heart beforehand, or made -on the spur of the moment. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a>.</span>] But -it is also possible, if not probable, that it -was suggested by the rhapsodical recitations -of the epic and gnomic poets formerly prevalent -in Greece: the gnomic poetry being -generally written in Iambic verse, the metre -of the Attic dialogue. This however is certain, -that the union of the Iambic dialogue -with the lyrical chorus took place at Athens -under Pisistratus, and that it was attributed -to Thespis, a native of Icaria, one of the -country demes or parishes of Attica where -the worship of Dionysus had long prevailed. -The alteration made by him, and which gave -to the old tragedy a new and dramatic character, -was very simple but very important. -He introduced an actor, as it is recorded, for -the sake of giving rest to the chorus, and independent -of it, in which capacity he probably -appeared himself, taking various parts -in the same piece, under various disguises, -which he was enabled to assume by means -of linen masks, the invention of which is -attributed to him. Now as a chorus, by -means of its leader, could maintain a dialogue -with the actor, it is easy to see how -with one actor only a dramatic action might -be introduced, continued, and concluded, by -the speeches between the choral songs expressive -of the joy or sorrow of the chorus -at the various events of the drama. With -respect to the character of the drama of -Thespis there has been much doubt: some -writers, and especially Bentley, have maintained -that his plays were all satyrical and -ludicrous, i.e. the plot of them was some -story of Bacchus, the chorus consisted principally -of satyrs, and the argument was merry. -But perhaps the truth is that in the early -part of his career Thespis retained the satyrical -character of the older tragedy, but -afterwards inclined to more serious compositions, -which would almost oblige him to discard -the Satyrs from his choruses. That he -did write serious dramas is intimated by the -titles of the plays ascribed to him, as well as -by the character of the fragments of Iambic -verse quoted by ancient writers as his. It -is evident that the introduction of the dialogue -must also have caused an alteration in -the arrangement of the chorus, which could -not remain cyclic or circular, but must have -been drawn up in a rectangular form about -the thymele or altar of Bacchus in front of -the actor, who was elevated on a platform or -table (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλεός</span>), the forerunner of the stage. -The lines of Horace (<cite>Ar. Poet.</cite> 276):—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> - <div class="verse indentq">“Dicitur et plaustris vexisse poemata Thespis,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Quae canerent agerentque peruncti faecibus ora”—</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">are founded on a misconception of the origin -of the Attic tragedy, and the tale about the -waggons of Thespis probably arose out of a -confusion of the waggon of the comedian Susarion -with the <em>platform</em> of the Thespian actor. -The first representation of Thespis was in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -535. His immediate successors were the Athenian -Choerilus and Phrynichus, the former of -whom represented plays as early as <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 524. -Phrynichus was a pupil of Thespis, and gained -his first victory in the dramatic contests <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -511. In his works, the lyric or choral element -still predominated over the dramatic, -and he was distinguished for the sweetness -of his melodies, which in the time of the -Peloponnesian war were very popular with -the admirers of the old style of music. The -first use of female masks is also attributed to -him, and he so far deviated from the general -practice of the Attic tragedians as to write -a drama on a subject of contemporary history, -the capture of Miletus by the Persians, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -494.—We now come to the first writer of -Satyrical dramas, Pratinas of Phlius, a town -not far from Sicyon, and which laid claim to -the invention of tragedy as well as comedy.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_383"></a>[383]</span> -For some time previously to this poet, and -probably as early as Thespis, tragedy had -been gradually departing more and more from -its old characteristics, and inclining to heroic -fables, to which the chorus of Satyrs was not -a fit accompaniment. But the fun and merriment -caused by them were too good to be -lost. Accordingly the Satyrical drama, distinct -from the recent and dramatic tragedy, -but suggested by the sportive element of the -old Dithyramb, was founded by Pratinas, -who however appears to have been surpassed -in his own invention by Choerilus. It was -always written by tragedians, and generally -three tragedies and one Satyrical piece were -represented together, which in some instances -at least formed a connected whole, called a -tetralogy (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τετραλογία</span>). The Satyrical piece -was acted last, so that the minds of the spectators -were agreeably relieved by a merry -after-piece at the close of an earnest and engrossing -tragedy. The distinguishing feature -of this drama was the chorus of Satyrs, in -appropriate dresses and masks, and its subjects -seem to have been taken from the same -class of the adventures of Bacchus and of the -heroes as those of tragedy; but of course -they were so treated and selected, that the -presence of rustic satyrs would seem appropriate. -In their jokes and drollery consisted -the merriment of the piece; for the kings and -heroes who were introduced into their company -were not of necessity thereby divested of their -epic and legendary character, though they were -obliged to conform to their situation and suffer -some diminution of dignity, from their position. -Hence Horace (<cite>Ar. Poet.</cite> 231) says:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> - <div class="verse indentq">“Effutire leves indigna Tragoedia versus</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Intererit Satyris paulum pudibunda protervis.”—</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">alluding in the first line to the mythic or -epic element of the Satyric drama, which he -calls Tragoedia, and in the second representing -it as being rather ashamed of its company. -The “Cyclops” of Euripides is the -only Satyric drama now extant.—The great -improvements in tragedy were introduced by -Aeschylus. This poet added a second actor, -diminished the parts of the chorus, and made -the dialogue the principal part of the action. -He also availed himself of the aid of Agatharchus, -the scene-painter, and improved -the costume of his actors by giving them -thick-soled boots (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβάται</span>), as well as the -masks, which he made more expressive and -characteristic. Horace (<cite>Ar. Poet.</cite> 278) thus -alludes to his improvements:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> - <div class="verse indent8">“personae pallaeque repertor honestae</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Aeschylus, et modicis instravit pulpita tignis</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Et docuit magnumque loqui, nitique cothurno.”—</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">The custom of contending with trilogies (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριλογίαι</span>), -or with three plays at a time, is said -to have been also introduced by him. In -fact he did so much for tragedy, and so completely -built it up to its “towering height,” -that he was considered the father of it. The -subjects of his dramas were not connected -with the worship of Dionysus; but rather -with the great cycle of Hellenic legends and -some of the myths of the Homeric Epos. Accordingly, -he said of himself that his dramas -were but scraps and fragments from the great -feasts of Homer. In the latter part of his -life Aeschylus made use of one of the improvements -of Sophocles, namely the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριταγωνιστής</span>, -or third actor. This was the finishing -stroke to the dramatic element of Attic -tragedy, which Sophocles is said to have matured -by further improvements in costume -and scene-painting. Under him tragedy appears -with less of sublimity and sternness -than in the hands of Aeschylus, but with -more of calm grandeur and quiet dignity and -touching incident. The plays of Sophocles -are the perfection of the Grecian tragic drama, -as a work of art and poetic composition -in a thoroughly chastened and classic style. -In the hands of Euripides tragedy deteriorated -not only in dignity, but also in its -moral and religious significance. He introduces -his heroes in rags and tatters, and -busies them with petty affairs, and makes -them speak the language of every-day life. -As Sophocles said of him, he represented -men not as they ought to be, but as they are, -without any ideal greatness or poetic character. -His dialogues too were little else than -the rhetorical and forensic language of his -day cleverly put into verse: full of sophistry -and quibbling distinctions. One of the -peculiarities of his tragedies was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόλογος</span>, -an introductory monologue, with which -some hero or god opens the play, telling who -he is, what is the state of affairs, and what -has happened up to the time of his address, -so as to put the audience in possession of -every fact which it might be necessary for -them to know: a very business-like proceeding -no doubt, but a poor make-shift -for artistical skill. The “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Deus ex machina</span>,” -also, though not always, in a “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">nodus, tali -vindice dignus</span>,” was frequently employed by -Euripides to effect the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dénoûment</i> of his -pieces. The chorus too no longer discharged -its proper and high functions either as a representative -of the feelings of unprejudiced -observers, or, as one of the actors, and a part -of the whole, joining in the development of -the piece. Many of his choral odes in fact -are but remotely connected in subject with -the action of the play. Another novelty of -Euripides was the use of the monodies or -lyrical songs, in which not the chorus, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_384"></a>[384]</span> -the principal persons of the drama, declare -their emotions and sufferings. Euripides -was also the inventor of tragi-comedy. A -specimen of the Euripidean tragi-comedy is -still extant in the Alcestis, acted <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 438, as -the last of four pieces, and therefore as a -substitute for a Satyrical drama. Though -tragic in its form and some of its scenes, it -has a mixture of comic and satyric characters -(<em>e.g.</em> Hercules) and concludes happily.—The -parts which constitute a Greek tragedy, <em>as to -its form</em>, are, the prologue, episode, exode, -and choral songs; the last divided into the -parode and stasimon. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρόλογος</span> is all -that part of a tragedy which precedes the -parodos of the chorus, <em>i.e.</em> the first act. The -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπεισόδιον</span> is all the part between whole choral -odes. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔξοδος</span> that part which has no -choral ode after it. Of the choral part the -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάροδος</span> is the first speech of the whole chorus -(not broken up into parts): the stasimon is -without anapaests and trochees. These two -divisions were sung by all the choreutae, but -the “songs on the stage” and the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόμμοι</span> by -a part only. The commus, which properly -means a wailing for the dead, was generally -used to express strong excitement, or lively -sympathy with grief and suffering, especially -by Aeschylus. It was common to the -actors and a portion only of the chorus. -Again the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάροδος</span> was so named as being the -passage-song of the chorus sung while it was -advancing to its proper place in the orchestra, -and therefore in anapaestic or marching -verse: the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στάσιμον</span>, as being chaunted by -the chorus when standing still in its proper -position.—The materials of Greek tragedy -were the national mythology,</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="verse indentq">“Presenting Thebes, or Pelop’s line,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Or the tale of Troy divine.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">The exceptions to this were the two historical -tragedies, the “Capture of Miletus” by -Phrynichus, and the “Persians” of Aeschylus; -but they belong to an early period of -the art. Hence the plot and story of the -Grecian tragedy were of necessity known to -the spectators, a circumstance which strongly -distinguishes the ancient tragedy from the -modern.—The functions of the Chorus in -Greek Tragedy were very important, as described -by Horace (<cite>Ar. Poet.</cite> 193),</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> - <div class="verse indentq">“Actoris partes chorus officiumque virile</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Defendat: neu quid medios intercinat actus,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Quod non proposito conducat, et haereat apte,” &c.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">It often expresses the reflections of a dispassionate -and right-minded spectator, and inculcates -the lessons of morality and resignation -to the will of heaven, taught by the -occurrence of the piece in which it is engaged. -With respect to the number of the chorus -see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus</a></span>.—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> The tragedy of -the Romans was borrowed from the Greek, -but the construction of the Roman theatre -afforded no appropriate place for the chorus, -which was therefore obliged to appear on the -stage, instead of in the orchestra. The first -tragic poet and actor at Rome was Livius -Andronicus, a Greek by birth, who began to -exhibit in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 240. In his monodies (or -the lyrical parts sung, not by a chorus, but -by one person), it was customary to separate -the singing from the mimetic dancing, leaving -the latter only to the actor, while the -singing was performed by a boy placed near -the flute-player (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ante tibicinem</i>); so that the -dialogue only (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diverbia</i>) was left to be spoken -by the actors. Livius Andronicus was followed -by Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, and -Attius. These five poets belong to the earlier -epoch of Roman tragedy, in which little was -written but translations and imitations of the -Greek, with occasional insertions of original -matter. How they imitated the structure of -the choral odes is doubtful—perhaps they -never attempted it. In the age of Augustus -the writing of tragedies, whether original or -imitations, seems to have been quite a fashionable -occupation. The emperor himself attempted -an Ajax, but did not succeed. One -of the principal tragedians of this epoch was -Asinius Pollio, to whom the line (Virg. <cite>Eclog.</cite> -viii. 10) applies—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry" lang="la" xml:lang="la"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Sola Sophocleo tua carmina digna cothurno.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">Ovid wrote a tragedy on the subject of Medea. -Quintilian says of Varius, who was -distinguished in epic as well as tragic poetry, -that his Thyestes might be compared with -any of the Greek tragedies. Some fragments -of this Thyestes are extant, but we have no -other remains of the tragedy of the Augustan -age. The loss perhaps is not great. The -only complete Roman tragedies that have -come down to us are the ten attributed to the -philosopher Seneca; but whether he wrote -any of them or not is a disputed point. To -whatever age they belong, they are beyond -description bombastic and frigid, utterly -unnatural in character and action, full -of the most revolting violations of propriety, -and barren of all theatrical effect. -Still they have had admirers: Heinsius calls -the Hippolytus “divine,” and prefers the -Troades to the Hecuba of Euripides: even -Racine has borrowed from the Hippolytus in -Phèdre. Roman tragedians sometimes wrote -tragedies on subjects taken from their national -history. Pacuvius, <em>e.g.</em> wrote a -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Paulus</i>, L. Accius a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Brutus</i> and a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Decius</i>. -Curiatius Maternus, also a distinguished orator -in the reign of Domitian, wrote a Domitius -and a Cato, the latter of which gave -offence to the rulers of the state.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_385"></a>[385]</span></p> - - -<p id="Tragula">TRĀGŬLA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Transtra">TRANSTRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Transvectio">TRANSVECTĬO ĔQUĬTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a></span>, -<a href="#Page_157">p. 157</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Triarii">TRIĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tribula">TRĪBŬLA or TRĪBŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριβόλος</span>), a -corn-drag, consisting of a thick and ponderous -wooden board, which was armed underneath -with pieces of iron or sharp flints, -and drawn over the corn by a yoke of oxen, -either the driver or a heavy weight being -placed upon it, for the purpose of separating -the grain and cutting the straw.</p> - - -<p id="Tribulus">TRĬBŬLUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίβολος</span>), a caltrop, also -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">murex</i>. When a place was beset with -troops, the one party endeavoured to impede -the cavalry of the other party, either by -throwing before them caltrops, which necessarily -lay with one of their four sharp points -turned upwards, or by burying the caltrops -with one point at the surface of the ground.</p> - - -<p id="Tribunal">TRĬBŪNAL, a raised platform, on which -the praetor and judices sat in the Basilica. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Basilica">Basilica</a>.</span>] There was a tribunal in the -camp, which was generally formed of turf, -but sometimes, in a stationary camp, of stone, -from which the general addressed the soldiers, -and where the consul and tribunes of -the soldiers administered justice. When the -general addressed the army from the tribunal -the standards were planted in front of it, and -the army placed round it in order. The address -itself was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Allocutio</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Tribunus">TRĬBŪNUS, a tribune. This word seems -originally to have indicated an officer connected -with a tribe (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribus</i>), or who represented -a tribe for certain purposes; and this -is indeed the character of the officers who -were designated by it in the earliest times -of Rome, and may be traced also in the later -officers of this name.—(1) <span class="smcap">Tribunes of the -three ancient tribes.</span>—At the time when -all the Roman citizens were contained in the -three tribes of the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, -each of them was headed by a tribune, -and these three tribunes represented their -respective tribes in all civil, religious, and -military affairs; that is to say, they were in -the city the magistrates of the tribes, and -performed the sacra on their behalf, and in -times of war they were their military commanders. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribunus celerum</i> was the -commander of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">celeres</i>, the king’s body-guard, -and not the tribune of the tribe of -the Ramnes, as is supposed by some modern -writers. In what manner the tribunus celerum -was appointed is uncertain, but it is -probable that he was elected by the tribes; -for we find that when the imperium was to -be conferred upon the king, the comitia were -held under the presidency of the tribunus -celerum; and in the absence of the king, to -whom this officer was next in rank, he convoked -the comitia: it was in an assembly of -this kind that Brutus proposed to deprive -Tarquinius of the imperium. A law passed -under the presidency of the tribunus celerum -was called a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lex tribunicia</i>, to distinguish it -from one passed under the presidency of the -king. The tribunes of the three ancient -tribes ceased to be appointed when these -tribes themselves ceased to exist as political -bodies, and when the patricians became incorporated -in the local tribes of Servius -Tullius. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>.</span>]—(2) <span class="smcap">Tribunes of the -Servian tribes</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φύλαρχοι, τριττυάρχοι</span>).—When -Servius Tullius divided the commonalty -into thirty local tribes, we again find a -tribune at the head of these tribes. The -duties of these tribunes, who were without -doubt the most distinguished persons in their -respective districts, appear to have consisted -at first in keeping a register of the inhabitants -in each district, and of their property, -for purposes of taxation, and for levying the -troops for the armies. When subsequently -the Roman people became exempted from -taxes, the main part of their business was -taken from them, but they still continued to -exist. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni aerarii</i>, who occur down -to the end of the republic, were perhaps only -the successors of the tribunes of the tribes. -When (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 406) the custom of giving pay -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stipendium</i>) to the soldiers was introduced, -each of the tribuni aerarii had to collect the -tributum in his own tribe, and with it to pay -the soldiers; and in case they did not fulfil -this duty, the soldiers had the right of pignoris -capio against them. In later times -their duties appear to have been confined to -collecting the tributum, which they made -over to the military quaestors who paid the -soldiers. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestor</a>.</span>] The Lex Aurelia, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 70, called the tribuni aerarii to the -exercise of judicial functions, along with the -senators and equites, as these tribunes represented -the body of the most respectable -citizens. But of this distinction they were -subsequently deprived by Julius Caesar.—(3) -<span class="smcap">Tribuni Plebis</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δήμαρχοι</span>, the office -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δημαρχία</span>).—The ancient tribunes of the -plebeian tribes had undoubtedly the right -of convoking the meetings of their tribes, -and of maintaining the privileges granted to -them by king Servius, and subsequently by -the Valerian laws. But this protection was -very inadequate against the insatiable ambition -and usurpations of the patricians. -When the plebeians, impoverished by long -wars, and cruelly oppressed by the patricians, -at last seceded in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 494 to the Mons -Sacer, the patricians were obliged to grant<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_386"></a>[386]</span> -to the plebeians the right of appointing tribunes -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribuni plebis</i>) with more efficient -powers to protect their own order than those -which were possessed by the heads of the -tribes. The purpose for which they were -appointed was only to afford protection -against any abuse on the part of the patrician -magistrates; and that they might be able to -afford such protection their persons were -declared sacred and inviolable, and it was -agreed that whoever invaded this inviolability -should be an outlaw, and that his property -should be forfeited to the temple of -Ceres. A subsequent law enacted that no -one should oppose or interrupt a tribune -while addressing the people, and that whoever -should act contrary to this ordinance -should give bail to the tribunes for the payment -of whatever fine they should affix to -his offence in arraigning him before the -commonalty; if he refused to give bail, his -life and property were forfeited. The tribunes -were thus enabled to afford protection -to any one who appealed to the assembly of -the commonalty or required any other assistance. -They were essentially the representatives -and the organs of the plebeian order, -and their sphere of action was the comitia -tributa. With the patricians and their comitia -they had nothing to do. The tribunes -themselves, however, were not judges, and -could inflict no punishments, but could only -propose the imposition of a fine to the commonalty -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">multam irrogare</i>). The tribunes -were thus in their origin only a protecting -magistracy of the plebs, but in the course of -time their power increased to such a degree -that it surpassed that of all other magistrates, -and the tribunes then became a magistracy -for the whole Roman people, in opposition to -the senate and the oligarchical party in general, -although they had nothing to do with the -administration or the government. During -the latter period of the republic they became -true tyrants, and may be compared to the -national convention of France during the -first revolution. At first the number of the -tribunes was only two, but soon afterwards -they were increased to five, one being taken -from each of the five classes, and subsequently -to ten, two being taken from each of -the five classes. This last number appears -to have remained unaltered down to the end -of the empire. The tribunes entered upon -their office on the 10th of December, but -were elected, at least in the time of Cicero, -on the 17th of July. It is almost superfluous -to state that none but plebeians were eligible -to the office of tribune; hence when, towards -the end of the republic, patricians wished to -obtain the office, they were obliged first to -renounce their own order and to become plebeians; -hence also under the empire it was -thought that the princeps should not be tribune -because he was a patrician. But the -influence which belonged to this office was -too great for the emperors not to covet it. -Hence Augustus was made tribune for life. -During the republic, however, the old regulation -remained in force, even after the tribunes -had ceased to be the protectors of the -plebs alone. There is only one instance recorded -in which patricians were elected to -the tribuneship, and this was probably the -consequence of an attempt to divide the tribuneship -between the two orders. Although -nothing appears to be more natural than -that the tribunes should originally have been -elected by that body of Roman citizens which -they represented, yet the subject is involved -in considerable obscurity. Some writers state -that they were elected by the comitia of the -curies; others suppose that they were elected -in the comitia of the centuries; but whether -they were elected in the latter or in the -comitia of the tribes, it is certain that at first -the sanction of the curies to the election was -at all events necessary. But after the time -of the Lex Publilia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 472) the sanction -of the curies is not heard of, and the election -of the tribunes was left entirely to the comitia -tributa, which were convoked and held -for this purpose by the old tribunes previous -to the expiration of their office. One of the -old tribunes was appointed by lot to preside -at the election. As the meeting could not -be prolonged after sunset, and the business -was to be completed in one day, it sometimes -happened that it was obliged to break up -before the election was completed, and then -those who were elected filled up the legitimate -number of the college by cooptatio. -But in order to prevent this irregularity, the -tribune L. Trebonius, in 448 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, got an -ordinance passed, according to which the -college of the tribunes should never be completed -by cooptatio, but the elections should -be continued on the second day, if they were -not completed on the first, till the number -ten was made up. The place where the election -of the tribunes was held was originally -and lawfully the Forum, afterwards also the -Campus Martius, and sometimes the area of -the Capitol.—We now proceed to trace the -gradual growth of the tribunitian power. -Although its original character was merely -protection (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">auxilium</i> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βοήθεια</span>) against patrician -magistrates, the plebeians appear -early to have regarded their tribunes also as -mediators or arbitrators in matters among -themselves. The whole power possessed by -the college of tribunes was designated by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_387"></a>[387]</span> -name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribunicia potestas</i>, and extended at no -time farther than one mile beyond the gates -of the city; at a greater distance than this -they came under the imperium of the magistrates, -like every other citizen. As they -were the public guardians, it was necessary -that every one should have access to them -and at any time; hence the doors of their -houses were open day and night for all who -were in need of help and protection, which -they were empowered to afford against any -one, even against the highest magistrates. -For the same reason a tribune was not allowed -to be absent from the city for a whole -day, except during the Feriae Latinae, when -the whole people were assembled on the -Alban Mount. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 456 the tribunes, in -opposition to the consuls, assumed the right -of convoking the senate, in order to lay -before it a rogation, and discuss the same; -for until that time the consuls alone had had -the right of laying plebiscita before the -senate for approbation. Some years after, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 452, the tribunes demanded of the consuls -to request the senate to make a senatusconsultum -for the appointment of persons -to frame a new legislation; and during the -discussions on this subject the tribunes themselves -were present in the senate. The -written legislation which the tribunes then -wished can only have related to their own -order; but as such a legislation would only -have widened the breach between the two -orders, they afterwards gave way to the remonstrances -of the patricians, and the new -legislation was to embrace both orders. -From the second decemvirate the tribuneship -was suspended, but was restored after -the legislation was completed, and now -assumed a different character from the change -that had taken place in the tribes. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus</a>.</span>] -The tribunes now had the right to be present -at the deliberations of the senate; but they -did not sit among the senators themselves, -but upon benches before the opened doors of -the senate house. The inviolability of the -tribunes, which had before only rested upon -a contract between the two estates, was now -sanctioned and confirmed by a law of M. -Horatius. As the tribes now also included -the patricians and their clients, the tribunes -might naturally be asked to interpose on -behalf of any citizen, whether patrician or -plebeian. Hence the patrician ex-decemvir, -Appius Claudius, implored the protection of -the tribunes. About this time the tribunes -also acquired the right of taking the auspices -in the assemblies of the tribes. They also -assumed again the right, which they had -exercised before the time of the decemvirate, -of bringing patricians who had violated the -rights of the plebeians before the comitia of -the tribes. By the Lex Valeria passed in the -Comitia Centuriata (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 449), it was enacted -that a plebiscitum, which had been voted by -the tribes, should bind the patricians as well. -While the college thus gained outwardly new -strength every day, a change took place in -its internal organisation, which to some extent -paralysed its powers. Before <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 394, -every thing had been decided in the college -by a majority; but about this time, we do -not know how, a change was introduced, -which made the opposition (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">intercessio</i>) of -one tribune sufficient to render a resolution -of his colleagues void. This new regulation -does not appear in operation till 394 and 393 -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>; the old one was still applied in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -421 and 415. From their right of appearing -in the senate, and of taking part in its discussions, -and from their being the representatives -of the whole people, they gradually -obtained the right of intercession against any -action which a magistrate might undertake -during the time of his office, and this even -without giving any reason for it. Thus we -find a tribune preventing a consul from convoking -the senate, and preventing the proposal -of new laws or elections in the comitia; -they interceded against the official functions -of the censors; and even against a command -issued by the praetor. In the same manner -a tribune might place his veto upon an ordinance -of the senate; and he could thus either -compel the senate to submit the subject to a -fresh consideration, or could raise the session. -In order to propose a measure to the senate -they might themselves convene a meeting, or -when it had been convened by a consul they -might make their proposal even in opposition -to the consul, a right which no other magistrates -had in the presence of the consuls. -The senate, on the other hand, had itself, in -certain cases, recourse to the tribunes. Thus, -in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 431 it requested the tribunes to compel -the consuls to appoint a dictator, in compliance -with a decree of the senate, and the -tribunes compelled the consuls, by threatening -them with imprisonment, to appoint A. Postumius -Tubertus dictator. From this time -forward we meet with several instances in -which the tribunes compelled the consuls to -comply with the decrees of the senate, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">si non -essent in auctoritate senatus</i>, and to execute -its commands. In their relation to the senate -a change was introduced by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Plebiscitum -Atinium</i>, which ordained that a tribune, by -virtue of his office, should be a senator. -When this plebiscitum was made is uncertain; -but we know that in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 170 it was not yet -in operation. It probably originated with -C. Atinius, who was tribune in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 132.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_388"></a>[388]</span> -But as the quaestorship, at least in later -times, was the office which persons held previously -to the tribuneship, and as the quaestorship -itself conferred upon a person the -right of a senator, the law of Atinius was in -most cases superfluous.—In their relation to -other magistrates we may observe, that the -right of intercessio was not confined to stopping -a magistrate in his proceedings, but -they might even command their viatores to -seize a consul or a censor, to imprison him, -or to throw him from the Tarpeian rock. -When the tribunes brought an accusation -against any one before the people, they had -the right of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prehensio</i>, but not the right of -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vocatio</i>, that is, they might command a person -to be dragged by their viatores before -the comitia, but they could not summon him. -They might, as in earlier times, propose a -fine to be inflicted upon the person accused -before the comitia, but in some cases they -dropped this proposal and treated the case as -a capital one. The college of tribunes had -also the power of making edicts. In cases in -which one member of the college opposed a -resolution of his colleagues nothing could be -done, and the measure was dropped; but -this useful check was removed by the example -of Tiberius Gracchus, in which a precedent -was given for proposing to the people that a -tribune obstinately persisting in his veto -should be deprived of his office. From the -time of the Hortensian law the power of the -tribunes had been gradually rising to such a -height that at length it was superior to every -other in the state. They had acquired the -right of proposing to the comitia tributa or -the senate measures on nearly all the important -affairs of the state, and it would be -endless to enumerate the cases in which their -power was manifested. Their proposals were -indeed usually made ex auctoritate senatus, -or had been communicated to and approved -by it; but cases in which the people itself -had a direct interest, such as a general legal -regulation, granting of the franchise, a change -in the duties and powers of a magistrate, and -others, might be brought before the people, -without their having been previously communicated -to the senate, though there are also -instances of the contrary. Subjects belonging -to the administration could not be brought -before the tribes without the tribunes having -previously received through the consuls the -auctoritas of the senate. This, however, was -done very frequently, and hence we have -mention of a number of plebiscita on matters -of administration. It sometimes even occurs -that the tribunes brought the question concerning -the conclusion of peace before the -tribes, and then compelled the senate to -ratify the resolution, as expressing the wish -of the whole people. Sulla, in his reform of -the constitution on the early aristocratic -principles, left to the tribunes only the jus -auxiliandi, and deprived them of the right of -making legislative or other proposals, either -to the senate or the comitia, without having -previously obtained the sanction of the senate. -But this arrangement did not last, for Pompey -restored to them their former rights. -During the latter period of the republic, -when the office of quaestor was in most cases -held immediately before that of tribune, the -tribunes were generally elected from among -the senators, and this continued to be the -case under the empire. Sometimes, however, -equites also obtained the office, and -thereby became members of the senate, where -they were considered of equal rank with the -quaestors. Tribunes of the people continued -to exist down to the fifth century of our era, -though their powers became naturally much -limited, especially in the reign of Nero. They -continued however to have the right of intercession -against decrees of the senate, and on -behalf of injured individuals.—(4) <span class="smcap">Tribuni -militum cum consulari potestate.</span> When in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 445 the tribune C. Canuleius brought -forward the rogation that the consulship -should not be confined to either order, the -patricians evaded the attempt by a change in -the constitution; the powers which had -hitherto been united in the consulship were -now divided between two new magistrates, -viz. the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tribuni militum cum consulari potestate</i> -and the censors. Consequently, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -444, three military tribunes, with consular -power, were appointed, and to this office the -plebeians were to be equally eligible with the -patricians. For the years following, however, -the people were to be at liberty, on the -proposal of the senate, to decide whether -consuls were to be elected according to the -old custom, or consular tribunes. Henceforth, -for many years, sometimes consuls and -sometimes consular tribunes were appointed, -and the number of the latter varied from -three to four, until in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 405 it was increased -to six, and as the censors were regarded -as their colleagues, we have sometimes -mention of eight tribunes. At last, -however, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 367, the office of these -tribunes was abolished by the Licinian law, -and the consulship was restored. These -consular tribunes were elected in the comitia -of the centuries, and undoubtedly with less -solemn auspices than the consuls.—(5) <span class="smcap">Tribuni -Militares</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_169">p. 169</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Tribus">TRĬBUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φῦλον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φυλή</span>), a tribe. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> -In the earliest times of Greek history mention -is made of people being divided into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_389"></a>[389]</span> -tribes and clans. Homer speaks of such divisions -in terms which seem to imply that -they were elements that entered into the -composition of every community. A person -not included in any clan (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀφρήτωρ</span>), was regarded -as a vagrant or outlaw. These divisions -were rather natural than political, -depending on family connection, and arising -out of those times, when each head of a -family exercised a patriarchal sway over its -members. The bond was cemented by religious -communion, sacrifices and festivals, -which all the family or clansmen attended, -and at which the chief usually presided.—Of -the Dorian race there were originally -three tribes, traces of which are found in -all the countries which they colonised. -Hence they are called by Homer <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δωριέες -τριχάϊκες</span>. These tribes were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hylleis</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑλλεῖς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pamphyli</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάμφυλοι</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dymanatae</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dymanes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δυμανάται</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δυμᾶνες</span>). The -first derived their name from Hyllus, son of -Hercules, the two last from Pamphylus and -Dymas, who are said to have fallen in the -last expedition when the Dorians took possession -of the Peloponnesus. The Hyllean -tribe was perhaps the one of highest dignity; -but at Sparta there does not appear to have -been much distinction, for all the freemen -there were by the constitution of Lycurgus -on a footing of equality. To these three -tribes others were added in different places, -either when the Dorians were joined by other -foreign allies, or when some of the old inhabitants -were admitted to the rank of citizenship -or equal privileges. Thus the Cadmean -Aegeids are said by Herodotus to have been -a great tribe at Sparta, descended (as he -says) from Aegeus, grandson of Theras, -though others have thought they were incorporated -with the three Doric tribes. The -subdivision of tribes into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phratriae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φρατρίαι</span>) -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">patrae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάτραι</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">genē</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένη</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trittyes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίττυες</span>), -&c. appears to have prevailed in various -places. At Sparta each tribe contained ten -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὠβαί</span>), a word denoting a local division -or district; each <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">obe</i> contained ten <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triacades</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριακάδες</span>), communities containing thirty -families. But very little appears to be known -of these divisions, how far they were local, -or how far genealogical. After the time of -Cleomenes the old system of tribes was -changed; new ones were created corresponding -to the different quarters of the town, -and they seem to have been five in number.—The -first Attic tribes that we read of are said -to have existed in the reign, or soon after -the reign, of Cecrops, and were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cecropis</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεκροπίς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Autochthon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐτόχθων</span>), -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Actaea</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκταία</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Paralia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραλία</span>). In -the reign of a subsequent king, Cranaus, -these names were changed to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cranais</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κραναΐς</span>), -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Atthis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀτθίς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mesogaea</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μεσόγαια</span>), -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diacris</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διακρίς</span>). Afterwards we find -a new set of names; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dias</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athenais</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀθηναΐς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Poseidonias</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποσειδωνιάς</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hephaestias</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡφαιστιάς</span>); evidently derived -from the deities who were worshipped in the -country. Some of those secondly mentioned, -if not all of them, seem to have been geographical -divisions; and it is not improbable -that, if not independent communities, they -were at least connected by a very weak bond -of union. But all these tribes were superseded -by four others, which were probably -founded soon after the Ionic settlement in -Attica, and seem to have been adopted by -other Ionic colonies out of Greece. The -names <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Geleontes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γελέοντες</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hopletes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὅπλητες</span>), -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Argades</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀργάδεις</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aegicores</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰγικορεῖς</span>), -are said by Herodotus to have been -derived from the sons of Ion, son of Xuthus. -Upon this, however, many doubts have been -thrown by modern writers. The etymology -of the last three names would seem to suggest, -that the tribes were so called from the -occupations which their respective members -followed; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hopletes</i> being the armed men, -or warriors; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Argades</i>, labourers or husbandmen; -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aegicores</i>, goatherds or shepherds. -But whatever be the truth with -respect to the origin of these tribes, one thing -is certain, that before the time of Theseus, -whom historians agree in representing as the -great founder of the Attic commonwealth, -the various people who inhabited the country -continued to be disunited and split into factions.—Theseus -in some measure changed -the relations of the tribes to each other, by -introducing a gradation of ranks in each; -dividing the people into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Eupatridae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐπατρίδαι</span>), -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Geomori</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γεωμόροι</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Demiurgi</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δημιουργοί</span>), of whom the first were nobles, -the second agriculturists or yeomen, the -third labourers and mechanics. At the -same time, in order to consolidate the national -unity, he enlarged the city of Athens, -with which he incorporated several smaller -towns, made it the seat of government, -encouraged the nobles to reside there, and -surrendered a part of the royal prerogative -in their favour. The tribes or phylae -were divided, either in the age of Theseus -or soon after, each into three <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phratriae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φρατρίαι</span>, -a term equivalent to fraternities, and -analogous in its political relation to the -Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curiae</i>), and each <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phratria</i> into thirty -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gene</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένη</span>, equivalent to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gentes</i>), -the members of a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">genos</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένος</span>) being called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gennetae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γεννῆται</span>) or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">homogalactes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁμογαλάκτες</span>). -Each <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">genos</i> was distinguished by a -particular name of a patronymic form, which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_390"></a>[390]</span> -was derived from some hero or mythic ancestor. -These divisions, though the names -seem to import family connection, were in -fact artificial; which shows that some advance -had now been made towards the establishment -of a closer political union. The -members of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phratriae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gene</i> had their -respective religious rites and festivals, which -were preserved long after these communities -had lost their political importance, and perhaps -prevented them from being altogether -dissolved.—After the age of Theseus, the -monarchy having been first limited and afterwards -abolished, the whole power of the -state fell into the hands of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Eupatridae</i> or -nobles, who held all civil offices, and had besides -the management of religious affairs, and -the interpretation of the laws. Attica became -agitated by feuds, and we find the people, -shortly before the legislation of Solon, divided -into three parties, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pediaei</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεδιαῖοι</span>) or lowlanders, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diacrii</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάκριοι</span>) or highlanders, -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parali</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάραλοι</span>) or people of the sea-coast. -The first two remind us of the ancient -division of tribes, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mesogaea</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diacris</i>; -and the three parties appear in some -measure to represent the classes established -by Theseus, the first being the nobles, whose -property lay in the champaign and most -fertile part of the country; the second, the -smaller landowners and shepherds; the -third, the trading and mining class, who -had by this time risen in wealth and importance. -To appease their discords, Solon -was applied to; and thereupon framed his -celebrated constitution and code of laws. -Here we have only to notice that he retained -the four tribes as he found them, but abolished -the existing distinctions of <em>rank</em>, or at -all events greatly diminished their importance, -by introducing his property qualification, -or division of the people into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pentacosiomedimni</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hippeis</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππεῖς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Zeugitae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζευγῖται</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thetes</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θῆτες</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Census">Census</a></span>, <span class="smcap">Greek</span>.] The enactments -of Solon continued to be the <em>law</em> at Athens, -though in great measure suspended by the -tyranny, until the democratic reform effected -by Clisthenes. He abolished the old tribes, -and created ten new ones, according to a -geographical division of Attica, and named -after ten of the ancient heroes: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Erechtheis</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aegeis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pandionis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leontis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Acamantis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oeneis</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cecropis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hippothoontis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aeantis</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antiochis</i>. -These tribes were divided each into ten -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demi</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δῆμοι</span>), the number of which was afterwards -increased by subdivision; but the -arrangement was so made that several <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demi</i> -not contiguous or near to one another were -joined to make up a tribe. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Demus">Demus</a>.</span>] The -object of this arrangement was, that by the -breaking of old associations a perfect and -lasting revolution might be effected, in the -habits and feelings, as well as the political -organisation of the people. Solon allowed -the ancient <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">phratriae</i> to exist, but they were -deprived of all political importance. All -foreigners admitted to the citizenship were -registered in a phyle and demus, but not in -a phratria or genos. The functions which -had been discharged by the old tribes were -now mostly transferred to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demi</i>. Among -others, we may notice that of the forty-eight -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">naucrariae</i> into which the old tribes had -been divided for the purpose of taxation, but -which now became useless, the taxes being -collected on a different system. The reforms -of Clisthenes were destined to be permanent. -They continued to be in force (with -some few interruptions) until the downfall of -Athenian independence. The ten tribes were -blended with the whole machinery of the -constitution. Of the senate of five hundred, -fifty were chosen from each tribe. The -allotment of dicasts was according to tribes; -and the same system of election may be -observed in most of the principal offices of -state, judicial and magisterial, civil and military, -&c. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 307, Demetrius Poliorcetes -increased the number of tribes to twelve -by creating two new ones, namely, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antigonias</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Demetrias</i>, which afterwards received -the names of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ptolemais</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Attalis</i>; -and a thirteenth was subsequently added by -Hadrian, bearing his own name.—(2) <span id="Trib_r" class="smcap">Roman.</span> -The three ancient Romulian tribes, -the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, or the -Ramnenses, Titienses, and Lucerenses, to -which the patricians alone belonged, must -be distinguished from the thirty plebeian -tribes of Servius Tullius, which were entirely -local, four for the city, and twenty-six for -the country around Rome. The history and -organisation of the three ancient tribes are -spoken of under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii</a></span>. They continued -of political importance almost down to the -period of the decemviral legislation; but -after this time they no longer occur in the -history of Rome, except as an obsolete institution. -The institution and organisation -of the thirty plebeian tribes, and their subsequent -reduction to twenty by the conquests -of Porsena, are spoken of under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plebes">Plebes</a></span>. -The four city tribes were called by the same -names as the regions which they occupied, -viz. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Suburana</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Esquilina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Collina</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Palatina</i>. -The names of the sixteen country -tribes which continued to belong to Rome -after the conquest of Porsena, are in their -alphabetical order as follows: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aemilia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Camilia</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cornelia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fabia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Galeria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Horatia</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lemonia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Menemia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Papiria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pollia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Popillia,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_391"></a>[391]</span> -upinia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Romilia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sergia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Veturia</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Voltinia</i>. -As Rome gradually acquired possession -of more of the surrounding territory, -the number of tribes also was gradually increased. -When Appius Claudius, with his -numerous train of clients, emigrated to Rome, -lands were assigned to them in the district -where the Anio flows into the Tiber, and a -new tribe, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tribus Claudia</i>, was formed. -This tribe was subsequently enlarged, and -was then designated by the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Crustumina</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Clustumina</i>. This name is the -first instance of a country tribe being named -after a place, for the sixteen older ones all -derived their name from persons or heroes. -In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 387, the number of tribes was increased -to twenty-five by the addition of -four new ones, viz. the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Stellatina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tromentina</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sabatina</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arniensis</i>. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 358 -two more, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pomptina</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Publilia</i>, were -formed of Volscians. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 332, the censors -Q. Publilius Philo and Sp. Postumius -increased the number of tribes to twenty-nine, -by the addition of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Maecia</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Scaptia</i>. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 318 the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ufentina</i> and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Falerina</i> were added. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 299 two -others, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aniensis</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Terentina</i>, were -added by the censors, and at last in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 241, -the number of tribes was augmented to -thirty-five, by the addition of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quirina</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Velina</i>. Eight new tribes were added -upon the termination of the Social War, to -include the Socii, who then obtained the Roman -franchise; but they were afterwards -incorporated among the old 35 tribes, which -continued to be the number of the tribes to -the end of the republic. When the tribes, -in their assemblies, transacted any business, -a certain order (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ordo tribuum</i>) was observed, -in which they were called upon to give their -votes. The first in the order of succession -was the Suburana, and the last the Arniensis. -Any person belonging to a tribe -had in important documents to add to his -own name that of his tribe, in the ablative -case. Whether the local tribes, as they were -established by the constitution of Servius -Tullius, contained only the plebeians, or -included the patricians also, is a point on -which the opinions of modern scholars are -divided: but it appears most probable that -down to the decemviral legislation the tribes -and their assemblies were entirely plebeian. -From the time of the decemviral legislation, -the patricians and their clients were undoubtedly -incorporated in the tribes. Respecting -the assemblies of the tribes, see -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Comitia_tr">Comitia Tributa</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Tributum">TRĬBŪTUM, a tax which was partly applied -to cover the expenses of war, and -partly those of the fortifications of the city. -The usual amount of the tax was one for -every thousand of a man’s fortune, though -in the time of Cato it was raised to three in -a thousand. The tributum was not a property-tax -in the strict sense of the word, for -the accounts respecting the plebeian debtors -clearly imply, that the debts were not deducted -in the valuation of a person’s property, -so that he had to pay the tributum -upon property which was not his own, but -which he owed, and for which he had consequently -to pay the interest as well. It was -a direct tax upon objects without any regard -to their produce, like a land or house-tax, -which indeed formed the main part of it. -That which seems to have made it most oppressive, -was its constant fluctuation. It -was raised according to the regions or tribes -instituted by Servius Tullius, and by the tribunes -of these tribes, subsequently called -tribuni aerarii. It was not, like the other -branches of the public revenue, let out to -farm, but being fixed in money it was raised -by the tribunes, unless (as was the case after -the custom of giving pay to the soldiers was -introduced) the soldiers, like the knights, -demanded it from the persons themselves -who were bound to pay it. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_e">Aes equestre</a></span> -and <span class="allsmcap">HORDEARIUM</span>.] When this tax was to -be paid, what sum was to be raised, and what -portion of every thousand asses of the census, -were matters upon which the senate alone -had to decide. But when it was decreed, the -people might refuse to pay it when they -thought it too heavy, or unfairly distributed, -or hoped to gain some other advantage by -the refusal. In later times the senate sometimes -left its regulation to the censors, who -often fixed it very arbitrarily. No citizen -was exempt from it, but we find that the -priests, augurs, and pontiffs made attempts -to get rid of it: but this was only an abuse, -which did not last. After the war with Macedonia -(<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 147), when the Roman treasury -was filled with the revenues accruing -from conquests and from the provinces, the -Roman citizens became exempted from paying -the tributum, and this state of things -lasted down to the consulship of Hirtius and -Pansa (43 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>), when the tributum was -again levied, on account of the exhausted -state of the aerarium. After this time it was -imposed according to the discretion of the -emperors. Respecting the tributum paid by -conquered countries and cities, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Vectigalia">Vectigalia</a></span>.</p> - - -<p id="Triclinium">TRICLĪNĬUM, the dining-room of a Roman -house, the position of which, relatively -to the other parts of the house, is seen in the -“house of the Tragic poet” (see <a href="#ill144">p. 144</a>). -It was of an oblong shape, and was twice<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_392"></a>[392]</span> -as long as it was broad. The superintendence -of the dining-room in a great house -was intrusted to a slave called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tricliniarcha</i>, -who, through other slaves, took care that -everything was kept and proceeded in proper -order. A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triclinium</i> generally contained three -couches, and as the usual number of persons -occupying each couch was three, the triclinium -afforded accommodation for a party of nine. -Sometimes, however, as many as four lay on -each of the couches. Each man in order to -feed himself lay flat upon his breast or nearly -so, and stretched out his hand towards the -table; but afterwards, when his hunger was -satisfied, he turned upon his left side, leaning -on his elbow. To this Horace alludes in -describing a person sated with a particular -dish, and turning in order to repose upon -his elbow. (<cite>Sat.</cite> ii. 4, 39.) We find the -relative positions of two persons who lay -next to one another, commonly expressed by -the prepositions <em>super</em> or <em>supra</em>, and <em>infra</em>. -A passage of Livy (xxxix. 43), in which -he relates the cruel conduct of the consul -L. Quintius Flamininus, shows that -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">infra aliquem cubare</i> was the same as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in -sinu alicujus cubare</i>, and consequently that -each person was considered as <em>below</em> him to -whose breast his own head approached. On -this principle we are enabled to explain the -denominations both of the three couches, and -of the three places on each couch.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill392a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill392a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<table class="autotable" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">lectus medius</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">imus</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">medius</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">summus</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">lectus imus</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">lectus summus</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad3">summus</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">imus</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad3">medius</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">medius</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad3">imus</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">summus</td> -</tr> -</table> - -</div> -</div> - -<p>Supposing the annexed arrangement to represent -the plan of a triclinium, it is evident that, -as each guest reclined on his left side, the -countenances of all when in this position -were directed, first, from No. 1 towards No. -3, then from No. 4 towards No. 6, and lastly, -from No. 7 towards No. 9; that the guest -No. 1 lay, in the sense explained, <em>above</em> No. -2, No. 3 <em>below</em> No. 2, and so of the rest; -and that, going in the same direction, the -couch to the right hand was <em>above</em> the others, -and the couch to the left hand <em>below</em> the -others. It will be found, that in a passage -in the eighth satire of the second book of Horace, -the guests are enumerated in the order -of their accubation—an order exhibited in -the annexed diagram.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill392b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill392b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - -<table class="autotable" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Vibidius</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Maecenas</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Servilius</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Nomentanus</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Varius</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Nasidienus</td> -<td class="tdl">(Mensa)</td> -<td class="tdl">Viscus</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Porcius</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Fundanius</td> -</tr> -</table> - -</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Tridens">TRĬDENS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fuscina">Fuscina</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Triens">TRĬENS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Trierarchia">TRIĒRARCHĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριήραρχια</span>), one of the -extraordinary war services or liturgies at -Athens, the object of which was to provide -for the equipment and maintenance of the -ships of war belonging to the state. The -persons who were charged with it were called -trierarchs (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριήραρχοι</span>), as being the captains -of triremes, though the name was also applied -to persons who bore the same charge -in other vessels. It existed from very early -times in connection with the forty-eight -naucraries of Solon, and the fifty of Clisthenes: -each of which corporations appears -to have been obliged to equip and man a vessel. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Naucraria">Naucraria</a>.</span>] Under the constitution -of Clisthenes the ten tribes were at first -severally charged with five vessels. This -charge was of course superseded by the later -forms of the hierarchy. The state furnished -the ship, and either the whole or part of the -ship’s rigging and furniture, and also pay -and provisions for the sailors. The trierarchs -were bound to keep in repair the ship -and its furniture, and were frequently put to -great expense in paying the sailors and supplying -them with provisions, when the state -did not supply sufficient money for the purpose. -Moreover, some trierarchs, whether -from ambitious or patriotic motives, put -themselves to unnecessary expense in fitting -out and rigging their ships, from which the -state derived an advantage. The average -expense of the trierarchy was 50 minae. -In ancient times one person bore the whole -charge of the trierarchy, afterwards it was -customary for two persons to share it, who -were then called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">syntrierarchs</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συντριήραρχοι</span>). -When this practice was first introduced -is not known, but it was perhaps about -the year 412 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, after the defeat of the -Athenians in Sicily, when the union of two -persons for the choregia was first permitted. -The syntrierarchy, however, did not entirely -supersede the older and single form, being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_393"></a>[393]</span> -only meant as a relief in case of emergency, -when there was not a sufficient number of -wealthy citizens to bear the expense singly. -In the case of a syntrierarchy the two trierarchs -commanded their vessel in turn, six -months each, according as they agreed between -themselves.—The third form of the -trierarchy was connected with, or suggested -by, the syntrierarchy. In <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 358, the -Athenians were unable to procure a sufficient -number of legally appointed trierarchs, and -accordingly they summoned volunteers. -This, however, was but a temporary expedient; -and as the actual system was not -adequate to the public wants, they determined -to manage the trierarchy somewhat in -the same way as the property-tax (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">eisphora</i>), -namely, by classes or symmoriae, according -to the law of Periander passed in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 358, -and which was the primary and original -enactment on the subject. With this view -1200 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">synteleis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συντελεῖς</span>) or partners were -appointed, who were probably the wealthiest -individuals of the state, according to the -census or valuation. These were divided into -20 <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">symmoriae</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συμμορίαι</span>) or classes; out of -which a number of persons (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σώματα</span>) joined -for the equipment or rather the maintenance -and management of a ship, under the title of -a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">synteleia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συντέλεια</span>) or union. To every -ship there was generally assigned a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">synteleia</i> -of fifteen persons of different degrees of -wealth, as we may suppose, so that four ships -only were provided for by each symmoria of -sixty persons. It appears, however, that -before Demosthenes carried a new law on -this subject (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 340), it had been customary -for <em>sixteen</em> persons to unite in a synteleia or -company for a ship, who bore the burden in -equal shares. This being the case, it follows -either that the members of the symmoriae -had been by that time raised from 1200 to -1280, or that some alterations had taken -place in their internal arrangements, of which -no account has come down to us. The superintendence -of the whole system was in the -hands of the 300 wealthiest members, who -were therefore called the “leaders of the -symmoriae” (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡγεμόνες τῶν συμμοριῶν</span>), on -whom the burdens of the trierarchy chiefly -fell, or rather ought to have fallen. The -services performed by individuals under this -system appear to have been the same as before: -the state still provided the ship’s -tackle, and the only duty then of the trierarchs -under this system was to keep their -vessels in the same repair and order as they -received them. But even from this they -managed to escape: for the wealthiest members, -who had to serve for their synteleia, -let out their trierarchies for a talent, and received -that amount from their partners (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συντελεῖς</span>), -so that in reality they paid next to -nothing, or, at any rate, not what they ought -to have done, considering that the trierarchy -was a ground of exemption from other liturgies.—To -remedy these abuses Demosthenes -carried a law when he was the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπιστάτης τοῦ -ναυτικοῦ</span>, or the superintendent of the Athenian -navy, thereby introducing the <em>Fourth -form</em> of the trierarchy. The provisions of -the law were as follows: The naval services -required from every citizen were to depend -upon and be proportional to his property, -or rather to his taxable capital, as registered -for the symmoriae of the property-tax, the -rate being one trireme for every ten talents -of taxable capital, up to three triremes and -one auxiliary vessel (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπηρέσιον</span>) for the -largest properties; <em>i.e.</em> no person, however -rich, could be required to furnish more. -Those who had not ten talents in taxable -capital were to club together in synteleiae -till they had made up that amount. By this -law great changes were effected. All persons -paying taxes were rated in proportion -to their property, so that the poor were benefited -by it, and the state likewise: for, as -Demosthenes says, those who had formerly -contributed one-sixteenth to the trierarchy -of one ship were now trierarchs of two, in -which case they must either have served by -proxy, or done duty in successive years. He -adds, that the consequences were highly beneficial. -We do not know the amount of -property which rendered a man liable to serve -a trierarchy or syntrierarchy, but we read of -no instance of liability arising from a property -of less value than 500 minae. The appointment -to serve under the first and second -forms of the trierarchy was made by the -strategi, and in case any person was appointed -to serve a trierarchy, and thought that any -one else (not called upon) was better able to -bear it than himself, he offered the latter an -exchange of his property [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Antidosis">Antidosis</a></span>] subject -to the burden of the trierarchy. In cases of -extreme hardship, persons became suppliants -to the people, or fled to the altar of Artemis -at Munychia. If not ready in time, they -were sometimes liable to imprisonment. On -the contrary, whoever got his ship ready -first was to be rewarded with the “crown -of the trierarchy;” so that in this way considerable -emulation and competition were -produced. Moreover, the trierarchs were <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπεύθυνοι</span>, -or liable to be called to account for -their expenditure; though they applied -their own property to the service of the -state. It has been already stated that the -trierarchy was a ground of exemption from -the other liturgies, any of which, indeed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_394"></a>[394]</span> -gave an exemption, from all the rest during -the following year.</p> - - -<p id="Trinundinum">TRĬNUNDĬNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Nundinae">Nundinae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Triobolon">TRIŌBŎLON (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τριώβολον</span>), the fee of three -obols, which the Athenian dicasts received. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Dicastes">Dicastae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tripos">TRĬPOS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρίπους</span>), a tripod, <em>i.e.</em> any utensil -or article of furniture supported upon -three feet. More especially (1) A three-legged -table.—(2) A pot or caldron, used for -boiling meat, and either raised upon a three-legged -stand of bronze, or made with its -three feet in the same piece.—(3) A bronze -altar, not differing probably in its original -form from the tall tripod caldron already described. -It was from a tripod that the -Pythian priestess at Delphi gave responses. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cortina">Cortina</a>.</span>] The celebrity of this tripod produced -innumerable imitations of it, which -were made to be used in sacrifice, and still -more frequently to be presented to the treasury -both in that place and in many other -Greek temples.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp37" id="ill394" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill394.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Tripod of Apollo at Delphi. (Böttiger’s Amalthea, vol. i. -p. 119.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Tripudium">TRĬPŬDĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Auspicium">Auspicium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Triremis">TRIRĒMIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Triumphus">TRĬUMPHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θρίαμβος</span>), a solemn procession, -in which a victorious general entered -the city in a chariot drawn by four horses. -He was preceded by the captives and spoils -taken in war, was followed by his troops, -and after passing in state along the Via -Sacra, ascended the Capitol to offer sacrifice -in the temple of Jupiter. From the beginning -of the republic down to the extinction of -liberty a regular triumph (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justus triumphus</i>) -was recognised as the summit of military -glory, and was the cherished object of ambition -to every Roman general. A triumph -might be granted for successful achievements -either by land or sea, but the latter were -comparatively so rare that we shall for the -present defer the consideration of the naval -triumph. After any decisive battle had been -won, or a province subdued by a series of -successful operations, the imperator forwarded -to the senate a laurel-wreathed dispatch -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">literae laureatae</i>), containing an account -of his exploits. If the intelligence -proved satisfactory, the senate decreed a -public thanksgiving. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Supplicatio">Supplicatio</a>.</span>] After -the war was concluded, the general with his -army repaired to Rome, or ordered his army -to meet him there on a given day, but did not -enter the city. A meeting of the senate was -held without the walls, usually in the temple -either of Bellona or Apollo, that he might -have an opportunity of urging his pretensions -in person, and these were then scrutinised -and discussed with the most jealous care. -The following rules were for the most part -rigidly enforced, although the senate assumed -the discretionary power of relaxing them in -special cases. 1. That no one could be permitted -to triumph unless he had held the -office of dictator, of consul, or of praetor. -The honours granted to Pompey, who triumphed -in his 24th year (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 81) before he -had held any of the great offices of state, and -again ten years afterwards, while still a -simple eques, were altogether unprecedented. -2. That the magistrate should have been -actually in office both when the victory was -gained and when the triumph was to be celebrated. -This regulation was insisted upon -only during the earlier ages of the commonwealth. -Its violation commenced with Q. -Publilius Philo, the first person to whom the -senate ever granted a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prorogatio imperii</i> after -the termination of a magistracy, and thenceforward -proconsuls and propraetors were -permitted to triumph without question. 3. -That the war should have been prosecuted or -the battle fought under the auspices and in -the province and with the troops of the -general seeking the triumph. Thus if a victory -was gained by the legatus of a general -who was absent from the army, the honour of -it did not belong to the former, but to the -latter, inasmuch as he had the auspices. 4. -That at least 5000 of the enemy should have -been slain in a single battle, that the advantage -should have been positive, and not -merely a compensation for some previous -disaster, and that the loss on the part of the -Romans should have been small compared -with that of their adversaries. But still we -find many instances of triumphs granted for -general results, without reference to the -numbers slain in any one engagement. 5.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_395"></a>[395]</span> -That the war should have been a legitimate -contest against public foes, and not a civil -contest. Hence Catulus celebrated no triumph -over Lepidus, nor Antonius over Catiline, -nor Cinna and Marius over their antagonists -of the Sullan party, nor Caesar after -Pharsalia; and when he did subsequently -triumph after his victory over the sons of -Pompey, it caused universal disgust. 6. -That the dominion of the state should have -been extended, and not merely something -previously lost regained. The absolute acquisition -of territory does not appear to have -been essential. 7. That the war should have -been brought to a conclusion and the province -reduced to a state of peace, so as to permit of -the army being withdrawn, the presence of -the victorious soldiers being considered indispensable -in a triumph. The senate claimed -the exclusive right of deliberating upon all -these points, and giving or withholding the -honour sought, and they for the most part -exercised the privilege without question, -except in times of great political excitement. -The sovereignty of the people, however, in -this matter was asserted at a very early date, -and a triumph is said to have been voted by -the tribes to Valerius and Horatius, the consuls -of <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 446, in direct opposition to the -resolution of the fathers, and in a similar -manner to C. Marcius Rutilus the first plebeian -dictator, while L. Postumius Megellus, -consul <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 294, celebrated a triumph, -although resisted by the senate and seven out -of the ten tribunes. Nay, more, we read of -a certain Appius Claudius, consul <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 143, -who having persisted in celebrating a triumph -in defiance of both the senate and -people, was accompanied by his daughter (or -sister) Claudia, a vestal virgin, and by her -interposition saved from being dragged from -his chariot by a tribune. A disappointed -general, however, seldom ventured to resort -to such violent measures, but satisfied himself -with going through the forms on the -Alban Mount, a practice first introduced by -C. Papirius Maso. If the senate gave their -consent, they at the same time voted a sum -of money towards defraying the necessary -expenses, and one of the tribunes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex auctoritate -senatus</i> applied for a plebiscitum to permit -the imperator to retain his imperium on -the day when he entered the city. This last -form could not be dispensed with either in an -ovation or a triumph, because the imperium -conferred by the comitia curiata did not include -the city itself, and when a general had -once gone forth <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">paludatus</i>, his military power -ceased as soon as he re-entered the gates, -unless the general law had been previously -suspended by a special enactment; and in -this manner the resolution of the senate was, -as it were, ratified by the plebs. For this -reason no one desiring a triumph ever entered -the city until the question was decided, since -by so doing he would ipso facto have forfeited -all claim. We have a remarkable example of -this in the case of Cicero, who after his return -from Cilicia lingered in the vicinity of Rome -day after day, and dragged about his lictors -from one place to another, without entering -the city, in the vain hope of a triumph.—In -later times these pageants were marshalled -with extraordinary pomp and splendour, and -presented a most gorgeous spectacle. Minute -details would necessarily be different according -to circumstances, but the general arrangements -were as follows. The temples were all -thrown open, garlands of flowers decorated -every shrine and image, and incense smoked -on every altar. Meanwhile the imperator -called an assembly of his soldiers, delivered -an oration commending their valour, and -concluded by distributing rewards to the most -distinguished, and a sum of money to each -individual, the amount depending on the -value of the spoils. He then ascended his -triumphal car and advanced to the Porta Triumphalis, -where he was met by the whole body -of the senate headed by the magistrates. The -procession then defiled in the following order. -1. The senate headed by the magistrates. -2. A body of trumpeters. 3. A train of -carriages and frames laden with spoils, those -articles which were especially remarkable -either on account of their beauty or rarity -being disposed in such a manner as to be -seen distinctly by the crowd. Boards were -borne aloft on fercula, on which were -painted in large letters the names of vanquished -nations and countries. Here, too, -models were exhibited in ivory or wood of -the cities and forts captured, and pictures -of the mountains, rivers, and other great -natural features of the subjugated region, -with appropriate inscriptions. Gold and -silver in coin or bullion, arms, weapons, -and horse furniture of every description, -statues, pictures, vases, and other works of -art, precious stones, elaborately wrought -and richly embroidered stuffs, and every -object which could be regarded as valuable -or curious. 4. A body of flute players. -5. The white bulls or oxen destined for -sacrifice, with gilded horns, decorated with -infulae and serta, attended by the slaughtering -priests with their implements, and followed -by the Camilli bearing in their hands -paterae and other holy vessels and instruments. -6. Elephants or any other strange -animals, natives of the conquered districts. -7. The arms and insignia of the leaders of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_396"></a>[396]</span> -the foe. 8. The leaders themselves, and -such of their kindred as had been taken prisoners, -followed by the whole band of inferior -captives in fetters. 9. The coronae and -other tributes of respect and gratitude bestowed -on the imperator by allied kings and -states. 10. The lictors of the imperator in -single file, their fasces wreathed with laurel. -11. The imperator himself in a circular -chariot of a peculiar form, drawn by four -horses, which were sometimes, though rarely, -white. He was attired in a gold-embroidered -robe (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">toga picta</i>) and flowered tunic -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tunica palmata</i>): he bore in his right hand -a laurel bough, and in his left a sceptre; his -brows were encircled with a wreath of -Delphic laurel, in addition to which in -ancient times, his body was painted bright -red. He was accompanied in his chariot by -his children of tender years, and sometimes -by very dear or highly honoured friends, -while behind him stood a public slave, holding -over his head a golden Etruscan crown -ornamented with jewels. The presence of a -slave in such a place at such a time seems to -have been intended to avert <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">invidia</i> and the -influence of the evil eye, and for the same -purpose a fascinum, a little bell, and a -scourge were attached to the vehicle. Tertullian -tells us, that the slave ever and anon -whispered in the ear of the imperator the -warning words <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Respice post te, hominem memento -te</i>, but this statement is not confirmed -by any earlier writer. 12. Behind the chariot -or on the horses which drew it rode the -grown-up sons of the imperator, together -with the legati, the tribuni, and the equites, -all on horseback. 13. The rear was brought -up by the whole body of the infantry in -marching order, their spears adorned with -laurel, some shouting Io Triumphe, and -singing hymns to the gods, while others -proclaimed the praises of their leader or -indulged in keen sarcasms and coarse ribaldry -at his expense, for the most perfect -freedom of speech was granted and exercised. -Just as the pomp was ascending the -Capitoline hill, some of the hostile chiefs -were led aside into the adjoining prison -and put to death, a custom so barbarous that -we could scarcely believe that it existed in -a civilised age, were it not attested by the -most unquestionable evidence. Pompey, indeed, -refrained from perpetrating this atrocity -in his third triumph, and Aurelian on -like occasion spared Zenobia, but these are -quoted as exceptions to the general rule. -When it was announced that these murders -had been completed, the victims were then -sacrificed, an offering from the spoils was -presented to Jupiter, the laurel wreath was -deposited in the lap of the god, the imperator -was entertained at a public feast along -with his friends in the temple, and returned -home in the evening preceded by torches -and pipes, and escorted by a crowd of citizens. -The whole of the proceedings, generally -speaking, were brought to a close in one -day; but when the quantity of plunder was -very great, and the troops very numerous, -a longer period was required for the exhibition, -and thus the triumph of Flaminius -continued for three days in succession. But -the glories of the imperator did not end with -the show, nor even with his life. It was -customary (we know not if the practice was -invariable) to provide him at the public expense -with a site for a house, such mansions -being styled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triumphales domus</i>. After death -his kindred were permitted to deposit his -ashes within the walls, and laurel-wreathed -statues standing erect in triumphal cars,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_397"></a>[397]</span> -displayed in the vestibulum of the family -mansion, transmitted his fame to posterity.—A -<span class="smcap">Triumphus Navalis</span> appears to have differed -in no respect from an ordinary triumph, except -that it must have been upon a smaller -scale, and would be characterised by the exhibition -of beaks of ships and other nautical -trophies. The earliest upon record was -granted to C. Duillius, who laid the foundation -of the supremacy of Rome by sea in the first -Punic war; and so elated was he by his success, -that during the rest of his life, whenever -he returned home at night from supper, he -caused flutes to sound and torches to be borne -before him. A second naval triumph was celebrated -by Lutatius Catulus for his victory -off the Insulae Aegates, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 241; a third -by Q. Fabius Labeo, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 189, over the -Cretans; and a fourth by C. Octavius over -King Perseus, without captives and without -spoils.—<span class="smcap">Triumphus Castrensis</span> was a procession -of the soldiers through the camp in -honour of a tribunus or some officer inferior -to the general, who had performed a brilliant -exploit. After the extinction of freedom, the -emperor being considered as the commander-in-chief -of all the armies of the state, every -military achievement was understood to be -performed under his auspices, and hence, -according to the forms of even the ancient -constitution, he alone had a legitimate claim -to a triumph. This principle was soon fully -recognised and acted upon; for although -Antonius had granted triumphs to his legati, -and his example had been freely followed by -Augustus in the early part of his career, yet -after the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 14, he entirely discontinued -the practice, and from that time forward -triumphs were rarely, if ever, conceded -to any except members of the imperial family. -But to compensate in some degree for what -was then taken away, the custom was introduced -of bestowing what were termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triumphalia -Ornamenta</i>, that is, permission to -receive the titles bestowed upon and to appear -in public with the robes worn by the imperatores -of the commonwealth when they -triumphed, and to bequeath to descendants -triumphal statues. These <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">triumphalia ornamenta</i> -are said to have been first bestowed -upon Agrippa or upon Tiberius, and ever -after were a common mark of the favour of -the prince.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill396" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill396.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Triumphal Procession. (Zoega, Bassi-rilievi, tav. 9, 76.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Triumviri">TRĬUMVĬRI, or TRESVĬRI, were either -ordinary magistrates or officers, or else extraordinary -commissioners, who were frequently -appointed at Rome to execute any public -office. The following is a list of the most -important of both classes.</p> - -<p>1. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Agro Dividundo.</span> [<span class="smcap">Triumviri -Coloniae Deducendae.</span>]</p> - -<p>2. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Capitales</span> were regular magistrates, -first appointed about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 292. -They were elected by the people, the comitia -being held by the praetor. They succeeded -to many of the functions of the Quaestores -Parricidii. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestor</a>.</span>] It was their duty -to inquire into all capital crimes, and to receive -informations respecting such, and consequently -they apprehended and committed -to prison all criminals whom they detected. -In conjunction with the aediles, they had to -preserve the public peace, to prevent all unlawful -assemblies, &c. They enforced the -payment of fines due to the state. They had -the care of public prisons, and carried into -effect the sentence of the law upon criminals. -In these points they resembled the magistracy -of the Eleven at Athens.</p> - -<p>4. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Coloniae Deducendae</span> were -persons appointed to superintend the formation -of a colony. They are spoken of under -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia</a></span>, <a href="#Page_99">p. 99</a>, <em>b</em>. Since they had besides -to superintend the distribution of the land -to the colonists, we find them also called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triumviri Coloniae Deducendae Agroque Dividundo</i>, -and sometimes simply <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triumviri -Agro Dando</i>.</p> - -<p>5. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Epulones.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Epulones">Epulones</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p>6. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Equitum Turmas Recognoscendi</span>, -or <span class="smcap">Legendis Equitum Decuriis</span>, -were magistrates first appointed by Augustus -to revise the lists of the equites, and to admit -persons into the order. This was formerly -part of the duties of the censors.</p> - -<p>7. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Mensarii.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Mensarii">Mensarii</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p>8. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Monetales.</span> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Moneta">Moneta</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p>9. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Nocturni</span> were magistrates -elected annually, whose chief duty it was to -prevent fires by night, and for this purpose -they had to go round the city during the -night (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vigilias circumire</i>). If they neglected -their duty they appear to have been accused -before the people by the tribunes of the plebs. -The time at which this office was instituted -is unknown, but it must have been previously -to the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 304. Augustus -transferred their duties to the Praefectus -Vigilum. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Praefectus_v">Praefectus Vigilum</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p>10. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Reficiendis Aedibus</span>, extraordinary -officers elected in the Comitia -Tributa in the time of the second Punic war, -were appointed for the purpose of repairing -and rebuilding certain temples.</p> - -<p>11. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Reipublicae Constituendae.</span> -When the supreme power was shared -between Caesar (Octavianus), Antony, and -Lepidus, they administered the affairs of the -state under the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Triumviri Reipublicae -Constituendae</i>. This office was conferred -upon them in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 43, for five years; and on -the expiration of the term, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 38, was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_398"></a>[398]</span> -conferred upon them again, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 37, for -five years more. The coalition between Julius -Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 60, -is usually called the first triumvirate, and -that between Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus, -the second; but it must be borne in -mind that the former never bore the title of -triumviri, nor were invested with any office -under that name, whereas the latter were -recognised as regular magistrates under the -above-mentioned title.</p> - -<p>12. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Sacris Conquirendis Donisque -Persignandis</span>, extraordinary officers -elected in the Comitia Tributa in the time of -the second Punic war, seem to have had to -take care that all property given or consecrated -to the gods was applied to that purpose.</p> - -<p>13. <span class="smcap">Triumviri Senatus Legendi</span> were magistrates -appointed by Augustus to admit -persons into the senate. This was previously -the duty of the censors.</p> - - -<p id="Trochus">TRŎCHUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροχός</span>), a hoop. The Greek -hoop was a bronze ring, and had sometimes -bells attached to it. It was impelled by -means of a hook with a wooden handle, -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clavis</i>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλατήρ</span>. From the Greeks -this custom passed to the Romans, who consequently -adopted the Greek term. The following -woodcuts from gems exhibit naked -youths trundling the hoop by means of the -hook or key. They are accompanied by the -jar of oil and the laurel branch, the signs of -effort and of victory.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill398a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill398a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Trochi, Hoops. (From ancient Gems.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Trojae">TROJAE LŪDUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Circus">Circus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tropaeum">TRŎPAEUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρόπαιον</span>, <em>Att.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροπαῖον</span>), a -trophy, a sign and memorial of victory, -which was erected on the field of battle -where the enemy had turned (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρέπω, τρόπη</span>) -to flight; and in case of a victory gained at -sea, on the nearest land. The expression -for raising or erecting a trophy is <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τροπαῖον -στῆσαι</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">στήσασθαι</span>, to which may be added -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπὸ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατὰ τῶν πολεμίων</span>. When the battle -was not decisive, or each party considered it -had some claims to the victory, both erected -trophies. Trophies usually consisted of the -arms, shields, helmets, &c. of the enemy that -were defeated; and these were placed on the -trunk of a tree, which was fixed on some -elevation. The trophy was consecrated to -some divinity, with an inscription (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπίγραμμα</span>), -recording the names of the victors and of the -defeated party; whence trophies were regarded -as inviolable, which even the enemy -were not permitted to remove. Sometimes, -however, a people destroyed a trophy, if they -considered that the enemy had erected it -without sufficient cause. That rankling and -hostile feelings might not be perpetuated by -the continuance of a trophy, it seems to have -been originally part of Greek international -law that trophies should be made only of -wood, and not of stone or metal, and that -they should not be repaired when decayed. -It was not, however, uncommon to erect -trophies of metal. Pausanias speaks of several -which he saw in Greece. The trophies -erected to commemorate naval victories were -usually ornamented with the beaks or acroteria -of ships [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Acroterium">Acroterium</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Rostra">Rostra</a></span>]; and -were generally consecrated to Poseidon or -Neptune. Sometimes a whole ship was -placed as a trophy. The Romans, in early -times, never erected any trophies on the field -of battle, but carried home the spoils taken -in battle, with which they decorated the -public buildings, and also the private houses<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_399"></a>[399]</span> -of individuals. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Spolia">Spolia</a>.</span>] Subsequently, -however, the Romans adopted the Greek -practice of raising trophies on the field of -battle. The first trophies of this kind were -erected by Domitius Ahenobarbus and Fabius -Maximus in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 121, after their conquest -of the Allobroges, when they built at the -junction of the Rhone and the Isara towers -of white stone, upon which trophies were -placed adorned with the spoils of the enemy. -Pompey also raised trophies on the Pyrenees -after his victories in Spain; Julius Caesar -did the same near Ziela, after his victory -over Pharnaces; and Drusus, near the Elbe, -to commemorate his victory over the Germans. -Still, however, it was more common -to erect some memorial of the victory at -Rome than on the field of battle. The -trophies raised by Marius to commemorate -his victories over Jugurtha and the Cimbri -and Teutoni, which were cast down by Sulla, -and restored by Julius Caesar, must have -been in the city. In the later times of the -republic, and under the empire, the erection -of triumphal arches was the most common -way of commemorating a victory, many of -which remain to the present day. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus</a>.</span>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="ill398b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill398b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Trophy of Augustus. (Museo Capitolino, vol i. tav. 5.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Trossuli">TROSSŬLI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Equites">Equites</a></span>, <a href="#Page_157">p. 157</a>, <em>a</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Trua">TRŬA, <em>dim.</em> TRULLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τορύνη</span>), derived -from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρύω</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τόρω</span>, &c., to perforate; a large -and flat spoon or ladle, pierced with holes; a -trowel. The annexed woodcut represents -such a ladle. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trulla vinaria</i> seems to -have been a species of colander [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colum">Colum</a></span>], used -as a wine-strainer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill399a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill399a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Trua. (From the House of Pansa at Pompeii.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Trutina">TRŬTĬNA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τρυτάνη</span>), a general term, including -both <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libra</i>, a balance, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">statera</i>, a -steelyard. Payments were originally made -by weighing, not by counting. Hence a balance -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trutina</i>) was preserved in the temple -of Saturn at Rome.</p> - - -<p id="Tuba">TŬBA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάλπιγξ</span>), a bronze trumpet, distinguished -from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cornu</i> by being straight -while the latter was curved. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Cornu">Cornu</a>.</span>] The -tuba was employed in war for signals of -every description, at the games and public -festivals, and also at the last rites to the -dead: those who sounded the trumpet at funerals -were termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">siticines</i>, and used an instrument -of a peculiar form. The tones of the -tuba are represented as of a harsh and fear-inspiring -character. The invention of the -tuba is usually ascribed by ancient writers to -the Etruscans. It has been remarked that -Homer never introduces the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάλπιγξ</span> in his -narrative except in comparisons, which -leads us to infer that, although known in his -time, it had been but recently introduced -into Greece; and it is certain that, notwithstanding -its eminently martial character, it -was not until a late period used in the -armies of the leading states. By the Greek -tragedians its Tuscan origin is fully recognised. -According to one account it was first -fabricated for the Tyrrhenians by Athena, -who in consequence was worshipped by the -Argives under the title of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάλπιγξ</span>, while at -Rome the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tubilustrium</i>, or purification of -sacred trumpets, was performed on the last -day of the Quinquatrus. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quinquatrus">Quinquatrus</a>.</span>] -There appears to have been no essential -difference in form between the Greek and -Roman or Tyrrhenian trumpets. Both were -long, straight, bronze tubes, gradually increasing -in diameter, and terminating in a -bell-shaped aperture.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp76" id="ill399b" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill399b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Soldiers blowing Tubae and Cornua. (From Column of -Trajan.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Tubilustrium">TŬBĬLUSTRIUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Quinquatrus">Quinquatrus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tullianum">TULLIĀNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Carcer">Carcer</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tumultuarii">TŬMULTUĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tumultus">Tumultus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tumultus">TŬMULTUS, the name given to a sudden -or dangerous war in Italy or Cisalpine Gaul, -and the word was supposed by the ancients -to be a contraction of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">timor multus</i>. It was, -however, sometimes applied to a sudden or -dangerous war elsewhere; but this does not -appear to have been a correct use of the -word. Cicero says that there might be a -war without a tumultus, but not a tumultus -without a war; but it must be recollected -that the word was also applied to any sudden -alarm respecting a war; whence we find a -tumultus often spoken of as of less importance -than a war, because the results were of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_400"></a>[400]</span> -less consequence, though the fear might have -been much greater than in a regular war. In -the case of a tumultus there was a cessation -from all business (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">justitium</i>), and all citizens -were obliged to enlist without regard being -had to the exemptions (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vacationes</i>) from military -service, which were enjoyed at other -times. As there was not time to enlist the -soldiers in the regular manner, the magistrate -who was appointed to command the -army displayed two banners (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vexilla</i>) from -the Capitol, one red, to summon the infantry, -and the other green, to summon the cavalry, -and said, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Qui rempublicam salvam vult, me -sequatur</i>. Those that assembled took the -military oath together, instead of one by one, -as was the usual practice, whence they were -called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conjurati</i>, and their service <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conjuratio</i>. -Soldiers enlisted in this way were termed -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tumultuarii</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Subitarii</i>.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp79" id="ill400a" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill400a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Doric Chiton. (From a Bas-relief in the British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp47" id="ill400b" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill400b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Ionic Chiton. (From a Statue in the British Museum.)</div> -</div> - -<p id="Tunica">TŬNĬCA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιτών</span>, <em>dim.</em> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιτωνίσκος, χιτώνιον</span>), -an under-garment. (1) <span class="smcap">Greek.</span> The -chiton was the only kind of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνδυμα</span>, or under-garment -worn by the Greeks. Of this there -were two kinds, the Dorian and Ionian. The -Dorian chiton, as worn by males, was a -short woollen shirt, without sleeves; the -Ionian was a long linen garment, with sleeves. -The former seems to have been originally -worn throughout the whole of Greece; the -latter was brought over to Greece by the -Ionians of Asia. The Ionic chiton was commonly -worn at Athens by men during the -Persian wars, but it appears to have entirely -gone out of fashion for the male sex about the -time of Pericles, from which time the Dorian -chiton was the under-garment universally -adopted by men through the whole of Greece. -The distinction between the Doric and Ionic -chiton still continued in the dress of women. -The Spartan virgins only wore this one garment, -and had no upper kind of clothing, -whence it is sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Himation</i> -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pallium">Pallium</a></span>] as well as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chiton</i>. They appeared -in the company of men without any further -covering; but the married women never did -so without wearing an upper garment. This -Doric chiton was made, as stated above, of -woollen stuff; it was without sleeves, and -was fastened over both shoulders by clasps or -buckles (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πόρπαι</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περόναι</span>), which were often -of considerable size. It was frequently so -short as not to reach the knee. It was -only joined together on one side, and on -the other was left partly open or slit up -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχιστός χίτων</span>), to allow a free motion of the -limbs. The following cut represents an -Amazon with a chiton of this kind: some -parts of the figure appear incomplete, as the -original is mutilated. The Ionic chiton, on -the contrary, was a long and loose garment, -reaching to the feet (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποδήρης</span>), with wide -sleeves (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόραι</span>), and was usually made of -linen. The sleeves, however, appear generally -to have covered only the upper part of -the arm; for in ancient works of art we -seldom find the sleeve extending farther -than the elbow, and sometimes not so far. -The sleeves were sometimes slit up, and -fastened together with an elegant row of -brooches. The Ionic chiton, according to -Herodotus, was originally a Carian dress, -and passed over to Athens from Ionia, as has -been already remarked. The women at -Athens originally wore the Doric chiton, but -were compelled to change it for the Ionic, -after they had killed with the buckles or -clasps of their dresses the single Athenian -who had returned alive from the expedition<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_401"></a>[401]</span> -against Aegina, because there were no buckles -or clasps required in the Ionic dress. The -preceding cut represents the Muse Thalia -wearing an Ionic chiton. The peplum has -fallen off her shoulders, and is held up by -the left hand. Both kinds of dress were fastened -round the middle with a girdle, and as -the Ionic chiton was usually longer than the -body, part of it was drawn up so that the -dress might not reach farther than the feet, -and the part which was so drawn up overhung -or overlapped the girdle, and was called -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόλπος</span>.—There was a peculiar kind of dress, -which seems to have been a species of -double chiton, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diplois</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διπλοΐς</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Diploidion</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διπλοΐδιον</span>), and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hemidiploidion</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἡμιδιπλοΐδιον</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp73" id="ill401" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill401.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Diploidia, double Chitons. (Museo Borbonico, vol. ii. -tav. 4, 6.)</div> -</div> - -<p>It appears not to have been a -separate article of dress, but merely the -upper part of the cloth forming the chiton, -which was larger than was required for the -ordinary chiton, and was therefore thrown -over the front and back. The following cuts -will give a clearer idea of the form of this -garment than any description. Since the -Diploidion was fastened over the shoulders -by means of buckles or clasps, it was called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epomis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπωμίς</span>), which is supposed by some -writers to have been only the end of the garment -fastened on the shoulder. The chiton -was worn by men next their skin; but -females were accustomed to wear a chemise -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χιτώνιον</span>) under their chiton. It was the -practice among most of the Greeks to wear -an himation, or outer garment, over the -chiton, but frequently the chiton was worn -alone. A person who wore only a chiton -was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μονοχίτων</span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰοχίτων</span> in Homer), an -epithet given to the Spartan virgins. In the -some way, a person who wore only an himation, -or outer garment, was called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀχίτων</span>. -The Athenian youths, in the earlier times, -wore only the chiton, and when it became -the fashion, in the Peloponnesian war, to -wear an outer garment over it, it was regarded -as a mark of effeminacy.—(2) <span class="smcap">Roman.</span> -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tunica</i> of the Romans, like the -Greek chiton, was a woollen under-garment, -over which the toga was worn. It was the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Indumentum</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Indutus</i>, as opposed to the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Amictus</i>, the general term for the toga, pallium, -or any other outer garment. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amictus">Amictus</a>.</span>] -The Romans are said to have had no -other clothing originally but the toga; and -when the tunic was first introduced, it was -merely a short garment without sleeves, and -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Colobium</i>. It was considered a -mark of effeminacy for men to wear tunics -with long sleeves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">manicatae</i>) and reaching -to the feet (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">talares</i>). The tunic was girded -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cincta</i>) with a belt or girdle around the -waist, but it was usually worn loose, without -being girded, when a person was at home, -or wished to be at his ease. Hence we find -the terms <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cinctus</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecinctus</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">succinctus</i>, -applied, like the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εὔζωνος</span>, to an active -and diligent person, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">discinctus</i> to one -who was idle or dissolute. The form of the -tunic, as worn by men, is represented in -many woodcuts in this work. In works of -art it usually terminates a little above the -knee; it has short sleeves, covering only the -upper part of the arm, and is girded at the -waist: the sleeves sometimes, though less frequently, -extend to the hands.—Both sexes at -Rome usually wore two tunics, an outer and an -under, the latter of which was worn next the -skin, and corresponds to our shirt and chemise. -The under tunics were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Subucula</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Indusium</i>, -the former of which is supposed to be -the name of the under tunic of the men, and -the latter of that of the women: but this is -not certain. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Interula</i> was of later -origin, and seems to have been applied -equally to the under tunic of both sexes. It -is doubtful whether the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Supparus</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Supparum</i> -was an outer or an under garment. -Persons sometimes wore several tunics, as a -protection against cold: Augustus wore four -in the winter, besides a subucula. As the -dress of a man usually consisted of an under -tunic, an outer tunic, and the toga, so that -of a woman, in like manner, consisted of an -under tunic, an outer tunic, and the palla. -The outer tunic of the Roman matron was -properly called stola [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stola">Stola</a></span>], and is represented -in the woodcut on <a href="#ill355">p. 355</a>; but the -annexed woodcut, which represents a Roman -empress in the character of Concordia, or -Abundantia, gives a better idea of its form. -Over the tunic or stola the palla is thrown<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_402"></a>[402]</span> -in many folds, but the shape of the former is -still distinctly shown. The tunics of women -were larger and longer than those of men, -and always had sleeves; but in ancient -paintings and statues we seldom find the -sleeves covering more than the upper part of -the arm. Sometimes the tunics were adorned -with golden ornaments called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Leria</i>. Poor -people, who could not afford to purchase a -toga, wore the tunic alone, whence we find -the common people called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tunicati</i>. A person -who wore only his tunic was frequently -called <span class="smcap"><a href="#Nudus">Nudus</a></span>. Respecting the clavus latus -and the clavus angustus, worn on the tunics -of the senators and equites respectively, see -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus_l">Clavus Latus</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Clavus_l">Clavus Angustus</a></span>. When a -triumph was celebrated, the conqueror wore, -together with an embroidered toga (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Toga -picta</i>), a flowered tunic (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tunica palmata</i>), -also called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tunica Jovis</i>, because it was taken -from the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Tunics -of this kind were sent as presents to -foreign kings by the senate.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp36" id="ill402a" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill402a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Roman Tunic. (Visconti, Monumenti Gabini, n. 34.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Turibulum">TŪRĬBŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυμιατήριον</span>), a censer. The -Greeks and Romans, when they sacrificed, -commonly took a little frankincense out of -the <span class="smcap"><a href="#Acerra">Acerra</a></span> and let it fall upon the flaming -altar. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ara">Ara</a>.</span>] More rarely they used a censer, -by means of which they burnt the incense -in greater profusion, and which was in fact -a small moveable grate or <span class="smcap"><a href="#Focus">Foculus</a></span>. The annexed -cut shows the performance of both of -these acts at the same time. Winckelmann -supposes it to represent Livia, the wife, and -Octavia, the sister of Augustus, sacrificing to -Mars in gratitude for his safe return from -Spain. The censer here represented has two -handles for the purpose of carrying it from -place to place, and it stands upon feet so that -the air might be admitted underneath, and -pass upwards through the fuel.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill402b" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill402b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Livia and Octavia Sacrificing. (From an ancient Painting.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Turma">TURMA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_166">p. 166</a>, b.]</p> - - -<p id="Turris">TURRIS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πύργος</span>), a tower. Moveable -towers were among the most important engines -used in storming a fortified place. They -were generally made of beams and planks, -and covered, at least on the three sides which -were exposed to the besieged, with iron, not -only for protection, but also to increase their -weight, and thus make them steadier. They -were also covered with raw hides and quilts, -moistened, and sometimes with alum, to protect -them from fire. Their height was such -as to overtop the walls, towers, and all other -fortifications of the besieged place. They -were divided into stories (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulata</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tecta</i>), -and hence they are called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">turres contabulatae</i>. -The sides of the towers were pierced with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_403"></a>[403]</span> -windows, of which there were several to each -story. The use of the stories was to receive -the engines of war (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tormenta</i>). They contained -balistae and catapults, and slingers and -archers were stationed in them, and on the -tops of the towers. In the lowest story was -a battering-ram [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aries">Aries</a></span>]; and in the middle -one or more bridges (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pontes</i>) made of beams -and planks, and protected at the sides by -hurdles. Scaling-ladders (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scalae</i>) were also -carried in the towers, and when the missiles -had cleared the walls, these bridges and ladders -enabled the besiegers to rush upon them. -These towers were placed upon wheels (generally -6 or 8), that they might be brought up -to the walls. These wheels were placed for -security inside of the tower.</p> - - -<p id="Tutor">TŪTOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Curator">Curator</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Tympanum">TYMPĂNUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τύμπανον</span>), a small drum -carried in the hand. Of these, some resembled -in all respects a modern tambourine -with bells. Others presented a flat circular -disk on the upper surface and swelled out -beneath like a kettle-drum. Both forms are -represented in the cuts below. Tympana -were covered with the hides of oxen, or of -asses; were beaten with a stick, or with the -hand, and were much employed in all wild -enthusiastic religious rites, especially the -orgies of Bacchus and Cybele.—(2) A solid -wheel without spokes, for heavy waggons, -such as is shown in the cut on <a href="#ill298">p. 298</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill403" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill403.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Tympana. (From ancient Paintings.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Tyrannus">TỸRANNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τύραννος</span>). In the heroic -age all the governments in Greece were monarchical, -the king uniting in himself the -functions of the priest, the judge, and military -chief. In the first two or three centuries -following the Trojan war various -causes were at work, which led to the abolition, -or at least to the limitation, of the -kingly power. Emigrations, extinctions of -families, disasters in war, civil dissensions, -may be reckoned among these causes. Hereditary -monarchies became elective; the different -functions of the king were distributed; -he was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Archon</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄρχων</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cosmus</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόσμος</span>), -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Prytanis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρύτανις</span>), instead of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Basileus</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλεύς</span>), and his character was -changed no less than his name. Noble and -wealthy families began to be considered on a -footing of equality with royalty; and thus in -process of time sprang up oligarchies or aristocracies, -which most of the governments that -succeeded the ancient monarchies were in -point of fact, though not as yet called by -such names. These oligarchies did not possess -the elements of social happiness or -stability. The principal families contended -with each other for the greatest share of -power, and were only unanimous in disregarding -the rights of those whose station -was beneath their own. The people, oppressed -by the privileged classes, began to -regret the loss of their old paternal form of -government; and were ready to assist any -one who would attempt to restore it. Thus -were opportunities offered to ambitious and -designing men to raise themselves, by starting -up as the champions of popular right. -Discontented nobles were soon found to prosecute -schemes of this sort, and they had a -greater chance of success, if descended from -the ancient royal family. Pisistratus is an -example; he was the more acceptable to the -people of Athens, as being a descendant of -the family of Codrus. Thus in many cities -arose that species of monarchy which the -Greeks called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tyrannis</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τυραννίς</span>), which -meant only <em>a despotism</em>, or irresponsible -dominion of one man; and which frequently -was nothing more than a revival of the ancient -government, and, though unaccompanied -with any recognised hereditary title, -or the reverence attached to old name and -long prescription, was hailed by the lower -orders of people as a good exchange, after suffering -under the domination of the oligarchy. -All <em>tyrannies</em>, however, were not so acceptable -to the majority; and sometimes we find -the nobles concurring in the elevation of a -despot, to further their own interests. Thus -the Syracusan <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gamori</i>, who had been expelled -by the populace, on receiving the -protection of Gelon, sovereign of Gela and -Camarina, enabled him to take possession of -Syracuse, and establish his kingdom there. -Sometimes the conflicting parties in the -state, by mutual consent, chose some eminent -man, in whom they had confidence, to -reconcile their dissensions; investing him -with a sort of dictatorial power for that purpose, -either for a limited period or otherwise. -Such a person they called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aesymnetes</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αἰσυμνήτης</span>). -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tyrannus</i> must be distinguished, -on the one hand, from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aesymnetes</i>, inasmuch -as he was not elected by general consent, -but commonly owed his elevation to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_404"></a>[404]</span> -some violent movement or stratagem, such -as the creation of a body-guard for him by -the people, or the seizure of the citadel; and -on the other hand, from the ancient king, -whose right depended, not on usurpation, -but on inheritance and traditionary acknowledgment. -The power of a king might be -more absolute than that of a <em>tyrant</em>; as -Phidon of Argos is said to have made the -royal prerogative greater than it was under -his predecessors; yet he was still regarded as -a king; for the difference between the two -names depended on title and origin, and not -on the manner in which the power was exercised. -The name of <em>tyrant</em> was originally -so far from denoting a person who abused -his power, or treated his subjects with -cruelty, that Pisistratus is praised for the -moderation of his government. Afterwards, -when <em>tyrants</em> themselves had become odious, -the name also grew to be a word of reproach, -just as <em>rex</em> did among the Romans. Among -the early <em>tyrants</em> of Greece those most -worthy of mention are: Clisthenes of Sicyon, -grandfather of the Athenian Clisthenes, in -whose family the government continued for -a century since its establishment by Orthagoras, -about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 672; Cypselus of Corinth, -who expelled the Bacchiadae, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 656, and -his son Periander, both remarkable for their -cruelty; their dynasty lasted between seventy -and eighty years; Procles of Epidaurus; -Pantaleon of Pisa, who celebrated the thirty-fourth -Olympiad, depriving the Eleans of -the presidency; Theagenes of Megara, father-in-law -to Cylon the Athenian; Pisistratus, -whose sons were the last of the early <em>tyrants</em> -on the Grecian continent. In Sicily, where -<em>tyranny</em> most flourished, the principal were -Phalaris of Agrigentum, who established his -power in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 568; Theron of Agrigentum; -Gelon, already mentioned, who, in conjunction -with Theron, defeated Hamilcar the -Carthaginian, on the same day on which the -battle of Salamis was fought; and Hieron, -his brother: the last three celebrated by -Pindar. The following also are worthy of -notice: Polycrates of Samos; Lygdamis of -Naxos; Histiaeus and Aristagoras of Miletus. -Perhaps the last mentioned can hardly -be classed among the <em>Greek tyrants</em>, as they -were connected with the Persian monarchy. -The general characteristics of a <em>tyranny</em> were, -that it was bound by no laws, and had no -recognised limitation to its authority, however -it might be restrained <em>in practice</em> by the -good disposition of the <em>tyrant</em> himself, or by -fear, or by the spirit of the age. It was -commonly most odious to the wealthy and -noble, whom the <em>tyrant</em> looked upon with -jealousy as a check upon his power, and -whom he often sought to get rid of by sending -them into exile or putting them to death. -The <em>tyrant</em> usually kept a body-guard of -foreign mercenaries, by aid of whom he controlled -the people at home; but he seldom -ventured to make war, for fear of giving an -opportunity to his subjects to revolt. The -causes which led to the decline of <em>tyranny</em> -among the Greeks were partly the degeneracy -of the <em>tyrants</em> themselves, corrupted by -power, indolence, flattery, and bad education; -for even where the father set a good -example, it was seldom followed by the son; -partly the cruelties and excesses of particular -men, which brought them all into disrepute; -and partly the growing spirit of inquiry -among the Greek people, who began to speculate -upon political theories, and soon became -discontented with a form of government, -which had nothing in theory, and -little in practice, to recommend it. Few -dynasties lasted beyond the third generation. -Most of the tyrannies, which flourished before -the Persian war, are said to have been -overthrown by the exertions of Sparta, jealous, -probably, of any innovation upon the -old Doric constitution, especially of any tendency -to ameliorate the condition of the Periocci, -and anxious to extend her own influence -over the states of Greece by means of -the benefits which she conferred. Upon the -fall of <em>tyranny</em>, the various republican forms -of government were established, the Dorian -states generally favouring oligarchy, the -Ionian democracy. Of the tyrants of a later -period, the most celebrated are the two -Dionysii. The corruption of the Syracusans, -their intestine discords, and the fear of the -Carthaginian invaders, led to the appointment -of Dionysius to the chief military command, -with unlimited powers; by means of -which he raised himself to the throne, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -406, and reigned for 38 years, leaving his son -to succeed him. The younger Dionysius, far -inferior in every respect to his father, was -expelled by Dion, afterwards regained the -throne, and was again expelled by Timoleon, -who restored liberty to the various states of -Sicily.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="U_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">U</span></h2> - -<p id="Udo" class="drop-capy">UDO, a sock of goat’s-hair or felt, worn by -countrymen with the low boots called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">perones</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pero">Pero</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ulna">ULNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Umbilicus">UMBĬLĪCUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Liber">Liber</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Umbo">UMBO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Clipeus">Clipeus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Umbraculum">UMBRĀCŬLUM, UMBELLA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκιάδειον</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκιάδιον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκιαδίσκη</span>), a parasol, was used by -Greek and Roman ladies as a protection<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_405"></a>[405]</span> -against the sun. They seem not to have -been carried generally by the ladies themselves, -but by female slaves, who held them -over their mistresses. The daughters of the -aliens (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέτοικοι</span>) at Athens had to carry parasols -after the Athenian maidens at the Panathenaea, -as is mentioned under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Hydriaphoria">Hydriaphoria</a></span>. -The parasols of the ancients seem -to have been exactly like our own parasols -or umbrellas in form, and could be shut up -and opened like ours. It was considered a -mark of effeminacy for men to make use of -parasols. The Roman ladies used them in -the amphitheatre to defend themselves from -the sun or some passing shower, when the -wind or other circumstances did not allow -the velarium to be extended. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>] -To hold a parasol over a lady was -one of the common attentions of lovers, and -it seems to have been very common to give -parasols as presents. Instead of parasols, the -Greek women in later times wore a kind of -straw hat or bonnet, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tholia</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θολία</span>). -The Romans also wore a hat with a broad -brim (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">petasus</i>) as a protection against the sun.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="ill405" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill405.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Umbraculum, Parasol. (From an ancient Vase.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Uncia">UNCIA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὀγκία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐγκία</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οὐγγία</span>), the twelfth -part of the <span class="smcap"><a href="#As_c">As</a></span> or <span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra">Libra</a></span>, is derived by Varro -from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unus</i>, as being the unit of the divisions -of the as. Its value as a weight was 433·666 -grains, or ¾ of an ounce and 105·36 grains -avoirdupois. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra">Libra</a>.</span>] In connecting the -Roman system of weights and money with -the Greek another division of the uncia was -used. When the drachma was introduced -into the Roman system as equivalent to the -denarius of 96 to the pound [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a></span>; -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Drachma">Drachma</a></span>], the uncia contained 8 drachmae, -the drachma 3 scrupula, the scrupulum 2 -oboli (since 6 oboli made up the drachma), -and the obolos 3 siliquae (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κερατία</span>). In this -division we have the origin of the modern -Italian system, in which the pound is divided -into 12 ounces, the ounce into 3 drams, the -dram into 3 scruples, and the scruple into -6 carats. In each of these systems 1728 -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κερατία</span>, siliquae, or carats, make up the -pound. The Romans applied the uncial division -to all kinds of magnitude. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a>.</span>] In -length the uncia was the twelfth of a foot, -whence the word <em>inch</em> [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a></span>], in area the -twelfth of a jugerum [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Jugerum">Jugerum</a></span>], in content -the twelfth of a sextarius [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sextarius">Sextarius</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus</a></span>], -in time the twelfth of an hour.</p> - - -<p id="Unciarium">UNCIĀRĬUM FĒNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Unctores">UNCTŌRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Unguenta">UNGUENTA, ointments, oils, or salves. -The application of unguenta in connection -with the bathing and athletic contests of the -ancients is stated under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Balneum">Balneum</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Athletae">Athletae</a></span>. -But although their original object -was simply to preserve the health and elasticity -of the human frame, they were in later -times used as articles of luxury. They were -then not only employed to impart to the body -or hair a particular colour, but also to give -to them the most beautiful fragrance possible; -they were, moreover, not merely applied -after a bath, but at any time, to render -one’s appearance or presence more pleasant -than usual. In short, they were used then -as oils and pomatums are at present. At -Rome these luxuries did not become very -general till towards the end of the republic, -while the Greeks appear to have been familiar -with them from early times. The wealthy -Greeks and Romans carried their ointments -and perfumes with them, especially when -they bathed, in small boxes of costly materials -and beautiful workmanship, which -were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Narthecia</i>. The traffic which -was carried on in these ointments and perfumes -in several towns of Greece and southern -Italy was very considerable. The persons -engaged in manufacturing them were called -by the Romans <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Unguentarii</i>, or, as they frequently -were women, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Unguentariae</i>, and the -art of manufacturing them <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Unguentaria</i>. In -the wealthy and effeminate city of Capua -there was one great street, called the Seplasia, -which consisted entirely of shops in which -ointments and perfumes were sold.</p> - - -<p id="Uragus">ŪRĀGUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Centurio">Centurio</a>.</span>]</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_406"></a>[406]</span></p> - - -<p id="Urceus">URCĔUS, a pitcher or water-pot, generally -made of earthenware, was used by the priests -at Rome in the sacrifices, and thus appears -with other sacrificial emblems on Roman -coins.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill406" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill406.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Urceus and Lituus on obverse of Coin of Pompey.</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Urna">URNA, an urn, a Roman measure of capacity -for fluids, equal to half an <span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphora">Amphora</a></span>. -This use of the term was probably founded -upon its more general application to denote -a vessel for holding water, or any other substance, -either fluid or solid. An urn was -used to receive the names of the judges -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">judices</i>) in order that the praetor might -draw out of it a sufficient number to determine -causes: also to receive the ashes of -the dead.</p> - - -<p id="Ustrina">USTRĪNA, USTRĪNUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Bustum">Bustum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Usucapio">ŪSŪCĂPĬO, the possession of property for -a certain time without interruption. The -Twelve Tables declared that the ownership -of land, a house, or other immoveable property, -could be acquired by usucapio in two -years; and of moveable property by usucapio -in one year.</p> - - -<p id="Usurae">ŪSŪRAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Usus">ŪSUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Ususfructus">ŪSUSFRUCTUS was the right to the enjoyment -of a thing by one person, while the -ownership belonged to another. He who -had the ususfructus was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ususfructuarius</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fructuarius</i>, and the object of the ususfructus -was <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Res Fructuaria</i>.</p> - - -<p id="Utricularius">UTRĬCŬLĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tibia">Tibia</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Uxor">UXOR. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Uxorium">UXŌRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_u">Aes Uxorium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="V_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">V</span></h2> - -<p id="Vacatio" class="drop-capy">VĂCATĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Emeriti">Emeriti</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Vadimonium">VĂDĬMŌNĬUM, VAS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Praes">Praes</a></span>.]</p> - - -<p id="Vagina">VĀGĪNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Gladius">Gladius</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vallum">VALLUM, a term applied either to the -whole or a portion of the fortifications of a -Roman camp. It is derived from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallus</i> (a -stake), and properly means the palisade which -ran along the outer edge of the agger, but it -very frequently includes the agger also. The -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>, in the latter sense, together with the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fossa</i> or ditch which surrounded the camp -outside of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>, formed a complete fortification. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">valli</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χάρακες</span>), of which the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>, in the former and more limited sense, -was composed, are described by Polybius and -Livy, who make a comparison between the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i> of the Greeks and that of the Romans, -very much to the advantage of the latter. -Both used for <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">valli</i> young trees or arms of -larger trees, with the side branches on them; -but the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">valli</i> of the Greeks were much larger -and had more branches than those of the -Romans, which had either two or three, or at -the most four branches, and these generally -on the same side. The Greeks placed their -valli in the agger at considerable intervals, -the spaces between them being filled up by -the branches; the Romans fixed theirs close -together, and made the branches interlace, -and sharpened their points carefully. Hence -the Greek vallus could easily be taken hold of -by its large branches and pulled from its -place, and when it was removed a large opening -was left in the vallum. The Roman -vallus, on the contrary, presented no convenient -handle, required very great force to -pull it down, and even if removed left a very -small opening. The Greek valli were cut on -the spot; the Romans prepared theirs beforehand, -and each soldier carried three or four -of them when on a march. They were made -of any strong wood, but oak was preferred. -The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallus</i> is sometimes used as equivalent -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vallum</i>. In the operations of a siege, -when the place could not be taken by storm, -and it became necessary to establish a blockade, -this was done by drawing defences similar -to those of a camp round the town, which -was then said to be <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">circumvallatum</i>. Such -a circumvallation, besides cutting off all communication -between the town and the surrounding -country, formed a defence against -the sallies of the besieged. There was often -a double line of fortifications, the inner -against the town, and the outer against a -force that might attempt to raise the siege. -In this case the army was encamped between -the two lines of works. This kind of circumvallation, -which the Greeks called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποτειχισμός</span> -and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">περιτειχισμός</span>, was employed by the -Peloponnesians in the siege of Plataeae. -Their lines consisted of two walls (apparently -of turf) at the distance of 16 feet, -which surrounded the city in the form of a -circle. Between the walls were the huts of -the besiegers. The wall had battlements -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπάλξεις</span>), and at every tenth battlement was -a tower, filling up by its depth the whole -space between the walls. There was a passage -for the besiegers through the middle of -each tower. On the outside of each wall was -a ditch (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τάφρος</span>). This description would -almost exactly answer to the Roman mode of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_407"></a>[407]</span> -circumvallation, of which some of the best -examples are that of Carthage by Scipio, that of -Numantia by Scipio, and that of Alesia by Caesar. -The towers in such lines were similar to -those used in attacking fortified places, but not -so high, and of course not moveable. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Turris">Turris</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Valvae">VALVAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Janua">Janua</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vannus">VANNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λικμός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λίκνον</span>), a winnowing-van, -<em>i.e.</em> a broad basket, into which the corn -mixed with chaff was received after thrashing, -and was then thrown in the direction of -the wind. Virgil dignifies this simple implement -by calling it <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mystica vannus Iacchi</i>. -The rites of Bacchus, as well as those of -Ceres, having a continual reference to the -occupations of rural life, the vannus was -borne in the processions celebrated in honour -of both these divinities. In the cut annexed -the infant Bacchus is carried in a vannus by -two dancing bacchantes clothed in skins.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp84" id="ill407" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill407.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Bacchus carried in a Vannus. (From an Antefixa in the British Museum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Vas">VAS (pl. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa</i>), a general term for any -kind of vessel. Thus we read of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vas vinarium</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vas argenteum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa Corinthia et Deliaca</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa Samia</i>, that is, made of Samian earthenware, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa Murrhina</i>. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Murrhina">Murrhina Vasa</a>.</span>] -The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vas</i> was used in a still wider signification, -and was applied to any kind of -utensil used in the kitchen, agriculture, &c. -The utensils of the soldiers were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa</i>, -and hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa colligere</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa conclamare</i> -signify to pack up the baggage, to give the -signal for departure.</p> - - -<p id="Vectigalia">VECTĪGĀLĬA, the general term for all the -regular revenues of the Roman state. It -means anything which is brought (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vehitur</i>) -into the public treasury, like the Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φόρος</span>. -The earliest regular income of the state was -in all probability the rent paid for the use of -the public land and pastures. This revenue -was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pascua</i>, a name which was used as -late as the time of Pliny, in the tables or -registers of the censors for all the revenues of -the state in general. The senate was the -supreme authority in all matters of finance, -but as the state did not occupy itself with -collecting the taxes, duties, and tributes, -the censors were entrusted with the actual -business. These officers, who in this respect -may not unjustly be compared to modern -ministers of finance, used to let the various -branches of the revenue to the publicani for a -fixed sum, and for a certain number of years. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Censor">Censor</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Publicani">Publicani</a></span>.] As most of the -branches of the public revenues of Rome are -treated of in separate articles, it is only necessary -to give a list of them here, and to explain -those which have not been treated of -separately. 1. The tithes paid to the state -by those who occupied the ager publicus. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Decumae">Decumae</a></span>; <span class="smcap"><a href="#Ager">Ager Publicus</a></span>.] 2. The sums -paid by those who kept their cattle on the -public pastures. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Scriptura">Scriptura</a>.</span>] 3. The harbour -duties raised upon imported and exported -commodities. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Portorium">Portorium</a>.</span>] 4. The -revenue derived from the salt-works. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Salinae">Salinae</a>.</span>] -5. The revenues derived from the -mines (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">metalla</i>). This branch of the public -revenue cannot have been very productive -until the Romans had become masters of -foreign countries. Until that time the mines -of Italy appear to have been worked, but this -was forbidden by the senate after the conquest -of foreign lands. The mines of conquered -countries were treated like the salinae. -6. The hundredth part of the value of all -things which were sold (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">centesima rerum venalium</i>). -This tax was not instituted at -Rome until the time of the civil wars; the -persons who collected it were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">coactores</i>. -Tiberius reduced this tax to a two-hundredth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_408"></a>[408]</span> -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ducentesima</i>), and Caligula abolished it for -Italy altogether, whence upon several coins -of this emperor we read <span class="allsmcap">R. C. C.</span>, that is, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Remissa Ducentesima</i>. Respecting the tax -raised upon the sale of slaves, see <span class="smcap">Quinquagesima</span>. -7. The vicesima hereditatum et -manumissionum. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vicesima">Vicesima</a>.</span>] 8. The tribute -imposed upon foreign countries was by -far the most important branch of the public -revenue during the time of Rome’s greatness. -It was sometimes raised at once, sometimes -paid by instalments, and sometimes changed -into a poll-tax, which was in many cases -regulated according to the census. In regard -to Cilicia and Syria we know that this tax -amounted to one per cent. of a person’s census, -to which a tax upon houses and slaves -was added. In some cases the tribute was -not paid according to the census, but consisted -in a land-tax. 9. A tax upon bachelors. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aes_u">Aes Uxorium</a>.</span>] 10. A door-tax. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Ostiarium">Ostiarium</a>.</span>] 11. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">octavae</i>. In the time -of Caesar all liberti living in Italy, and possessing -property of 200 sestertia, and above -it, had to pay a tax consisting of the eighth -part of their property.—It would be interesting -to ascertain the amount of income which -Rome at various periods derived from these -and other sources; but our want of information -renders it impossible. We have only the -general statement, that previously to the time -of Pompey the annual revenue amounted to -fifty millions of drachmas, and that it was -increased by him to eighty-five millions.</p> - - -<p id="Velarium">VĒLĀRĬUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a></span>, <a href="#Page_23">p. 23</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Velites">VĒLĬTES, the light-armed troops in a Roman -army. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_169">p. 169</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Velum">VĒLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐλαία</span>).—(1) A curtain. Curtains -were used in private houses as coverings -over doors, or they served in the interior of -the house as substitutes for doors.—(2) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Velum</i>, -and more commonly its derivative <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">velamen</i>, -denoted the veil worn by women. That -worn by a bride was specifically called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">flammeum</i>. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium</a>.</span>]—(3) (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱστίον</span>.) A -sail. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Navis">Navis</a></span>, <a href="#Page_267">p. 267</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Venabulum">VĒNĀBŬLUM, a hunting-spear. This -may have been distinguished from the spears -used in warfare by being barbed; at least it -is often so formed in ancient works of art. -It was seldom, if ever, thrown, but held so as -to slant downwards and to receive the attacks -of the wild boars and other beasts of chace.</p> - - -<p id="Venatio">VĒNĀTĬO, hunting, was the name given -among the Romans to an exhibition of wild -beasts, which fought with one another and -with men. These exhibitions originally -formed part of the games of the circus. Julius -Caesar first built a wooden amphitheatre -for the exhibition of wild beasts, and others -were subsequently erected; but we frequently -read of venationes in the circus in subsequent -times. The persons who fought with the -beasts were either condemned criminals or -captives, or individuals who did so for the -sake of pay, and were trained for the purpose. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Bestiarii">Bestiarii</a>.</span>] The Romans were as passionately -fond of this entertainment as of the exhibitions -of gladiators, and during the latter -days of the republic, and under the empire, -an immense variety of animals was collected -from all parts of the Roman world for the -gratification of the people, and many thousands -were frequently slain at one time. We -do not know on what occasion a venatio was -first exhibited at Rome; but the first mention -we find of any thing of the kind is in -the year <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 251, when L. Metellus exhibited -in the circus 142 elephants, which he had -brought from Sicily after his victory over the -Carthaginians. But this can scarcely be regarded -as an instance of a venatio, as it was -understood in later times, since the elephants -are said to have been only killed because the -Romans did not know what to do with them, -and not for the amusement of the people. -There was, however, a venatio in the later -sense of the word in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 186, in the games -celebrated by M. Fulvius in fulfilment of the -vow which he had made in the Aetolian war; in -these games lions and panthers were exhibited. -It is mentioned as a proof of the growing -magnificence of the age that in the ludi -circenses, exhibited by the curule aediles P. -Cornelius Scipio Nasica and P. Lentulus <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -168, there were 63 African panthers and -40 bears and elephants. From about this -time combats with wild beasts probably -formed a regular part of the ludi circenses, -and many of the curule aediles made great -efforts to obtain rare and curious animals, -and put in requisition the services of their -friends. Elephants are said to have first -fought in the circus in the curule aedileship -of Claudius Pulcher, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 99; and twenty -years afterwards, in the curule aedileship of -the two Luculli, they fought against bulls. -A hundred lions were exhibited by Sulla in -his praetorship, which were destroyed by -javelin-men sent by king Bocchus for the purpose. -This was the first time that lions were -allowed to be loose in the circus; they were -previously always tied up. The games, however, -in the curule aedileship of Scaurus, -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58, surpassed anything the Romans had -ever seen; among other novelties, he first -exhibited an hippopotamos and five crocodiles -in a temporary canal or trench (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">euripus</i>). At -the venatio given by Pompey in his second -consulship, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 55, upon the dedication of -the temple of Venus Victrix, there was an -immense number of animals slaughtered,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_409"></a>[409]</span> -among which we find mention of 600 lions, -and 18 or 20 elephants; the latter fought -with Gaetulians, who hurled darts against -them, and they attempted to break through -the railings (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">clathri</i>) by which they were -separated from the spectators. To guard -against this danger Julius Caesar surrounded -the arena of the amphitheatre with trenches -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">euripi</i>). In the games exhibited by J. Caesar -in his third consulship, <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 45, the venatio -lasted for five days, and was conducted with -extraordinary splendour. Cameleopards or -giraffes were then for the first time seen in -Italy. The venationes seem to have been -first confined to the ludi circenses, but during -the later times of the republic, and under the -empire, they were frequently exhibited on -the celebration of triumphs, and on many -other occasions, with the view of pleasing the -people. The passion for these shows continued -to increase under the empire, and the -number of beasts sometimes slaughtered seems -almost incredible. Under the emperors we -read of a particular kind of venatio, in which -the beasts were not killed by bestiarii, but -were given up to the people, who were allowed -to rush into the area of the circus and -carry away what they pleased. On such occasions -a number of large trees, which had -been torn up by the roots, was planted in the -circus, which thus resembled a forest, and -none of the more savage animals were admitted -into it. One of the most extraordinary -venationes of this kind was that given by -Probus, in which there were 1000 ostriches, -1000 stags, 1000 boars, 1000 deer, and numbers -of wild goats, wild sheep, and other -animals of the same kind. The more savage -animals were slain by the bestiarii in the -amphitheatre, and not in the circus. Thus, -in the day succeeding the venatio of Probus -just mentioned, there were slain in the amphitheatre -100 lions and 100 lionesses, 100 -Libyan and 100 Syrian leopards, and 300 bears.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill409" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill409.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Venationes. (From Bas-reliefs on the Tomb of Scaurus at Pompeii.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Veneficium">VĔNĒFĬCĬUM, the crime of poisoning, is -frequently mentioned in Roman history. -Women were most addicted to it: but it -seems not improbable that this charge was -frequently brought against females without -sufficient evidence of their guilt, like that of -witchcraft in Europe in the middle ages. -We find females condemned to death for this -crime in seasons of pestilence, when the people -are always in an excited state of mind, -and ready to attribute the calamities under -which they suffer to the arts of evil-disposed -persons. Thus the Athenians, when the -pestilence raged in their city during the Peloponnesian -war, supposed the wells to have -been poisoned by the Peloponnesians, and -similar instances occur in the history of -almost all states. Still, however, the crime -of poisoning seems to have been much more -frequent in ancient than in modern times;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_410"></a>[410]</span> -and this circumstance would lead persons to -suspect it in cases when there was no real -ground for the suspicion. At Athens the -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Pharmacon">Pharmacon Graphe</a></span> was brought against -poisoners. At Rome the first legislative -enactment especially directed against poisoning -was a law of the dictator Sulla—Lex -Cornelia de Sicariis et Veneficis—passed in -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 82, which continued in force, with some -alterations, to the latest times. It contained -provisions against all who made, -bought, sold, possessed, or gave poison for -the purpose of poisoning. The punishment -fixed by this law was the interdictio aquae et -ignis.</p> - - -<p id="Ver">VER SACRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔτος ἱερόν</span>). It was a -custom among the early Italian nations, -especially among the Sabines, in times of -great danger and distress, to vow to the deity -the sacrifice of everything born in the next -spring, that is, between the first of March -and the last day of April, if the calamity -under which they were labouring should be -removed. This sacrifice in the early times -comprehended both men and domestic animals, -and there is little doubt that in many -cases the vow was really carried into effect. -But in later times it was thought cruel to -sacrifice so many infants, and accordingly -the following expedient was adopted. The -children were allowed to grow up, and in the -spring of their twentieth or twenty-first year -they were with covered faces driven across -the frontier of their native country, whereupon -they went whithersoever fortune or -the deity might lead them. Many a colony -had been founded by persons driven out in -this manner; and the Mamertines in Sicily -were the descendants of such devoted persons. -In the two historical instances in -which the Romans vowed a ver sacrum, -that is, after the battle of lake Trasimenus -and at the close of the second Punic war, the -vow was confined to domestic animals.</p> - - -<p id="Verbena">VERBĒNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sagmina">Sagmina</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Verbenarius">VERBĒNĀRĬUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fetiales">Fetialis</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Verna">VERNA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Servus">Servus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Versura">VERSŪRA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Veru">VĔRU, VERŪTUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vespae">VESPAE, VESPILLŌNES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_188">p. 188</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Vestales">VESTĀLES, the virgin priestesses of Vesta, -who ministered in her temple and watched -the eternal fire. Their existence at Alba -Longa is connected with the earliest Roman -traditions, for Silvia the mother of Romulus -was a member of the sisterhood; their establishment -in the city, in common with -almost all other matters connected with state -religion, is generally ascribed to Numa, who -selected four, two from the Titienses and two -from the Ramnes; and two more were subsequently -added from the Luceres, by Tarquinius -Priscus according to one authority, -by Servius Tullius according to another. -This number of six remained unchanged to -the latest times. They were originally -chosen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capere</i> is the technical word) by the -king, and during the republic and empire by -the pontifex maximus. It was necessary -that the maiden should not be under six nor -above ten years of age, perfect in all her -limbs, in the full enjoyment of all her senses, -patrima et matrima [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Patrimi">Patrimi</a></span>], the daughter -of free and freeborn parents who had never -been in slavery, who followed no dishonourable -occupation, and whose home was in -Italy. The Lex Papia ordained that when a -vacancy occurred the pontifex maximus -should name at his discretion twenty qualified -damsels, one of whom was publicly (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in -concione</i>) fixed upon by lot, an exemption -being granted in favour of such as had a -sister already a vestal, and of the daughters -of certain priests of a high class. The above -law appears to have been enacted in consequence -of the unwillingness of fathers to -resign all control over a child, and this reluctance -was manifested so strongly in later -times, that in the age of Augustus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">libertinae</i> -were declared eligible. The casting of lots -moreover does not seem to have been practised -if any respectable person came forward -voluntarily, and offered a daughter who fulfilled -the necessary conditions. As soon as -the election was concluded, the pontifex -maximus took the girl by the hand and addressed -her in a solemn form. After this was -pronounced she was led away to the atrium -of Vesta, and lived thenceforward within the -sacred precincts, under the special superintendence -and control of the pontifical college. -The period of service lasted for thirty years. -During the first ten the priestess was engaged -in learning her mysterious duties, being -termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">discipula</i>, during the next ten in -performing them, during the last ten in -giving instructions to the novices, and so -long as she was thus employed she was bound -by a solemn vow of chastity. But after the -time specified was completed, she might, if -she thought fit, throw off the emblems of her -office, unconsecrate herself (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">exaugurare</i>), return -to the world, and even enter into the -marriage state. Few however availed themselves -of these privileges; those who did -were said to have lived in sorrow and remorse -(as might indeed have been expected -from the habits they had formed); hence -such a proceeding was considered ominous, -and the priestesses for the most part died, as -they had lived, in the service of the goddess. -The senior sister was entitled <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vestalis Maxima</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_411"></a>[411]</span> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Virgo Maxima</i>, and we find also the -expressions <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vestalium vetustissima</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tres -maximae</i>. Their chief office was to watch -by turns, night and day, the everlasting fire -which blazed upon the altar of Vesta, its -extinction being considered as the most fearful -of all prodigies, and emblematic of the -extinction of the state. If such misfortune -befell, and was caused by the carelessness of -the priestess on duty, she was stripped and -scourged by the pontifex maximus, in the -dark and with a screen interposed, and he -rekindled the flame by the friction of two -pieces of wood from a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">felix arbor</i>. Their -other ordinary duties consisted in presenting -offerings to the goddess at stated times, and -in sprinkling and purifying the shrine each -morning with water, which according to the -institution of Numa was to be drawn from -the Egerian fount, although in later times it -was considered lawful to employ any water -from a living spring or running stream, -but not such as had passed through pipes. -When used for sacrificial purposes it was -mixed with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">muries</i>, that is, salt which had -been pounded in a mortar, thrown into an -earthen jar, and baked in an oven. They -assisted moreover at all great public holy -rites, such as the festivals of the Bona Dea, -and the consecration of temples; they were -invited to priestly banquets, and we are told -that they were present at the solemn appeal -to the gods made by Cicero during the conspiracy -of Catiline. They also guarded the -sacred relics which formed the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fatale pignus -imperii</i>, the pledge granted by fate for the -permanency of the Roman sway, deposited in -the inmost adytum, which no one was permitted -to enter save the virgins and the chief -pontifex. What this object was no one -knew; some supposed that it was the palladium, -others the Samothracian gods carried -by Dardanus to Troy, and transported from -thence to Italy by Aeneas, but all agreed in -believing that something of awful sanctity -was here preserved, contained, it was said, -in a small earthen jar closely sealed, while -another exactly similar in form, but empty, -stood by its side. We have seen above that -supreme importance was attached to the -purity of the vestals, and a terrible punishment -awaited her who violated the vow of -chastity. According to the law of Numa, she -was simply to be stoned to death, but a more -cruel torture was devised by Tarquinius -Priscus, and inflicted from that time forward. -When condemned by the college of pontifices, -she was stripped of her vittae and other -badges of office, was scourged, was attired -like a corpse, placed in a close litter and -borne through the forum attended by her -weeping kindred, with all the ceremonies of -a real funeral, to a rising ground called the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Campus Sceleratus</i>, just within the city walls, -close to the Colline gate. There a small -vault underground had been previously prepared, -containing a couch, a lamp, and a -table with a little food. The pontifex maximus, -having lifted up his hands to heaven -and uttered a secret prayer, opened the litter, -led forth the culprit, and placing her on the -steps of the ladder which gave access to the -subterranean cell, delivered her over to the -common executioner and his assistants, who -conducted her down, drew up the ladder, and -having filled the pit with earth until the surface -was level with the surrounding ground, -left her to perish deprived of all the tributes -of respect usually paid to the spirits of the -departed. In every case the paramour was -publicly scourged to death in the forum. -The honours which the vestals enjoyed were -such as in a great measure to compensate for -their privations. They were maintained at -the public cost, and from sums of money and -land bequeathed from time to time to the -corporation. From the moment of their consecration -they became as it were the property -of the goddess alone, and were completely -released from all parental sway, without going -through the form of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">emancipatio</i> or suffering -any <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">capitis deminutio</i>. They had a -right to make a will, and to give evidence in -a court of justice without taking an oath. -From the time of the triumviri each was -preceded by a lictor when she went abroad; -consuls and praetors made way for them, -and lowered their fasces; even the tribunes -of the plebs respected their holy character, -and if any one passed under their litter he -was put to death. Augustus granted to them -all the rights of matrons who had borne -three children, and assigned them a conspicuous -place in the theatre, a privilege -which they had enjoyed before at the gladiatorial -shows. Great weight was attached to -their intercession on behalf of those in danger -and difficulty, of which we have a remarkable -example in the entreaties which -they addressed to Sulla on behalf of Julius -Caesar, and if they chanced to meet a criminal -as he was led to punishment, they had a -right to demand his release, provided it could -be proved that the encounter was accidental. -Wills, even those of the emperors, -were committed to their charge, for when in -such keeping they were considered inviolable; -and in like manner very solemn -treaties, such as that of the triumvirs with -Sextus Pompeius, were placed in their hands. -That they might be honoured in death as in -life, their ashes were interred within the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_412"></a>[412]</span> -pomoerium. They were attired in a stola -over which was an upper vestment made of -linen, and in addition to the infula and white -woollen vitta, they wore when sacrificing a -peculiar head-dress called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">suffibulum</i>, consisting -of a piece of white cloth bordered with -purple, oblong in shape, and secured by a -clasp. In dress and general deportment they -were required to observe the utmost simplicity -and decorum, any fanciful ornaments -in the one or levity in the other being always -regarded with disgust and suspicion. Their -hair was cut off, probably at the period of -their consecration: whether this was repeated -from time to time does not appear, -but they are never represented with flowing -locks. The following cut represents the -vestal Tuccia who, when wrongfully accused, -appealed to the goddess to vindicate her -honour, and had power given to her to carry -a sieve full of water from the Tiber to the -temple. The form of the upper garment is -well shown.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp48" id="ill412" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill412.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Vestal Virgin. (From a Gem.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Vestibulum">VESTĬBŬLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_142">p. 142</a>, a.]</p> - - -<p id="Veteranus">VĔTĔRĀNUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Tiro">Tiro</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vexillarii">VEXILLĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_170">p. 170</a>, b.]</p> - - -<p id="Vexillum">VEXILLUM. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Signa">Signa Militaria</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Via">VIA, a public road. It was not until the -period of the long protracted Samnite wars -that the necessity was felt of securing a safe -communication between the city and the -legions, and then for the first time we hear -of those famous paved roads, which, in after -ages, connected Rome with her most distant -provinces, constituting the most lasting of -all her works. The excellence of the principles -upon which they were constructed is -sufficiently attested by their extraordinary -durability, many specimens being found in -the country around Rome which have been -used without being repaired for more than -a thousand years. The Romans are said to -have adopted their first ideas upon this -subject from the Carthaginians, and it is -extremely probable that the latter people -may, from their commercial activity and the -sandy nature of their soil, have been compelled -to turn their attention to the best -means of facilitating the conveyance of merchandise -to different parts of their territory. -The first great public road made by the -Romans was the Via Appia, which extended -in the first instance from Rome to Capua, -and was made in the censorship of Appius -Claudius Caecus (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 312.) The general construction -of a Roman road was as follows:—In -the first place, two shallow trenches (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sulci</i>) -were dug parallel to each other, marking -the breadth of the proposed road; this in -the great lines is found to have been from -13 to 15 feet. The loose earth between the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sulci</i> was then removed, and the excavation -continued until a solid foundation (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gremium</i>) -was reached, upon which the materials of -the road might firmly rest; if this could not -be attained, in consequence of the swampy -nature of the ground or from any peculiarity -in the soil, a basis was formed artificially by -driving piles (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fistucationibus</i>). Above the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gremium</i> were four distinct strata. The -lowest course was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">statumen</i>, consisting -of stones not smaller than the hand could -just grasp; above the statumen was the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rudus</i>, a mass of broken stones cemented -with lime, (what masons call <em>rubble-work</em>,) -rammed down hard, and nine inches thick; -above the rudus came the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nucleus</i>, composed -of fragments of bricks and pottery, the -pieces being smaller than in the rudus, cemented -with lime, and six inches thick. -Uppermost was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pavimentum</i>, large polygonal -blocks of the hardest stone (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silex</i>), -usually, at least in the vicinity of Rome, -basaltic lava, irregular in form, but fitted -and jointed with the greatest nicety, so as to -present a perfectly even surface, as free from -gaps or irregularities as if the whole had -been one solid mass. The general aspect -will be understood from the cut given below.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp67" id="ill413" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill413.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Street at the entrance of Pompeii.</div> -</div> - -<p>The centre of the way was a little elevated, -so as to permit the water to run off easily. -Occasionally, at least in cities, rectangular -slabs of softer stone were employed instead -of the irregular polygons of silex, and hence -the distinction between the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">silice -sternere</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saxo quadrato sternere</i>. Nor -was this all. Regular foot-paths (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">margines</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crepidines</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">umbones</i>) were raised upon each<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_413"></a>[413]</span> -side and strewed with gravel, the different -parts were strengthened and bound together -with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gomphi</i> or stone wedges, and stone -blocks were set up at moderate intervals on -the side of the foot-paths, in order that travellers -on horseback might be able to mount -without assistance. Finally, Caius Gracchus -erected mile-stones along the whole extent -of the great highways, marking the distances -from Rome, which appear to have been -counted from the gate at which each road -issued forth, and Augustus, when appointed -inspector of the viae around the city, erected -in the forum a gilded column (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">milliarium -aureum</i>), on which were inscribed the distances -of the principal points to which the -viae conducted. During the earlier ages of -the republic the construction and general -superintendence of the roads without, and -the streets within the city, were committed -like all other important works to the censors. -These duties, when no censors were in office, -devolved upon the consuls, and in their absence -on the praetor urbanus, the aediles, or -such persons as the senate thought fit to appoint. -There were also under the republic -four officers, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">quatuorviri viarum</i>, for -superintending the streets within the city, -and two called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores viarum</i>, for superintending -the roads without. Under the -empire the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">curatores viarum</i> were officers of -high rank. The chief roads which issued -from Rome are:—1. The <span class="smcap">Via Appia</span>, the -<em>Great South Road</em>. It issued from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta -Capena</i>, and passing through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aricia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tres -Tabernae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Appii Forum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tarracina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fundi</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Formiae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Minturnae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sinuessa</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carilinum</i>, -terminated at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capua</i>, but was eventually -extended through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Calatia</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caudium</i> -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Beneventum</i>, and finally from thence -through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Venusia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tarentum</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uria</i>, to -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Brundusium</i>.—2. The <span class="smcap">Via Latina</span>, from the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Capena</i>, another great line leading to -Beneventum, but keeping a course farther -inland than the Via Appia. Soon after -leaving the city it sent off a short branch -(<span class="smcap">Via Tusculana</span>) to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tusculum</i>, and passing -through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Compitum Anaginum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ferentinum</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Frusino</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fregellae</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fabrateria</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aquinum</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Casinum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Venafrum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Teanum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Allifae</i>, and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Telesia</i>, joined the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Appia</i> at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Beneventum</i>. -A cross-road called the <span class="smcap">Via Hadriana</span>, running -from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Minturnae</i> through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Suessa Aurunca</i> -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Teanum</i>, connected the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Appia</i> -with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Latina</i>.—3. From the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta -Esquilina</i> issued the <span class="smcap">Via Labicana</span>, which -passing Labicum fell into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Latina</i> at -the station <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad Bivium</i>, 30 miles from Rome.—4. -The <span class="smcap">Via Praenestina</span>, originally the <span class="smcap">Via -Gabina</span>, issued from the same gate with the -former. Passing through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gabii</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Praeneste</i>, -it joined the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Latina</i> just below -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anagnia</i>.—5. The <span class="smcap">Via Tiburtina</span>, which -issued from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Tiburtina</i>, and proceeding -N. E. to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tibur</i>, a distance of about -20 miles, was continued from thence, in the -same direction, under the name of the <span class="smcap">Via -Valeria</span>, and traversing the country of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_414"></a>[414]</span> -Sabines passed through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Carseoli</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Corfinium</i> -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aternum</i> on the Adriatic, thence to -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Adria</i>, and so along the coast to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Castrum -Truentinum</i>, where it fell into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Salaria</i>.—6. -The <span class="smcap">Via Nomentana</span>, anciently -<span class="smcap">Ficulnensis</span>, ran from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Collina</i>, -crossed the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Anio</i> to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nomentum</i>, and a little -beyond fell into the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Salaria</i> at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Eretum</i>.—7. -The <span class="smcap">Via Salaria</span>, also from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta -Collina</i> (passing <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fidenae</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Crustumerium</i>) -ran north and east through Sabinum and -Picenum to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Reate</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Asculum Picenum</i>. At -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Castrum Truentinum</i> it reached the coast, -which it followed until it joined the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via -Flaminia</i> at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ancona</i>.—8. The <span class="smcap">Via Flaminia</span>, -the <em>Great North Road</em>, carried ultimately to -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ariminum</i>. It issued from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Flaminia</i>, -and proceeded nearly north to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ocriculum</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Narnia</i> in Umbria. Here a branch -struck off, making a sweep to the east through -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Interamna</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Spoletium</i>, and fell again -into the main trunk (which passed through -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mevania</i>) at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fulginia</i>. It continued through -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fanum Flaminii</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nuceria</i>, where it again -divided, one line running nearly straight to -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fanum Fortunae</i> on the Adriatic, while the -other diverging to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ancona</i> continued from -thence along the coast to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fanum Fortunae</i>, -where the two branches uniting passed on -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ariminum</i> through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pisaurum</i>. From -thence the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Flaminia</i> was extended under -the name of the <span class="smcap">Via Aemilia</span>, and traversed -the heart of Cisalpine Gaul through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bononia</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mutina</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parma</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Placentia</i> (where it -crossed the Po), to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mediolanum</i>.—9. The -<span class="smcap">Via Aurelia</span>, the <em>Great Coast Road</em>, issued -originally from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Janiculensis</i>, and -subsequently from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Aurelia</i>. It -reached the coast at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Alsium</i>, and followed -the shore of the lower sea along Etruria -and Liguria by <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Genoa</i> as far as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Forum Julii</i> -in Gaul. In the first instance it extended -no farther than <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pisa</i>.—10. The <span class="smcap">Via Portuensis</span> -kept the right bank of the Tiber to -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Portus Augusti</i>.—11. The <span class="smcap">Via Ostiensis</span> -originally passed through the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Trigemina</i>, -afterwards through the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Porta Ostiensis</i>, -and kept the left bank of the Tiber to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ostia</i>. -From thence it was continued under the -name of <span class="smcap">Via Severiana</span> along the coast -southward through <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Laurentum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antium</i>, and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circaei</i>, till it joined the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Appia</i> at <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tarracina</i>. -The <span class="smcap">Via Laurentina</span>, leading direct -to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Laurentum</i>, seems to have branched off -from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Ostiensis</i> at a short distance -from Rome.—12. The <span class="smcap">Via Ardeatina</span> from -Rome to <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ardea</i>. According to some this -branched off from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Via Appia</i>, and thus -the circuit of the city is completed.</p> - - -<p id="Viaticum">VĬĀTĬCUM is, properly speaking, everything -necessary for a person setting out on a -journey, and thus comprehends money, provisions, -dresses, vessels, &c. When a Roman -magistrate, praetor, proconsul, or quaestor -went to his province, the state provided him -with all that was necessary for his journey. -But as the state in this, as in most other -cases of expenditure, preferred paying a sum -at once to having any part in the actual -business, it engaged contractors (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">redemptores</i>), -who for a stipulated sum had to provide -the magistrates with the viaticum, the -principal parts of which appear to have been -beasts of burden and tents (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">muli et tabernacula</i>). -Augustus introduced some modification -of this system, as he once for all fixed -a certain sum to be given to the proconsuls -(probably to other provincial magistrates -also) on setting out for their provinces, so -that the redemptores had no more to do -with it.</p> - - -<p id="Viator">VĬĀTOR, a servant who attended upon -and executed the commands of certain Roman -magistrates, to whom he bore the same relation -as the lictor did to other magistrates. -The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">viatores</i> was derived from the circumstance -of their being chiefly employed on -messages either to call upon senators to attend -the meeting of the senate, or to summon -people to the comitia, &c. In the earlier -times of the republic we find viatores as -ministers of such magistrates also as had -their lictors: viatores of a dictator and of -the consuls are mentioned by Livy. In -later times, however, viatores are only mentioned -with such magistrates as had only -potestas and not imperium, such as the tribunes -of the people, the censors, and the -aediles.</p> - - -<p id="Victima">VICTIMA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Sacrificium">Sacrificium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vicesima">VĪCĒSĬMA, a tax of five per cent. Every -Roman, when he manumitted a slave, had to -pay to the state a tax of one-twentieth of his -value, whence the tax was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vicesima -manumissionis</i>. This tax was first imposed -by the Lex Manlia (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 357), and was not -abolished when all other imposts were done -away with in Rome and Italy. A tax called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vicesima hereditatum et legatorum</i> was introduced -by Augustus (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lex Julia Vicesimaria</i>): -it consisted of five per cent., which every -Roman citizen had to pay to the aerarium -militare, upon any inheritance or legacy left -to him, with the exception of such as were -left to a citizen by his nearest relatives, and -such as did not amount to above a certain -sum. It was levied in Italy and the provinces -by procuratores appointed for the -purpose.</p> - - -<p id="Vicomagistri">VĪCOMĂGISTRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vicus">Vicus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vicus">VĪCUS, the name of the subdivisions into -which the four regions occupied by the four<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_415"></a>[415]</span> -city tribes of Servius Tullius were divided, -while the country regions, according to an -institution ascribed to Numa, were subdivided -into pagi. This division, together with that -of the four regions of the four city tribes, -remained down to the time of Augustus, who -made the vici subdivisions of the fourteen -regions into which he divided the city. In -this division each vicus consisted of one main -street, including several smaller by-streets; -their number was 424, and each was superintended -by four officers, called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vico-magistri</i>, -who had a sort of local police, and who, according -to the regulation of Augustus, were -every year chosen by lot from among the -people who lived in the vicus. On certain -days, probably at the celebration of the compitalia, -they wore the praetexta, and each -of them was accompanied by two lictors. -These officers, however, were not a new institution -of Augustus, for they had existed -during the time of the republic, and had had -the same functions as a police for the vici of -the Servian division of the city.</p> - - -<p id="Victoriatus">VICTŌRĬĀTUS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vigiles">VĬGĬLES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_171">p. 171</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Vigiliae">VĬGĬLĬAE. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Castra">Castra</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vigintisexviri">VĪGINTĬSEXVĬRI, twenty-six magistratus -minores, among whom were included the Triumviri -Capitales, the Triumviri Monetales, -the Quatuorviri Viarum Curandarum for the -city, the two Curatores Viarum for the roads -outside the city, the Decemviri Litibus -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stlitibus</i>) Judicandis, and the four praefects -who were sent into Campania for the purpose -of administering justice there. Augustus -reduced the number of officers of this college -to twenty (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vigintiviri</i>), as the two curatores -viarum for the roads outside the city and the -four Campanian praefects were abolished. -Down to the time of Augustus the sons of -senators had generally sought and obtained -a place in the college of the vigintisexviri, it -being the first step towards the higher offices -of the republic; but in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 13 a senatusconsultum -was passed, ordaining that only -equites should be eligible to the college of -the vigintiviri. The consequence of this was -that the vigintiviri had no seats in the -senate, unless they had held some other -magistracy which conferred this right upon -them. The age at which a person might -become a vigintivir appears to have been -twenty.</p> - - -<p id="Vigintiviri">VĪGINTĬVĬRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Villa">VILLA, a farm or country-house. The -Roman writers mention two kinds of villa, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">villa rustica</i> or farm-house, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">villa -urbana</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pseudo-urbana</i>, a residence in the -country or in the suburbs of a town. When -both of these were attached to an estate they -were generally united in the same range of -buildings, but sometimes they were placed at -different parts of the estate. The interior -arrangements of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">villa urbana</i> corresponded -for the most part to those of a town-house. -[<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Villicus">VILLĬCUS, a slave who had the superintendence -of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">villa rustica</i>, and of all the -business of the farm, except the cattle, which -were under the care of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">magister pecoris</i>. -The word was also used to describe a person -to whom the management of any business -was entrusted.</p> - - -<p id="Vinalia">VĪNĀLĬA. There were two festivals of -this name celebrated by the Romans: the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vinalia urbana</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">priora</i>, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vinalia -rustica</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">altera</i>. The vinalia urbana were -celebrated on the 23rd of April, when the -wine-casks which had been filled the preceding -autumn were opened for the first time, -and the wine tasted. The rustic vinalia, -which fell on the 19th of August, and was -celebrated by the inhabitants of all Latium, -was the day on which the vintage was opened. -On this occasion the flamen dialis offered -lambs to Jupiter, and while the flesh of the -victims lay on the altar, he broke with his -own hands a bunch of grapes from a vine, -and by this act he, as it were, opened the -vintage, and no must was allowed to be conveyed -into the city until this solemnity was -performed. This day was sacred to Jupiter, -and Venus too appears to have had a share -in it.</p> - - -<p id="Vindemialis">VINDĒMĬĀLIS FĒRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Feriae">Feriae</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vindex">VINDEX. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Actio">Actio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vindicta">VINDICTA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Manumissio">Manumissio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vinea">VĪNĔA, in its literal signification, is a -bower formed of the branches of vines; and, -from the protection which such a leafy roof -affords, the name was applied by the Romans -to a roof under which the besiegers of a -town protected themselves against darts, -stones, fire, and the like, which were thrown -by the besieged upon the assailants. The -whole machine formed a roof, resting upon -posts eight feet in height. The roof itself -was generally sixteen feet long and seven -broad. The wooden frame was in most cases -light, so that it could be carried by the -soldiers; sometimes, however, when the purpose -which it was to serve required great -strength, it was heavy, and then the whole -fabric probably was moved by wheels attached -to the posts. The roof was formed of -planks and wicker-work, and the uppermost -layer or layers consisted of raw hides or wet -cloth, as a protection against fire, by which -the besieged frequently destroyed the vineae. -The sides of a vinea were likewise protected -by wicker-work. Such machines were constructed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_416"></a>[416]</span> -in a safe place at some distance -from the besieged town, and then carried or -wheeled (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">agere</i>) close to its walls. Here -several of them were frequently joined together, -so that a great number of soldiers -might be employed under them. When -vineae had taken their place close to the -walls, the soldiers began their operations, -either by undermining the walls, and thus -opening a breach, or by employing the battering-ram -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aries</i>).</p> - - -<p id="Vinum">VĪNUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἴνος</span>). The general term for the -fermented juice of the grape. In the Homeric -poems the cultivation of the grape is -represented as familiar to the Greeks. It is -worth remarking that the only wine upon -whose excellence Homer dilates in a tone -approaching to hyperbole is represented as -having been produced on the coast of Thrace, -the region from which poetry and civilisation -spread into Hellas, and the scene of several -of the more remarkable exploits of Bacchus. -Hence we might infer that the Pelasgians -introduced the culture of the vine when they -wandered westward across the Hellespont, -and that in like manner it was conveyed to -the valley of the Po, when at a subsequent -period they made their way round the head -of the Adriatic. It seems certain that wine -was both rare and costly in the earlier ages -of Roman history. As late as the time of the -Samnite wars, Papirius the dictator, when -about to join in battle with the Samnites, -vowed to Jupiter only a small cupful (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vini -pocillum</i>) if he should gain the victory. In -the times of Marius and Sulla foreign wines -were considered far superior to native -growths; but the rapidity with which luxury -spread in this matter is well illustrated by -the saying of M. Varro, that Lucullus when a -boy never saw an entertainment in his -father’s house, however splendid, at which -Greek wine was handed round more than -once, but when in manhood he returned from -his Asiatic conquests he bestowed on the -people a largess of more than a hundred -thousand cadi. Four different kinds of wine -are said to have been presented for the first -time at the feast given by Julius Caesar in -his third consulship (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 46.), these being -Falernian, Chian, Lesbian, and Mamertine, -and not until after this date were the merits -of the numerous varieties, foreign and domestic, -accurately known and fully appreciated. -But during the reign of Augustus -and his immediate successors the study of -wines became a passion, and the most scrupulous -care was bestowed upon every process -connected with their production and preservation. -Pliny calculates that the number of -wines in the whole world deserving to be accounted -of high quality (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nobilia</i>) amounted to -eighty, of which his own country could claim -two-thirds; and that 195 distinct kinds -might be reckoned up, and that if all the -varieties of these were to be included in the -computation, the sum would be almost doubled.—The -process followed in wine-making was -essentially the same among both the Greeks -and the Romans. After the grapes had been -gathered they were first trodden with the -feet in a vat (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ληνός</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">torcular</i>); but as this -process did not press out all the juice of the -grapes, they were subjected to the more -powerful pressure of a thick and heavy beam -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">prelum</i>) for the purpose of obtaining all the -juice yet remaining in them. From the press -the sweet unfermented juice flowed into -another large vat, which was sunk below the -level of the press, and therefore called the -<em>under wine-vat</em>, in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑπολήνιον</span>, in Latin -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lacus</i>. A portion of the must was used at -once, being drunk fresh after it had been clarified -with vinegar. When it was desired to -preserve a quantity in the sweet state, an -amphora was taken and coated with pitch -within and without, and corked so as to be -perfectly air-tight. It was then immersed in -a tank of cold fresh water or buried in wet -sand, and allowed to remain for six weeks or -two months. The contents after this process -were found to remain unchanged for a year, -and hence the name <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀεὶ γλεῦκος</span>, <em>i.e.</em> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">semper -mustum</i>. A considerable quantity of must from -the best and oldest vines was inspissated by -boiling, being then distinguished by the -Greeks under the general names of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕψημα</span> or -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γλύξις</span>, while the Latin writers have various -terms according to the extent to which the -evaporation was carried. Thus, when the -must was reduced to two-thirds of its original -volume it became <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">carenum</i>, when one-half -had evaporated <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">defrutum</i>, when two-thirds -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sapa</i> (known also by the Greek names <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">siraeum</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hepsema</i>), but these words are frequently -interchanged. Similar preparations are at -the present time called in Italy <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">musto cotto</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sapa</i>, and in France <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sabe</i>. The process -was carried on in large caldrons of lead (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vasa -defrutaria</i>), over a slow fire of chips, on a -night when there was no moon, the scum -being carefully removed with leaves, and the -liquid constantly stirred to prevent it from -burning. These grape-jellies, for they were -nothing else, were used extensively for giving -body to poor wines and making them keep, -and entered as ingredients into many drinks, -such as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">burranica potio</i>, so called from -its red colour, which was formed by mixing -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sapa</i> with milk. The whole of the mustum -not employed for some of the above purposes -was conveyed from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lacus</i> to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella vinaria</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_417"></a>[417]</span> -an apartment on the ground-floor or a -little below the surface. Here were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolia</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πίθοι</span>), otherwise called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">seriae</i> or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cupae</i>, long -bell-mouthed vessels of earthenware, very -carefully formed of the best clay, and lined -with a coating of pitch. They were usually -sunk (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">depressa</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">defossa</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">demersa</i>) one-half or -two-thirds in the ground; to the former -depth, if the wine to be contained was likely -to prove strong, to the latter if weak. In -these <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dolia</i> the process of fermentation took -place, which usually lasted for about nine -days, and as soon as it had subsided, and the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mustum</i> had become <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vinum</i>, the dolia were -closely covered. The lids (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">opercula doliorum</i>), -were taken off about once every thirty-six -days, and oftener in hot weather, in order to -cool and give air to the contents, to add any -preparation required to preserve them sound, -and to remove any impurities that might be -thrown up. The commoner sorts of wine -were drunk direct from the dolium, and -hence draught wine was called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vinum doliare</i> -or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vinum de cupa</i>, but the finer kinds were -drawn off (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">diffundere</i>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεταγγίζειν</span>), into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">amphorae</i>. -On the outside the title of the wine -was painted, the date of the vintage being -marked by the names of the consuls then in -office. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphora">Amphora</a>.</span>] The amphorae were -then stored up in repositories (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apothecae</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">horrea</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tabulata</i>), completely distinct from -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cella vinaria</i>, and usually placed in the -upper story of the house (whence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">descende</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">testa</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">deripere horreo</i> in Horace), for a -reason explained afterwards. It is manifest -that wine prepared and bottled in the manner -described above must have contained a -great quantity of dregs and sediment, and it -became absolutely necessary to separate these -before it was drunk. This was sometimes -effected by fining with yolks of eggs, those of -pigeons being considered most appropriate -by the fastidious, but more commonly by -simply straining through small cup-like utensils -of silver or bronze perforated with numerous -small holes. Occasionally a piece of linen -cloth (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σάκκος</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">saccus</i>) was placed over the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">colum</i>, and the wine filtered through. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Colum">Colum</a>.</span>] -In all the best wines hitherto described the -grapes are supposed to have been gathered -as soon as they were fully ripe, and fermentation -to have run its full course. But a -great variety of sweet wines were manufactured -by checking the fermentation, or by -partially drying the grapes, or by converting -them completely into raisins. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Passum</i> or -<em>raisin-wine</em> was made from grapes dried in -the sun until they had lost half their weight, -or they were plunged into boiling oil, which -produced a similar effect, or the bunches -after they were ripe were allowed to hang -for some weeks upon the vine, the stalks -being twisted or an incision made into the -pith of the bearing shoot so as to put a stop -to vegetation. The stalks and stones were -removed, the raisins were steeped in must or -good wine, and then trodden or subjected to -the gentle action of the press. The quantity -of juice which flowed forth was measured, -and an equal quantity of water added to the -pulpy residuum, which was again pressed, -and the product employed for an inferior -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">passum</i> called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">secundarium</i>. The passum of -Crete was most prized, and next in rank -were those of Cilicia, Africa, Italy, and the -neighbouring provinces. The kinds known -as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Psythium</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Melampsythium</i> possessed -the peculiar flavour of the grape and not -that of wine. The grapes most suitable for -passum were those which ripened early, -especially the varieties <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Apiana</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Scirpula</i>, and -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Psithia</i>. The Greeks recognised three colours -in wines: <em>red</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέλας</span>), <em>white</em>, i.e. pale -straw-colour (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λευκός</span>), and brown or amber-coloured -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κιῤῥός</span>). The Romans distinguish -four: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">albus</i>, answering to <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λευκός</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fulvus</i> to -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κιῤῥός</span>, while <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέλας</span> is subdivided into <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sanguineus</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">niger</i>, the former being doubtless -applied to bright glowing wines like -Tent and Burgundy, while the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">niger</i> or -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ater</i> would resemble Port. We have seen -that wine intended for keeping was racked<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_418"></a>[418]</span> -off from the dolia into amphorae. When it -was necessary in the first instance to transport -it from one place to another, or when -carried by travellers on a journey, it was -contained in bags made of goat-skin (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀσκοί</span>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">utres</i>) well pitched over so as to make the -seams perfectly tight.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp49" id="ill417" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill417.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Silenus astride upon a Wine-skin. (Museo Borbonico. -vol. iii. tav. 28.)</div> -</div> - -<p>As the process of -wine-making among the ancients was for the -most part conducted in an unscientific manner, -it was found necessary, except in the -case of the finest varieties, to have recourse -to various devices for preventing or correcting -acidity, heightening the flavour, and increasing -the durability of the second growths. -The object in view was accomplished sometimes -by merely mixing different kinds of -wine together, but more frequently by throwing -into the dolia or amphorae various condiments -or seasonings (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀρτύσεις</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">medicamina</i>, -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conditurae</i>). The principal substances employed -as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">conditurae</i> were, 1. sea-water; -2. turpentine, either pure, or in the form -of pitch (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pix</i>), tar (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pix liquida</i>), or resin -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">resina</i>). 3. Lime, in the form of gypsum, -burnt marble, or calcined shells. 4. Inspissated -must. 5. Aromatic herbs, spices, -and gums; and these were used either -singly, or cooked up into a great variety of -complicated confections. But not only were -spices and gums steeped in wine or incorporated -during fermentation, but even the -precious perfumed essential oils (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">unguenta</i>) -were mixed with it before it was drunk -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυῤῥίνη</span>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">murrhina</i>.) Of these compound beverages -the most popular was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oenomeli</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰνόμελι</span>) of the Greeks, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mulsum</i> of the -Romans. This was of two kinds; in the one -honey was mixed with wine, in the other -with must. The former was said to have -been invented by the legendary hero Aristaeus, -the first cultivator of bees, and was -considered most perfect and palatable when -made of some old rough (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">austerum</i>) wine, -such as Massic or Falernian (although Horace -objects to the latter for this purpose), -and new Attic honey. The proportions were -four, by measure, of wine to one of honey, -and various spices and perfumes, such as -myrrh, cassia, costum, malobathrum, nard, -and pepper, might be added. The second -kind was made of must evaporated to one -half of its original bulk, Attic honey being -added in the proportion of one to ten. This, -therefore, was merely a very rich fruit -syrup, in no way allied to wine. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mulsum</i> -was considered the most appropriate draught -upon an empty stomach, and was therefore -swallowed immediately before the regular -business of a repast began and hence the whet -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gustatio</i>) coming before the cup of mulsum -was called the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">promulsis</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mulsum</i> was given -at a triumph by the imperator to his soldiers. -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mulsum</i> (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vinum</i>) or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">oenomeli</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἰνόμελι</span>) is -perfectly distinct from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mulsa</i> (sc. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">aqua</i>). The -latter, or <em>mead</em>, being made of honey and -water mixed and fermented, is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">melicraton</i> -(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μελίκρατον</span>) or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">hydromeli</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὑδρόμελι</span>) of the -Greeks. The ancients considered old wine -not only more grateful to the palate, but also -more wholesome and invigorating. Generally -speaking the Greek wines do not seem -to have required a long time to ripen. Nestor -in the Odyssey, indeed, drinks wine ten -years old; but the connoisseurs under the -empire pronounced that all transmarine -wines arrived at a moderate degree of maturity -in six or seven. Many of the Italian -varieties, however, required to be kept for -twenty or twenty-five years before they were -drinkable (which is now considered ample -for our strongest ports), and even the humble -growths of Sabinum were stored up for from -four to fifteen. Hence it became a matter -of importance to hasten, if possible, the natural -process. This was attempted in various -ways, sometimes by elaborate condiments, -sometimes by sinking vessels containing the -must in the sea, by which an artificial mellowness -was induced (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praecox vetustas</i>) and -the wine in consequence termed <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">thalassites</i>; -but more usually by the application of heat. -Thus it was customary to expose the amphorae -for some years to the full fervour of -the sun’s rays, or to construct the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">apothecae</i> -in such a manner as to be exposed to the hot -air and smoke of the bath-furnaces, and -hence the name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fumaria</i> applied to such -apartments, and the phrases <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fumosos</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fumum -bibere</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">fuligine testae</i>, in reference to the -wines. If the operation was not conducted -with care, and the amphorae not stoppered -down perfectly tight, a disagreeable effect -would be produced on the contents. In Italy, -in the first century of the Christian aera, the -lowest market price of the most ordinary -quality of wine was 300 sesterces for 40 -urnae, that is, 15 sesterces for the amphora, -or 6<em>d.</em> a gallon nearly. At a much earlier -date, the triumph of L. Metellus during the -first Punic war (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 250), wine was sold at -the rate of 8 asses the amphora. The price -of native wine at Athens was four drachmas -for the metretes, that is, about 4½<em>d.</em> the -gallon, when necessaries were dear, and -we may perhaps assume one half of this -sum as the average of cheaper times. On -the other hand, high prices were given freely -for the varieties held in esteem, since as -early as the time of Socrates a metretes of -Chian sold for a mina.—With respect to -the way in which wine was drunk, and -the customs observed by the Greeks and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_419"></a>[419]</span> -Romans at their drinking entertainments, the -reader is referred to the article <span class="smcap"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium</a></span>.—The -wine of most early celebrity was that -which the minister of Apollo, Maron, who -dwelt upon the skirts of Thracian Ismarus, -gave to Ulysses. It was red (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐρυθρόν</span>), and -honey-sweet (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μελιηδέα</span>), so precious, that it -was unknown to all in the mansion save -the wife of the priest and one trusty house-keeper; -so strong, that a single cup was mingled -with twenty of water; so fragrant, that -even when thus diluted it diffused a divine -and most tempting perfume. Homer mentions -also more than once <em>Pramnian wine</em> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">οἴνος -Πραμνεῖος</span>), an epithet which is variously interpreted -by different writers. In after times -a wine bearing the same name was produced -in the island of Icaria, around the hill village -of Latorea in the vicinity of Ephesus, -in the neighbourhood of Smyrna, near the -shrine of Cybele, and in Lesbos. But the -wines of greatest renown at a later period -were grown in the islands of Thasos, Lesbos, -Chios, and Cos, and in a few favoured spots -on the opposite coast of Asia, such as the -slopes of Mount Tmolus, the ridge which -separates the valley of the Hermus from that -of the Caÿster, Mount Messogis, which divides -the tributaries of the Caÿster from -those of the Meander, the volcanic region of -the Catacecaumene, which still retains its -fame, the environs of Ephesus, of Cnidus, of -Miletus, and of Clazomenae. Among these -the first place seems to have been by general -consent conceded to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Chian</i>, of which -the most delicious varieties were brought -from the heights of Ariusium in the central -parts, and from the promontory of Phanae -at the southern extremity of the island. -The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thasian</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lesbian</i> occupied the second -place, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coan</i> disputed the palm -with them. In Lesbos the most highly -prized vineyards were around Mytilene and -Methymna. There is no foundation whatever -for the remark that the finest Greek -wines, especially the products of the islands -in the Aegean and Ionian seas, belonged for -the most part to the luscious sweet class. The -very reverse is proved by the epithets <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐστηρός</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σκληρός</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λεπτός</span>, and the like, applied -to a great number, while <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γλυκύς</span> and -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γλυκάζων</span> are designations comparatively rare, -except in the vague language of poetry.—The -most noble Italian wines, with a very few -exceptions, were derived from Latium and -Campania, and for the most part grew within -a short distance of the sea. In the first -rank we must place the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Setinum</i>, which -fairly deserves the title of <em>Imperial</em>, since it -was the chosen beverage of Augustus and -most of his courtiers. It grew upon the hills -of Setia, above Forum Appii, looking down -upon the Pomptine marshes. Before the age -of Augustus the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caecubum</i> was the most -prized of all. It grew in the poplar swamps -bordering on the gulf of Amyclae, close to -Fundi. In the time of Pliny its reputation -was entirely gone, partly in consequence of -the carelessness of the cultivators, and partly -from its proper soil, originally a very limited -space, having been cut up by the canal of -Nero extending from Baiae to Ostia. It was -full-bodied and heady, not arriving at maturity -until it had been kept for many years. -The second rank was occupied by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Falernum</i>, -of which the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Faustianum</i> was the most -choice variety, having gained its character -from the care and skill exercised in the cultivation -of the vines. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Falernus ager</i> -commenced at the Pons Campanus, on the -left hand of those journeying towards the -Urbana Colonia of Sulla, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Faustianus ager</i> -at a village about six miles from Sinuessa, -so that the whole district in question may be -regarded as stretching from the Massic hills -to the river Vulturnus. Falernian became -fit for drinking in ten years, and might be -used until twenty years old, but when kept -longer <ins class="corr" id="tn-419" title="Transcriber’s Note—Original text: 'gave headachs'"> -gave headaches</ins>, and proved injurious -to the nervous system. Pliny distinguishes -three kinds, the rough (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">austerum</i>), the sweet -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dulce</i>), and the thin (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tenue</i>). Others arranged -the varieties differently; that which -grew upon the hill tops they called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caucinum</i>, -that on the middle slopes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Faustianum</i>, -and that on the plain <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Falernum</i>. In the -third rank was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Albanum</i>, from the Mons -Albanus, of various kinds, very sweet (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">praedulce</i>), -sweetish, rough, and sharp; it was -invigorating (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">nervis utile</i>), and in perfection -after being kept for fifteen years. Here too -we place the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Surrentinum</i>, from the promontory -forming the southern horn of the bay of -Naples, which was not drinkable until it had -been kept for five-and-twenty years, for, -being destitute of richness, and very dry, it -required a long time to ripen, but was -strongly recommended to convalescents, on -account of its thinness and wholesomeness. -Of equal reputation were the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Massicum</i>, from -the hills which formed the boundary between -Latium and Campania, although somewhat -harsh, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gauranum</i>, from the -ridge above Baiae and Puteoli, produced in -small quantity, but of very high quality, -full-bodied, and thick. In the same class -are to be included the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Calenum</i> from Cales, -and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fundanum</i> from Fundi. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Calenum</i> -was light and better for the stomach -than Falernian; the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fundanum</i> was full-bodied -and nourishing, but apt to attack both -stomach and head; therefore little sought<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_420"></a>[420]</span> -after at banquets. This list is closed by the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Veliturninum</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Privernatinum</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Signinum</i>, -from Velitrae, Privernum, and Signia, towns -on the Volscian hills; the first was a sound -wine, but had this peculiarity, that it always -tasted as if mixed with some foreign substance; -the second was thin and pleasant; -the last was looked upon only in the light of -a medicine valuable for its astringent qualities. -We may safely bring in one more, -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Formianum</i>, from the Gulf of Caieta, -associated by Horace with the Caecuban, -Falernian, and Calenian. The fourth rank -contained the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mamertinum</i>, from the neighbourhood -of Messana, first brought into -fashion by Julius Caesar. The finest was -sound, light, and at the same time not without -body.</p> - - -<p id="Virgines">VIRGĬNES VESTĀLES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Vestales">Vestales Virgines</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vis">VIS. Leges were passed at Rome for the -purpose of preventing acts of violence. The -Lex Plotia or Plautia was enacted against -those who occupied public places and carried -arms. The lex proposed by the consul -Q. Catulus on the subject, with the assistance -of Plautius the tribunus, appears to be -the Lex Plotia. There was a Lex Julia of -the dictator Caesar on this subject, which -imposed the penalty of exile. Two Juliae -Leges were passed as to this matter in the -time of Augustus, which were respectively -entitled De Vi Publica and De Vi Privata.</p> - - -<p id="Visceratio">VISCĔRĀTĬO. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Funus">Funus</a></span>, <a href="#Page_190">p. 190</a>, <em>b</em>.]</p> - - -<p id="Vitis">VĪTIS. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Centurio">Centurio</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vitrum">VITRUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕαλος</span>), glass. A story has been -preserved by Pliny, that glass was first discovered -accidentally by some merchants who, -having landed on the Syrian coast at the -mouth of the river Belus, and being unable -to find stones to support their cooking-pots, -fetched for this purpose from their ships -some of the lumps of nitre which composed -the cargo. This being fused by the heat of -the fire, united with the sand upon which it -rested, and formed a stream of vitrified matter. -No conclusion can be drawn from this -tale, even if true, in consequence of its -vagueness; but it probably originated in -the fact, that the sand of the district in -question was esteemed peculiarly suitable for -glass-making, and exported in great quantities -to the workshops of Sidon and Alexandria, -long the most famous in the ancient -world. Alexandria sustained its reputation -for many centuries: Rome derived a great -portion of its supplies from this source, and -as late as the reign of Aurelian we find the -manufacture still flourishing. There is some -difficulty in deciding by what Greek author -glass is first mentioned, because the term -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕαλος</span> unquestionably denotes not only artificial -glass but rock-crystal, or indeed any -transparent stone or stone-like substance. -Thus the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕελος</span> of Herodotus, in which the -Ethiopians encased the bodies of their dead, -cannot be glass, for we are expressly told -that it was dug in abundance out of the -earth; and hence commentators have conjectured -that rock-crystal or rock-salt, or -amber, or oriental alabaster, or some bituminous -or gummy product, might be indicated. -But when the same historian, in -his account of sacred crocodiles, states that -they were decorated with ear-rings made of -melted stone, we may safely conclude that he -intends to describe some vitreous ornament -for which he knew no appropriate name. -Glass is, however, first mentioned with certainty -by Theophrastus, who notices the -circumstance alluded to above, of the fitness -of the sand at the mouth of the river Belus -for the fabrication of glass. Among the -Latin writers Lucretius appears to be the -first in which the word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitrum</i> occurs; but it -must have been well known to his countrymen -long before, for Cicero names it along -with paper and linen, as a common article -of merchandise brought from Egypt. Scaurus, -in his aedileship (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 58), made a display -of it such as was never witnessed even in -after-times; for the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scena</i> of his gorgeous -theatre was divided into three tiers, of which -the under portion was of marble, the upper of -gilded wood, and the middle compartment of -glass. In the poets of the Augustan age it is -constantly introduced, both directly and in -similes, and in such terms as to prove that it -was an object with which every one must be -familiar. Strabo declares that in his day a -small drinking-cup of glass might be purchased -at Rome for half an as, and so common -was it in the time of Juvenal and -Martial, that old men and women made a -livelihood by trucking sulphur matches for -broken fragments. When Pliny wrote, manufactories -had been established not only in -Italy, but in Spain and Gaul also, and glass -drinking-cups had entirely superseded those -of gold and silver; and in the reign of Alexander -Severus we find <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitrearii</i> ranked along -with curriers, coachmakers, goldsmiths, silversmiths, -and other ordinary artificers whom -the emperor taxed to raise money for his -thermae. The numerous specimens transmitted -to us prove that the ancients were well -acquainted with the art of imparting a great -variety of colours to their glass; they were -probably less successful in their attempts to -render it perfectly pure and free from all -colour, since we are told that it was considered -most valuable in this state. It was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_421"></a>[421]</span> -wrought according to the different methods -now practised, being fashioned into the required -shape by the blowpipe, <em>cut</em>, as we -term it, although <em>ground</em> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">teritur</i>) is a more -accurate phrase, upon a wheel, and engraved -with a sharp tool like silver. The art of -etching upon glass, now so common, was entirely -unknown, since it depends upon the -properties of fluoric acid, a chemical discovery -of the last century. The following were the -chief uses to which glass was applied:—1. -Bottles, vases, cups, and cinerary urns. 2. -Glass pastes, presenting fac-similes either in -relief or intaglio of engraved precious stones. -3. Imitations of coloured precious stones, -such as the carbuncle, the sapphire, the amethyst, -and, above all, the emerald. 4. Thick -sheets of glass of various colours appear to -have been laid down for paving floors, and to -have been attached as a lining to the walls -and ceilings of apartments in dwelling houses, -just as scagliuola is frequently employed in -Italy, and occasionally in our own country -also. Rooms fitted up in this way were called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitreae camerae</i>, and the panels <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vitreae quadraturae</i>. -Such was the kind of decoration -introduced by Scaurus for the scene of his -theatre, not columns nor pillars of glass as -some, nor bas-reliefs as others have imagined. -5. Glass was also used for windows. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Domus">Domus</a></span>, -<a href="#Page_144">p. 144</a>.]</p> - - -<p id="Vitta">VITTA, or plural VITTAE, a ribbon or -fillet, is to be considered, 1. As an ordinary -portion of female dress. 2. As a decoration -of sacred persons and sacred things. 1. -When considered as an ordinary portion of -female dress, it was simply a band encircling -the head, and serving to confine the tresses -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">crinales vittae</i>), the ends when long (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">longae -taenia vittae</i>) hanging down behind. It was -worn by maidens, and by married women -also, the vitta assumed on the nuptial day -being of a different form from that used by -virgins. The Vitta was <em>not</em> worn by libertinae -even of fair character, much less by -meretrices; hence it was looked upon as an -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">insigne pudoris</i>, and, together with the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">stola</i> -and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">instita</i>, served to point out at first sight -the freeborn matron. The colour was probably -a matter of choice: white and purple are -both mentioned. When employed for sacred -purposes, it was usually twisted round the -infula [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Infula">Infula</a></span>], and held together the loose -flocks of wool. Under this form it was employed -as an ornament for 1. Priests, and -those who offered sacrifice. 2. Priestesses, -especially those of Vesta, and hence <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">vittata -sacerdos</i> for a vestal, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατ’ ἐξόχην</span>. 3. Prophets -and poets, who may be regarded as -priests, and in this case the vittae were frequently -intertwined with chaplets of olive or -laurel. 4. Statues of deities. 5. Victims -decked for sacrifice. 6. Altars. 7. Temples. -8. The <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἱκετήρια</span> of suppliants. The sacred -vittae, as well as the infulae, were made of -wool, and hence the epithets <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lanea</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mollis</i>. -They were white (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">niveae</i>), or purple (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">puniceae</i>), -or azure (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caeruleae</i>), when wreathed -round an altar to the manes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ill421" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ill421.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Vittae. (Statues from Herculaneum.)</div> -</div> - - -<p id="Volones">VŎLŌNES is synonymous with <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Voluntarii</i> -(from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">volo</i>), and might hence be applied to -all those who volunteered to serve in the -Roman armies without there being any obligation -to do so. But it was applied more -especially to slaves, when in times of need -they offered or were allowed to fight in the -Roman armies. Thus when during the second -Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, there -was not a sufficient number of freemen to -complete the army, about 8000 young and -able-bodied slaves offered to serve. Their -proposal was accepted; they received armour -at the public expense, and as they distinguished -themselves they were honoured with -the franchise. In after times the name volones -was retained whenever slaves chose or -were allowed to take up arms in defence of -their masters, which they were the more -willing to do, as they were generally rewarded -with the franchise.</p> - - -<p id="Volumen">VŎLŪMEN. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Liber">Liber</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Voluntarii">VŎLUNTĀRĬI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Volones">Volones</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vomitoria">VŎMĬTŌRĬA. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Vulcanalia">VULCĀNĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at -Rome in honour of Vulcan, on the 23rd of -August, with games in the circus Flaminius, -where the god had a temple. The sacrifice -on this occasion consisted of fishes, which the -people threw into the fire. It was also customary -on this day to commence working by -candle-light, which was probably considered -as an auspicious beginning of the use of fire, -as the day was sacred to the god of this -element.</p> - - -<p id="Vulgares">VULGĀRES. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Servus">Servus</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="X_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">X</span></h2> - -<p id="Xenagi" class="drop-capy">XĔNĀGI (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξεναγοί</span>). The Spartans, as being -the head of that Peloponnesian and Dorian -league, which was formed to secure the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_422"></a>[422]</span> -independence of the Greek states, had the -sole command of the confederate troops in -time of war, ordered the quotas which each -state was to furnish, and appointed officers -of their own to command them. Such officers -were called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Xenagi</i>. The generals whom the -allies sent with their troops were subordinate -to these Spartan <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">xenagi</i>, though they attended -the council of war, as representatives of their -respective countries. After the peace of -Antalcidas, the league was still more firmly -established, though Argos refused to join it; -and the Spartans were rigorous in exacting -the required military service, demanding -levies by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">scytale</i>, and sending out <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">xenagi</i> -to collect them. The word <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Xenagus</i> may be -applied to any leader of a hand of foreigners -or mercenaries.</p> - - -<p id="Xenelasia">XĔNĒLĂSĬA (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενηλασία</span>). The Lacedaemonians -appear in very early times, before -the legislation of Lycurgus, to have been -averse to intercourse with foreigners. This -disposition was encouraged by the lawgiver, -who made an ordinance forbidding strangers -to reside at Sparta without special permission, -and empowering the magistrate to expel from -the city any stranger who misconducted himself, -or set an example injurious to public -morals.</p> - - -<p id="Xenias">XĔNĬAS GRĂPHĒ (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενίας γραφή</span>). As no -man could be an Athenian citizen except by -birth or creation (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γένει</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ποιήσει</span>), if one, -having neither of those titles, assumed to act -as a citizen, either by taking part in the popular -assembly, or by serving any office, judicial -or magisterial, or by attending certain -festivals, or doing any other act which none -but a citizen was privileged to do, he was -liable to a <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γραφὴ ξενίας</span>, which any citizen -might institute against him; or he might be -proceeded against by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰσαγγελία</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Xenus">XĔNUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξένος</span>). [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Hospitium">Hospitium</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Xestes">XESTES (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξέστης</span>), a Greek measure of capacity, -both fluid and solid, which contained -12 cyathi or 2 cotylae, and was equal to ⅙ of -the chous, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>48</sub> of the Roman amphora or -quadrantal, and <sup>1</sup>/<sub>72</sub> of the Greek amphora or -metretes; or, viewing it as a dry measure, -it was half the choenix and <sup>1</sup>/<sub>96</sub> of the medimnus. -It contained ·9911 of a pint English. -At this point the Roman and Attic systems -of measures coincide; for there is no doubt -that the Attic xestes was identical with the -Roman sextarius.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Z_ENTRIES"><span class="hidden">Z</span></h2> - -<p id="Zacori" class="drop-capy">ZĂCŎRI. [<span class="smcap"><a href="#Aeditui">Aeditui</a>.</span>]</p> - - -<p id="Zetetae">ZĒTĒTAE (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζητηταί</span>), <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Inquisitors</i>, were -extraordinary officers, appointed by the -Athenians to discover the authors of some -crime against the state, and bring them to -justice. They were more frequently appointed -to search for confiscated property, -the goods of condemned criminals and state -debtors; to receive and give information -against any persons who concealed, or assisted -in concealing them, and to deliver an -inventory of all such goods (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀπογράφειν</span>) to -the proper authorities.</p> - - -<p id="Zona">ZŌNA, also called CINGŬLUM (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζώνη</span>, -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζῶμα</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζωστῆρ</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span>), a girdle or zone, worn -about the loins by both sexes. The chief use -of this article of dress was to hold up the -tunic (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζώννυσθαι</span>), which was more especially -requisite to be done when persons were at -work, on a journey, or engaged in hunting. -The zona is also represented in many statues -and pictures of men in armour as worn -round the cuirass. The girdle, mentioned -by Homer, seems to have been a constituent -part of the cuirass, serving to fasten it by -means of a buckle, and also affording an additional -protection to the body, and having a -short kind of petticoat attached to it, as is -shown in the figure of the Greek warrior in -<a href="#ill240c">p. 240</a>. The cut at p. 4 shows that the ancient -cuirass did not descend low enough to -secure that part of the body which was covered -by the ornamental kilt or petticoat. -To supply this defect was the design of the -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mitra</i> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίτρα</span>), a brazen belt lined probably -on the inside with leather and stuffed with -wool, which was worn next to the body. -Men used their girdles to hold money instead -of a purse. As the girdle was worn to hold -up the garments for the sake of business or -of work requiring despatch, so it was loosened -and the tunic was allowed to fall down to -the feet to indicate the opposite condition, -and more especially in preparing to perform -a sacrifice (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">veste recincta</i>), or funeral rites -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">discincti</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">incinctae</i>). A girdle was worn by -young women, even when their tunic was -not girt up, and removed on the day of marriage, -and therefore called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζώνη παρθενική</span>.</p> - - -<p id="Zophorus">ZŌPHŎRUS (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ζωφόρος</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">διάζωμα</span>), the -frieze of an entablature.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_423"></a>[423]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="TABLES"> -<span class="lsp2">TABLES</span><br /> - -<span class="fs60">OF</span><br /> - -<span class="fs80">GREEK AND ROMAN MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY.</span></h2> - -<hr class="r30" /> - - -<table class="autotable fs80" width="70%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdr smcap">Table</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr">Page</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Measures of Length.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">(1) Smaller Measures</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_I">424</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Measures of Length.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">(1) Smaller Measures</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_II">424</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Measures of Length.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">(2) Land and Itinerary</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_III">425</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Measures of Length.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">(2) Land and Itinerary</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_IV">426</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">V.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Measures of Surface</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_V">426</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Measures of Surface</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_VI">427</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Measures of Capacity.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">(1) Liquid Measures</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_VII">428</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VIII.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Measures of Capacity.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">(1) Liquid Measures</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_VIII">429</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IX.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Measures of Capacity.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">(2) Dry Measures</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_IX">430</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">X.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Measures of Capacity.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">(2) Dry Measures</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_X">430</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">XI.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Weights</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_XI">431</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">XII.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Greek Money</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_XII">432</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">XIII.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Weights.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">(1) The As and its Uncial Divisions</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_XIII">433</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">XIV.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Weights.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">(2) Subdivisions of the Uncia</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_XIV">433</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">XV.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Money.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">(1) Before Augustus</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_XV">434</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">XVI.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap">Roman Money.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdl pad3">(2) After Augustus</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#TABLE_XVI">434</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_424"></a>[424]</span></p> -</div> - -<h3 id="TABLE_I"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE I.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.</span></h3> - -<table class="p2 autotable fs80" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="13">I. Smaller Measures.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Feet.</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">Inches.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="13"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δάκτυλος</span></td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdl br"> ·7584375</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="12"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόνδυλος</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdl br">1·516875</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="11"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παλαιστή</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δῶρον</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δοχμή</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δακτυλοδοχμή</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdl br">3·03375</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="10"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διχάς</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμιπόδιον</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdl br">6·0675</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">10</td> -<td class="tdctr">5</td> -<td class="tdctr">2½</td> -<td class="tdctr">1¼</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="9"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διχάς</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdl br">7·584375</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">11</td> -<td class="tdctr">5½</td> -<td class="tdctr">2¾</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅜</td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>10</sub></td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="8"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀρθοδῶρον</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdl br">8·3428125</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅕</td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σπιθαμή</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdl br">9·10125</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅗</td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>5</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΠΟῩΣ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdl br">0·135</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">18</td> -<td class="tdctr">9</td> -<td class="tdctr">4½</td> -<td class="tdctr">2¼</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅘</td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>7</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅛</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυγμή</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdl br">1·651875</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">20</td> -<td class="tdctr">10</td> -<td class="tdctr">5</td> -<td class="tdctr">2½</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>9</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td> -<td class="tdctr">1¼</td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυγών</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdl br">3·16875</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2⅖</td> -<td class="tdctr">2<sup>2</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅕</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΠΗΧΥΣ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdl br">6·2025</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">72</td> -<td class="tdctr">36</td> -<td class="tdctr">18</td> -<td class="tdctr">9</td> -<td class="tdctr">7⅕</td> -<td class="tdctr">6<sup>6</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4½</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">3⅗</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξύλον</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">4</td> -<td class="tdl br">6·6075</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb">96</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">48</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">24</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">12</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">9⅗</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">8<sup>8</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr bb">8</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">6</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">5⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">4⅘</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">4</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr bb"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὈΡΓΥΙΆ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr bb">6</td> -<td class="tdl bb br">0·81</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="fs80">N.B.—<em>Approximate Values.</em> From the above Table, it will be seen that the Greek <em>Foot</em>, <em>Cubit</em>, -and <em>Orguia</em>, only exceed the English <em>Foot</em>, <em>Foot and a half</em>, and <em>Fathom</em>, by about 1-10th, 2-10ths, -and 8-10ths of an inch respectively.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_II"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE II.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.</span></h3> - -<table class="p2 autotable fs80" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="7">I. Smaller Measures.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Feet.</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">Inches.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="7">Digitus</td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdr br">·7281</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia</a></span> or Pollex</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdr br">·9708</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Palmus</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdr br">2·9124</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">9</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Palmus Major (of late times)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdr br">8·7372</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdr br">11·6496</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">20</td> -<td class="tdctr">15</td> -<td class="tdctr">5</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td> -<td class="tdctr">1¼</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Palmipes</td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdr br">2·562 </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb">24</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">18</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">6</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">2</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1½</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1⅕</td> -<td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Cubitus">Cubitus</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr bb">1</td> -<td class="tdr bb br">5·4744</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="fs80">N.B.—<em>Approximate Values.</em> The Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uncia</i>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pes</i>, and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cubitus</i> only fall short of our <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Inch</i>, -<em>Foot</em>, and <em>Foot and a half</em>, by less than 1-10th, 4-10ths, and 6-10ths of an inch respectively.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_425"></a>[425]</span></p> - -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_III"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE III.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.</span></h3> - - -<table class="p2 autotable fs60" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="14">II. Larger Measures.—Land and Itinerary.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td> -<td class="tdctr">Miles.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Feet.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Inches.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="14"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΠΟΥΣ</span></td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">1</td> -<td class="tdctr">0·135</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="13"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΠΗΧΥΣ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">6·2025</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">2½</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="12"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βῦμα</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -<td class="tdc br">6·3375</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2⅖</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="11"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὈΡΓΥΙΆ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">6</td> -<td class="tdc br">0·81</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">10</td> -<td class="tdctr">6⅔</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="10"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάλαμος</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκαινα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκάπους</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">10</td> -<td class="tdc br">1·35</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">60</td> -<td class="tdctr">40</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">10</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="9"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄμμα</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">60</td> -<td class="tdc br">8·1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">100</td> -<td class="tdctr">66⅔</td> -<td class="tdctr">40</td> -<td class="tdctr">16⅔</td> -<td class="tdctr">10</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="8"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλέθρον</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">101</td> -<td class="tdc br">1·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">600</td> -<td class="tdctr">400</td> -<td class="tdctr">240</td> -<td class="tdctr">100</td> -<td class="tdctr">60</td> -<td class="tdctr">10</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΣΤΆΔΙΟΝ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΣΤΆΔΙΟΣ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">606</td> -<td class="tdc br">9</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">1200</td> -<td class="tdctr">800</td> -<td class="tdctr">480</td> -<td class="tdctr">200</td> -<td class="tdctr">120</td> -<td class="tdctr">20</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίαυλος</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1213</td> -<td class="tdc br">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">2400</td> -<td class="tdctr">1600</td> -<td class="tdctr">960</td> -<td class="tdctr">400</td> -<td class="tdctr">240</td> -<td class="tdctr">40</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππικόν</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">2427</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">4800</td> -<td class="tdctr">3200</td> -<td class="tdctr">1920</td> -<td class="tdctr">800</td> -<td class="tdctr">480</td> -<td class="tdctr">80</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Miliare">Roman Mile</a></span> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μίλιον</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">4854</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">18,000</td> -<td class="tdctr">12,000</td> -<td class="tdctr">7200</td> -<td class="tdctr">3000</td> -<td class="tdctr">1800</td> -<td class="tdctr">300</td> -<td class="tdctr">180</td> -<td class="tdctr">30</td> -<td class="tdctr">15</td> -<td class="tdctr">7½</td> -<td class="tdctr">3¾</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παρασάγγης</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">3</td> -<td class="tdc br">2362</td> -<td class="tdc br">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">36,000</td> -<td class="tdctr">24,000</td> -<td class="tdctr">14,400</td> -<td class="tdctr">6000</td> -<td class="tdctr">3600</td> -<td class="tdctr">600</td> -<td class="tdctr">360</td> -<td class="tdctr">60</td> -<td class="tdctr">30</td> -<td class="tdctr">15</td> -<td class="tdctr">7½</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σχοῖνος</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">6</td> -<td class="tdc br">4735</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">360,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">240,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">144,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">60,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">36,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">6000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">3600</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">600</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">300</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">150</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">75</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">20</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">10</td> -<td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap">Degree</span></td> -<td class="tdclr bb">68<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></td> -<td class="tdc bb br">5110</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> In order to show the relations more clearly, the foreign measures most familiar to the Greeks are included in this Table.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> This is, of course, not the true number of English statute miles contained in a degree of a great circle of the earth, but the number <em>computed</em> from the -data exhibited in the Table, some of which are only approximate; namely, 1 Degree = 75 Roman miles = 600 Greek Stadia, and 1 Greek foot = 12·135 -inches. The true value of a degree in English miles is 69<sup>1</sup>/<sub>51</sub> = 69·0196, and the difference is only about 7-100ths of a mile.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_426"></a>[426]</span></p> - -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_IV"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE IV.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.</span></h3> - - -<table class="p2 autotable fs80" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="9">II. Larger Measures.—Land and Itinerary.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Miles.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Feet.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Inches.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="9"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes</a></span></td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">11·6496</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="8">Cubitus</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">5·4744</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">2½</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7">Gradus, or Pes Sestertius</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -<td class="tdc br">5·124</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">5</td> -<td class="tdctr">3⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Passus">Passus</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">4</td> -<td class="tdc br">10·248</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">10</td> -<td class="tdctr">6⅔</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Decempeda, or Pertica</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">9</td> -<td class="tdc br">8·496</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">120</td> -<td class="tdctr">80</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Actus (in length)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">116</td> -<td class="tdc br">5·952</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">5000</td> -<td class="tdctr">3333⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">2000</td> -<td class="tdctr">1000</td> -<td class="tdctr">500</td> -<td class="tdctr">41⅔</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Miliare">Mille Passuum</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">4854</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">7500</td> -<td class="tdctr">5000</td> -<td class="tdctr">3000</td> -<td class="tdctr">1500</td> -<td class="tdctr">750</td> -<td class="tdctr">62½</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Gallic Leuga</td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">2003</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">375,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">250,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">150,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">75,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">37,500</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">3125</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">75</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">50</td> -<td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap">Degree</span><a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></td> -<td class="tdclr bb">68</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">5110</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="fs70">N.B.—The Roman mile only differs from the English by less than 1-10th.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> See <a href="#Footnote_5">Note to Table III</a>.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_V"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE V.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">GRECIAN MEASURES OF SURFACE.</span></h3> - - -<table class="p2 autotable fs80" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="7">Ordinary Land Measures.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Perches.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Square Feet.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="7"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΠΟΥΣ</span> (Square Foot)</td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">1·0226</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">36</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑξαπόδης</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">36·81456</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">100</td> -<td class="tdctr">2<sup>7</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκαινα</span> (Square of the <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καλαμος</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">102·26266</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">833⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">23<sup>4</sup>/<sub>27</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">8⅓</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμίεκτος</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">3</td> -<td class="tdc br">35·439</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">1666⅔</td> -<td class="tdctr">46<sup>8</sup>/<sub>27</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">16⅔</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕκτος</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">6</td> -<td class="tdc br">70·877</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">2500</td> -<td class="tdctr">69<sup>4</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">25</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄρουρα</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">9</td> -<td class="tdc br">106·318</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">10,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">277<sup>7</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr bb">100</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">12</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">6</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">4</td> -<td class="tdl bb"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΠΛΈΘΡΟΝ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr bb">37</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">153·02<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> This differs from a rood, or a quarter of an acre, by little more than 2 perches; for the rood -contains 40 perches.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_427"></a>[427]</span></p> - -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_VI"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE VI.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">ROMAN MEASURES OF SURFACE.</span></h3> - - -<table class="p2 autotable fs70" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="10">Ordinary Land Measures.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Acres.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Roods.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Perches.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Square Feet.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="10"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Pes">Pes Quadratus</a></span></td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">·9445</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">100</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="9">Scrupulum, or Decempeda Quadrata</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">94·245</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">480</td> -<td class="tdctr">4⅘</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="8"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Actus">Actus Simplex</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">180·127</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">2400</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">5</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7">Uncia<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">8</td> -<td class="tdc br">83·885</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">3600</td> -<td class="tdctr">36</td> -<td class="tdctr">7½</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6">Clima</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">12</td> -<td class="tdc br">125·83</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">14,400</td> -<td class="tdctr">144</td> -<td class="tdctr">30</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Actus">Actus Quadratus</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">9</td> -<td class="tdc br">231·07</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">28,800</td> -<td class="tdctr">288</td> -<td class="tdctr">60</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Jugerum">Jugerum</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -<td class="tdc br">19</td> -<td class="tdc br">189·89<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">57,600</td> -<td class="tdctr">576</td> -<td class="tdctr">120</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Heredium</td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">0</td> -<td class="tdc br">39</td> -<td class="tdc br">107·53<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">5,760,000</td> -<td class="tdctr">57,600</td> -<td class="tdctr">12,000</td> -<td class="tdctr">2400</td> -<td class="tdctr">1600</td> -<td class="tdctr">400</td> -<td class="tdctr">200</td> -<td class="tdctr">100</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Centuria</td> -<td class="tdclr">124</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -<td class="tdc br">19</td> -<td class="tdc br">135·25</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">23,040,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">230,400</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">48,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">9600</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">6400</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1600</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">800</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">400</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">4</td> -<td class="tdl bb">Saltus</td> -<td class="tdclr bb">498</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">1</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">37</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">268·75<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">As</i> to which this <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uncia</i> and the above <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Scrupulum</i> belong is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jugerum</i>. The other uncial divisions of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Jugerum</i> may easily be calculated -from the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uncia</i>. The <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Semissis</i> is, of course, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Actus Quadratus</i>.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> <em>i.e.</em> almost 5-8ths of an acre.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> <em>i.e.</em> almost an acre and a quarter.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> <em>i.e.</em> almost 500 acres.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_428"></a>[428]</span></p> - -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_VII"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE VII.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.</span></h3> - - -<table class="p2 autotable fs70" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="12" rowspan="2">I. Attic Liquid Measures.</td> -<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Gallons.</td> -<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Pints.</td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="2">Approximate.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">Gallons.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Pints.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="12"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοχλιάριον</span></td> -<td class="tdctlr">“</td> -<td class="tdctr">·008</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>120</sub></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="11"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χήμη</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">“</td> -<td class="tdc br">·016</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>60</sub></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">2½</td> -<td class="tdctr">1¼</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="10"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύστρον</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">“</td> -<td class="tdc br">·02</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>48</sub></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">5</td> -<td class="tdctr">2½</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="9"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόγχη</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">“</td> -<td class="tdc br">·04</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>24</sub></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">10</td> -<td class="tdctr">5</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="8"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΚΎΑΘΟΣ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">“</td> -<td class="tdc br">·08</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">15</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀξύβαφον</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">“</td> -<td class="tdc br">·12</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">⅛</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">30</td> -<td class="tdctr">15</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τέταρτον</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">“</td> -<td class="tdc br">·24</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">¼</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">60</td> -<td class="tdctr">30</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοτύλη</span>, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρυβλίον</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμίνα</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">“</td> -<td class="tdc br">·48</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">½</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">120</td> -<td class="tdctr">60</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΞΈΣΤΗΣ</span> (Sextarius)</td> -<td class="tdclr">“</td> -<td class="tdc br">·96</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">720</td> -<td class="tdctr">360</td> -<td class="tdctr">288</td> -<td class="tdctr">144</td> -<td class="tdctr">72</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΧΟΥΣ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">“</td> -<td class="tdc br">5·76</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">5760</td> -<td class="tdctr">2880</td> -<td class="tdctr">2304</td> -<td class="tdctr">1152</td> -<td class="tdctr">576</td> -<td class="tdctr">384</td> -<td class="tdctr">192</td> -<td class="tdctr">96</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Roman Amphora (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεράμιον</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">5</td> -<td class="tdc br">6·08</td> -<td class="tdc br">6</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">8640</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">4320</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">3456</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1728</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">864</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">576</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">288</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">144</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">72</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">12</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1½</td> -<td class="tdl bb"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΑΜΦΟΡΕΥΣ ΜΕΤΡΗΤΗΣ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr bb">8</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">5·12</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">9</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="fs80">N.B.—The <em>Aeginetan</em> measures of capacity may be easily calculated from these, according to the ratio given under <span class="smcap"><a href="#Quadrantal">Quadrantal</a></span>.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> As the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sextarius</i> differs from the English pint by only 1-25th part of the latter, it will be found useful, in ordinary rough calculations, to take it at -exactly a pint, and so with the other measures in this table. The results thus obtained may be corrected by subtracting from each of them its 1-25th part.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_429"></a>[429]</span></p> - -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_VIII"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE VIII.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.</span></h3> - - -<table class="p2 autotable fs70" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="10" rowspan="2">I. Liquid Measures.</td> -<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Gallons.</td> -<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Pints.</td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="2">Approximate.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">Gallons.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Pints.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="10">Ligula</td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">·02</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>48</sub></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">4</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="9"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus</a></span><a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·08</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="8">Acetabulum</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·12</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">⅛</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7">Quartarius, <em>i.e.</em> 1-4th of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sextarius</i></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·24</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">¼</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6">Hemina or Cotyla</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·48</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">½</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Sextarius">Sextarius</a></span>, <em>i.e.</em> 1-6th of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Congius</i></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·96</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">288</td> -<td class="tdctr">72</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Congius">Congius</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">5·76</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">1152</td> -<td class="tdctr">288</td> -<td class="tdctr">192</td> -<td class="tdctr">96</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Urna</td> -<td class="tdclr">2</td> -<td class="tdc br">7·04</td> -<td class="tdc br">3</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">2304</td> -<td class="tdctr">576</td> -<td class="tdctr">384</td> -<td class="tdctr">192</td> -<td class="tdctr">96</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Amphora">Amphora Quadrantal</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">5</td> -<td class="tdc br">6·08</td> -<td class="tdc br">6</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">46,080</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">11,520</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">7680</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">3840</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1920</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">960</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">160</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">40</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">20</td> -<td class="tdl bb">Culeus</td> -<td class="tdclr bb">115</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">1·6</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">120</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> See the <a href="#Footnote_12">Note to Table VII</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> According to the uncial division, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sextarius</i> was the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">As</i>, and the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cyathus</i> the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Uncia</i>.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_430"></a>[430]</span></p> - -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_IX"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE IX.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.</span></h3> - -<table class="p2 autotable fs70" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="9" rowspan="2">II. Attic Dry Measures.</td> -<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Gallons.</td> -<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Pints.</td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="2">Approximate.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">Gallons.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Pints.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="9"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοχλιάριον</span></td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">·008</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>120</sub></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">10</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="8"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΚΎΑΘΟΣ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·08</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">15</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀξύβαφον</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·12</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">⅛</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">60</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΚΟΤΎΛΗ</span> or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμίνα</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·48</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">½</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">120</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΞΈΣΤΗΣ</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sextarius</i>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·96</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">240</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΧΟΙΝΙΞ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1·92</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">2<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">960</td> -<td class="tdctr">96</td> -<td class="tdctr">64</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμίεκτον</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">7·68</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">1920</td> -<td class="tdctr">192</td> -<td class="tdctr">128</td> -<td class="tdctr">32</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕκτος</span> (equal to the Roman <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Modius</i>.)</td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">7·36</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">11,520</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1152</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">768</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">192</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">96</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">48</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">12</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">6</td> -<td class="tdl bb"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ΜΈΔΙΜΝΟΣ</span></td> -<td class="tdclr bb">11</td> -<td class="tdc br bb">4·16</td> -<td class="tdc br bb">12<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></td> -<td class="tdc br bb">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> See the <a href="#Footnote_12">Note to Table VII</a>.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Or one quart.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> Or one bushel and a half.</p> -</div> - -<p class="fs80">N.B.—Respecting the <em>Aeginetan</em> Measures, see the Note to <a href="#TABLE_VII">Table VII</a>.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_X"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE X.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY.</span></h3> - -<table class="p2 autotable fs70" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="8" rowspan="2">II. Dry Measures.</td> -<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Gallons.</td> -<td class="tdctr" rowspan="2">Pints.</td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="2">Approximate.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">Gallons.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Pints.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="8">Ligula</td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">·02</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>48</sub></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">4</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus</a></span><a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·08</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>12</sub></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6">Acetabulum</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·12</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">⅛</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Quartarius, <em>i.e.</em> 1-4th of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sextarius</i></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·24</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">¼</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Hemina, or Cotyla</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·48</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">½</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Sextarius">Sextarius</a></span>, <em>i.e.</em> 1-6th of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Congius</i></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·96</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">384</td> -<td class="tdctr">96</td> -<td class="tdctr">64</td> -<td class="tdctr">32</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Semimodius</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">7·68</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb tdpp">768</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">192</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">128</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">64</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">32</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">16</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">2</td> -<td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Modius">Modius</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr bb">1</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">7·36</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">2<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> See the <a href="#Footnote_12">Note to Table VII</a>.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> See the <a href="#Footnote_14">Note to Table VIII</a>.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> Or a quarter of a bushel.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_431"></a>[431]</span></p> - -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_XI"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE XI.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90 lsp2">GRECIAN WEIGHTS.</span></h3> - -<table class="p2 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp bold" colspan="5">1. Ratios of the three chief Systems.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bl bt">Aeginetan : Euboic or old Attic</td> -<td class="tdr bt">::</td> -<td class="tdc bt">6</td> -<td class="tdc bt">:</td> -<td class="tdc bt br">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bl">Aeginetan : Solonian or later Attic</td> -<td class="tdr">::</td> -<td class="tdc">5</td> -<td class="tdc">:</td> -<td class="tdc br">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bl">Euboic : Solonian</td> -<td class="tdr">::</td> -<td class="tdc">138<sup>8</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td> -<td class="tdc">:</td> -<td class="tdc br">100</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bl"></td> -<td class="tdr">or ::</td> -<td class="tdc">100</td> -<td class="tdc">:</td> -<td class="tdc br">72</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bl bb"></td> -<td class="tdr bb">or ::</td> -<td class="tdc bb">25</td> -<td class="tdc bb">:</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">18</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<table class="px autotable fs70" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl">The Aeginetan Talent</td> -<td class="tdl bt">= 6000 Aeginetan Drachmae</td> -<td class="tdl bt">= 7200 Euboic</td> -<td class="tdl bt br">= 10,000 Solonian</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bl pad3">Euboic <span class="pad2">”</span></td> -<td class="tdl">= 5000 <span class="pad3">”</span></td> -<td class="tdl">= 6000 <span class="pad2">”</span></td> -<td class="tdl br">= 8,333⅓ <span class="pad1">”</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bb bl pad3">Solonian<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> ”</td> -<td class="tdl bb">= 3600 <span class="pad3">”</span></td> -<td class="tdl bb">= 4320 <span class="pad2">”</span></td> -<td class="tdl bb br">= 6,000 <span class="pad2">”</span></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Also called the <em>Attic Silver Talent</em>. When Attic weights are spoken of without any further -distinction, these are generally intended.</p> -</div> - -<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp bold" colspan="4" rowspan="2">2. Aeginetan Weights.</td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Exact.</em><a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Approximate.</em></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctr">lb.</td> -<td class="tdctr">oz.</td> -<td class="tdctr">grs.</td> -<td class="tdctr">lb.</td> -<td class="tdctr">oz.</td> -<td class="tdctr">grs.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="4">Obol (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀβολος</span>)</td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">18·472<sup>2</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">20</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">6</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Drachma (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δραχμή</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">110·83⅛</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">¼</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">600</td> -<td class="tdctr">100</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mina (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μνᾶ</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">9</td> -<td class="tdc br">145·83⅓<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></td> -<td class="tdc br">1⅔</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb">36,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">6000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">60</td> -<td class="tdl bb">Talent (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάλαντον</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr bb">95</td> -<td class="tdc br bb">”</td> -<td class="tdc br bb">”</td> -<td class="tdc br bb">100</td> -<td class="tdc br bb">”</td> -<td class="tdc br bb">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> In this and the other tables the English weights used are those of the avoirdupois scale as -fixed by statute; namely, the grain = the Troy grain, the ounce = 437½ grains, the pound = -16 ounces = 7000 grains.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> Or ⅓ of an oz.</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp bold" colspan="4" rowspan="2">3. Euboic or Attic Commercial Weights.</td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Exact.</em></td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Approximate.</em></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctr">lb.</td> -<td class="tdctr">oz.</td> -<td class="tdctr">grs.</td> -<td class="tdctr">lb.</td> -<td class="tdctr">oz.</td> -<td class="tdctr">grs.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="4">Obol</td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">15·398<sup>14</sup>/<sub>27</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">15½</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">6</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Drachma</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">92·3611<sup>1</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">93⅓</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">600</td> -<td class="tdctr">100</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mina</td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">5</td> -<td class="tdc br">48·611<sup>1</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb">36,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">6000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">60</td> -<td class="tdl bb">Talent</td> -<td class="tdclr bb">79</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">2</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">291·63⅓</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">80</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp bold" rowspan="2">4. Attic Commercial Weights increased.</td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Exact.</em></td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Approximate.</em></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctr">lb.</td> -<td class="tdctr">oz.</td> -<td class="tdctr">grs.</td> -<td class="tdctr">lb.</td> -<td class="tdctr">oz.</td> -<td class="tdctr">grs.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl">1 Mina = 150 Drachmae (silver)</td> -<td class="tdctlr">1</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">350</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bl">5 Minae = 6 Minae (commercial)</td> -<td class="tdclr">7</td> -<td class="tdc br">14</td> -<td class="tdc br">291·6⅔</td> -<td class="tdc br">7½</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bb bl">1 Talent = 65 Minae (commercial)</td> -<td class="tdclr bb">88</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">145·8⅓</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">90</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp bold" colspan="4" rowspan="2">5. Attic Silver Weights.</td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Exact.</em></td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="3"><em>Approximate.</em></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctr">lb.</td> -<td class="tdctr">oz.</td> -<td class="tdctr">grs.</td> -<td class="tdctr">lb.</td> -<td class="tdctr">oz.</td> -<td class="tdctr">grs.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="4">Obol</td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">11·0833⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">6</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Drachma</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">66·5</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">70</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">600</td> -<td class="tdctlr">100</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mina</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">15</td> -<td class="tdc br">87·5<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb">36,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">6000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">60</td> -<td class="tdl bb">Talent <span class="pad4"> </span></td> -<td class="tdclr bb">57</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">60</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Or ⅕ of an oz.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_432"></a>[432]</span></p> - -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_XII"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE XII.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90 lsp2">GRECIAN MONEY.</span></h3> - -<table class="p2 autotable fs70" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="13">I. Attic Copper and Silver.</td> -<td class="tdctr">£.</td> -<td class="tdctr"><em>s.</em></td> -<td class="tdctr"><em>d.</em></td> -<td class="tdctr">Farth-<br />ings.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="13">Lepton (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λεπτόν</span>)</td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">·116</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">7</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="12">Chalchus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλκοῦς</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·8125</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">14</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="11">Dichalcon, or Quarter Obol (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίχαλκον</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1·625</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">28</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="10">Half Obol (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμιοβόλιον</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">3·25</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">56</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="9">Obol (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀβολός</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">2·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">112</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="8">Diobolus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διόβολον</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">3</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">168</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7">Triobolus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριόβολον</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">4</td> -<td class="tdc br">3·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">224</td> -<td class="tdctr">32</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6">Tetrobolus (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετρόβολον</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">6</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">336</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Drachma<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δραχμή</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">9</td> -<td class="tdc br">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">672</td> -<td class="tdctr">96</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Didrachm (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίδραχμον</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">7</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">1344</td> -<td class="tdctr">192</td> -<td class="tdctr">96</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Tetradrachm (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετράδραχμον</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">3</td> -<td class="tdc br">3</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">33,600</td> -<td class="tdctr">4800</td> -<td class="tdctr">2400</td> -<td class="tdctr">1200</td> -<td class="tdctr">600</td> -<td class="tdctr">300</td> -<td class="tdctr">200</td> -<td class="tdctr">150</td> -<td class="tdctr">100</td> -<td class="tdctr">50</td> -<td class="tdctr">25</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Mina (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μνᾶ</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr">4</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">3</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb">2,016,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">288,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">144,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">72,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">36,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">18,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">12,000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">9000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">6000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">3000</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1500</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">60</td> -<td class="tdl bb">Talent (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάλαντον</span>)</td> -<td class="tdclr bb">243</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">15<br /><a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> The Drachma was very nearly equal to the French Franc.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Or, approximately, 250<em>l.</em>, the difference being only 1-40th.</p> -</div> - -<p class="fs80">II. <em>Aeginetan and Euboic Silver.</em>—The coins of these systems can be easily calculated from the Attic, according to the ratios given in Table XI., No. 1. -As thus calculated, the Aeginetan Talent was equal to 406<em>l.</em> 5<em>s.</em>, and the Euboic was equal to 338<em>l.</em> 10<em>s.</em> 10<em>d.</em>, and the Drachmae were equal respectively to -1<em>s.</em> 4¼<em>d.</em> for the Aeginetan, and 1<em>s.</em> 1½<em>d.</em> + ⅕ of a farthing for the Euboic.</p> - -<p class="fs80">III. <em>Grecian Gold.</em>—The values of the Grecian gold money cannot be conveniently reduced to the tabular form; they will be found in the articles -<span class="smcap"><a href="#Stater">Stater</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#Dareicus">Dareicus</a></span>.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_433"></a>[433]</span></p> - -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_XIII"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE XIII.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">ROMAN WEIGHTS.</span></h3> - - -<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr smcap" colspan="13" rowspan="2">I. The Uncial Divisions of the Pound.</td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="2">Avoirdupois<br />Weight.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctr">Oz.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Grs.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="13"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia</a></span></td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">430·83⅓<br /><a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="12">Sescuncia, or Sescunx</td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">203·75</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="11">Sextans</td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">404·16⅔</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="10">Quadrans, or Teruncius</td> -<td class="tdclr">2</td> -<td class="tdc br">168·750</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="9">Triens</td> -<td class="tdclr">3</td> -<td class="tdc br">270·83⅓</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">5</td> -<td class="tdctr">3⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">2½</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td> -<td class="tdctr">1¼</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="8">Quincunx</td> -<td class="tdclr">4</td> -<td class="tdc br">354·16⅔</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅕</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Semis">Semis</a></span>, or Semissi</td> -<td class="tdclr">5</td> -<td class="tdc br">337·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">7</td> -<td class="tdctr">4⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">3½</td> -<td class="tdctr">2⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">1¾</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅖</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅙</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6">Septunx</td> -<td class="tdclr">6</td> -<td class="tdc br">320·33⅓</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">5⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2⅔</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅗</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>7</sub></td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Bes, or Bessis</td> -<td class="tdclr">7</td> -<td class="tdc br">104·16⅔</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">9</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4½</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2¼</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅘</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>2</sup>/<sub>7</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅛</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Dodrans</td> -<td class="tdclr">8</td> -<td class="tdc br">277·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">10</td> -<td class="tdctr">6⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">5</td> -<td class="tdctr">3⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">2½</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅔</td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>3</sup>/<sub>7</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">1¼</td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Dextrans</td> -<td class="tdclr">9</td> -<td class="tdc br">270·83⅓</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">11</td> -<td class="tdctr">7⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr">5½</td> -<td class="tdctr">3⅔</td> -<td class="tdctr">2¾</td> -<td class="tdctr">2⅕</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅚</td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>4</sup>/<sub>7</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅜</td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>2</sup>/<sub>9</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>10</sub></td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Deunx</td> -<td class="tdclr">10</td> -<td class="tdc br">260·83⅓</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb">12</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">8</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">6</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">4</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">3</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">2⅖</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">2</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1<sup>5</sup>/<sub>7</sub></td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1½</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1⅕</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">1<sup>1</sup>/<sub>11</sub></td> -<td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a></span>, or <span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra_a">Libra</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr bb">11</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">237·5</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> This only differs from the ounce avoirdupois by less than 7 grains.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_XIV"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE XIV.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">ROMAN WEIGHTS.</span></h3> - -<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp smcap" colspan="10">II. Subdivisions of the Uncia.</td> -<td class="tdctr">Grains.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="10">Siliqua</td> -<td class="tdctlr">2·9224</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">3</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="9">Obolus</td> -<td class="tdclr">8·767361</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="8"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Scrupulum">Scrupulum</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">17·53472</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7">Semisextula</td> -<td class="tdclr">35·0694</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6"><span class="smcap">Sextula</span></td> -<td class="tdclr">70·138</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">36</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Sicilicus</td> -<td class="tdclr">105·2083</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Duella</td> -<td class="tdclr">140·277</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">72</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Semuncia</td> -<td class="tdclr">120·416</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">144</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">420·833</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr bb">1728</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">576</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">288</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">144</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">72</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">48</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">36</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">24</td> -<td class="tdctr bb">12</td> -<td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap"><a href="#As">As</a></span>, or <span class="smcap"><a href="#Libra">Libra</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr bb">5050</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_434"></a>[434]</span></p> - -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_XV"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE XV.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">ROMAN MONEY.</span></h3> - -<table class="p1 autotable fs70" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr tdpp" colspan="18">I. Before the Reign of Augustus: when the Denarius was 1-7th of an Ounce, or about 60 Grains.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr" colspan="8">1. <em>Copper Coins.</em></td> -<td class="tdctr" colspan="6">2. <em>Silver Coins.</em></td> -<td class="tdctr">£.</td> -<td class="tdctr"><em>s.</em></td> -<td class="tdctr"><em>d.</em></td> -<td class="tdctr">Farth-<br />ings.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bl br" colspan="8">Sextula</td> -<td class="tdc br" colspan="6"></td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·35416</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl br" colspan="7">Quadrans</td> -<td class="tdl br" colspan="6">Teruncius</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·53125</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdl br" colspan="6">Triens</td> -<td class="tdc br" colspan="6"></td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·7083</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Semissis</td> -<td class="tdctlr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5">Sembella</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1·0625</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4">As</td> -<td class="tdctlr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Libella</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">2·125</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3">Dupondius</td> - -<td class="tdctlr"></td> -<td class="tdctr"></td> -<td class="tdctr"></td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">·25</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertius</a></span></td> -<td class="tdctlr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertius</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -<td class="tdc br">·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">32</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdctlr">32</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Quinarius</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">4</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">96</td> -<td class="tdctr">64</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">32</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdctlr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">32</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">8</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bt bl br" colspan="18"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bb bl br" colspan="18"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bl" colspan="14">3. <em>Gold Coins.</em> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aureus">Aureus</a></span><a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> - (value in proportion to Roman Silver)</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">17</td> -<td class="tdc br">8</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bl" colspan="7"></td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7">(value in English current Coin)</td> -<td class="tdclr">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bt bl br" colspan="18"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bb bl br" colspan="18"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bb bl" colspan="14">4. <em>Money of Account (not a Coin).</em> - <span class="smcap"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertium</a></span>, or Mille Nummi</td> -<td class="tdclr bb">8</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">17</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">1</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> For the subdivisions of the gold money, see <span class="smcap"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum</a></span>.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<h3 class="p2" id="TABLE_XVI"> -<span class="bold lsp2">TABLE XVI.</span><br /> -<span class="fs90">ROMAN MONEY.</span></h3> - -<table class="p1 autotable fs70" width="80%" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr" colspan="9">II. After the Reign of Augustus: when the Denarius was 1-8th<br />of an Ounce, or 52·5 Grains.</td> -<td class="tdctr"><em>£.</em></td> -<td class="tdctr"><em>s.</em></td> -<td class="tdctr"><em>d.</em></td> -<td class="tdctr">Farth-<br />ings.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bt bl" colspan="9">Sextula</td> -<td class="tdctlr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">”</td> -<td class="tdctr">·3125</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="8">Quadrans</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·46875</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1⅓</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="7">Triens</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·625</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdctr">1½</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="6">Semissis</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">·9375</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">3</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="5">As</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1·875</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">6</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="4">Dupondius</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">3·75</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">12</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertius</a></span></td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">1</td> -<td class="tdc br">3·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">32</td> -<td class="tdctr">24</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Quinarius, or Victoriatus</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">3</td> -<td class="tdc br">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdctlr">96</td> -<td class="tdctr">64</td> -<td class="tdctr">48</td> -<td class="tdctr">32</td> -<td class="tdctr">16</td> -<td class="tdctr">8</td> -<td class="tdctr">4</td> -<td class="tdctr">2</td> -<td class="tdl">Denarius</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">7</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bt bl br" colspan="13"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bb bl br" colspan="13"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bl pad2" colspan="9"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Aureus">Aureus</a></span>, reckoned at 25 Denarii</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">15</td> -<td class="tdc br">7</td> -<td class="tdc br">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bl pad4" colspan="9">” reckoned in English Current Coin</td> -<td class="tdclr">”</td> -<td class="tdc br">18</td> -<td class="tdc br">5</td> -<td class="tdc br">3·25</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bb bl pad2" colspan="9"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertium</a></span>, or Mille Nummi</td> -<td class="tdclr bb">7</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">16</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">3</td> -<td class="tdc bb br">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_435"></a>[435]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PARALLEL_YEARS">PARALLEL YEARS.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center fs80">(<em>See <a href="#Olympia">page 276</a>.</em>)</p> - -<table class="p1 autotable fs60" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="bt" colspan="18"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -<td class="tdrll">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bt" colspan="18"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">776. </td><td class="tdr">1.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">616. </td><td class="tdr">41.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">558. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">518. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">478. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">438. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">772. </td><td class="tdr">2.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">612. </td><td class="tdr">42.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">557. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">517. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">477. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">437. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">768. </td><td class="tdr">3.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">608. </td><td class="tdr">43.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">556. </td><td class="tdr">56.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">516. </td><td class="tdr">66.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">476. </td><td class="tdr">76.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">436. </td><td class="tdr">86.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">764. </td><td class="tdr">4.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">604. </td><td class="tdr">44.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">555. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">515. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">475. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">435. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">760. </td><td class="tdr">5.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">600. </td><td class="tdr">45.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">554. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">514. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">474. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">434. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">756. </td><td class="tdr">6.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">596. </td><td class="tdr">46.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">553. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">513. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">473. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">433. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">752. </td><td class="tdr">7.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">592. </td><td class="tdr">47.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">552. </td><td class="tdr">57.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">512. </td><td class="tdr">67.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">472. </td><td class="tdr">77.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">432. </td><td class="tdr">87.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">748. </td><td class="tdr">8.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">591. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">551. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">511. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">471. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">431. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">744. </td><td class="tdr">9.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">590. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">550. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">510. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">470. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">430. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">740. </td><td class="tdr">10.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">589. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">549. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">509. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">469. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">429. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">736. </td><td class="tdr">11.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">588. </td><td class="tdr">48.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">548. </td><td class="tdr">58.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">508. </td><td class="tdr">68.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">468. </td><td class="tdr">78.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">428. </td><td class="tdr">88.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">732. </td><td class="tdr">12.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">587. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">547. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">507. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">467. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">427. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">728. </td><td class="tdr">13.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">586. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">546. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">506. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">466. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">426. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">724. </td><td class="tdr">14.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">585. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">545. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">505. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">465. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">425. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">720. </td><td class="tdr">15.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">584. </td><td class="tdr">49.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">544. </td><td class="tdr">59.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">504. </td><td class="tdr">69.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">464. </td><td class="tdr">79.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">424. </td><td class="tdr">89.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">716. </td><td class="tdr">16.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">583. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">543. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">503. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">463. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">423. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">712. </td><td class="tdr">17.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">582. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">542. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">502. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">462. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">422. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">708. </td><td class="tdr">18.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">581. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">541. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">501. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">461. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">421. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">704. </td><td class="tdr">19.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">580. </td><td class="tdr">50.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">540. </td><td class="tdr">60.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">500. </td><td class="tdr">70.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">460. </td><td class="tdr">80.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">420. </td><td class="tdr">90.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">700. </td><td class="tdr">20.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">579. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">539. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">499. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">459. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">419. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">696. </td><td class="tdr">21.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">578. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">538. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">498. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">458. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">418. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">692. </td><td class="tdr">22.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">577. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">537. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">497. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">457. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">417. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">688. </td><td class="tdr">23.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">576. </td><td class="tdr">51.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">536. </td><td class="tdr">61.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">496. </td><td class="tdr">71.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">456. </td><td class="tdr">81.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">416. </td><td class="tdr">91.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">684. </td><td class="tdr">24.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">575. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">535. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">495. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">455. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">415. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">680. </td><td class="tdr">25.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">574. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">534. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">494. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">454. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">414. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">676. </td><td class="tdr">26.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">573. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">533. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">493. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">453. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">413. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">672. </td><td class="tdr">27.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">572. </td><td class="tdr">52.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">532. </td><td class="tdr">62.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">492. </td><td class="tdr">72.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">452. </td><td class="tdr">82.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">412. </td><td class="tdr">92.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">668. </td><td class="tdr">28.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">571. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">531. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">491. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">451. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">411. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">664. </td><td class="tdr">29.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">570. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">530. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">490. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">450. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">410. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">660. </td><td class="tdr">30.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">569. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">529. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">489. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">449. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">409. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">656. </td><td class="tdr">31.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">568. </td><td class="tdr">53.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">528. </td><td class="tdr">63.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">488. </td><td class="tdr">73.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">448. </td><td class="tdr">83.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">408. </td><td class="tdr">93.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">652. </td><td class="tdr">32.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">567. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">527. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">487. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">447. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">407. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">648. </td><td class="tdr">33.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">566. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">526. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">486. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">446. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">406. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">644. </td><td class="tdr">34.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">565. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">525. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">485. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">445. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">405. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">640. </td><td class="tdr">35.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">564. </td><td class="tdr">54.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">524. </td><td class="tdr">64.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">484. </td><td class="tdr">74.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">444. </td><td class="tdr">84.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">404. </td><td class="tdr">94.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">636. </td><td class="tdr">36.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">563. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">523. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">483. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">443. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">403. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">632. </td><td class="tdr">37.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">562. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">522. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">482. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">442. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">402. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">628. </td><td class="tdr">38.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">561. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">521. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">481. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">441. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">401. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">624. </td><td class="tdr">39.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">560. </td><td class="tdr">55.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">520. </td><td class="tdr">65.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">480. </td><td class="tdr">75.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">440. </td><td class="tdr">85.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">400. </td><td class="tdr">95.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">620. </td><td class="tdr">40.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">559. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">519. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">479. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">439. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">399. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_436"></a>[436]</span></p> - -<table class="p2 autotable fs60" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="bt" colspan="18"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -<td class="tdrll">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -<td class="tdrl">B.C.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -<td class="tdrl">A.D.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bt" colspan="18"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">398. </td><td class="tdr">95.</td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">352. </td><td class="tdr">107.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">306. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">224. </td><td class="tdr">139.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">40. </td><td class="tdr">185.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">121. </td><td class="tdr">225.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">397. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">351. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">305. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">220. </td><td class="tdr">140.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">36. </td><td class="tdr">186.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">125. </td><td class="tdr">226.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">396. </td><td class="tdr">96.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">350. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">304. </td><td class="tdr">119.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">216. </td><td class="tdr">141.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">32. </td><td class="tdr">187.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">129. </td><td class="tdr">227.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">395. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">349. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">303. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">212. </td><td class="tdr">142.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">28. </td><td class="tdr">188.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">133. </td><td class="tdr">228.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">394. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">348. </td><td class="tdr">108.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">302. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">208. </td><td class="tdr">143.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">24. </td><td class="tdr">189.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">137. </td><td class="tdr">229.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">393. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">347. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">301. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">204. </td><td class="tdr">144.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">20. </td><td class="tdr">190.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">141. </td><td class="tdr">230.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">392. </td><td class="tdr">97.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">346. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">300. </td><td class="tdr">120.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">200. </td><td class="tdr">145.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">16. </td><td class="tdr">191.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">145. </td><td class="tdr">231.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">391. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">345. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">299. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">196. </td><td class="tdr">146.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">12. </td><td class="tdr">192.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">149. </td><td class="tdr">232.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">390. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">344. </td><td class="tdr">109.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">298. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">192. </td><td class="tdr">147.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">8. </td><td class="tdr">193.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">153. </td><td class="tdr">233.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">389. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">343. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">297. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">188. </td><td class="tdr">148.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">4. </td><td class="tdr">194.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">157. </td><td class="tdr">234.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">388. </td><td class="tdr">98.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">342. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">296. </td><td class="tdr">121.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">184. </td><td class="tdr">149.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdrl">161. </td><td class="tdr">235.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">387. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">341. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">295. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">180. </td><td class="tdr">150.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdrl">165. </td><td class="tdr">236.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">386. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">340. </td><td class="tdr">110.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">294. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">176. </td><td class="tdr">151.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdrl">169. </td><td class="tdr">237.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">385. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">339. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">293. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">172. </td><td class="tdr">152.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdrl">173. </td><td class="tdr">238.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">384. </td><td class="tdr">99.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">338. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">292. </td><td class="tdr">122.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">168. </td><td class="tdr">153.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">A.D.</td><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Ol.</td> -<td class="tdrl">177. </td><td class="tdr">239.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">383. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">337. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">291. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">164. </td><td class="tdr">154.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl"></td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdrl">181. </td><td class="tdr">240.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">382. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">336. </td><td class="tdr">111.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">290. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">160. </td><td class="tdr">155.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">1. </td><td class="tdr">195.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">185. </td><td class="tdr">241.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">381. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">335. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">289. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">156. </td><td class="tdr">156.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">5. </td><td class="tdr">196.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">189. </td><td class="tdr">242.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">380. </td><td class="tdr">100.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">334. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">288. </td><td class="tdr">123.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">152. </td><td class="tdr">157.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">9. </td><td class="tdr">197.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">193. </td><td class="tdr">243.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">379. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">333. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">287. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">148. </td><td class="tdr">158.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">13. </td><td class="tdr">198.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">197. </td><td class="tdr">244.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">378. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">332. </td><td class="tdr">112.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">286. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">144. </td><td class="tdr">159.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">17. </td><td class="tdr">199.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">201. </td><td class="tdr">245.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">377. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">331. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">285. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">140. </td><td class="tdr">160.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">21. </td><td class="tdr">200.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">205. </td><td class="tdr">246.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">376. </td><td class="tdr">101.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">330. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">284. </td><td class="tdr">124.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">136. </td><td class="tdr">161.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">25. </td><td class="tdr">201.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">209. </td><td class="tdr">247.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">375. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">329. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">283. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">132. </td><td class="tdr">162.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">29. </td><td class="tdr">202.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">213. </td><td class="tdr">248.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">374. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">328. </td><td class="tdr">113.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">282. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">128. </td><td class="tdr">163.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">33. </td><td class="tdr">203.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">217. </td><td class="tdr">249.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">373. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">327. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">281. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">124. </td><td class="tdr">164.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">37. </td><td class="tdr">204.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">221. </td><td class="tdr">250.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">372. </td><td class="tdr">102.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">326. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">280. </td><td class="tdr">125.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">120. </td><td class="tdr">165.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">41. </td><td class="tdr">205.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">225. </td><td class="tdr">251.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">371. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">325. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">279. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">116. </td><td class="tdr">166.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">45. </td><td class="tdr">206.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">229. </td><td class="tdr">252.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">370. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">324. </td><td class="tdr">114.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">278. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">112. </td><td class="tdr">167.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">49. </td><td class="tdr">207.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">233. </td><td class="tdr">253.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">369. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">323. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">277. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">108. </td><td class="tdr">168.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">53. </td><td class="tdr">208.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">237. </td><td class="tdr">254.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">368. </td><td class="tdr">103.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">322. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">276. </td><td class="tdr">126.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">104. </td><td class="tdr">169.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">57. </td><td class="tdr">209.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">241. </td><td class="tdr">255.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">367. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">321. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">275. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrll">100. </td><td class="tdr">170.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">61. </td><td class="tdr">210.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">245. </td><td class="tdr">256.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">366. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">320. </td><td class="tdr">115.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">274. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrll">96. </td><td class="tdr">171.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">65. </td><td class="tdr">211.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">249. </td><td class="tdr">257.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">365. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">319. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">273. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrll">92. </td><td class="tdr">172.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">69. </td><td class="tdr">212.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">253. </td><td class="tdr">258.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">364. </td><td class="tdr">104.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">318. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">272. </td><td class="tdr">127.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">88. </td><td class="tdr">173.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">73. </td><td class="tdr">213.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">257. </td><td class="tdr">259.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">363. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">317. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">268. </td><td class="tdr">128.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">84. </td><td class="tdr">174.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">77. </td><td class="tdr">214.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">261. </td><td class="tdr">260.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">362. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">316. </td><td class="tdr">116.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">264. </td><td class="tdr">129.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">80. </td><td class="tdr">175.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">81. </td><td class="tdr">215.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">265. </td><td class="tdr">261.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">361. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">315. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">260. </td><td class="tdr">130.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">76. </td><td class="tdr">176.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">85. </td><td class="tdr">216.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">269. </td><td class="tdr">262.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">360. </td><td class="tdr">105.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">314. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">256. </td><td class="tdr">131.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">72. </td><td class="tdr">177.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">89. </td><td class="tdr">217.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">273. </td><td class="tdr">263.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">359. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">313. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">252. </td><td class="tdr">132.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">68. </td><td class="tdr">178.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">93. </td><td class="tdr">218.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">277. </td><td class="tdr">264.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">358. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">312. </td><td class="tdr">117.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">248. </td><td class="tdr">133.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">64. </td><td class="tdr">179.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">97. </td><td class="tdr">219.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">281. </td><td class="tdr">265.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">357. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">311. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">244. </td><td class="tdr">134.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">60. </td><td class="tdr">180.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">101. </td><td class="tdr">220.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">285. </td><td class="tdr">266.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">356. </td><td class="tdr">106.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">310. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">240. </td><td class="tdr">135.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">56. </td><td class="tdr">181.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">105. </td><td class="tdr">221.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">289. </td><td class="tdr">267.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">355. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">309. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">236. </td><td class="tdr">136.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">52. </td><td class="tdr">182.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">109. </td><td class="tdr">222.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">293. </td><td class="tdr">268.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">354. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">3.</td> -<td class="tdrl">308. </td><td class="tdr">118.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">232. </td><td class="tdr">137.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">48. </td><td class="tdr">183.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">113. </td><td class="tdr">223.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">297. </td><td class="tdr">269.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">353. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">4.</td> -<td class="tdrl">307. </td><td class="tdr"></td><td class="tdr">2.</td> -<td class="tdrl">228. </td><td class="tdr">138.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrll">44. </td><td class="tdr">184.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">117. </td><td class="tdr">224.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -<td class="tdrl">301. </td><td class="tdr">270.</td><td class="tdr">1.</td> -</tr> -</table> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_437"></a>[437]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CALENDAR">CALENDARIUM:</h2> -</div> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<table class="autotable fs70" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad4" colspan="7">Labels:</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad4" colspan="7">AK: Ante Kalendas (of the month following).</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl pad4" colspan="7">AKM: Ante Kalendas Martias.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bl bt br" colspan="9"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc bl">Our days of the Month.</td> -<td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">March, May, July, October, have 31 days.</td> -<td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">January, August, December, have 31 days.</td> -<td class="tdc bl" colspan="2">April, June, September, November, have 30 days.</td> -<td class="tdc bl br" colspan="2">February has 28 days, and in Leap Year 29.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bl bt br" colspan="9"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">1.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Kalendis.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Kalendis.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Kalendis.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap bl br" colspan="2">Kalendis.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">2.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">} ante</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">} ante</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl br">} ante</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">3.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">V.</td> -<td class="tdl">} ante</td> -<td class="tdl bl">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">} Nonas.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">} Nonas.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">III.</td> -<td class="tdl br">} Nonas.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">4.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">} Nonas.</td> -<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie Nonas.</td> -<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie Nonas.</td> -<td class="tdl bl br" colspan="2">Pridie Nonas.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">5.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Nonis.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Nonis.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap bl br" colspan="2">Nonis.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">6.</td> -<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie Nonas.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td> -<td class="tdl br"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">7.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Nonis.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl br"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">8.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl">} ante</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl">} ante</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl br"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">9.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">V.</td> -<td class="tdl">} Idus.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">V.</td> -<td class="tdl">} Idus.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">V.</td> -<td class="tdl br"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">10.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl">} ante</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl br"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">11.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">V.</td> -<td class="tdl">} Idus.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">III.</td> -<td class="tdl br"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">12.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie Idus.</td> -<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie Idus.</td> -<td class="tdl bl br" colspan="2">Pridie Idus.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">13.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Idibus.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Idibus.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap bl br" colspan="2">Idibus.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">14.</td> -<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie Idus.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XIX.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XVIII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XVI.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">15.</td> -<td class="tdl smcap bl" colspan="2">Idibus.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XVIII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XVII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XV.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">16.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XVII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XVII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XVI.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XIV.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">17.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XVI.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XVI.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XV.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XIII.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">18.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XV.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XV.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XIV.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XII.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">19.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XIV.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XIV.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XIII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XI.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">20.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XIII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XIII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">X.</td> -<td class="tdl br">} AKM</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">21.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XI.</td> -<td class="tdl">} AK</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IX.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">22.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XI.</td> -<td class="tdl">} AK</td> -<td class="tdl bl">XI.</td> -<td class="tdl">} AK</td> -<td class="tdl bl">X.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">23.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">X.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">X.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IX.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">24.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IX.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IX.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">25.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VIII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">V.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">26.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">27.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">V.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">III.</td> -<td class="tdl br">}</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">28.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">V.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">V.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl br" colspan="2">Pridie</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">29.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl pad2 bl br" colspan="2">Kalendas</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">30.</td> -<td class="tdl bl">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">}</td> -<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie</td> -<td class="tdl pad2 bl br" colspan="2">Martias.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry">31.</td> -<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie</td> -<td class="tdl bl" colspan="2">Pridie</td> -<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">Kalendas (of</td> -<td class="tdl bl"></td> -<td class="tdl br"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry"></td> -<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">Kalendas (of</td> -<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">Kalendas (of</td> -<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">the month</td> -<td class="tdl bl"></td> -<td class="tdl br"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry"></td> -<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">the month</td> -<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">the month</td> -<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">following).</td> -<td class="tdl bl"></td> -<td class="tdl br"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdry"></td> -<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">following).</td> -<td class="tdl pad2 bl" colspan="2">following).</td> -<td class="tdl bl"></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl bl"></td> -<td class="tdl br"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bl bb br" colspan="9"></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_438"></a>[438]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="GREEK_INDEX">GREEK INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<p class="center fs80"> -<em>The numerals indicate the pages, and the letters</em> a <em>and</em> b -<em>the first and second columns respectively.</em></p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Α</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄβαξ</span>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄγαλμα</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b; <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγαθοεργοί</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγγαρεία</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγέλη</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄγημα</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγητής</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγητόρειον</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγητόρια</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄγκιστρον</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄγκοινα</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγκύλη</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγκύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγορά</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγορανόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, b; <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγρονόμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγροτέρας θυσία</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγύρται</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγχεμάχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγχιστεία</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγωνάρχαι</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγῶνες</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a; <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀτίμητοι</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, b; <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τίμητοι</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, b; <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγωνισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγωνοδίκαι</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀγωνοθέται</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀδελφιδοῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀδελφός</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀδέσποτοι</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀδύνατοι</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀδώνια</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄδυτον</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀείσιτοι</span>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀέτωμα</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀθληταί</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀθλητῆρες</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀθλοθέται</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a; <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰγικορεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰγίοχος</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰγίς</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἴθουσα</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰκίας δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἴνιγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a; <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰσυμνήτης</span>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, b; <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰχμή</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰχμοφόροι</span>, 587, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἰώρα</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκαινα, Ἀκαίνη</span>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκάτειος</span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκάτιον</span>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, b; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκατος</span>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, b; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκινάκης</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκμόθετον</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκμων</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκόντιον</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκράτισμα</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκροκέραια</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκρόλιθοι</span>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a; <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκρόπολις</span>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκροστόλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a; <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκρωτηριάζειν</span>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b; <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκρωτήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκτια</span>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀκωκή</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄκων</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλαβάρχης</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁλαί</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλείπται</span>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁλία</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄλληξ</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄλλιξ</span>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄλμα</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁλοπήγιον</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλυσίδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλύσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἅλυσις</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλύται</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a; <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλυτάρχης</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a; <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁλῶα</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a; <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀλῶα</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἅλως</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἅμαξα</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμαρύνθια</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμαρύσια</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμβροσία</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμπεχόνη</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμπίτταρες</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμπυκτήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄμπυξ</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφίβληστρον</span>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφίβολος</span>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφιδέαι</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφιδρόμια</span>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφιθάλαμος</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφικίων</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφικτύονες</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφιπρόστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφίστομος</span>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀμφορεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀναβαθμοί</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνάγλυπτα</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνάγλυφα</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀναγώγια</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀναδικία</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀναθήματα</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a; <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁνακαλυπτήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνακειμένα</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνάκειον</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνάκλιντρον</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνάκρισις</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b; <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνάκτορον</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄναξ</span>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀναξυρίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδρεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδριάς</span>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδρογεώνια</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδροληψία</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδρολήψιον</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδρῶνες</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνδρωνῖτις</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνεύθυνος</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνεψιαδαῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνεψιός</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθεστήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθεστηριών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθεσφόρια</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθράκια</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθύπατος</span>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀνθυπωμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄνοδος</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄνοπλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντιγόνεια</span>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντιγραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a; <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντίδοσις</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντιτίμησις</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντιχειροτονεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντλία</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄντυξ</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a; <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀντωμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀξίνη</span>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄξονες</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b; <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄξων</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄορ</span>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπαγωγή</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_439"></a>[439]</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπατούρια</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπαύλια</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπελεύθερος</span>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποβάθρα</span>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπογραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποδέκται</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, a; <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπόδεσμος</span>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποθέωσις</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποθήκη</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b; <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποικία</span>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄποικοι</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπόκλητοι</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπολείψεως δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπολλώνια</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποπέμψεως δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπόῤῥητα</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποστασίου δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποστολεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποτειχισμός</span>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποτελεσματικός</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποτίμημα</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπόφασις</span>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποφορά</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποχειροτονεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀποχειροτονία</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀπωμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀραιόστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρβύλη</span>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀργάδεις</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀργυράσπιδες</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀργυροκοπεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄργυρος</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρδάλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρδάνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄρειος πάγος</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀριστοκρατία</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄριστον</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἅρμα</span>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b; <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁρμάμαξα</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄροτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄρουρα</span>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁρπάγη</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁρπαστόν</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἅρπη</span>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀῤῥηφόρια</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀῤῥηφόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρτάβη</span>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρτεμίσια</span>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρτοποιός</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρτοπῶλαι</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρτοπώλιδες</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a; <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρτύσεις</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχή</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχίατρος</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχιθέωρος</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a; <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχιτεκτονία</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχιτεκτονική</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχιτέκτων</span>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄρχων</span>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βασιλέυς</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐπώνυμος</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a; <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a; <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀρχώνης</span>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσάμινθος</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄσβολος</span>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσεβείας γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσκαύλης</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσκληπίεια</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσκοί</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσκωλιασμός</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄσκωμα</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσπιδεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσπιδίσκη</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσπίς</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσπισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσσάριον</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀστράβη</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀστράγαλος</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a; <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀστρατείας γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀστυνόμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσυλία</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄσυλον</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀτέλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, b; <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀτιμία</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a; <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄτιμος</span>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, a; <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄτλαντες</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄτρακτος</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐθέψης</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐλαία</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a; <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὔλακες</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὔλειος θύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐλή</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b; <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a; <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐλητρίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐλός</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a; <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐτόνομοι</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐτοψία</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀφεταί</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀφετήριον ὄργανον</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄφλαστον</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄφοδος</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἄφρακτος ναῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀφρήτορ</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀφροδίσια</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀχίτων</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἁψίς</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Β.</span></span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βαλανεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βάλαντιον</span>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βαλλισμοί</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βάραθρον</span>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βάρβιτον, -ος</span>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, b; <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βασανισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βάσανος</span>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b; <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βασίλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βασιλεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, a; <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βασίλισσα</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βασκανία</span>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βελόνη</span>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βελονίς</span>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βέμβηξ</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βενδίδεια</span>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βηλός</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βῆμα</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b; <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βίβασις</span>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βιβλιοθήκη</span>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βιβλίον</span>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βιδιαῖοι</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βῖκος</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βιός</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βοηδρόμια</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βοηδρομιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βοιωτάρχης, -ος</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βολίς</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βομβύλιος</span>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βορεασμοί</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βορεασμός</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βουλευτήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βουλή</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b; <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b; <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βοῶναι</span>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βραβεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βραβευταί</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βραυρώνια</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βρόχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βύβλος</span>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βυκάνη</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βυσσός</span>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Βωμός</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γ.</span></span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γαισός</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γάλως</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γαμηλία</span>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γάμοροι</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γάμος</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γελέοντες</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γενεθλιαλογία</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γένειον</span>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γενέσια</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γένεσις</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γένη</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γεννῆται</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γένος</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γέρανος</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γερουσία</span>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γέῤῥα</span>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γέφυρα</span>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γεφυρίζειν</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γεφυρισμός</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γεωμόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γλεῦκος</span>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γλύξις</span>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γναφεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γνήσιος</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γνώμων</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γοργύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γράμμα</span>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γραμματεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b; <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b; <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γραφή δωροδοκίας</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δώρων</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξενίας</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρανοίας</span>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">παρανόμων</span>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, b; <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕβρεως</span>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φαρμάκων</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ψευδεγγραφῆς</span>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γραφική</span>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γραφίς</span>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γρῖφος</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γρόσφος</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γύης</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνασιάρχης</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνασίαρχος</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνάσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνασταί</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνήσιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνῆται</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνῆτες</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_440"></a>[440]</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνοί</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυμνοπαιδία</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυναικοκόσμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυναικονόμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γυναικωνῖτις</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γωρυτός</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαδοῦχος</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαίδαλα</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαιδάλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δακτύλιος</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δάκτυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαμαρέτειον χρύσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b; <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δανάκη</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b; <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαρεικός</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δαφνηφόρια</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεῖγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δείλη</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεῖπνον</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκαδαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκαδοῦχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκασμός</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκάστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκατευταί</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκάτη</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκατηλόγοι</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεκατῶναι</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δελφίνια</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δελφίς</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεσμωτήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεσποσιοναῦται</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δευτεραγωνιστής</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δῆγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δήλια</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b; <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δήμαρχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a; <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δημιοῦργοι</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b; <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a; <a href="#Page_389">389</a>. b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δήμιος</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δημοκρατία</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δῆμος</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b; <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δημόσιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δημόσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b; <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δημόται</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαγραφεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάζωμα</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαζώματα</span>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαιτηταί</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάκριοι</span>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαμαρτυρία</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαμαστίγωσις</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάσια</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διάστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίαυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, b; <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαχειροτονία</span> 83, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διαψήφισις</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διελκυστίνδα παίζειν</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διῆρες</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίκαι ἔμμηνοι</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διιπόλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διιπόλια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δικαστής</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δικαστικόν</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποστασίου</span>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίκη αὐτοτελής</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βλάβης</span>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐξούλης</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λειπομαρτυρίου</span>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">προικός</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σίτου</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρέους</span>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίκροτα</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δικτύννια</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίκτυον</span>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διμάχαι</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b; <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίμιτος</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διοικήσεως, ὁ ἐπὶ</span>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διόλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διονύσια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐν ἄστει</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μεγάλα</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κατ’ ἀργούς</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μικρά</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διοσημεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διοσκούρια</span>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διπλοΐδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διπλοΐς</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διπόλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίπτερος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίπτυχα</span>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b; <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b; <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίσκος</span>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διφθέρα</span>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a; <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δίφρος</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Διωβελία</span>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δόκανα</span>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δοκιμασία</span>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b; <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δόλιχος</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, b; <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δόλων</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δοράτιον</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δόρπον</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δόρυ</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δοῦλος</span>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δράκων</span>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δραχμή</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δρεπάνη, Δρέπανον</span>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δροῖται</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δρόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δυμανάται</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δυμᾶνες</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δωμάτια</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δῶρα</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δωροδοκίας γραφή</span>. 127, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δῶρον</span>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δώρων γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ε</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐγγύησις</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔγκλημα</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔγκτημα</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔγκτησις</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a; <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔγχος</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕδνα</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕδος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑδώλια</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔεδνα</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐθελοπρόξενος</span>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰκόνες</span>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰκοστή</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰκοστολόγοι</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἵλωτες</span>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἴρην</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσαγγελία</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσιτήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσποιεῖσθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσποίησις</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσποιητός</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσφέρειν</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>. a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εἰσφορά</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑκατόμβαια</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑκατομβαιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑκατομβή</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a; <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔκγονοι</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔκδικος</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔκδοσις</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκεχειρία</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>. a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκκλησία</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κυρία</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νόμιμος</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σύγκλητος</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔκκλητοι</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκκομιδή</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκλογεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκμαρτυρία</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b; <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκποιεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκποιεῖσθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>. a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑκτεύς, Ἕκτη</span>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκφορά</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐκφυλλοφορία</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλαία, Ἔλαιον</span>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλατήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλαφηβολιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλέος</span>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλευθέρια</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλευσίνια</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑλκυστίνδα παίζειν</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑλλανοδίκαι</span>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a; <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b; <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑλληνοταμίαι</span>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλλόβιον</span>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐλλώτια</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑλλώτια</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔλυμα</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐμβάς</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐμβατεία</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμβλημα</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐμβολή</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμβολον</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμβολος</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a; <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐμμέλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμμηνοι δίκαι</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμπαισμα</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐμποριον</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμπορος</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔμφρουρος</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐναγίσματα</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔνατα</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔνδειξις</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕνδεκα οἱ</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐνδοῦναι</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐνδρομίς</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔνδυμα</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔννατα</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐννεάκρουνος</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐννεατηρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔνοπτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔντεα</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐνωμοτίαι</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐνώτιον</span>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑξάστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξέδρα</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b; <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b; <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξετασταί</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξηγηταί</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, a; <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_441"></a>[441]</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑξήρεις</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξόδια</span>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔξοδος</span>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξούλης δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξωμίς</span>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξωμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐξώστρα</span>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑορτή</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπαγγελία</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑπάλξεις</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a; <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπάριτοι</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπαύλια</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπεισόδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιβάθρα</span>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιβάται</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίβλημμα</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιβόλαιον</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιβολή</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιγαμία</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίγραμμα</span>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιγραφεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιδαύρια</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιδόσεις</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίθημα</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίκληρος</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίκλιντρον</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίλογοι</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμεληταί</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b; <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοῦ ἐμπορίον</span>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b; <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b; <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῶν μοριῶν Ἐλαιῶν</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῶν Μυστηρίων</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῶν νεωρίων</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῶν φυλῶν</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιμύλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιπόραδος</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίπροικοι</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίσκοποι</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπισπάσασθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπισπαστήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιστάτης</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, b; <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τῶν δημοσίων ἔργων</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιστολεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιστύλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a; <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίσωτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίταγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίτονοι</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπίτροπος</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπιχειροτονία</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a; <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπόπται</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐποπτεία</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπωβελία</span>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπωμίς</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπωνία</span>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐπώνυμος</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔρανος</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, b; <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐργάναι</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐργαστῖναι</span>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑρμαῖ</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕρμαια</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐῤῥηφόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐρσηφόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐρυκτῆρες</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐρώτια</span>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐρωτίδια</span>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔσοπτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐστία</span>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐστιάσις</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑστιάτωρ</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐσχάρα</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a; <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b; <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐσχαρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> a; <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b; <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑταιρία</span>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a; <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a; <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕταιροι</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἑτεροστόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὔδειπνος</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὔζωνος</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐθυδικία</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐθύνη</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, b; <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὔθυνοι</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐμολπίδαι</span>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐνή</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐπατρίδαι</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a; <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὔστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐφημεῖτε</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὐφημία</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφελκύσασθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφέσις</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφέται</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφηβεία</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔφηβος</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφήγησις</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφίππειον</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐφίππιον</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔφοροι</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔφυροι</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐχῖνος</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b; <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a; <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἕψημα</span>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἐώρα</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζάκοροι</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζευγῖται</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b; <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, a; <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζεῦγλαι</span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζευκτηρίαι</span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζητηταί</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζυγά</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζύγιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b; <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζυγῖται</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b; <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζύγον</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a; <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a; <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b; <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζύγος</span>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a; <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζύθος</span>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζωγραφία</span>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζῶμα</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζωμὸς μέλας</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζώνα</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a; <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζωστήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ζωφόρος</span>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a; <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Η</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡγεμόνες συμμοριῶν</span>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡγεμονία δικαστηρίου</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἠθμός</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἠλακάτη</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἤλεκτρον -ος</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡλιοτρόπιον</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἦμαρ δείελον</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσον</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμέρα κυρία τοῦ νόμου</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέση</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμεροδρόμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμιδιπλοΐδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμιεκτεόν</span>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμιέκτον</span>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμικύκλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμίμνα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡμίνα</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b; <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡνίοχος</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡραῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἡρῷον</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἠώς</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θαλάμιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θαλαμῖται</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θάλαμος</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b; <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θαλλοφόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θάπτειν</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θαργήλια</span>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θαργηλιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θέατρον</span>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a; <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεατροπώλης</span>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεατρώνης</span>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θέμα</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεοφανία</span>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεράπων</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b; <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θερμά</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θέσις</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεσμοθέται</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεσμός</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, b; <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεσμοφόριος</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θετοί</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεωρία</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεωρικά</span>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεωρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b; <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θεωροί</span>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b; <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θῆκαι</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θηριομάχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θησαυρός</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a; <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θησεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θῆτες</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b; <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θίασος</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θολία</span>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θόλος</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θόωκος</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θράνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θρανῖται</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θράνος</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θρηνῳδοί</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θρίαμβος</span>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θρόνος</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυμέλη</span>, 371, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυμιατήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, a; <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὔλειος</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βαλανωτός</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κηπαία</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέσαυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μέταυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυρεός</span>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θύρετρον</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυρίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θύρσος</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυρῶν</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυρωρεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυρωρός</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b; <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_442"></a>[442]</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θύσανοι</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θυτήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Θώραξ</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a; <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ι</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴακχος</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴγδη, Ἴγδις</span>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἵδρυσις</span>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱεροδιδάσκαλος</span>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερόδουλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερομαντεία</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερομηνία</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερομνήμονες</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, a; <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερόν</span>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a; <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερονῖκαι</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱερονόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱεροποιοί</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱεροσκοπία</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱεροφάντης</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a; <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b; <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱεροφύλαξ</span>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱκετηρία</span>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴκρια</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰλάρια</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴλη</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱμάντες</span>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱμάντες πυκτικοί</span>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱματίδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱμάτιον</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a; <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰνῶα</span>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππαρμοστής</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴππαρχος</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b; <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b; <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b; <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππικόν</span>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱπποβόται</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱππόδρομος</span>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱπποκόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴρην</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴσθμια</span>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰσοπολιτεία</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a; <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰσοτέλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a; <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a; <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἰσοτελεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a; <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱστίον</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱστοβοεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱστός</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b; <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱστών</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἴτυς</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἱφικρατίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καβείρια</span>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάδος, Κάδδος</span>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b; <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καθάπαξ</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάθαρσις</span>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καθετήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάθοδος</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καίειν</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάλαθος</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάθοδος</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάλαμος</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καλλιγένεια</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καλλιερεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καλλιστεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καλοβάτης</span>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καλῳδία</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καμάρα</span>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάναβος</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κίναβος</span>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάναθρον</span>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάνδυς</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάνεον</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κανηφόρος</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, a; <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κανών</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καπηλεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάπηλος</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a; <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καπνοδόκη</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρνεάται</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρνεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρπαία</span>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρχήσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρύα</span>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καρυατίς</span>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταβλητική</span>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταγώγιον</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατάλογος</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατάλυσις</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταπειρατήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταπέλτης</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταπελτική</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταῤῥάκτης</span>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατάστασις</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταστρώματα</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατατομαί</span>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατάφρακτοι</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταχειροτονία</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καταχύσματα</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατήγορος</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κάτοπτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατορύττειν</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κατοχεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Καυσία</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεάδας</span>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a; <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κειρία</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεκρύφαλος</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κελευστής</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a; <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεραία</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεραμεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεράμιον</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κέραμος</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κέρας</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b; <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κερατίον</span>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κερκίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b; <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεροῦχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κεφαλή</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κηπαία θύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κῆπος</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κηρογραφία</span>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κηροός</span>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κηρύκειον</span>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κηρύκιον</span>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κιβωτός</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κίθαρις</span>,245, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κίονες</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κίστη</span>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κιστοφόρος</span>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κίων</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλεῖθρον</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλείς</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλεψύδρα</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλήιδες</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κληρονόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλῆρος</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κληρουχία</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, a; <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κληροῦχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλητῆρες</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλήτορες</span>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλιμακίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλίνη</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a; <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλινίδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κλισίας</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κναφεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κνέφαλον</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κνῆμαι</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κνημίς</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a; <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόγξ</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόθορνος</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοιλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοῖλον</span>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοιτῶνες</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κολεός</span>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κολοσσός</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόλπος</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κολῶναι</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόμη</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κομμός</span>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοντός</span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοπίς</span>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόρδαξ</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b; <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόρη</span>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κορυβαντικά</span>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόρυμβος</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόρυς</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κορώνη</span>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κορωνίς</span>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, b; <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοσμοί</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κότινος</span>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κότταβος</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοτύλη</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοτύττια</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κουρά</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κόφινος</span>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοχλιάριον</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κοχλίας</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κράνος</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρατήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρεάγρα</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρήνη</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b; <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρηπίς</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρίκος</span>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κριός</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κριταί</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κροκή</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κροκωτόν -ός</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρόταλον</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρούειν</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρυπτεία</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κρωβύλος</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κτείς</span>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύαθος</span>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυάμος</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυβερνῆται</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυβιστηρες</span>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύβος</span>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύκλα</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυκλάς</span>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύκλος</span>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύλιξ</span>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κῦμα</span>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_443"></a>[443]</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύμβαλον</span>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύμβη</span>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυνέη</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κυρβασία</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύρβεις</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b; <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύριος</span>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b; <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κύων</span>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κώδων</span>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κωλακρέται</span>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κῶμος</span>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κωμῳδία</span>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κωνοπεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Κώπη</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λαμπαδαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λαμπαδηδρομία</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λαμπαδηφορία</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λαμπάς</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λάρνακες</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λάφρια</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λέβης</span>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λειτουργία</span>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λεκάνη</span>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λεκανίς</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λέσχη</span>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λέχος</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λήκυθος</span>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b; <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a; <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λήναια</span>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ληνοί</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ληνός</span>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λῆξις</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λιβανωτρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λιβυρνίς</span>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λιβυρνόν</span>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λιθοτομίαι</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λικμός</span>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λίκνον</span>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λίνα</span>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λίτρα</span>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λογεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λογισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λογιστής</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λόγχη</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λοετρόν</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λοιβαί</span>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λουτήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λουτήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λουτρόν</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λουτροφόρος</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λόφος</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λοχαγοί</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λόχος</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a; <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λύκαια</span>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λύκος</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λύχνος</span>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Λυχνοῦχος</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μάζα</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a; <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαιμακτηριών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μάνδαλος</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μανδύας</span>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μανδύη</span>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαντεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μάντεις</span>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαντική</span>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαρσύπιον</span>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαρτυρία</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b; <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαστιγονόμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μαστιγοφόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μάστιξ</span>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μάχαιρα</span>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a; <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέγαρον</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέδιμνος</span>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μεθίστασται</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μελία</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μελίκρατον</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μελιττοῦτα</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μελλείρην</span>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μεσαύλιος θύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέσαυλος θύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μεσημβρία</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μεταγειτνιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέταλλον</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μετάστασις</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέταυλος θύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μετεωρολογία</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μετοίκιον</span>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a; <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέτοικοι</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μετόπη</span>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μετρητής</span>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μέτωπον</span>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μήν ἐμβόλιμος</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μητρόπολις</span>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μήτρῳον</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μῖμος</span>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μισθὸς ἐκκλησιαστικός</span>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μίτοι</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μίτρα</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a; <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a; <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μίτρη</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μνᾶ</span>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μνήματα</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μνημεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μόθακες</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μόθωνες</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μοιχείας γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μολυβδίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μοναρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μονομάχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μονοχίτων</span>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μόρα</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μουνυχιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μουσεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μοχλός</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυκτῆρες</span>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύλος</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύξαι</span>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυρίοι</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυῤῥίναι</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύσια</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυσταγωγός</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a; <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύσται</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυστήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μυστίλη</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύστρον</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μύστρος</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ν</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναΐδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναός</span>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναυαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναύαρχος</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναύκληροι</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b; <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναυκραρία</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναύκραρος</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναυτικόν</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναυτοδίκαι</span>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεάζεσθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεκρόδειπνον</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεκύσια</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεμαῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νέμεα</span>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεμεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεοδαμώδεις</span>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεός</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεοῦσθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεωκόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a; <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νεώς</span>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νῆες</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νήμα</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νηστεία</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νομοθέτης</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, b; <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νομοφύλακες</span>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νουμηνία</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νυμφευτής</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Νυχθήμερον</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξεναγία</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξεναγοί</span>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξενηλασία</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξενία</span>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξενίας γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξενικά</span>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξένος</span>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a; <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξενῶνες</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξέστης</span>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξίφος</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξόανον</span>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξυήλη</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξυλοκοπία</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξυστήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ξύστρα</span>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ο</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀβολός</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a; <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀγδόδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀγκία</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐγκία</span>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὁδοποιοί</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰκήματα</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰκιστής</span>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἶκος</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_444"></a>[444]</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰνιστήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰνόμελι</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἶνος</span>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰωνιστική</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰωνοπόλος</span>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οἰωνοσκόποι</span>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀκρίβας</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀκτάστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀλιγαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a; <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὁλκάδες</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὁλκοί</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄλμος</span>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀλοκαυτεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀλύμπια</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀλυμπιάς</span>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὁμογάλακτες</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὅμοιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, b; <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b; <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὁμολογία</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀμφάλος</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a; <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀνειροπολία</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄνομα</span>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄνος</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀξίς</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀξυβάφιον</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀξύβαφον</span>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, b; <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀξυγράφοι</span>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀπή</span>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀπισθόδομος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὅπλα</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὅπλητες</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὁπλίται</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄργια</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀργυιά</span>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀρείχαλκος</span>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄρκος</span>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄρμος</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b; <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄρυγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄρχησις</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀρχήστρα</span>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀρχηστύς</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄσιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀστράκιον</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀστρακισμός</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄστρακον</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, b; <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b; <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀσχοφόρια</span>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐγγία</span>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐγκία</span>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὖδας</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐλαμοί</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐλόχυτα</span>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐλοχύται</span>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐραγός</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b; <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Οὐριάχος</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄφεις</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀχάνη</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄχανον</span>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀχλοκρατία</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄψημα</span>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὄψον</span>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὀψώνης</span>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Π</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παγκρατιασταί</span>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παγκράτιον</span>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παιάν</span>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παιδαγωγός</span>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παιδονόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παιδοτριβαί</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παιήων</span>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παίων</span>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάλαισμα</span>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παλαισμοσύνη</span>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παλαιστή</span>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παλαίστρα</span>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάλη</span>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παμβοιώτια</span>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάμμαχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάμφυλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παναθήναια</span>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πανδοκεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πανήγυρις</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πανιώνια</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πανοπλία</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράβασις</span>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραγναθίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραγραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράδεισος</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραθύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραιβάτης</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραλῖται</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάραλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b; <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάραλος</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράμεσος δάκτυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παρανοίας γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παρανόμων γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, b; <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράνυμφος</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραπέτασμα</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b; <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραπρεσβεία</span>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραστάδες</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραπυλίς</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραῤῥύματα</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παρασάγγης</span>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράσημον</span>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράσιτος</span>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παρασκήνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραστάς</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παράστασι, ἐν</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παραστάται</span>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάρεδροι</span>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παρήορος</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάροδοι</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάροδος</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάροχος</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Παστός</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πάτραι</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεδιαῖοι</span>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέδιλον</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεζέταιροι</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πελάται</span>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέλεκυς</span>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πελτασταί</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, a; <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a; <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέλτη</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, a; <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πενέσται</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πενταετηρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πένταθλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πένταθλον</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντακοσιαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b; <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πενταλιθίζειν</span>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντάλιθος</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντάπτυχα</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντηκόντορος</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντηκοστή</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντηκοστήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντηκοστολόγοι</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντηκοστύς</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεντήρεις</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέπλος</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίαμμα</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίαπτον</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίβλημα</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περιβόλαιον</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίβολος</span>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίδειπνον</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίοικοι</span>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίπατος</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περιπόδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίπολοι</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, b; <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περίπτερος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περιῤῥαντήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περισκελλίς</span>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περιστύλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a; <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περιτειχισμός</span>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Περόνη</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεσσοί</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πεταλισμός</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέτασος</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέταυρον</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πέτευρον</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πετροβόλος</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πηδάλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πήληξ</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πήνη</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πηνίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πήνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πήρα</span>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πῆχυς</span>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a; <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πίθος</span>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πιθοιγία</span>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πίλημα</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πῖλος</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πιλωτόν</span>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πινακική</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πινακοθήκη</span>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλαγίαυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλαστική</span>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλέθρον</span>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλῆκτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλήμνη</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλημοχόαι</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλημοχόη</span>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πληρεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλίνθος</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλοῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πλυντήρια</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόδες</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποιεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποιεῖσθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>. a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποίησις</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποιητός</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποινή</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πολέμαρχος</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, a; <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b; <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόλις</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πολιτεία</span>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, b; <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πολίτης</span>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόλος</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πολύμιτος</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πολύπτυχα</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πομπή</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_445"></a>[445]</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πορισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a; <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόρπαξ</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πόρπη</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποσειδεών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πράκτορες</span>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προάγνευσις</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προβολή</span>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προβούλευμα</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόβουλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προγάμεια</span>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόδομος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προδοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόδρομος</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προεδρία</span>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόεδροι</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόθεσις</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προθεσμία</span>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προθεσμίας νόμος</span>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόθυρα</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόθυρον</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προικὸς δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προΐξ</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προκάθαρσις</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προκαταβολή</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόκλησις</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόλογος</span>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόμαχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προμήθεια</span>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόναος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προξενία</span>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόξενος</span>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προπύλαια</span>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προσκατάβλημα</span>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προσκεφάλειον</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προσκήνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόσκλησις</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b; <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προσκύνησις</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προστάς</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προστάτης</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, a,<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοῦ δήμου</span>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προστιμᾶν</span>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προστιμᾶσθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προστίμημα</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, b; <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προστόον</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προσωπεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρόσωπον</span>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προτέλεια γάμων</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προτομή</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρότονοι</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προφήτης</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προφῆτις</span>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προχειροτονία</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Προωμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρυλέες</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρύλις</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρύμνη</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρυτανεία</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρυτανεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, b; <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρυτανεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρυτανεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, b; <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρωΐ</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρώρα</span>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρωράται</span>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρωρεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρωταγωνιστής</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρωτοστάτης</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυανέψια</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυανεψιών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυγμαχία</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυγμή</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυγμοσύνη</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυέλοι</span>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b; <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύθια</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύθιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυκνόστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύκται</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυλαγόραι</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυλαία</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύλη</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυλίς</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυλών</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b; <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύξ</span>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυξίδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύξις</span>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυράγρα</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυραί</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πύργος</span>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυρία</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυριατήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυῤῥίχη</span>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πυῤῥιχισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πῶγων</span>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πωλῆται</span>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πῶμο</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ρ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥαβδίον</span>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥαβδονόμοι</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥαβδοῦχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a; <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥαιστήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥαφίς</span>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥήτρα</span>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥινοπύλη</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥιπίς</span>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥόμβος</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥυμός</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b; <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ῥυτόν</span>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαγήνη</span>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάκκος</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a; <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάκος</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαλαμίνια</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαλαμίνιοι</span>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάλπιγξ</span>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαμβύκη</span>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαμβυκιστριαί</span>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σανδάλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάνδαλον</span>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σανίς</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαρδών</span>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάρισα</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σάρισσα</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σαυρωτήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σεβαστός</span>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σειραφόρος</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σεῖστρον</span>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σηκός</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σημαίαι</span>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σήματα</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σημειογράφοι</span>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σημεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σίγυννος</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σίκιννις</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σιτηρέσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σιτοδεῖαι</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σιτοπῶλαι</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σῖτος</span>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σίτου δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σιτοφυλακεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σιτοφύλακες</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b; <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σιτῶναι</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκαλμοί</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκαπέδρα</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκάφη</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκέπαρνον</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκεύη κρεμαστά</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ξύλινα</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκηνή</span>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκῆπτρον</span>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιάδειον</span>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιάδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιαδίσκη</span>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιάθηρον</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιάς</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκιροφοριών</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκόλοψ</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκύθαι</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b; <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σκυτάλη</span>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σμίλη</span>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σοροί</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σπάθη</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σπάργανον</span>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σπεῖρα</span>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σπονδαί</span>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σπονδοφόροι</span>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στάδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στάδιος</span>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σταθμός</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a; <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σταθμοῦχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στάσιμον</span>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, a; <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στατήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σταυρός</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στέφανος</span>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στῆλαι</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στήμων</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στλεγγίς</span>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b; <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στοά</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b; <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στόλος</span>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στόμιον</span>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στοιχεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στρατηγός</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b; <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a; <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a; <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁ ἐπὶ διοικήσεως</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στρατός</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στρεπτός</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στρόβιλος</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στρογγύλαι</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, a; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στρῶμα</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a; <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στύλος</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Στύραξ</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συγγένεια</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συγγενεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συγγραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύγκλητος ἐκκλησία</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συκοφάντης</span>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σῦλαι</span>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συλλογεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_446"></a>[446]</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συμβόλαιον</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συμβολή</span>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύμμαχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συμμορία</span>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, a; <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συμπόσιον</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνάλλαγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύνδικος</span>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b; <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνέδριον</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύνεδροι</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνηγορικόν</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνήγορος</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b; <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνθήκη</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύνθημα</span>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύνοδος</span>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνοικία</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύνταγμα</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συντάξεις</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύνταξις</span>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συντέλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συντελεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συντριήραρχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συνωρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύριγξ</span>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύρμα</span>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύσκηνοι</span>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Συσσίτια</span>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύστασις</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σύστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαγίς</span>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαῖρα</span>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαιρεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαιριστήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a; <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαιριστική</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a; <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαιριστικός</span>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφαιρίστρα</span>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφενδόνη</span>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, b; <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφενδονήται</span>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφραγίς</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφύρα</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σφυρήλατον</span>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σχεδίαι</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σχοινία</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b; <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σχοινοβάτης</span>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σχοῖνος</span>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σωφρονίσται</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Σωφροσύνη</span>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταγός</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταινία</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b; <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταινίδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάλαντα</span>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάλαντον</span>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάλαρος</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταλασία</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταλασιουργία</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταμίας</span>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b; <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταξίαρχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάξις</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b; <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταῤῥός</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάφοι</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταφροποιοί</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάφρος</span>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταχυγράφοι</span>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τέθριππος</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τειχοποιός</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τεῖχος</span>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τελαμών</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b; <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ταλεταί</span>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τέλος</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b; <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τελωνάρχης</span>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τελώνης</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, b; <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τέμενος</span>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τέρμα</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετράδραχμον</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετραλογία</span>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετραορία</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετράρχης</span>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετραρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, a; <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετράστυλος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετρήρεις</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τετταράκοντα, οἱ</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a; <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τεύχεα</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τήβεννος</span>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τιάρα</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τιάρας</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τίμημα</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b; <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τιμητεία</span>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τιμητής</span>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τόκοι ἔγγειοι</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔγγυοι</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ναυτικοί</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τόκος</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τολύπη</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τόνοι</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τόξαρχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τοξοθήκη</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τόξον</span>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τοξόται</span>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b; <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τοπεῖα</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τορευτική</span>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τορύνη</span>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τραγῳδία</span>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τράπεζα</span>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τράπεζαι</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεύτεραι</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρῶται</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τραπεζίται</span>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τράφηξ</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίαινα</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριακάδες</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριακοσιομέδιμνοι</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριβόλος</span>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριτηρίς</span>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριηραρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, b; <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριήραρχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριήρεις</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριηροποιοί</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, a; <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίμιπος</span>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίπολος</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίπους</span>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b; <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίπτυχα</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρίτα</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριταγωνιστής</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριττύα</span>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριττύς</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τριώβολον</span>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τροπαῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τροπωτήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρόχιλος</span>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τροχός</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a; <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b; <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρυβλίον</span>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρύγοιπος</span>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρυγῳδία</span>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρυτάνη</span>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τρυφάλεια</span>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τυλεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τύλη</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τύμβος</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τύμπανον</span>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τύπος</span>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τυραννίς</span>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τύραννος</span>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Υ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑακίνθια</span>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕαλος</span>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕβρεως γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b; <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδραγωγία</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδραλέτης</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδρανός</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδραύλις</span>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδρία</span>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδριαφορία</span>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑδρόμελι</span>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕδωρ</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕλη</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑλλεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕπαιθρον</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕπαιθρος</span>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπασπισταί</span>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, b; <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὕπατος</span>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπέραι</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπερῷον</span>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a; <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπεύθυνος</span>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, a; <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, a; <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπήνη</span>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπηρεσία</span>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπηρέτης</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπόγαιον</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπόγειον</span>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπογραφίς</span>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπόδημα</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b; <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑποζάκοροι</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑποζώματα</span>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑποκριτής</span>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπολήνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπομείονες</span>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, b; <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπόνομος</span>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b; <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑποπόδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπόρχημα</span>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, b; <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑποστρατηγός</span>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑπωμοσία</span>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑσσός</span>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὑφάνται</span>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάλαγγες</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φαλαγγαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάλαγξ</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b; <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάλαρον</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάλος</span>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φανός</span>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φαρέτρα</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φαρμακείας γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φαρμακοί</span>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φαρμάκων γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_447"></a>[447]</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φᾶρος</span>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάρος</span>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάσγανον</span>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάσηλας</span>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φάσις</span>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φειδίτης</span>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φενάκη</span>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φερνή</span>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φεύγειν</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φθορά</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φιάλη</span>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φιμός</span>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φορβειά</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φορεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φόρμιγξ</span>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φόρος</span>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φορτηγοί</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φορτικά</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φρατρία</span>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φρατρικὸν γραμματεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φυγή</span>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φῦκος</span>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φύλακες</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φυλακτήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φύλαρχοι</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, b; <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φυλή</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, a; <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φυλοβασιλεῖς</span>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φῦλον</span>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Φωταγωγία</span>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλδαίων μέθοδοι</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλδαίων ψηφίδες</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλινός</span>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλκιοίκια</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλκός</span>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαλκοῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a; <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χάρακες</span>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χειρόγραφον</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χειροτονεῖν</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χειροτονητοί</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χειροτονία</span>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, a; <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χέλυς</span>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χελώνη</span>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b; <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χηνίσκος</span>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χιλαρχία</span>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χιτών</span>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σχιστός</span>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χιτώνιον</span>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a; <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χιτωνίσκος</span>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χλαῖνα</span>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χλαμύς</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χλαμύδιον</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χλιδών</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χοαί</span>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χόες</span>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χοεύς</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χοίνιξ</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χορηγία</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χορηγός</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χοροδιδάσκαλος</span>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χορός</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, a; <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κύκλικος</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χοῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χρέους δίκη</span>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χρησμόλογοι</span>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χρηστήριον</span>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χρονολογία</span>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χρυσός</span>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χρυσοῦς</span>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χύτρα</span>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χύτροι</span>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χῶμα</span>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, b; <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψ</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψάλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψέλιον</span>, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψέλλιον</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψευδεγγραφῆς γραφή</span>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψευδοδίπτερος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψευδοπερίπτερος</span>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψήφισμα</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a; <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, b; <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψῆφος</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a; <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψιλοί</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ψυκτήρ</span>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ω</span>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὠβαί</span>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b; <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὠδεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὠρεῖον</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὡρολόγιον</span>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὡροσκόπος</span>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὠσχοφόρια</span>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_448"></a>[448]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="LATIN_INDEX">LATIN INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">A.</span><br /> -<br /> -Abacus, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ablegmina, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Abolla, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Abrogare legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Absolutio, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Accensi, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Accensus, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Acclamatio, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Accubatio, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Accubitoria vestis, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Accusatio, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Accusator, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a; <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Accusatorum libelli, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Acerra, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Acetabulum, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Achaicum fœdus, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Acies, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Acilia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Acilia Calpurnia lex, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Acinaces, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Acisculus, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aclis, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a; <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Acroama, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Acropolis, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Acroterium, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Acta, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">diurna, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">forensia, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">jurare in, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">militaria, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">patrum, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">senatus, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Actio, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a; <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">exercitoria, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">fiduciaria, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">injuriarum, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">in jure, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Legis or Legitima, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de pauperie, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de peculio, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rei uxoriæ, or dotis, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restitutoria, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Sepulchri violati, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Actionem dare, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">edere, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Actor, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">publicus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Actuariæ naves, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Actuarii, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a; <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Actus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b; <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">minimus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quadratus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">simplex, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Acus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Adcrescendi jure, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Addico, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b; <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Addicti, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ademptio equi, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Adfines, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Adfinitas, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Adgnati, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Adgnatio, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Adlecti, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Admissionales, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Admissionum proximus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Adolescentes, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Adoptio, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Adoratio, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Adrogatio, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Adsertor, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Adsessor, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Adversaria, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Adversarius, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Adulterium (Greek), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Adulterium (Roman), <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Adulti, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b; <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Advocatus, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aebutia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aedes, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">sacra, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Aediles, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">cereales, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Aeditimi, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aeditui, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aeditumi, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aegis, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aelia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Sentia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Aemilia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Baebia lex, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Lepidi lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Scauri lex, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Aenatores, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aenei nummi, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a; <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aenum, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aeora, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aera, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aerarii, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Tribuni, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, b; <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Aerarium, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">militare, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Praetores ad, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sanctum, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Aerii nummi, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aes (money), <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">alienum, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">circumforaneum, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">equestre, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a; <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">grave, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a; <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">hordearium, or hordiarium 12, a; <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">militare, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">uxorium, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Aestivae feriae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aetolicum fœdus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Affines, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Affinitas, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Agaso, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Agema, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ager, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">iteratus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">publicus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">scriptuarius, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Agger, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, b; <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a; <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Agitator, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Agmen, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">pilatum, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quadratum, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Agnati, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Agnatio, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Agnomen, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Agonales, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Agonalia, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Agonensis, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Agonia, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Agonium Martiale, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Agonus, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Agoranomi, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Agrariae leges, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Agraulia, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Agrimensores, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Agronomi, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ahenum, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ala, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Alae, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b; <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Alabaster, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Alabastrum, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Alares, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Alarii, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Alauda, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">legio, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Albogalerus, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Album, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">judicum, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Senatorium, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Alea, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aleator, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ales, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Alicula, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Alimentarii pueri et puellae, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Alipilus, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aliptae, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Alites, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Allocutio, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b; <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_449"></a>[449]</span><br /> -<br /> -Altare, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aluta, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Amanuensis, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ambarvalia, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ambitus, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ambrosia, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ambubaiae, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ambulationes, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Amburbiale, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Amburbium, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Amentum, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Amicire, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Amictorium, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a; <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Amictus, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Amphictyones, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Amphitheatrum, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Amphora, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a; <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b; <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ampliatio, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b; <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ampulla, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b; <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b; <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ampullarius, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Amuletum, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Amussis, or Amussium, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Anagnostae, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Anatocismus, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ancilia, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ancora, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ancones, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Andabatae, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Angaria, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Angariarum exhibitio, or praestatio, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Angiportus, or Angiportum, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Angustus clavus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Animadversio censoria, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Anio novus, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">vetus, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br /> -Annales maximi, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b; <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Annalis lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b; <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Annona, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">civica, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Annuli aurei jus, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Annulorum jus, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Annulus, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Annus magnus, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Anquina, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Anquisitio, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, a; <a href="#Page_216">216</a> b.<br /> -<br /> -Antae, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Anteambulones, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Antecessores, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Antecoena, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Antecursores, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Antefixa, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Antemeridianum tempus, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Antenna, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Antepilani, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Antesignani, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Antia lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Anticum, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Antiquarii, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Antlia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Antoniae leges, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Apaturia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aperta navis, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Apex, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aplustre, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Apodectae, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Apodyterium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Apollinares ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Apophoreta, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Apotheca, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b; <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Apotheosis, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Apparitio, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Apparitores, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Appellatio (Greek), <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Aprilis, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Apuleia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">agraria lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">frumentaria lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">majestatis lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Aqua, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Alexandrina, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Algentia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Alsietina, or Augusta, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Appia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Claudia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Crabra, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Julia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Marcia, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Septimiana, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tepula, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Trajana, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Virgo, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Aquae ductus, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">et ignis interdictio, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Aquarii, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aquila, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aquilifer, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ara, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aratrum, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Arbiter, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Arbiter bibendi, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Arbitrium, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Arca, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a; <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Arca, ex, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Arca publica, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Arcera, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Archiater, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Archimagirus, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Archimimus, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a; <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Architectura, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Archon, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Arcus, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, a; <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">triumphalis, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Constantini, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Drusi, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Gallieni, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Septimii Severi, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Titi, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Area, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Areiopagus, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Arena, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aretalogi, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Argei, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Argentarii, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Argentum, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Argyraspides, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aries, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Arma, Armatura, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Armarium, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Armatura levis, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Armilla, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Armilustrium, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Arra, Arrabo, or Arrha, Arrhabo, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Arrogatio, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ars Chaldaeorum, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Artaba, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Artopta, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Artopticii, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Arvales Fratres, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Arundo, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Arura, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aruspices, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Arx, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -As, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -As libralis, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Asamenta, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ascia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Asiarchae, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Assamenta, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Assarius, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Asseres lecticarii, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Assertor, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Assertus, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Asses Usurae, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Assessor, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Assidui, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Assiduitas, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Astragalus, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Astrologi, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Astrologia, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Astronomi, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Asyli jus, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Asylum, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Atellanae Fabulae, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aternia Tarpeia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Athenaeum, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Athletae, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Atia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Atilia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Atinia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Atlantes, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Atramentum, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Atrium, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a; <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Auctio, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Auctor, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Auctores fieri, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Auctoramentum, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b; <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Auctorati, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Auctoritas, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">senatus, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Auditorium, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aufidia lex, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Augur, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Auguraculum, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b; <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, b; <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Augurale, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, b; <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Augurium, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b; <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Augustales, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Augustalia, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Augustus, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, a; <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Avia, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aulaeum, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aurelia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aures, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aureus nummus, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b; <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aurichalcum, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Auriga, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Aurum, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">coronarium, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">vicesimarium, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Auspex, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Auspicium, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, b; <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_450"></a>[450]</span><br /> -<br /> -Authepsa, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Autonomi, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Auxilia, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Auxiliares, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Auxiliarii, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Axamenta, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Axis, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">B.</span><br /> -<br /> -Babylonii, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">numeri, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Bacchanalia, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Baebia lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Aemilia lex, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Balineae, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Balineum, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Balista, Ballista, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Balneae, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Balneator, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Balneum, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Balteus, or Baltea, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Balteus, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Baptisterium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Barathrum, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Barba, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Barbati bene, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Barbatuli, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bascauda, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Basilica, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Basis, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Basterna, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Baxa, or Baxea, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bellaria, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Beneficiarius, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Beneficium, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Benignitas, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bes, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bessis, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bestiarii, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bibasis, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bibliopola, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bibliotheca, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bidens, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, a; <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bidental, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bidiaei, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Biga, or Bigae, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bigati, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Billix, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bipennis, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Biremis, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, b; <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bissextilis annus, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bissextum, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bissextus, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bombycinum, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bona, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">caduca, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">fides, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Bonorum cessio, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">collatio, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">emtio, et emtor, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">possessio, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b; <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Bracae, or Braccae, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bravium, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bruttiani, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Buccina, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Buccinator, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bucculae, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bulla, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bura, or Buris, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bustuarii, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bustum, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a; <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Buxum, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Byssus, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">C.</span><br /> -<br /> -Caduceator, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Caduceus, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Caducum, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cadus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b; <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Caecilia lex de censoribus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">lex de vectigalibus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Didia lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Caelatura, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Caelia lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Caementa, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Caesar, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Caetra, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Calamistrum, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Calamus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Calantica, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Calathus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Calatores, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Calceamen, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Calceamentum, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Calceus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Calculator, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Calculi, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a; <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Calda lavatio, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Caldarium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Calendae, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Calendarium, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a; <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Calida, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Caliga, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Calix, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Callis, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Calones, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Calpurnia lex de ambitu, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">lex de repetundis, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Calvatica, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Calumnia, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Calx, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Camara, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Camera, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Camillae, Camilli, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a; <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Caminus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Campestre, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Canalis, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cancellarius, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cancelli, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a; <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Candela, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Candelabrum, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Candidarii, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Candidatus, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b; <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Canephorus, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Canistrum, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cantharus, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Canthus, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Canticum, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Canuleia lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Capistrum, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Capite censi, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Capitis deminutio, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Capitis minutio, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Capitolini, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Capsa, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Capsarii, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a; <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Captio, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Capulum, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Capulus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Caput, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">extorum, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Caracalla, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Carcer, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Carceres, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, b; <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Carchesium, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a; <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Carenum, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Carmen seculare, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Carmentalia, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Carnifex, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Carpentum, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Carptor, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Carrago, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Carruca, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Carrus, or Carrum, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Caryatides, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Caryatis, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cassia lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">agraria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tabellaria, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Terentia frumentaria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Cassis, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Castellarii, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Castellum aquae, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Castra, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">stativa, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Castrensis corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cataphracti, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Catapulta, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cataracta, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Catasta, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cateia, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b; <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Catella, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Catena, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Catervarii, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cathedra, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Catillum, or Catillus, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Catillus, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Catinum, or Catinus, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cavaedium, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cavea, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a; <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cavere, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b; <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Caupo, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Caupona, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Causia, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cauterium, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cautio, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cavum aedium, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Celeres, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Celerum tribunus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cella, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a; <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b; <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">caldaria, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Cellarius, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Celtes, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cenotaphium, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Censere, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Censor, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, b; <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Censura, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Census, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, b; <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b; <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_451"></a>[451]</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">(Greek), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Centesima, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">rerum venalium, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Centesimae usurae, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Centumviri, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Centuria, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, b; <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a; <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Centuriata comitia, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Centurio, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, a; <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b; <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">primus, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">primipili, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Centussis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cera, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cerae, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b; <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ceratae tabulae, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cerealia, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cerevisia, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cernere hereditatem, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ceroma, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Certamen, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ceruchi, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cessio bonorum, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cestius pons, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cestrum, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cestus, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cetra, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Chaldaei, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Charistia, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Charta, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cheironomia, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cheniscus, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Chirographum, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Chlamys, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Choregia, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Choregus, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Chorus, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Chronologia, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Chrysendeta, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cidaris, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cincia, or Muneralis, lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cinctus, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Gabinus, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Cinerarius, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cingulum, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cinifio, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cippus, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Circenses ludi, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Circuitores, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Circus, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cisium, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cista, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a; <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cistophorus, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cithara, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Civica corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Civile jus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Civis, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Civitas (Greek), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Clarigatio, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Classica corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Classici, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Classicum, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Clathri, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b; <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Claudia lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Clavis, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Claustra, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Clavus angustus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">annalis, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">latus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Clepsydra, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Clibanarii, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cliens, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Clientela, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Clipeus, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Clitellae, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cloaca, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cloacarium, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cloacarum curatores, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Clodiae leges, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a; <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Coa vestis, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Coactor, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a; <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b; <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cochlea, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a; <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cochlear, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Codex, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b; <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Codex Gregorianus et Hermogianus, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Justinianus, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Theodosianus, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Coelia, or Caelia, lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Coemptio, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Coena, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a; <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Coenaculum, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Coenatio, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Coenatoria, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, b; <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cognati, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cognatio, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cognitor, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cognomen, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Coheres, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cohors, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cohortes Alariae, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">equitatae, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">peditatae, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">vigilum, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">urbanae, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Collectio, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Collegae, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Collegium, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Colobium, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Colonia, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Colonus, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Colores, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Colossus, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Colum, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Columbarium, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Columna, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">rostrata, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Columnarium, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Colus, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Coma, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Commentarii senatus, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Commissatio, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a; <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Comitia, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">calata, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">centuriata, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">curiata, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tributa, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Commeatus, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Commentarii sacrorum, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Commentarium, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Commentarius, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Commercium, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Commissoria lex, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Comoedia, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Comperendinatio, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Comperendini dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Competitor, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Compitalia, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Compitalicii ludi, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Compluvium, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Concamerata sudatio, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Conceptivae feriae, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Concilium, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Conditivum, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Conditorium, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Conditurae, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Conductor, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Condus, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Confarreatio, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Congiarium, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Congius, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Conjurati, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Conjuratio, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Connubium, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Conopeum, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Conquisitores, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Consanguinei, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Conscripti, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Consecratio, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a; <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Consilium, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Consualia, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Consul, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Consulares, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Consularis, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Consulti, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Consultores, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Contio, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Controversia, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Contubernales, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Contubernium, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b; <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Contus, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Conventio in manum, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Conventus, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b; <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Convicium, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Convivii magister, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">rex, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Convivium, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cooptari, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cophinus, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Corbicula, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Corbis, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Corbitae, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Corbula, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cornelia lex—<br /> -<span class="pad1">agraria, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de alea, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de civitate, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de falsis, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">frumentaria, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de injuriis, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">judiciaria, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">majestatis, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de novis tabellis, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">nummaria, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de parricidio, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de proscriptione et proscriptis, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de repetundis, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de sacerdotiis, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de sicariis et veneficis, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sumptuaria, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">testamentaria, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tribunicia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_452"></a>[452]</span><span class="pad1">unciaria, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Cornelia Baebia lex, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Caecilia lex, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">et Caecilia lex, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Cornicines, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cornu, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cornua, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a; <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Corona, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, b; <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">castrensis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">civica, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">classica, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">convivialis, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">funebris, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">graminea, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">muralis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">natalitia, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">navalis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">nuptialis, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">obsidionalis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">oleagina, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">ovalis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rostrata, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sacerdotalis, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sepulchralis, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">triumphalis, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">vallaris, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Coronis, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, b; <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Corporati, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Corporatio, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Corpus, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cortina, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Corvus, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Corytos, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cosmetae, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cosmi, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cothurnus, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cotyla, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Covinarii, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Covinus, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Crater, Cratera, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Creditum, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Crepida, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Crepidata tragœdia, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Crepidines, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Creta, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cretio hereditatis, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Crimen, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Crista, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Crocota, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Crotalistria, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Crotalum, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Crusta, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a; <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Crux, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Crypta, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cryptoporticus, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ctesibica machina, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cubicularii, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cubiculum, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, b; <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a; <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a; <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cubitoria, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cubitus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cucullus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cudo, or Cudon, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Culcita, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Culeus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Culina, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Culleus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Culter, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a; <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cultrarius, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cumatium, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cumera, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cumerum, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cunabula, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cuneus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a; <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b; <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cuniculus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cupa, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b; <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Curator, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a; <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Curatores, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">annonae, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">aquarum, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">ludorum, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">religionum, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">viarum, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Curia, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b; <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Curiae, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b; <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Curiales, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Curiata comitia, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Curio, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">maximus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Curriculum, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Currus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cursores, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cursus, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Curulis sella, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cuspis, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Custodes, Custodiae, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Custos urbis, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cyathus, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cyclas, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cyma, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cymatium, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cymba, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cymbalum, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">D.</span><br /> -<br /> -Dare actionem, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Daricus, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Decanus, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -December, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Decempeda, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Decemviri, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">legibus scribendis, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">litibus, or stlitibus, judicandis, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sacrorum, or sacris faciendis, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Decennalia, or Decennia, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Decimatio, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Decretum, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a; <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, b; <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Decumae, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Decumani, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Decuncis, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Decuriae, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Decuriones, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b; <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Decursoria, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Decussis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dedicare, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dedicatio, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Dediticii, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Deditio, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Deductores, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Defrutum, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Delator, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Delectus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Delia, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Delphinae, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Delphinia, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Delubrum, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Demarchi, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Demens, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Demensum, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a; <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dementia, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Deminutio capitis, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Demiurgi, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Demus, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Denarius, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">aureus, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Denicales feriae, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Dens, or Dentale, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b; <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Deportatio, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">in insulam, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Deportatus, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Depositum, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Derogare legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Designator, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Desultor, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Detestatio sacrorum, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Deversorium, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Deunx, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dextans, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Diadema, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Diaeta, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, b; <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Diaetetae, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Dialis flamen, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Diarium, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dicere, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dictator, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Didia lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Diem dicere, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dies, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Civilis, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">comitiales, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">comperendini, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">fasti, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a; <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">feriati, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">festi, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">intercisi, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Naturalis, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">nefasti, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">proeliales, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">profesti, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">stati, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Diffarreatio, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Digitus, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dimachae, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Dimensum, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Diminutio capitis, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dionysia, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Diota, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Diploma, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Diptycha, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Diribitores, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Discessio, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Discinctus, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Discipula, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Discus, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Dispensator, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Diversorium, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Divinatio, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_453"></a>[453]</span><span class="pad1">(law term), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Divisores, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Divortium, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Divus, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dodrans, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dolabella, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Dolabra, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Dolium, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, b; <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dolo, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dominium, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, a; <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dominus, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a; <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b; <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">funeris, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Domitia lex, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Domo, de, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Domus, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dona, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Donaria, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Donatio, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Donativum, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dormitoria, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dos (Greek), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Drachma, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b; <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Draco, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Draconarius, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ducenarii, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, a; <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ducentesima, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a; <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Duillia lex, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Maenia lex, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Dulciarii, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Duodecim scripta, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Duplarii, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Duplicarii, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Duplicatio, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dupondium, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dupondius, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dussis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Duumviri, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a; <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">juri dicundo, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">navales, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">perduellionis, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">quinquennales, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sacri, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sacrorum, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">E.</span><br /> -<br /> -Eculeus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Edere actionem, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Edictum, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">novum, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">perpetuum, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">repentinum, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tralatitium, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">vetus, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Edititii, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Editor, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Elaeothesium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Electrum, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Eleusinia, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ellychnium, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Emancipatio, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Emblema, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Emeriti, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a; <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Emissarium, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Emporium, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Encaustica, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Endromis, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ensis, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Entasis, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ephebia, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ephippium, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ephori, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Epibatae, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Epidemiurgi, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Epirhedium, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Epistylium, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Epitaphium, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Epithalamium, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, b; <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Epulones, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Epulum Jovis, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Equestris ordo, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Equiria, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Equites, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a; <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Equitum transvectio, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Equuleus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Equus October, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Publicus, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Ergastulum, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ericius, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Esseda, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Essedarii, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b; <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Essedum, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Everriator, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Evocati, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Euripus, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, a; <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Exauctorati, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Exauguratio, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Exceptio, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b; <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Exceptores, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Excubiae, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Excubitores, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Exedra, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a; <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Exercitor navis, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Exercitoria actio, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Exercitus, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Exodia, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Exostra, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Expeditus, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, a; <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Exploratores, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Exsequiae, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Exsilium, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">liberum, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Exsul, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Exta, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Extispices, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Extispicium, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Extranei heredes, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Extraordinarii, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a; <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Exverrae, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Exverriator, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Exuviae, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">F.</span><br /> -<br /> -Fabia lex, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fabiani, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fabii, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fabri, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fabula palliata, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">praetextata, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">togata, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tabernaria, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Fabula trabeata, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fabulae Atellanae, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Factiones aurigarum, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Falarica, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Falcidia lex, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Falcula, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Falsum, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Falx, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Familia, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, b; <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b; <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Familiae emptor, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Famosi libelli, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Famulus, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fannia lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fanum, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Farreum, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fartor, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fas, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fasces, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, b; <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fascia, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a; <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fascinum, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fasti, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">annales, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">calendares, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Capitolini, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">dies, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">historici, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sacri, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Fastigium, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fata Sibyllina, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fauces, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Favete linguis, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fax, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Februare, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Februarius, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, a; <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Februum, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Februus, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Feciales, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Feminalia, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fenestra, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fenus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">nauticum, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Feralia, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ferculum, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a; <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ferentarii, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Feretrum, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Feriae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">aestivae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">conceptivae, or conceptae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">denicales, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">imperativae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Latinae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">publicae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">stativae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">stultorum, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">vindemiales, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Ferre legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fescennina, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Festi dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Festuca, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fetiales, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fibula, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fictile, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a; <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fideicommissarii praetores, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fideicommissum, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fides, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fiducia, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fiduciaria actio, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_454"></a>[454]</span><br /> -<br /> -Figulina ars, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Figulus, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Filiafamilias, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Filiusfamilias, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Filum, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fiscus, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b; <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fistuca, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fistucatio, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fistula, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Flabelliferae, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Flabellum, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Flagellum, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Flagrum, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Flamen, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Dialis, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Martialis, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Quirinalis, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pomonalis, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Flaminia lex, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Flaminica, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Flammeum, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Flavia agraria lex, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Flexumines, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Floralia, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Focale, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Foculus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a; <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Focus, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Foederatae civitates, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Foederati, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Foedus, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a; <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Foenus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">nauticum, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Follis, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, b; <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fons, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fores, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fori, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a; <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Foris, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Forma, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Formido, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Formula, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b; <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fornacalia, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fornax, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fornix, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, a; <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Foro cedere, or abire, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">mergi, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Foruli, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Forum, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, b; <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a; <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fossa, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, b; <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Framea, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fratres arvales, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Frenum, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Frigidarium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fritillus, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Frontale, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fructuaria res, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fructuarius, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Frumentariae leges, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Frumentarii, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fucus, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fuga lata, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">libera, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Fugalia, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fugitivarii, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fugitivus, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fulcra, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fullo, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fullonica, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fullonicum, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fullonium, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fumarium, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Funalis equus, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Funambulus, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b; <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Funda, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b; <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Funditores, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Funes, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a; <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Funus, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">indictivum, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">plebeium, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">publicum, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tacitum, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">translatitium, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Furca, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Furcifer, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Furia, or Fusia Caninia lex, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Furiosus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fuscina, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fustuarium, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fusus, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">G.</span><br /> -<br /> -Gabinia lex, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b; <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gabinus cinctus, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gaesum, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Galea, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Galerus, -um, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a; <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Galli, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a; <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ganea, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gausapa, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gausape, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gausapum, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Geminae frontes, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gener, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Genethliaci, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Genitura, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gens, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gentilitia sacra, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Germani, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gerrae, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gladiatores, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gladiatorium, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Gladius, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Glandes, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Glomus, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Glos, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Gomphi, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gradus, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, b; <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Graecostasis, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Graphiarium, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gregorianus codex, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gremium, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Gubernaculum, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Gubernator, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gustatio, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Guttus, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b; <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Gymnasium, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">H.</span><br /> -<br /> -Haeres, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Halteres, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Harmamaxa, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Harmostae, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Harpago, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Harpastum, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Haruspices, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Haruspicina ars, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, a; <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Haruspicium, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hasta, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a; <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">celibaris, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">pura, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">vendere sub, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Hastarium, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hastati, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, a; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Helepolis, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Heliocaminus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hellanodicae, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hellenotamiae, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Helotes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hemina, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, b; <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Heraea, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hereditas, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Heredium, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Heres (Greek), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Hermae, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hermaea, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hermanubis, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hermares, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hermathena, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hermeracles, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hermogenianus codex, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hermuli, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hexaphoron, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hexeres, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hieronica lex, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hieronicae, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hilaria, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hippodromus, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hister, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Histrio, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a; <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Honorarii, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Honorarium, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Honores, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hoplomachi, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hora, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hordearium aes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, b; <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Horologium, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Horreum, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b; <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hortator, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hortensia lex, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b; <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hortus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hospes, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hospitium, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hostia, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hostia ambarvalis, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hostis, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Humare, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hyacinthia, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hydraulis, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hypaethrae, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hypocaustum, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hypogeum, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">I, J.</span><br /> -<br /> -Jaculatores, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Jaculum, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, b; <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Janitor, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b; <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Janua, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b; <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_455"></a>[455]</span><br /> -<br /> -Januarius, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Iconicae statuae, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Idus, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Jentaculum, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ignominia, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, a; <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ilicet, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Imagines, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, b; <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Immunitas, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Imperativae feriae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Imperator, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Imperium, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Impluvium, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Impubes, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -In bonis, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Inauguratio, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">regis, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Inauris, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Incendium, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Incensus, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, b; <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Inceramenta navium, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Incestum, -us, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Incunabula, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Index, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Induere, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Indumentum, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a; <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Indusium, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Indutus, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a; <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Infamia, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Infans, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Infantia, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Inferiae, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Infula, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Infundibulum, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ingenui, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Injuria, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Injuriarum actio, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Inlicium, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Inquilinus, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Insigne, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Instita, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a; <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Insula, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Intentio, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Intercessio, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Intercisi dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Interdictio aquae et ignis, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Interdictum, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">prohibitorium, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">restitutorium, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Interpres, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b; <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b; <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Interregnum, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Interrex, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, b; <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Interula, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Iselastici ludi, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Iter, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Iterare, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Jubere, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Judex, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Judices editi, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">edititii, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Judicium, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">album, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">populi, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b; <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">privatum, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">publicum, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Jugerum, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Jugum, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a; <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Jugumentum, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Juliae leges, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Julia lex de civitate, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, b; <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">de foenore, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">judiciaria, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de liberis legationibus, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">majestatis, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">municipalis, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">et Papia Poppaea, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">peculatus, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">et Plautia, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de provinciis, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">repetundarum, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de sacerdotiis, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de sacrilegis, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sumptuaria, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">theatralis, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">et Titia, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de vi publica et privata, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">vicesimaria, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Julius, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Junea, or Junia, Norbana lex, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Junia lex repetundarum, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Juniores, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Junius, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Jure, actio in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">adcrescendi, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">agere, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Jure cessio, in, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, b; <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Jureconsulti, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Juris auctores, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Jurisconsulti, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Jurisdictio, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, a; <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Jurisperiti, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Jurisprudentes, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Jus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">annuli aurei, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">annulorum, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">applicationis, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">augurium, or augurum, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Censurae, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">civile, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">civile Papirianum, or Papisianum, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">civitatis, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">commercii, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">connubii, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">edicendi, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, a; <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">exsulandi, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">fetiale, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">honorum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Latii, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a; <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">liberorum, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pontificium, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a; <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">postliminii, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">privatum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">publice epulandi, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">publicum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Quiritium, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, b; <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">senatus, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">suffragiorum, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">vocatio, in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Jusjurandum, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">judiciale, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Justa funera, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Justinianeus codex, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Justitium, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a; <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Juvenalia, or juvenales ludi, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">L.</span><br /> -<br /> -Labarum, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Labrum, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Labyrinthus, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lacerna, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Laciniae, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Laconicum, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lacunar, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lacus, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a; <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Laena, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Laesa majestas, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lancea, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lances, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lanificium, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lanista, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lanx, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lapicidinae, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lapis, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">specularis, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Laquear, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Laqueatores, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Laqueus, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lararium, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Larentalia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Larentinalia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Largitio, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Larva, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lata fuga, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Later, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lateraria, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Laticlavius, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Latii jus, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Latinae feriae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Latinitas, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Latinus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a; <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Latium, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Latomiae, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Latrones, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Latrunculi, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Latumiae, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Latus clavus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lavatio calda, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Laudatio funebris, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Laurentalia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lautomiae, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lautumiae, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lectica, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lecticarii, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lectisternium, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lectus, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">funebris, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Legatio libera, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Legatum, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Legatus, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b; <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Leges, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">censoriae, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">centuriatae, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, a; <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">curiatae, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Juliae, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Legio, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, a; <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Legis actiones, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Legitima hereditas, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Legitimae actiones, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lembus, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lemniscus, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lemuralia, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_456"></a>[456]</span><br /> -<br /> -Lemuria, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lenaea, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Leria, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lessus, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Levir, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lex, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, a; <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Acilia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Acilia Calpurnia, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aebutia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aelia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aelia Sentia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aemilia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aemilia, de censoribus, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aemilia Baebia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aemilia Lepidi, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aemilia Scauri, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">agraria, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, b; <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">ambitus, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ampia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">annalis, or Villia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b; <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">annua, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Antia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Antonia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Apuleia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Apuleia agraria, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Apuleia frumentaria, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Apuleia majestatis, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aternia Tarpeia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Atia de sacerdotiis, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Atilia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Atilia Marcia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Atinia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aufidia, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aurelia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Aurelia Tribunicia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Baebia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Baebia Aemilia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Caecilia de Censoribus, or Censoria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Caecilia de Vectigalibus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Caecilia Didia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Calpurnia de ambitu, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Calpurnia de repetundis, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Campana, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Canuleia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cassia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cassia agraria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cassia tabellaria, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cassia Terentia frumentaria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Centuriata, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cincia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Claudia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Claudia de Senatoribus, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Clodiae, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a; <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Coelia or Caelia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Lex Cornelia—<br /> -<span class="pad1">agraria, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de civitate, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de falsis, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">frumentaria, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de injuriis, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">judiciaria, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de magistratibus, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">majestatis, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de novis tabellis, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">nummaria, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de parricidio, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de proscriptione et proscriptis, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de repetundis, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de sacerdotiis, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de sicariis et veneficis, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sumptuaria, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">testamentaria, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tribunicia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">unciaria, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Baebia, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b; <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Caecilia, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">et Caecilia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Lex Curiata de imperio, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, a; <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, b; <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Curiata de adoptione, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Decemviralis, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Decia de duumviris navalibus, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Didia, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Domitia de sacerdotiis, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Duilia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Duilia maenia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Duodecim Tabularum, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fabia de plagio, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fabia de numero sectatorum, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Falcidia, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fannia, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Flaminia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Flavia agraria, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">frumentariae, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b; <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fufia de religione, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fufia judiciaria, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Furia or Fusia Caninia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Furia or Fusia testamentaria, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Gabinia tabellaria, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b; <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Gellia Cornelia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Genucia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hieronica, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hortensia de plebiscitis, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b; <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Icilia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Julia de adulteriis, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Julia de ambitu, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Juliae, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Junia de peregrinis, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Junia Licinia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Junia Norbana, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Junia repetundarum, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Laetoria, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Licinia de sodalitiis, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Licinia de ludis Apollinaribus, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Licinia Junia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Licinia Mucia de civibus regundis, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Licinia sumptuaria, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Liciniae rogationes, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Liviae, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Lutatia de vi, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Maenia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">majestatis, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Lex Mamilia de Jugurthae Fautoribus, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Mamilia finium regundarum, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">mancipii, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Manilia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Manlia de vicesima, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Marcia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Maria, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Memmia, or Remmia, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Mensia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Minucia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Nervae Agraria, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Octavia, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b; <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ogulnia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Oppia, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Orchia, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ovinia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Papia de peregrinis, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Papia Poppaea, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Papiria, or Julia Papiria de mulctarum aestimatione, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Papiria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Papiria Plautia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Papiria Poetelia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Papiria tabellaria, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pedia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Peducaea, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pesulania, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Petreia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Petronia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pinaria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Plaetoria, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Plautia, or Plotia de vi, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Plautia, or Plotia judiciaria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Plautia Papiria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Poetelia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Poetelia Papiria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pompeia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pompeia de ambitu, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pompeia de civitate, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pompeia de imperio Caesari prorogando, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pompeia judiciaria, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pompeia de jure magistratuum, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pompeia de parricidiis, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pompeia tribunitia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pompeia de vi, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, a; <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pompeiae, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Popilia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Porciae de capite civium, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Porcia de provinciis, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Publicia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Publilia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Publiliae, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pupia, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Quina vicemaria, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Quintia, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">regia, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">regiae, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Remmia, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">repetundarum, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Rhodia, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_457"></a>[457]</span><span class="pad1">Roscia theatralis, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Lex Rubria, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Rupiliae, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sacratae, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Saenia de patriciorum numero augendo, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Satura, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Scantinia, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Scribonia, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Scribonia viaria, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Sempronia de foenore, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Semproniae, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Servilia agraria, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Servilia Glaucia de civitate, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Servilia Glaucia de repetundis, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Servilia judiciaria, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Silia, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Silvani et Carbonis, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Sulpicia Sempronia, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Sulpiciae, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Sumptuariae, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tabellariae, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tarpeia Aternia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Terentia Cassia, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Terentilia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Testamentariae, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Thoria, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Titia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Titia de alea, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Titia de tutoribus, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Trebonia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Trebonia de provinciis consularibus, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tribunicia, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a; <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tullia de ambitu, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tullia de legatione libera, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Valeria, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Valeriae, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Valeriae et Horatiae, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b; <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Varia, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Vatinia de provinciis, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Vatinia de colonis, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Vatinia de rejectione judicum, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">de vi, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">viaria, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">vicesimaria, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Villia annalis, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Visellia, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Voconia, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Libatio, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Libella, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a; <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Libellus, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b; <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Liber, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Libera fuga, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Liberales ludi, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Liberalia, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Liberalis causa, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">manus, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Liberalitas, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Liberi, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Libertus, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Libertinus, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b; <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Libitinarii, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Libra, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">or as, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Librarium, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Libraria taberna, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Librarii, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b; <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Librator, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Libripens, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Liburna, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Liburnica, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Liceri, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Licia, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Liciatorum, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Licinia lex de sodalitiis, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Junia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Mucia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">lex sumptuaria, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Liciniae rogationes, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Licitari, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lictor, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ligula, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Limen, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Linteones, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Linter, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Linteum, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b; <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Linum, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lirare, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Literae, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lithostrotum, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lituus, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lixae, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Locatio, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Loculus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b; <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Locuples, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Locus liberatus et effatus, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lodix, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Logistae, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lorica, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a; <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lucar, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lucerences, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Luceres, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lucerna, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lucta, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Luctatio, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Apollinares, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Augustales, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Capitolini, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Circenses, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, a; <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">compitalitii, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Florales, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">funebres, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b; <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">liberales, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">magni, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Megalenses, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Osci, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">plebeii, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Romani, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">saeculares, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">scenici, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a; <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tarentini, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Taurii, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Ludus, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Trojae, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Lupanar, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lupatum, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lupercalia, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Luperci, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, b; <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lupus ferreus, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lustratio, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, b; <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lustrum, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a; <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lyra, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">M.</span><br /> -<br /> -Maceria, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Maculae, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Maenia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Maenianum, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, b; <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Magadis, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Magister, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">admissionum, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">auctionis, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">equitum, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">populi, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">societatis, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Magistratus, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Maius, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Majestas, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Majores, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b; <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Malleolus, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Malus, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Malus oculus, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mamilia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Manceps, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, a; <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mancipatio, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mancipi res, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mancipium, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mandatum, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mangones, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Manilia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Manipulares, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Manipularii, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Manipulus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, a; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a; <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Manlia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mansio, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mansionarius, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mansiones, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Manubiae, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, b; <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Manum, conventio in, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Manumissio, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Manus ferrea, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mappa, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Marcia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Margines, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Maria lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Marsupium, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Martialis flamen, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Martius, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Materfamilias, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mathematici, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mathesis, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Matralia, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Matrimonium, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Matrona, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Matronales feriae, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Matronalia, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Matura, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mausoleum, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, a; <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mediastini, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, a; <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Medicamina, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Medimnus, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Medix tuticus, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Megalenses ludi, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Megalensia, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Megalesia, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Membrana, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Memmia lex, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_458"></a>[458]</span><br /> -<br /> -Mensa, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">de, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Mensae scripturam, per, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mensam per, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mensarii, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mensularii, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mensia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mensis, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Menstruum, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mercedonius, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Meridiani, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Meridies, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Metae, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Metallum, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Metator, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Metretes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, b; <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mille passuum, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Milliare, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Milliarium, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">aureum, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Mimus, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Minores, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a; <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Minucia lex, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Minutio capitis, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mirmillones, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Missio, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b; <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">causaria, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">honesta, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">ignominiosa, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Missus, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">aerarius, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Mitra, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, a; <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Modiolus, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Modius, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Moenia, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mola, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">aquaria, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">asinaria, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">manuaria, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">trusatilis, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">versatilis, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">salsa, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Monarchia, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Monaulos, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Moneris, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Moneta, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Monetales triumviri, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Monile, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Monstrum, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Monumentum, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Morator, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Morbus comitialis, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mortarium, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Morum cura, or praefectura, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mos, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Motio e senatu, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">e tribu, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Mulleus, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mulsa, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mulsum, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Munerator, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Municeps, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Municipes, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Municipium, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Munus, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b; <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Muralis corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Muries, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Murrea vasa, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Murrhina vasa, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Murus, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Musculus, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Museum, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Musica muta, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Musivum opus, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b; <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mustum, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mysteria, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">N.</span><br /> -<br /> -Nacca, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Naenia, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Narthecia, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Natatio, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Natatorium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Nationes, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Navales Socii, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Navalis corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Navarchus, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Navis, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">aperta, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Naumachia, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Naumachiarii, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Necessarii heredes, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Nefasti dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Negotiatores, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Nenia, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Neptunalia, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Nexum, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Nexus, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Nobiles, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Nobilitas, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Nomen, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">expedire, or expungere, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Latinum, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">(Greek), <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Nomenclator, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Nonae, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Nota, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">censoria, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Notarii, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Notatio censoria, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Novale, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Novare, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -November, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Novendiale, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b; <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Noverca, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Novi homines, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Novitas, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Nucleus, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Nudus, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Numeratio, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Numeri, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Nummularii, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Numularii, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Nummus, or Numus, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">aureus, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Nuncupatio, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Nundinae, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a; <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Nundinum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Nuntiatio, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Nuptiae, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Nurus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">O.</span><br /> -<br /> -Obices, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Obnuntiatio, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Obolus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a; <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Obrogare legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Obsidionalis corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Obsonium, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Occatio, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ocrea, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a; <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Octavae, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Octavia lex, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b; <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -October, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">equus, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Octophoron, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Odeum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Oecus, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Oenomelum, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Officium admissionis, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Offringere, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ogulnia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Olea, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Oleagina corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Oleum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Oliva, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Olla, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b; <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Olympia, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Onager, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Onerariae naves, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, b; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Onyx, alabaster, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Opalia, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b; <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Opifera, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Opima spolia, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Oppia lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Oppidum, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Opsonator, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Opsonium, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Optio, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Optimates, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Opus incertum, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Oraculum, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Orarium, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Oratio, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Orator, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Orbis, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Orca, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Orchestra, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Orchia lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Orcinus senator, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ordinarii servi, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ordinum ductores, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b; <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ordo, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b; <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a; <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">decurionum, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">equestris, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">senatorius, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Oreae, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Orichalcum, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ornamenta triumphalia, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ornatrix, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Oscines, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Oscillum, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ostentum, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ostiarium, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ostiarius, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_459"></a>[459]</span><br /> -<br /> -Ostium, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b; <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ova, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ovalis corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ovatio, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ovile, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ovinia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">P.</span><br /> -<br /> -Paean, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Paedagogia, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Paedagogus, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Paenula, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Paganalia, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pagani, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Paganica, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pagi, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pala, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Palaestra, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, a; <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Palangae, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Palilia, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Palimpsestus, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Palla, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Palliata fabula, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Palliolum, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pallium, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Palmipes, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Palmus, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Paludamentum, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Paludatus, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Panathenaea, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pancratiastae, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pancratium, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Panegyris, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pantomimus, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Papia lex de peregrinis, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Poppaea lex, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Papiria lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Plautia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Poetelia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">tabellaria lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Papyrus, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Paradisus, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Parapherna, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Parasiti, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Parentalia, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Paries, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Parma, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Parmula, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Parochi, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Paropsis, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Parricida, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Parricidium, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Partes, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Particulae, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pascua, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">publica, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Passum, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Passus, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Patella, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pater, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">familias, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">patratus, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Patera, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Patibulum, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Patina, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Patres, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">conscripti, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Patria potestas, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Patricii, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Patrimi et matrimi, or Patrimes et matrimes, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Patrimonium, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Patronomi, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Patronus, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, b; <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pavimentum, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b; <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pauperie, aetio de, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pauperies, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pausarii, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pecten, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a; <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Peculator, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Peculatus, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Peculio, actio de, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Peculium, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pecunia, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a; <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a; <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">vacua, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Pecuniae repetundae, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pecus, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pedarii senatores, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pedisequi, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Peducaea lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pedum, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pegma, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pegmares, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pelta, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Penicillus -um, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pentacosiomedimni, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b; <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pentathli, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pentathlon, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Peplum, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pera, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Perduellio, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a; <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Perduellionis duumviri, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Peregrinus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a; <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Perferre legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Peripetasmata, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Periscelis, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Peristroma, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b; <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Peristylium, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a; <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Peritiores, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Permutatio, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pero, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Perscriptio, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Persona, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pes, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b; <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">sestertius, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Pessulus, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pesulania lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Petasus, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a; <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Petauristae, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Petaurum, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Petitor, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a; <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Petorritum, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Petreia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Petronia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Phalangae, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Phalanx, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b; <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Phalarica, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Phalera, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pharetra, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pharos, or Pharus, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Phaselus, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pictura, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pignoris captio, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pila, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a; <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, a; <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pilani, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pileati, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pilentum, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pileum, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pileus, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pilum, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, a; <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pinacotheca, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pinaria lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Piscina, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, a; <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a; <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pistor, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pistrinum, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Plaetoria lex, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Plagiarius, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Plagium, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Planetarii, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Planipedes, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Plaustrum, or Plostrum, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Plautia, or Plotia lex de vi, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">judiciaria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Plebeii, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Plebes, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Plebiscitum. 225, b; <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Plebs, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Plectrum, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pluteus, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, a; <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a; <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pnyx, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Poculum, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Podium, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, b; <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Poena, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Poetelia Papiria lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pollinctores, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Polus, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Polychromy, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pomeridianum tempus, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pomoerium, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pompa, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Circensis, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Pompeiae leges, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pons, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b; <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Aelius, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Cestius, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fabricius, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Janiculensis, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Milvius, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Palatinus, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Sublicius, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">suffragiorum, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Vaticanus, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Pontifex, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pontificales libri, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pontifices minores, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pontificii libri, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pontificium jus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a; <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Popa, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a; <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b; <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Popilia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Popina, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Popularia, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Populi scitum, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Populifugia, or Poplifugia, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Populus, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, a; <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Porcae, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Porciae leges, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Porta, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">decumana, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_460"></a>[460]</span><span class="pad1">pompae, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Porta praetoria, or extraordinaria, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">principalis, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Portentum, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b; <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Porticus, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Portisculus, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Portitores, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Portorium, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Portula, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Possessio, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Possessor, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Postes, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Posticum, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Postliminium, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Postmeridianum tempus, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Postsignani, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Potestas, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praecinctio, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a; <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praecinctus, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Praecones, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Praeconium, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Praeda, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, b; <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Praedes, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praedia, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praediator, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praefecti sociorum, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praefectus, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">aerarii, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">annonae, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b; <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">aquarum, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">castrorum, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">classis, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">fabrûm, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">juri dicundo, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">praetorio, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">vigilum, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">urbi, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, a; <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Praefectura, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">morum, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Praeficae, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praejudicium, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praelusio, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Praemium, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Praenomen, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Praerogativa tribus, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praerogativae, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praes, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praescriptio, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praeses, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praesidia, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Praeteriti senatores, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, b; <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Praetexta, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Praetextata fabula, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, b; <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praetor, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">peregrinus, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">urbanus, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Praetoria cohors, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praetoriani, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Praetorium, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a; <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Prandium, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Prehensio, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Prelum, or Praelum, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Prensatio, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Primipilus, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>. b.<br /> -<br /> -Primitiae, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Princeps juventutis, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Princeps senatus, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Principes, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Principia, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">via, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Principium, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Privatum jus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Privilegium, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Privigna, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Privignus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Probatio nummorum, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Proconsul, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Procubitores, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Procuratio prodigiorum, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Procurator, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a; <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a; <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b; <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b; <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">peni, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Prodigium, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Prodigus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Proeliales dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Profesti dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Progener, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Proletarii, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Promulsis, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, b; <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Promus, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a; <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pronubae, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pronubi, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pronurus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Propraetor, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Propugnaculum, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Proquaestor, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Prora, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Proscenium, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Proscindere, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Proscribere, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Proscripti, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Proscriptio, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Prosecta, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Prosiciae, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Prosocrus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Provincia, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Provocatio, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Provocatores, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Proximus admissionum, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Prudentiores, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pteron, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pubertas, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pubes, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Publicae feriae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Publicani, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Publicia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Publicum, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">jus, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Publicus ager, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Publilia lex, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Publiliae leges, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pugilatus, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pugiles, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pugillares, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pugio, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pugna equestris et pedestris, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pullarius, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pullati, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pulmentarium, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pulpitum, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pulvinar, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a; <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pulvinus, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Punctae, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pupia lex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pupillus, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Puppis, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Puteal, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Puteus, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Puticulae, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Puticuli, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pyra, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pyrgus, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pythia, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, a; <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pyxidula, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pyxis, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">Q.</span><br /> -<br /> -Quadragesima, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quadrans, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quadrantal, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quadriga, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quadrigati, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quadriremes, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quadrupes, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quadruplatores, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quadruplicatio, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quadrussis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quaesitor, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quaestiones, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a; <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">perpetuae, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Quaestor, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quaestores classici, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">parricidii, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a; <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rerum capitalium, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">urbani, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Quaestorium, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quaestura Ostiensis, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Qualus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quasillariae, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quasillus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quatuorviri juri dicundo, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">viarum curandarum, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a; <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Quinctiliani, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quinctilii, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quinctilis, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quincunx, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quindecemviri, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quinquatria, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quinquatrus, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">minores or minusculae, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Quinquennalia, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quinquennalis, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quinqueremes, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quinquertium, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quinqueviri, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">mensarii, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Quintana, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Quintia lex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quirinalia, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quirinalis flamen, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Quiritium jus, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, b; <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">R.</span><br /> -<br /> -Radius, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a; <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ramnenses, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ramnes, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rationes, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_461"></a>[461]</span><br /> -<br /> -Rationes Chaldaicae, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Recuperatores, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b; <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Reda, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Redemptor, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, a; <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Redimiculum, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Regia, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">lex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Regifugium, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Regimen morum, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Regina sacrorum, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Rei uxoriae, or dotis actio, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Relatio, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Relegatio, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Relegatus, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Religiosus, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Remancipatio, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Remmia lex, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Remulcum, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Remuria, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Remus, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Renuntiatio, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Repagula, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, a; <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Repetundae, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Replicatio, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Repositorium, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Repotia, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Repudium, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Res mancipi, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">nec mancipi, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">privatae, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">singulae, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Responsa, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Restitutoria actio, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rete, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Retiarii, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Reticulum, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a; <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Retinaculum, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a; <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Retis, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Reus, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a; <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Rex, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">sacrificulus, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sacrificus, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, a; <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sacrorum, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, a; <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Rheda, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Rhinthonica, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Rhodia lex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rica, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ricinium, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Robigalia, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Robur, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Rogare legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rogatio, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, a; <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, b; <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rogationem accipere, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">promulgare, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Rogationes Liciniae, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Rogator, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rogus, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Romphea, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Rorarii, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Roscia theatralis lex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rostra, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rostrata columna, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Rostrum, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Rota, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a; <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rubria lex, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Rubrica, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ruderatio, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rudiarii, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Rudis, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rudus, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rupiliae leges, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">S.</span><br /> -<br /> -Saccus, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, a; <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sacellum, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, b; <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, a; <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sacer, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sacerdos, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sacerdotes Augustales, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sacerdotium, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sacra, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, b; <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">gentilitia, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">privata, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">publica, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Sacramentum, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, b; <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sacrarium, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a; <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sacratae leges, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sacrificium, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sacrilegium, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sacrorum detestatio, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sacrum novemdiale, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Saeculares ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Saeculum, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sagittarii, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sagmina, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sagulum, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sagum, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Salaminia, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Salii, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Salinae, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Salinum, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Saltatio, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, a; <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Saltus, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a; <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Salutatores, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sambuca, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Samnites, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sandalium, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sandapila, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sapa, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sarcophagus, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sarissa, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sarracum, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Satira, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Satura, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, a; <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Saturnalia, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scabellum, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scalae, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a; <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scalmi, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Scalptura, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scamnum, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a; <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scantinia lex, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scapha, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, b; <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Scapus, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Scena, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scenici ludi, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, a; <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sceptrum, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Schoenus, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sciothericum, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scire, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scissor, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scitum populi, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Scorpio, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a; <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scotia, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Scribae, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Scribere, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scribonia lex, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scrinium, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Scriplum, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scripta, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scriptura, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Scripturarii, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scripulum, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scrupulum, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b; <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a; <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sculptura, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scutica, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scutum, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, b; <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scytale, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Secespita, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sectatores, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sectio, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sector, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Secundarium, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Securis, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Secutores, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Seges, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Segestre, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sella, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a; <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sembella, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Semis, Semissis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a; <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Semproniae leges, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sempronia lex de foenere, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Semunciarium fenus, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Senator, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Senatores Orcini, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">pedarii, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Senatus, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">auctoritas, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">consultum, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">jus, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Seniores, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sepelire, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -September, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Septemviri Epulones, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Septimontium, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Septum, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Septunx, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sepulchri violati actio, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sepulchrum, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sequestres, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sera, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Seriae, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sericum, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Serrati, <em>sc.</em> nummi, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Serta, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Servare de coelo, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Servilia agraria lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Glaucia lex, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">judiciaria lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Servus (Greek), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">ad manum, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">publicus, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Sescuncia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sescunx, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sestertium, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sestertius, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sevir turmae equitum, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Seviri, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sex suffragia, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sextans, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sextarius, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, a; <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sextilis, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sibina, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_462"></a>[462]</span><br /> -<br /> -Sibyllini libri, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sica, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sicarius, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sicila, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sidus natalitium, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sigillaria, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Signa militaria, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Signifer, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b; <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Signum, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Silentium, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Silia lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Silicarii, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Silicernium, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Siliqua, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Silvae, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Silvani et Carbonis lex, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Simpulum, or Simpuvium, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b; <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Siparium, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, a; <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sistrum, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sitella, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Siticines, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Situla, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Socculus, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Soccus, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Socer, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">magnus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Societas, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Socii, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b; <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a; <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Socrus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">magna, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Sodales, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">Augustales, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Titii, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Sodalitium, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Solarium, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, a; <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, b; <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Solea, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Solidorum venditio, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Solidus, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Solitaurilia, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a; <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Solium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a; <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Solum, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sophronistae, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sordidati, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sortes, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a; <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sparus, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Spectacula, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Spectio, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Specularia, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Specularis lapis, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Speculatores, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Speculum, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Specus, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sperata, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sphaeristerium, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Spiculum, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b; <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Spina, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Spira, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Spirula, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Spolia, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sponda, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sponsa, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sponsalia, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sponsus, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sportula, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Stadium, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Stalagamia, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Stamen, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b; <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Stater, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Statera, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Stati dies, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Stationes, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Stativae feriae, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Stator, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Statuaria ars, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Statumen, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Stesichorus, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Stilus, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Stipendiarii, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Stipendium, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Stiva, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Stola, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Stragulum, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Stratum, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Strena, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Strigil, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Strophium, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Structor, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Stultorum feriae, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Stuprum, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Stylus, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Subitarius exercitus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Subitarii, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Subrogare legem, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Subscriptores, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Subscriptio censoria, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Subsellium, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Subsignanus, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b; <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Subtegmen, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Subtemen, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Subucula, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Suburana, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Succinctus, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sudatio concamerata, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sudatorium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Suffibulum, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Suffitio, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Suffragia sex, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Suffragium, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Suggestus, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, b; <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b; <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Suggrundarium, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sui heredes, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sulci, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sulcus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sulpiciae leges, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sulpicia Sempronia lex, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sumptuariae leges, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Suovetaurilia, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, b; <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Supparum, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b; <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Supparus, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Supplicatio, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Supposititii, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Susceptores, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Suspensura, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sutorium, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Symposium, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Syndicus, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Syngrapha, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Synthesis, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, b; <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Syrinx, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Syssitia, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">T.</span><br /> -<br /> -Tabella, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tabellariae leges, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tabellarius, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Taberna, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b; <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">diversoria, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Tabernaria fabula, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tablinum, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tabulae, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b; <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">censoriae, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">novae, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">publicae, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Tabulam, adesse ad, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tabularii, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tabularium, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tabulatum, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Talaria, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Talasius, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Talassio, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Talentum, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Talio, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Talus, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tarentini ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tarpeia Aternia lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Taurii ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tectores, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tectorium, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tegula, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tela, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Telamones, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Temo, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b; <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a; <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Templum, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Temporis praescriptio, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tensae, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tepidarium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Terentilia lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Terentini ludi, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Terminalia, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Termini, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tertiare, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Teruncius, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a; <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tessera, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">hospitalis, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">nummaria, or frumentaria, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Testamentariae leges, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Testamentifactio, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Testamentum, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a; <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Testator, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Testis, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a; <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Testudo, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, b; <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b; <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tetrarcha, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tetrarches, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Textores, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Textrices, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Textrinum, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Thalassites, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Thargelia, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Theatrum, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Thensae, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Theodosianus codex, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Thermae, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Thermopolium, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Thesmophoria, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Thorax, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Thoria lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Thraces, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Threces, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Thronus, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Thyrsus, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tiara, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tiaras, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_463"></a>[463]</span><br /> -<br /> -Tibia, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tibicinium, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tintinnabulum, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tirocinium, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tiro, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Titia lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Titienses, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tities, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Titii Sodales, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Titulus, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a; <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Toga, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">candida, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">palmata, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">picta, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">praetexta, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">pulla, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">pura, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sordida, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">virilis, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Togata fabula, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Togatus, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tonsor, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Topiaria ars, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Topiarius, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Toralia, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Torcular, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Torculum, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tormentum, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a; <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Torques, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Torquis, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Torus, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a; <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, b; <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Trabea, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Trabeata fabula, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tragoedia, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tragula, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, a; <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tragum, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Trama, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Transactio in via, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Transtillum, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Transtra, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Transvectio equitum, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Trebonia lex, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tremissis, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tressis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tresviri, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Triarii, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tribula, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tribulum, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tribulus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tribunal, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tribuni Laticlavii, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">militum, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, a; <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Tribunicia lex, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, a; <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">potestas, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Tribunus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">celerum, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Tribus (Greek), <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Tributa comitia, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tributum, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tricliniarchia, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Triclinium, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tridens, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Triens, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trifax, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Triga, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trilix, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Trinum nundinum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trinundinum, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Triplicatio, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tripos, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tripudium, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Triremes, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Triticum, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Triumphalia ornamenta, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Triumphalis corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Triumphus, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">castrensis, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">navalis, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Triumviri, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">agro dividundo, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">capitalis, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">coloniae deducendae, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, b; <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">epulones, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">equitum turmas recognoscendi, or legendis equitum decuriis, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">mensarii, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">monetales, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">nocturni, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reficiendis aedibus, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">reipublicae constituendae, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">sacris conquirendis donisque</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">persignandis, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">senatus legendi, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Trochleae, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trochus, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trojae ludus, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tropaeum, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trossuli, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trua, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trulla, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trutina, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tuba, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tubicen, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tubilustrium, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tullia lex de ambitu, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">de legatione libera, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Tullianum, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tumultuarii, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tumultuarius Exercitus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tumultus, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tunica, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tunica recta, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tunicati, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Turibulum, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Turma, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Turricula, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Turris, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tutela, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tutor, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tympanum, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, a; <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, a; <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">U, V.</span><br /> -<br /> -Vacatio, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, a; <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vadari reum, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vades, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vades dare, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vadimonium, Vas, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vagina, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Valeriae leges, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Valeriae et Horatiae leges, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b; <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Valeria lex, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vallaris corona, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vallum, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, b; <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a; <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vallus, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a; <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Valva, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vannus, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vari, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Varia lex, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vas, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vatinia lex, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Udo, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vectigal rerum venalium, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vectigalia, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Velarium, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Velites, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, b; <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, b; <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Velum, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a; <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Venabulum, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Venatio, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, a; <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Venditio, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Veneficium, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Venereus jactus, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Venus, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ver sacrum, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Verbena, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b; <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Verbenarius, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Verna, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Verriculum, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Versura, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Veru, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vervactum, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Verutum, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vespae, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vespillones, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vestalis, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">maxima, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Vestibulum, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Veteranus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, b; <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Veteratores, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vexillarii, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vexillum, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, b; <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Via Principalis, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Viae, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Viaria lex, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Viaticum, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Viator, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Victima, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vicesima, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, b; <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">hereditatum et legatorum, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">manumissionis, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b; <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Vicesimaria lex, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vicesimarii, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vico magistri, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vicus, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Victoriatus, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vigiles, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vigiliae, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vigintisexviri, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vigintiviri, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Villa, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">publica, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">rustica, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Villia annalis lex, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Villicus, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a; <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a; <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, b; <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vinalia, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vindemialis feria, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_464"></a>[464]</span><br /> -<br /> -Vindex, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vindicta, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vinea, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vinum, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Virgines Vestales, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Virgo maxima, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Viridarium, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Viridarius, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Virilis toga, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vis, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Visceratio, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Viscellia lex, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vitis, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vitium, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vitrearii, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vitricus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vitrum, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vitta, Vittae, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vittata sacerdos, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ulna, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Umbella, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Umbilicus, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Umbo, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a; <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, b; <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Umbraculum, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Uncia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a; <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b; <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Unciarum fenus, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Unctores, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Unctorium, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Unguenta, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Unguentaria, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Unguentariae, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Unguentarii, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Universitas, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vocatio, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Voconia lex, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Volones, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Volumen, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Voluntarii, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vomer, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vomitoria, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Vorticellum, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Urceus, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Urna, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a; <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a; <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ustrina, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, a; <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ustrinum, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Usucapio, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Usurae, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Usus, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ususfructuarius, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ususfructus, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Uterini, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Utres, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Utricularius, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vulcanalia, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Vulgares, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Uxor, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Uxorium, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">X.</span><br /> -<br /> -Xystus, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">Z.</span><br /> -<br /> -Zona, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Zophorus, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a; <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_465"></a>[465]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="ENGLISH_INDEX">ENGLISH INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">A.</span><br /> -<br /> -Actors (Greek), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Adoption (Greek), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Advocate, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Adze, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Altar, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ambassadors, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Anchor, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Anvil, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Aqueduct, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Arch, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Archers, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Armour, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Arms, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Army (Greek), <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Astronomy, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Auction (sale), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Axe, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Axle, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">B.</span><br /> -<br /> -Bail (Greek), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Bakers, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Balance, the, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ball, game at, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, b; <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bankers, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Banishment (Greek), <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Barber, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Basket, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Baths (Greek), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Beard, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Beds, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Beer, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bell, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bellows, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Belt, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bit (of horses), <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Boeotian constitution, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Books, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bookseller, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Boots, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b; <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bottomry, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bow, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Boxing, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bracelet, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Brass, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a; <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Brazier, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Breakfast, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bribery (Greek), <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Bricks, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Bridge, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bridle, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Bronze, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Brooch, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Burial (Greek), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">C.</span><br /> -<br /> -Calendar (Greek), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman); <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Cameos, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Camp, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">breaking up of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">choice of ground for, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">construction of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Candle, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Candlestick, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Canvassing, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Capital (of columns), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cart, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Casque, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ceilings, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Celt, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Censer, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Chain, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Chariot, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Chimneys, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Chisel, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Circumvallation, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Citizenship (Greek), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Clerks (Athenian), <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Clocks, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Coffins, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, b; <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Colony (Greek), <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Column, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Combs, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Comedy (Greek), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Cooks, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cordage, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Corn crops, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">preservation of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Couches, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cowl, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cretan constitution, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Criers, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Crook, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Crops, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Cross, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Crown, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Crucifixion, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cubit, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cup, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Cymbal, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">D.</span><br /> -<br /> -Daggers, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, a; 342, b.<br /> -<br /> -Dance, the Pyrrhic, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dancing, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Day, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dice, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Dice-box, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Dinner, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dish, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a; <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Distaff, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Dithyramb, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Divorce (Greek), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Door, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Dowry (Greek), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Drains, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Draughts, game of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Drum, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Dynasty, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">E.</span><br /> -<br /> -Ear-ring, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Earthenware, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Eleven, the, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ensigns, military, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Era, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Evil Eye, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Executioner, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_466"></a>[466]</span><br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">F.</span><br /> -<br /> -Fan, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Felting, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fire-place, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Floors of houses, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Fresco, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Fuller, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Funerals (Greek), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Furnace, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, a; <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">G.</span><br /> -<br /> -Gambler, Gaming, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Garden, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Gates of cities, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Girdle, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Gladiators, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Glass, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Gold, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Granary, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Greaves, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Guards, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">H.</span><br /> -<br /> -Hair (Greek), <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Hammers, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, a; <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Harp, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hatchet, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hearth, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Heir (Greek), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Helmet, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hemlock, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Heraclean tablet, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Holidays, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Hoop, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hospitality, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hour, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -House (Greek), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Hunting, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Hunting-spear, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">I, J.</span><br /> -<br /> -Informer, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Inheritance (Greek), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Ink, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Inn, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Intaglios, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Intercalary month, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Interest of money (Greek), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Istumian games, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Italy, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Judges (Greek), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, a; <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">K.</span><br /> -<br /> -Kiln, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -King (Greek), <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Kitchen, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Knife, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Knights (Athenian), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Knockers, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">L.</span><br /> -<br /> -Ladders, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lamps, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Law, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a; <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Legacy, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Legion, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Letter-carrier, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Levy, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Library, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Light-house, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Litters, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Liturgies, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Looking-glass, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Loom, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Lots, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Luncheon, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Lyre, the, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">M.</span><br /> -<br /> -Marriage (Greek), <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Masks, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Masts, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Meals (Greek), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Mile, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mile-stones, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, b; <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mills, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mines, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mint, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mirror, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Money, coined, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Greek), gold, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, b.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), ” 53, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Month (Greek), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Mortars, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, a; <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Mosaics, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, b; <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Mourning for the dead, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, b; <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">N.</span><br /> -<br /> -Names (Greek), <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Necklaces, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Nemean games, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Nets, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Notary, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">O.</span><br /> -<br /> -Oars, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Oath (Greek), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -October-horse, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Officers, duty of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">parade of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Olympiad, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Olympic games, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Oracles, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Orders of architecture, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, b; <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Organ, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ostracism, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Oven, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Ounce, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">P.</span><br /> -<br /> -Painting, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Paper, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Parasol, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Parchment, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pay of soldiers, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pediment, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pen, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Perfumes, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pipe, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Plough, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Poisoning, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Poles, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Portcullis, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pottery, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Priests, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Prison, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Prodigies, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Property-tax (Greek), <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Prow, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Purification, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Purses, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Pyrrhic dance, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Pythian games, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">Q.</span><br /> -<br /> -Quiver, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">R.</span><br /> -<br /> -Races, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Rings, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Road, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Rope-dancers, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_467"></a>[467]</span><br /> -<br /> -Ropes, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rounds, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Rudder, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">S.</span><br /> -<br /> -Sacrifices, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Saddles, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sails, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Salt, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Salt-cellar, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Salt-works, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sandal, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Scales, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Screw, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Scythe, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Senate (Greek), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, a; <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Sentinels, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Shawl, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Shields, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, a; <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, a; <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, a; <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Ships, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Shoe, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, b; <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Shops, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sibyl, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sickle, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Silk, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Silver, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Slaves (Greek), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Sling, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Slingers, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Spartan constitution, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Spear, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Speusinians, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Spindle, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Standards, military, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Statuary, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Stern, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Stoves, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Sun-dial, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Sword, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">T.</span><br /> -<br /> -Tables, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Talent, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tapestry, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Taxes (Greek), <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, b; <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Temple, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Testament, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Theatre, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Thessalian constitution, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Threshold, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Throne, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tiles, roofing, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tombs, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Torch, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Torture, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tower, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tragedy (Greek), <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Triangle, the, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tribes (Greek), <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Tribunes, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trident, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Tripod, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trophy, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trousers, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Trumpet, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, b; <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Tumblers, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">U, V.</span><br /> -<br /> -Vase-painting, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Veil, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Voting (Greek), <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, a; <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Usurers, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, b.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">W.</span><br /> -<br /> -Waggon, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Wall, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, b; <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Weaving, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Wheel, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Whip, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Wills, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Window, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, b.<br /> -<br /> -Wine, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Witnesses (Greek), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, b.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, a.</span><br /> -<br /> -Wrestling, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p2 noindent fs80"> -<span class="pad4">Y.</span><br /> -<br /> -Yards of a sail, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, a.<br /> -<br /> -Year (Greek), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, a.<br /> -<span class="pad1">(Roman), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, b.</span><br /> -<br /> -Yoke, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, a.<br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_468"></a>[468]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CLASSIFIED_INDEX">CLASSIFIED INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<p class="center fs80"><em>Under each head the names of the articles in the Index are given in which the subject is explained.</em></p> - - -<p class="fs80"> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Agriculture.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hortus">Hortus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Olea">Olea, Oliva.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Oscillum">Oscillum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scamnum">Scamnum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sitos">Sitos.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Villa">Villa rustica.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vinum">Vinum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Agricultural Implements.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aratrum">Aratrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugum">Jugum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pala.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pecten">Pecten.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pedum">Pedum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plaustrum">Plaustrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prelum">Prelum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sarracum">Sarracum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stilus">Stilus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tintinnabulum">Tintinnabulum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Torcular">Torculum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tribula">Tribula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tympanum">Tympanum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vannus">Vannus.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Amusements and Playthings.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Abacus">Abacus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aenigma">Aenigma.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alea">Alea.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ascoliasmus">Ascoliasmus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Buxum">Buxum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calculi">Calculi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cottabus">Cottabos.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Follis.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fritillus">Fritillus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Latrunculi">Latrunculi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Talus">Talus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tessera">Tessera.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Trochus">Trochus.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Architecture.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Abacus">Abacus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acroterium">Acroterium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antae">Antae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antefixa">Antefixa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apsis">Apsis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Architectura">Architectura.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Astragalus">Astragalus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Atlantes">Atlantes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Balteus">Balteus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Camara">Camara.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Canalis">Canalis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Columbarium">Columbaria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Columna">Columna.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Coronis">Coronis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cortina">Cortina.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crypta">Crypta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cyma">Cyma.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Entasis">Entasis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epistylium">Epistylium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fascia">Fascia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fastigium">Fastigium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Janua">Janua.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugum">Jugum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Later">Later.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Maenianum">Maenianum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Metopa">Metopa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Peristylium">Peristylium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Podium">Podium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Porticus">Porticus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Spira">Spira.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Testudo">Testudo.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Tholus.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tympanum">Tympanum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Zophorus">Zophorus.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Arithmetic.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Abacus">Abacus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calculi">Calculi.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Armour and Weapons.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acinaces">Acinaces.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aegis">Aegis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arcus">Arcus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arma">Arma.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arma">Armatura.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aratrum">Capulus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cateia">Cateia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cetra">Cetra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Clipeus">Clipeus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dolo">Dolo.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Funda">Funda.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Galea">Galea.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gerrha">Gerrha.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gladius">Gladius.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hasta">Hasta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lorica">Lorica.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ocrea">Ocrea.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Palma">Palma.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pelta">Pelta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pharetra">Pharetra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pugio">Pugio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scutum">Scutum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Securis">Securis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sica">Sica.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Venabulum">Venabulum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Assemblies and Councils.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agora">Agora.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amphictyones">Amphictyones.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Areiopagus">Areiopagus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Boule">Boule.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Comitia_ca">Comitia calata.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Comitia_cu">curiata.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Comitia_ce">centuriata.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Comitia_tr">tributa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Concilium">Concilium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Concio.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Conventus">Conventus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Curia">Curia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ecclesia">Ecclesia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eccleti">Eccleti.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gerousia">Gerousia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Myrii">Myrii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Panegyris">Panegyris.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Panionia">Panionia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Synedri">Synedri.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Astronomy.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Astrologia">Astrologia.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Camps and Forts.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acropolis">Acropolis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agger">Agger.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arx">Arx.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carrago">Carrago.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Castra">Castra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Castra">stativa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pagi">Pagi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praetorium">Praetorium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Turris">Turris.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vallum">Vallum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Charities and Donations.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alimentarii">Alimentarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Congiarium">Congiaria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Dianomae.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Donaria">Donaria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Frumentariae">Frumentariae Leges.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Strena">Strena.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Civil Punishments.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arca">Arca.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Barathron">Barathron, or Orugma.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carcer">Carcer.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ceadas">Ceadas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crux">Crux.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_469"></a>[469]</span><span class="pad1"><a href="#Equuleus">Equuleus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ergastulum">Ergastulum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Flagrum">Flagrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Furca">Furca, patibulum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Laqueus">Laqueus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lautumiae">Latumiae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertium.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Classes of Citizens and others.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adlecti">Adlecti.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aerarii">Aerarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agela">Agela.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aretalogi">Aretalogi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Camilli">Camilli.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Canephoros">Canephoros.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dediticii">Dediticii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Delator">Delator.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Demus">Demos.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eiren">Eiren.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Emphruri.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ephebus">Ephebus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Equites">Equites.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eupatridae">Eupatridae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Geomori">Geomori.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hetaerae.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hippobotae">Hippobotae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Homoei">Homoei.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libertus">Libertus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Locupletes">Locupletes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Metoici">Metoeci.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Naucraria">Naucraria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nobiles">Nobiles.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ordo">Ordo.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Parasiti">Parasiti.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patricii">Patricii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patrimi">Patrimi et Matrimi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Perioeci">Perioeci.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plebes">Plebes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quadruplatores">Quadruplatores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Salutatores">Salutatores.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Colonies & Mother Country.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Apoikia.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cleruchi">Cleruchiae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Metropolis">Metropolis.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Crimes.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calumnia">Calumnia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Falsum">Falsum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Incendium">Incendium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Injuria">Injuria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corneliae">Leges Corneliae et Juliae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Parricida">Parricidium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plagium">Plagium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sacrilegium">Sacrilegium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sodalitium">Sodalitium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stuprum">Stuprum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Talio">Talio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Veneficium">Veneficium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vis">Vis.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Division of Land.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ager">Ager publicus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cippus">Cippus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pyrgos.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Templum">Temenos.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Drama, Dramatic Entertainments.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Comoedia">Comoedia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exodia">Exodia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exostra">Exostra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mimus">Mimus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pantomimus">Pantomimus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Periactos.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Persona">Persona.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Siparium">Siparium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Theatrum">Theatrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tragoedia">Tragoedia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Velum">Velum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Dress, Ornaments, the Toilet.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Abolla">Abolla.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alicula">Alicula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amictorium">Amictorium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amictus">Amictus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ampyx">Ampyx.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Annulus">Annulus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apex">Apex.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Armilla">Armilla.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Barba">Barba.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Baxa">Baxa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bracae">Braccae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bulla">Bulla.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calamistrum">Calamistrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calceus">Calceus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Campestre">Campestre.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Candys">Candys.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caracalla">Caracalla.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Catena">Catena.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Causia">Causia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cestus">Cestus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chlamys">Chlamys.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Clavus_l">Clavus latus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Clavus_l">angustus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Coma">Coma.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cothurnus">Cothurnus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crepida">Crepida.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crocota">Crocota.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cucullus">Cucullus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cudo">Cudo.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cyclas">Cyclas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diadema">Diadema.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Embas">Embas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Emblema">Emblema.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Endromis">Endromis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exomis">Exomis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fascia">Fascia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Feminalia">Feminalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fibula">Fibula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fimbriae.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Flabellum">Flabellum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Focale">Focale.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fucus">Fucus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Galerus">Galerus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Inauris">Inauris.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Incunabula">Incunabula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Infula">Infula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Instita">Instita.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lacerna">Lacerna.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Laciniae">Laciniae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Laena">Laena.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lemniscus">Lemniscus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Marsupium">Marsupium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mitra">Mitra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Monile">Monile.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nudus">Nudus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Orarium">Orarium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paenula">Paenula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pallium">Pallium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pecten">Pecten.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Peplum">Peplum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pera">Pera.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Periscelis">Periscelis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pero">Pero.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Phalerae">Phalera.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pileus">Pileus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Redimiculum">Redimiculum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Reticulum">Reticulum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ricinium">Ricinium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Saccus">Saccus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sandalium">Sandalium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Serta">Serta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Soccus">Soccus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Solea">Solea.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stola">Stola.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Strophium">Strophium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Synthesis">Synthesis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tiara">Tiara.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Toga">Toga.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Torques">Torques.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tunica">Tunica.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Udo">Udo.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Velum">Velum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vitta">Vitta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Umbraculum">Umbraculum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Unguenta">Unguenta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Zona">Zona.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Engineering.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aquae">Aquae ductus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cloaca">Cloaca.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crypta">Crypta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Emissarium">Emissarium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syrinx">Fistula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fons">Fons.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Librator">Librator aquae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Murus">Murus, moenia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Navalia">Navalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pharos">Pharos.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Piscina">Piscina.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pons">Pons.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Porta">Porta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syrinx">Syrinx.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Engraving and Chasing.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caelatura">Caelatura.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Entertainments. Food.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apophoreta">Apophoreta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calida">Calida.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cerevisia">Cerevisia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Coena">Coena.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Comissatio">Commissatio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Erani">Erani.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Opsonium">Opsonium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paropsis">Paropsis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Posca.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sportula">Sportula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Symposium">Symposium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syssitia">Syssitia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vinum">Vinum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Epochs and Divisions of Time.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calendarium">Calendarium, 1. Greek.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Calendarium_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chronologia">Chronologia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Clavus">Clavus annalis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dies">Dies.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Dies_f">fasti et nefasti.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fasti">Fasti.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Fasti">sacri, or kalendares.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Fasti">annales, or historici.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Feriae">Feriae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hora">Hora.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Horologium">Horologium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lustrum">Lustrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nundinae">Nundinae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Olympias">Olympias.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Saeculum">Saeculum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Exercises.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ceroma">Ceroma.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cestus">Cestus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cheironomia">Cheironomia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Desultor">Desultor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Discus">Discus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gymnasium">Gymnasium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Halteres">Halteres.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Harpastum">Harpastum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_470"></a>[470]</span><span class="pad1"><a href="#Hippodromus">Hippodromus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lucta">Lucta, luctatio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Palaestra">Palaestra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pancratium">Pancratium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pentathlon">Pentathlon.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Petaurum">Petaurum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pila">Pila.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pugilatus">Pugilatus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Saltatio">Saltatio.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Festivals, Games, and Shows.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Actia">Actia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adonia">Adonia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aeora">Aeora.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agonalia">Agonalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agones">Agones.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agraulia">Agraulia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agroteras">Agroteras thusia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aloa">Aloa or haloa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amarynthia">Amarynthia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ambrosia">Ambrosia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amphidromia">Amphidromia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Anagogia">Anagogia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Androgeonia">Androgeonia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Anthesphoria">Anthesphoria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apaturia">Apaturia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aphrodisia">Aphrodisia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apollonia">Apollonia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Oschophoria">Ariadneia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Armilustrium">Armilustrium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arrhephoria">Arrhephoria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Artemisia">Artemisia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Asclepieia">Asclepieia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Augustales">Augustales.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bendideia">Bendideia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Boedromia">Boedromia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Boreasmus">Boreasmus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Brauronia">Brauronia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cabeiria">Cabeiria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Callisteia">Callisteia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carmentalia">Carmentalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carneia">Carneia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carya">Carya.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cerealia">Cerealia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chalcioecia">Chalcioikia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Charistia">Charistia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Compitalia">Compitalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Consualia">Consualia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cotyttia">Cotyttia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Daedala">Daedala.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decennalia">Decennalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Delia">Delia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Delphinia">Delphinia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diipoleia">Diipoleia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diocleia">Diocleia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dionysia">Dionysia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eleusinia">Eleusinia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eleutheria">Eleutheria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ellotia">Ellotia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Equiria">Equiria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Floralia">Floralia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fornacalia">Fornacalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gymnopaedia">Gymnopaedia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Heraea">Heraea.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hermaea">Hermaea.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hestiasis">Hestiasis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hilaria">Hilaria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hyacinthia">Hyacinthia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Inoa">Inoa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Isthmia">Isthmia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Juvenalia">Juvenalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lampadephoria">Lampadephoria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Laphria">Laphria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Larentalia">Larentalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lectisternium">Lectisternium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lemuria">Lemuralia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ludi">Ludi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">[<em>In the text an alphabetical list of the principal ludi</em></span><br /> -<span class="pad3"><em>is given.</em>]</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lupercalia">Lupercalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lycaea">Lycaea.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Matralia">Matralia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Matronalia">Matronalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Megalesia">Megalensia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mysia">Mysia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mysteria">Mysteria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Neptunalia">Neptunalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Novendiale">Novendiale.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Olympia">Olympia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Opalia">Opalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Oschophoria">Oschophoria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Palilia">Palilia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pamboeotia">Pamboeotia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Panathenaea">Panathenaea.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plynteria">Plynteria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Populifugia">Poplifugia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prometheia">Prometheia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pyanepsia">Pyanepsia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pythia">Pythia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quinquatrus">Quinquatrus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quinquennalia">Quinquennalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quirinalia">Quirinalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Regifugium">Regifugium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Robigalia">Robigalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Saturnalia">Saturnalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Septimontium">Septimontium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Sthenia.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Synoikia">Synoikia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Terminalia">Terminalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Theophania">Theophania.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Theseia">Theseia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Thesmophoria">Thesmophoria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vinalia">Vinalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vulcanalia">Vulcanalia.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Forms of Government.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aristocratia">Aristocratia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Democratia">Democratia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Monarchia">Monarchia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Ochlocratia.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Oligarchia">Oligarchia.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Funerals.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arca">Arca.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cenotaphium">Cenotaphium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cippus">Cippus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Columbarium">Columbarium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crypta">Crypta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Funus">Funus, 1. Greek.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Funus_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mausoleum">Mausoleum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Urna">Urna.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Furniture.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Abacus">Abacus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Armarium">Armarium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Balneum">Balnea.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cathedra">Cathedra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Conopeum">Conopeum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cortina">Cortina.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Incitega.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lectus">Lectus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mensa">Mensa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pluteus">Pluteus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pulvinar">Pulvinar.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scamnum">Scamnum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sella">Sella.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Speculum">Speculum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Thronus">Thronus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Torus">Torus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tripos">Tripos.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Greek Law.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aikias">Aikias dike.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Anacrisis">Anakrisis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Androlepsia">Androlepsia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antidosis">Antidosis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antigraphe">Antigraphe.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apographe">Apographe.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apophasis">Apophasis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aporrheta">Aporrheta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Apostasiou dike.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Appellatio">Appellatio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Asebeias">Asebeias graphe.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Astrateias">Astrateias graphe.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ateleia">Ateleia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Atimia">Atimia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Axones">Axones.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas, politeia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cleteres">Cleteres.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decasmus">Decasmus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diaetetae">Diaetetae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diapsephisis">Diapsephisis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dicastes">Dicastes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dice">Dike.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Divortium">Divortium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Docimasia">Dokimasia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dos">Dos.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ecmartyria">Ecmartyria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eisangelia">Eisangelia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Embateia">Embateia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Emmeni">Emmeni dikae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Endeixis">Endeixis, ephegesis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epangelia">Epangelia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epibole">Epibole.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epiclerus">Epiclerus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epitropus">Epitropus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epobelia">Epobelia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Euthyne">Euthyne.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exomosia">Exomosia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gamelia">Gamelia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Graphe">Graphe.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Heres">Heres.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hieromnemones">Hieromenia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hybreos">Hybreos graphe.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jusjurandum">Jusjurandum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prodosia">Prodosia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Proeisphoras dike.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prostates_t">Prostates tou demou.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prothesmia">Prothesmia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Psephus">Psephus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pseudengraphes">Pseudengraphes graphe.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pseudocleteias">Pseudocleteias graphe.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Rhetrae">Rhetrae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sitou">Sitou dike.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sycophantes">Sycophantes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sylae">Sylae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syndicus">Syndicus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Synegorus">Synegorus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syngraphe">Syngraphe.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Timema">Timema.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Xenias">Xenias graphe.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Horse Furniture.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ephippium">Ephippium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Frenum">Frenum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Habenae.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hippobotae">Hippoperae.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Income, Public and Private.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aes_u">Aes uxorium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apophoreta">Apophora.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arca">Arca.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Census">Census.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Centesima">Centesima.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Columnarium">Columnarium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decumae">Decumae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eicoste">Eicoste.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eisphora">Eisphora.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epidoseis">Epidoseis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fiscus">Fiscus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ostiarium">Ostiarium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pentecoste">Pentecoste.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Phoros.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Portorium">Portorium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quadragesima">Quadragesima.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Salinae">Salinae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scriptura">Scriptura.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stipendiarii">Stipendiarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Telones">Telones.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Telos">Telos.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Theorica">Theorica.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tributum">Tributum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vectigalia">Vectigalia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_471"></a>[471]</span><span class="pad1"><a href="#Vicesima">Vicesima.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Insignia and Attributes.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caduceus">Caduceus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fasces">Fasces.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Insignia.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sceptrum">Sceptrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Talaria">Talaria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Thyrsus">Thyrsus.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Leagues.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Achaicum">Achaicum Foedus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aetolicum">Aetolicum Foedus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Socii">Socii.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Literature.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Commentarius">Commentarius.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fescennina">Fescennina.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Logographi.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paean">Paean.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Satura">Satura.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Machines and Contrivances.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antlia">Antlia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Catena">Catena.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Clitellae">Clitellae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cochlea">Cochlea.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Columbarium">Columbarium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ephippium">Ephippium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exostra">Exostra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ferculum">Ferculum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syrinx">Fistula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Follis">Follis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Forma">Forma.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fornax.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugum">Jugum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libra">Libra, Libella.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mortarium">Mortarium, pila.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pegma">Pegma.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Phalanx">Phalangae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Retis">Retis, Rete.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scalae_n">Scalae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tela">Tela.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tintinnabulum">Tintinnabulum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Torcular">Torculum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Trutina">Trutina.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Magistrates and Rulers.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acta">Acta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adlecti">Adlecti.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aesymnetes">Aesymnetes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alabarches">Alabarches.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amphictyones">Amphictyones.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Archon">Archon.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Areiopagus">Areiopagus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bidiaei">Bidiaei.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Boeotarches">Boetarches.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Boule">Boule.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Censor">Censor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Centumviri">Centumviri.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Consul">Consul.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Consularis">Consularis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cosmi">Cosmi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decaduchi">Decaduchi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decarchia">Decarchia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decemviri">Decemviri.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">legibus scribendis.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">litibus judicandis.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">sacris faciundis.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">agris dividundis.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Demarchi">Demarchi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Demiurgi">Demiurgi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dictator">Dictator.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Duumviri">Duumviri.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ephetae">Ephetae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ephori">Ephori.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epimeletae">Epimeletae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eponymus">Eponymus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gerousia">Gerousia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gynaeconomi">Gynaeconomi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Harmostae">Harmostae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hendeca">Hendeka, hoi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hieromnemones">Hieromnemones.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Interrex">Interrex.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Magistratus">Magistratus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Medix">Medix tuticus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nomophylaces">Nomophylaces.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paedonomus">Paedonomus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patronomi">Patronomi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Duumviri">Perduellionis duumviri.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Phylarchi">Phylarchi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Phylobasileis">Phylobasileis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Polemarchus">Polemarchus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Poletae">Poletae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Poristae">Poristae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Proconsul">Proconsul.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Rex">Rex.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tetrarches">Tetrarches.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tribunus">Tribunus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Triumviri">Triumviri.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tyrannus">Tyrannus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Manufactures and Materials.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Byssus">Byssus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Coa">Coa vestis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fictile">Fictile.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gausapa">Gausapa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lodix">Lodix, lodicula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Salinae">Salinae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sericum">Sericum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Serta">Serta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vitrum">Vitrum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Manners and Customs.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acclamatio">Acclamatio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acta">Acta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Angaria">Angaria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cheirotonia">Cheirotonia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chelidonia.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chirographum">Chirographum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corona">Corona convivialis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">nuptialis.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">natalitia.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crypteia">Crypteia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diploma">Diploma.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hospitium">Hospitium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hydriaphoria">Hydriaphoria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Immunitas">Immunitas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jusjurandum">Jusjurandum, 1. Greek.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Jusj_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Leiturgia">Leiturgia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Matrimonium">Matrimonium, 1. Greek.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Matr_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nomen">Nomen.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nudus">Nudus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Proscriptio">Proscriptio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prytaneium">Prytaneium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Suffragium">Suffragium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Synoikia">Synoikia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syssitia">Syssitia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tabella">Tabella.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tribus">Tribus, 1. Greek.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Trib_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Trierarchia">Trierarchia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Venatio">Venatio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Viaticum">Viaticum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Xenelasia">Xenelasia.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Maritime Affairs.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Camara">Camara.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carchesium">Carchesium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cataphracti">Cataphracti.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corbitae">Corbitae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cymba">Cymba.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Delphis">Delphis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dolo">Dolo.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epibatae">Epibatae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epistoleus">Epistoleus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Harpago">Harpago.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Insignia.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugum">Jugum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lembus">Lembus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Navarchus">Navarchus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Navis">Navis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Naumachia">Naumachia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paralus">Paralus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Phaselus">Phaselus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Portisculus">Portisculus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praefectus_s">Praefectus classis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Remulcum">Remulcum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Rudens.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Markets.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agora">Agora.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Deigma">Deigma.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Emporium">Emporium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Forum">Forum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Macellum.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Measures and Weights.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acaena">Acaena.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acetabulum">Acetabulum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Actus">Actus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amphora">Amphora.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Artaba">Artaba.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arura">Arura.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#As">As.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Choenix">Choenix.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chous">Chous.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Congius">Congius.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cotyla">Cotyla.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cubitus">Cubitus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Culeus">Culeus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dactylus">Dactylus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decempeda">Decempeda.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Gradus.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hecte">Hecte.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hemina">Hemina.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hippicon.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugerum">Jugerum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libra_a">Libra, as.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ligula">Ligula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Litra">Litra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Medimnus">Medimnus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Metretes">Metretes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Miliare">Milliare.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Modius">Modius.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Obolus">Obolus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Orgyia">Orgyia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Palmipes">Palmipes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Palmus">Palmus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Parasanga">Parasanga.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Passus">Passus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pes">Pes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plethron">Plethron.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quadrantal">Quadrantal.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Schoenus">Schoenus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scrupulum">Scrupulum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sextarius">Sextarius.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stadium">Stadium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ulna">Ulna.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Urna">Urna.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_472"></a>[472]</span><span class="pad1"><a href="#Xestes">Xestes.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Metals.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aes">Aes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Argentum">Argentum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Electrum">Electrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Metallum">Metallum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Orichalcum">Orichalcum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Military Costume.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Abolla">Abolla.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alicula">Alicula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Balteus">Balteus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bulla">Bulla.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caliga">Caliga.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paludamentum">Paludamentum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sagum">Sagum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Military Engines.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aries">Aries.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Catapulta">Catapulta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cataracta">Cataracta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corvus">Corvus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cuniculus">Cuniculus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ericius">Ericius.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Helepolis">Helepolis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lupus">Lupus ferreus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pluteus">Pluteus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scalae_n">Scalae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stilus">Stylus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Testudo">Testudo.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tribulus">Tribulus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Turris">Turris.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vinea">Vinea.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Military Ensigns.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Signa">Signa Militaria.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Military Levies.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Catalogus">Catalogus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Conquisitores">Conquisitores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Emphruri.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epariti">Epariti.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tumultus">Tumultus.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Military Manœuvres.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cuneus">Cuneus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Forfex.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Testudo">Testudo.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Military Pay and Allowances.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acta">Acta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aes_e">Aes equestre.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">hordearium.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">militare.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praeda">Praeda.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stipendium">Stipendium.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Military Punishments.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decimatio">Decimatio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fustuarium">Fustuarium.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Military Rewards.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aurum_c">Aurum coronarium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corona">Corona obsidionalis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">civica.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">navalis.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">muralis.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">castrensis, vallaris.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">ovalis.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">oleagina.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hasta_p">Hasta pura.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ovatio">Ovatio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praeda">Praeda.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Spolia">Spolia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Triumphus">Triumphus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tropaeum">Tropaeum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Money.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aes">Aes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Aes_c">circumforaneum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Argentum">Argentum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#As_c">As.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Assarius">Assarius nummus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aurum">Aurum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chalcus">Chalcus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cistophorus">Cistophorus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Damaretion">Damaretion.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Danace">Danace.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dareicus">Daricus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Denarius">Denarius.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Drachma">Drachma.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hecte">Hecte.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libella">Libella.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Litra">Litra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nummus">Nummus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Obolus">Obolus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sestertius">Sestertius.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stater">Stater.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Uncia">Uncia.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Music and Musical Instruments.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acroama">Acroama.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aeneatores">Aeneatores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Buccina">Buccina.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Canticum">Canticum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Capistrum">Capistrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chorus">Chorus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cornu">Cornu.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crotalum">Crotalum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cymbalum">Cymbalum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hydraulis">Hydraula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lituus">Lituus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lyra">Lyra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pecten">Pecten.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sambuca">Sambuca.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sistrum">Sistrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syrinx">Syrinx.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Testudo">Testudo.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tibia">Tibia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tuba">Tuba.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tympanum">Tympanum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Officers and Soldiers.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Accensus">Accensi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aeneatores">Aeneatores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agathoergi">Agathoergi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ala">Ala.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alauda">Alauda.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antecessores">Antecessores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Argyraspides">Argyraspides.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Catalogus">Catalogus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cataphracti">Cataphracti.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Celeres">Celeres.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Conquisitores">Conquisitores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Contubernales">Contubernales.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Damosia">Damosia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dimachae">Dimachae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ducenarii">Ducenarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Duplarii">Duplarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epariti">Epariti.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Evocati">Evocati.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Excubitores">Excubitores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exercitus">Exercitus, 1. Greek.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Exer_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Librator">Libratores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Phylarchi">Phylarchi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praefectus_c">Praefectus castrorum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Praefectus_p">praetorio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praetoriani">Praetoriani.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Strategus">Strategus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tagus">Tagus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Taxiarchi">Taxiarchi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tiro">Tiro.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Volones">Volones.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Xenagi">Xenagi.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Oracles and Divination.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Augur">Augurium, auspicium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caput_e">Caput extorum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Oraculum">Oraculum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sibyllini">Sibyllini Libri.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sortes">Sortes.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Priests and Priestly Offices.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aeditui">Aeditui.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agyrtae">Agyrtae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arvales">Arvales fratres.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Asiarchae">Asiarchae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Augur">Augur, auspex.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Augustales">Augustales.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Curio">Curio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epulones">Epulones.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eumolpidae">Eumolpidae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exegetae">Exegetae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fetiales">Fetiales.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Flamen">Flamen.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Galli">Galli.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Haruspices">Haruspices.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Luperci">Luperci.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Neocori">Neocori.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Portisculus">Pausarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pontifex">Pontifex.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Rex_s">Rex sacrificulus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sacerdos">Sacerdos.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Salii">Salii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Theori">Theori.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Titii">Titii sodales.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vestales">Vestales.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Private Buildings.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aithousa">Aithousa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apotheca">Apotheca.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Armarium">Armarium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Atrium">Atrium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bibliotheca">Bibliotheca.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caupona">Caupona.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cella">Cella.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cubiculum">Cubiculum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Domus">Domus, 1. Greek.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Domu_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Vestibulum">vestibulum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Ostium">ostium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Atrium">atrium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Ala">alae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Tablinum">tablinum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Domus">fauces.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Peristylium">perystylum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Cubiculum">cubicula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Triclinium">triclinia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">oeci.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Exedra">exedrae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Culina">culina.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Coenaculum">coenacula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">diaeta.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Solarium">solaria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exedra">Exedrae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Focus">Focus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fornax.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fornix">Fornix.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hemicyclium">Hemicyclium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Janua">Janua.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lararium">Lararium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Later">Later.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paries">Paries cratitius.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">formaceus.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">lateritius.</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_473"></a>[473]</span> -<span class="pad2">reticulata structura.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paries">Paries structura antiqua.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">emplecton.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">e lapide quadrato.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pergula.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Pinacotheca.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pluteus">Pluteus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Puteal">Puteal.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scalae_a">Scalae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Synoikia">Synoikia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caupona">Taberna.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tegula">Tegula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Triclinium">Triclinium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Villa">Villa.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Public Buildings.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aerarium">Aerarium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amphitheatrum">Amphitheatrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Archeion">Archeion.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arcu_t">Arcus triumphalis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Argyrocopeion">Argyrocopeion.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Athenaeum">Athenaeum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Auditorium">Auditorium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Balneum">Balneae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Basilica">Basilica, chalcidicum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bibliotheca">Bibliotheca.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carcer">Carcer.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Circus">Circus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cochlea">Cochlea.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Curia">Curia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Forum">Forum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Graecostasis">Graecostasis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hippodromus">Hippodromus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Horreum">Horreum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Labyrinthus">Labyrinthus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lautumiae">Lautumiae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lesche">Lesche.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Moneta">Moneta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Museum">Museum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paradisus">Paradisus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Porticus">Porticus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prytaneium">Prytaneion.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Rostra">Rostra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stadium">Stadium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Suggestus">Suggestus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tabularium">Tabularium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Thesaurus">Thesaurus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tribunal">Tribunal.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Public Officers.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Accensus">Accensi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Actuarii">Actuarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adlecti">Adlecti.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Admissionales">Admissionales.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aediles">Aediles.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agathoergi">Agathoergi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agonothetae">Agonothetae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agoranomi">Agoranomi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agrimensores">Agrimensores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agronomi">Agronomi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apodectae">Apodectae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apostoleus">Apostoleis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apparitor">Apparitores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Asiarchae">Asiarchae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Astynomi">Astynomi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Boonae">Boonae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carnifex">Carnifex.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Choregus">Choregus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Coactor">Coactor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crites">Critae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Curatores">Curatores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">[<em>An alphabetical list of curatores is given.</em>]</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diaetetae">Diaetetae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diribitores">Diribitores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ducenarii">Ducenarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ecdicus">Ecdicus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Episcopi">Episcopi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Epistates">Epistates.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Euthyne">Euthyni.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Exetastae.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Frumentarii">Frumentarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Grammateus">Grammateus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hieropoii">Hieropoii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Hodopoei.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Legatus">Legatus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Leiturgia">Leiturgia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lictor">Lictor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Magister">Magister.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">[<em>An alphabetical list of magistri is given.</em>]</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Manceps">Manceps.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mastigophori">Mastigophori.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mensarii">Mensarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Notarii">Notarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paredri">Paredri.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Parochi">Parochi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Practores">Practores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praecones">Praecones.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praefectus_a">Praefectus Annonae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Praefectus_u">Urbi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Probouli">Probouli.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Procurator">Procurator.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Publicani">Publicani.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pythii">Pythii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quaestor">Quaestores classici.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Quaestor">parricidii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Quinqueviri">Quinqueviri.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scribae">Scribae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sitophylaces">Sitophylaces.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stator">Stator.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Stratores.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Syllogeis">Syllogeis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tabularii">Tabularii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tamiae">Tamias.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Teichopoii">Teichopoeus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tettarakonta">Tettaraconta, hoi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Theori">Theori.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Trierarchia">Trierarchia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Triumviri">Triumviri.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Viator">Viatores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Zetetae">Zetetae.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Roads and Streets.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Angiportus">Angiportus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Callis">Callis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mansio">Mansio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Via">Viae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vicus">Vicus.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Roman Law.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Actio">Actio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Actor">Actor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adoptio">Adoptio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Advocatus">Advocatus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aediles">Aediles.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Affines">Affinitas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agrariae">Agrariae leges.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Album">Album.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ambitus">Ambitus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Appellatio">Appellatio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arra">Arra, Arrha.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arra">Arrabo, Arrhabo.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Assertor">Assertor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Assessor">Assessor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Auctio">Auctio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Auctor">Auctor, Auctoritas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Basilica">Basilica.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Beneficium">Beneficium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bona">Bona.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Bona_c">caduca.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Bona_f">fides.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bonorum">Bonorum cessio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Bonorum_c">collatio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Bonorum_e">emptio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Bonorum_p">possessio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calumnia">Calumnia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caput">Caput.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caupona">Caupo.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cautio">Cautio, cavere.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Centumviri">Centumviri.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Certi, incerti actio.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chirographum">Chirographum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Civitas">Civitas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cliens">Cliens.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Codex">Codex Gregorianus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Hermogenianus.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Justinianeus.</span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Theodosianus.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cognati">Cognati.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Collegium">Collegium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Colonia">Colonia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Commissoria">Commissoria lex.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crimen">Crimen, delictum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Curator">Curator.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Decretum">Decretum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dediticii">Dediticii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Depositum">Depositum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Divortium">Divortium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dominium">Dominium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dominium">Dominus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dos">Dos.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Edictum">Edictum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Theodorici.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Emancipatio">Emancipatio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exercitoria">Exercitoria actio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exsilium">Exsilium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Falsum">Falsum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Familia">Familia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fenus">Fenus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fideicommissum">Fidei commissum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fiducia">Fiducia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fiscus">Fiscus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Foederatae">Foederatae civitates.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Frumentariae">Frumentariae leges.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gens">Gens.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Heres">Heres.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Honores">Honores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Imperium">Imperium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Impubes">Impubes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Incendium">Incendium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Incestum">Incestum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Infamia">Infamia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Infans">Infans.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ingenui">Ingenui.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Injuria">Injuria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Intercessio">Intercessio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Interdictum">Interdictum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Judex">Judex.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bonorum">Jure, cessio in.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jurisconsulti">Jurisconsulti.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jurisdictio">Jurisdictio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jus">Jus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">Civile Papirianum.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jusjurandum">Jusjurandum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Latinitas">Latinitas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Legatum">Legatum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lex">Lex.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2">[<em>Under this head an alphabetical list of the principal laws</em></span><br /> -<span class="pad3"><em>is given.</em>]</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libellus">Libelli accusatorum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Libellus">famosi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libertus">Libertus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Magistratus">Magistratus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Majestas">Majestas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mancipium">Mancipium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mandatum">Mandatum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Manumissio">Manumissio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Negotiatores">Negotiatores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nexum">Nexum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Orator">Orator.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patria">Patria potestas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patronus">Patronus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pauperies">Pauperies.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Peculatus">Peculatus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plagium">Plagium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Plebiscitum">Plebiscitum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Poena">Poena.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Possessio">Possessio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Postliminium">Postliminium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praes">Praedium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praejudicium">Praejudicium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praes">Praes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praescriptio">Praescriptio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Praetor">Praetor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Procurator">Procurator.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Proscriptio">Proscriptio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Provincia">Provincia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Repetundae">Repetundae pecuniae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sectio">Sectio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Senatus">Senatus consultum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Societas.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sumptuariae">Sumptuariae leges.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tabellariae">Tabellariae leges.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Talio">Talio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Testamentum">Testamentum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tormentum">Tormentum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tutor">Tutor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vindicta">Vindicta.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vis">Vis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Collegium">Universitas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_474"></a>[474]</span> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ususfructus">Usufructus.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Sacrifices and Religious Rites.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acerra">Acerra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amburbium">Amburbium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Anakleteria.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Antigoneia.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apotheosis">Apotheosis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ara">Ara.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Canephoros">Canephoros.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corona_sa">Corona sacerdotalis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cortina">Cortina.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Diamastigosis">Diamastigosis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eisiteria">Eisiteria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Eleusinia">Eleusinia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Exauguratio">Exauguratio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Inauguratio">Inauguratio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lituus">Lituus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lustratio">Lustratio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lustrum">Lustrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sacra">Sacra.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sacrificium">Sacrificium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sagmina">Sagmina.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Secespita">Secespita.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Simpulum">Simpulum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Supplicatio">Supplicatio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Thensae">Thensae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tripos">Tripos.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Turibulum">Turibulum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Slaves and Bondsmen.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Agaso">Agaso.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alipilus">Alipilus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aliptae">Aliptae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amanuensis">Amanuensis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Anagnostes">Anagnostae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Anteambulones">Anteambulones.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aquarii">Aquarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bruttiani">Bruttiani.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calones">Calones.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Capsarii">Capsarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Colonia">Coloni.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cosmetae">Cosmetae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cubicularii">Cubicularii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cursores">Cursores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Demosii">Demosii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fartor">Fartor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gymnesii">Gymnesii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Helotes">Helotes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hieroduli">Ieroduli.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Librarii">Librarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Mediastini">Mediastini.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Notarii">Notarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Paedagogus">Paedagogus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pedisequi">Pedisequi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Penestae">Penestae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Servus">Servus, 1. Greek.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Serv_r">2. Roman.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tabellarius">Tabellarius.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Thetes">Thetes.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Villicus">Villicus.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Statuary.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acrolithi">Acrolithi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caryatides">Caryatides.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Colossus">Colossus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Daedala">Daedala.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hermae">Hermae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Imago">Imago.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scalptura">Sculptura.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Statuaria">Statuaria ars.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Typus.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Superstitions.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amuletum">Amuletum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Apophrades hemerai.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Astrologia">Astrologia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fascinum">Fascinum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Oscillum">Oscillum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Prodigium">Prodigium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sortes">Sortes.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Temples and Holy Places.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Argei">Argei.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Asylum">Asylum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bidental">Bidental.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Docana">Docana.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Propylaea">Propylaea.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sacellum">Sacellum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sacrarium">Sacrarium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Templum">Templum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Velum">Velum.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Titles.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Augustus">Augustus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caesar">Caesar.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Tools and Implements.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acus">Acus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amussis">Amussis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Apsis">Apsis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ascia">Ascia.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Colus">Colus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Contus">Contus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Culter">Culter.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Dolabra">Dolabra, Dolabella.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Falx">Falx.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Fistuca.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Follis">Follis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fuscina">Fuscina.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fusus">Fusus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Harpago">Harpago.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugum">Jugum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Malleolus">Malleolus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Norma.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Securis">Securis.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Trades and Occupations.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ambubaiae">Ambubaiae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Argentarii">Argentarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Athletae">Athletae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bestiarii">Bestiarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bibliopola">Bibliopola.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calculator">Calculator.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Caupona">Caupo.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fabri">Fabri.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fullo">Fullo.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Funambulus">Funambulus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Gladiatores">Gladiatores.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Hemerodromi">Hemerodromi.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Histrio">Histrio.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Interpres">Interpres.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Notarii">Notarii.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pelatae">Pelatae.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pistor">Pistor.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Redemptor">Redemtor.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Vehicles and their parts.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Antyx">Antyx.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Arcera">Arcera.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Basterna">Basterna.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Canathron">Canathron.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Capistrum">Capistrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carpentum">Carpentum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carruca">Carruca.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Chiramaxium.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cisium">Cisium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Covinus">Covinus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Currus">Currus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Esseda">Esseda.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Harmamaxa">Harmamaxa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Jugum">Jugum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lectica">Lectica.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Petorritum">Petorritum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pilentum">Pilentum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Rheda">Rheda.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Sella">Sella.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Utensils.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Acetabulum">Acetabulum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Aenum">Aenum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Alabaster">Alabastrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Amphora">Amphora.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ampulla">Ampulla.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Anaglypha">Anaglypha.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Authepsa">Authepsa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bascauda">Bascauda.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Bicos">Bicos.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cadus">Cadus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calathus">Calathus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calix">Calix.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Candela">Candela.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Candelabrum">Candelabrum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cantharus">Cantharus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Capsa">Capsa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Carchesium">Carchesium.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Catinus">Catinus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Chrysendeta">Chrysendita.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cista">Cista.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cochlear">Cochlear.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Colum">Colum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cophinus">Cophinus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Corbis">Corbis, Corbula, Corbicula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cortina">Cortina.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Crater">Crater.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cupa">Cupa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Cyathus">Cyathus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Fax">Fax.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Ferculum">Ferculum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Guttus">Guttus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lanx">Lanx.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Lecythus.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Lucerna">Lucerna.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Currus">Modiolus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Murrhina">Murrhina vasa.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Oenophorum.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Olla">Olla, aula.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patera">Patera, Patella.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Patina">Patina.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Poculum">Poculum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Psycter">Psycter.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Pyxis">Pyxis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Rhyton">Rhyton.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Salinum">Salinum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Situla">Situla, Sitella.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tripos">Tripos.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Trua">Trua, Trulla.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Vas">Vas.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Urceus">Urceus.</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="p1 smcap">Writing and Writing Materials.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Adversaria">Adversaria.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Album">Album.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Atramentum">Atramentum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Buxum">Buxum.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Calamus">Calamus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Codex">Codex.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Libellus">Libellus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad2"><a href="#Libellus">memorialis.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Liber">Liber.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Nota">Nota.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1">Regula.</span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Scytale">Scytale.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Stilus">Stylus.</a></span><br /> -<span class="pad1"><a href="#Tabulae">Tabulae.</a></span><br /> -</p> - - -<p class="p2 pfs90">THE END.</p> - -<hr class="p4 r30a" /> - -<p class="pfs60"> -LONDON: PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,<br /> -STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.<br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<div class="transnote"> -<a name="TN" id="TN"></a> -<p><strong>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong></p> - -<p>Most illustrations have been placed at the start, or the end, of -a dictionary entry. In some long multi-page entries with several -illustrations, a paragraph break has been inserted to allow -placement of an illustration at a relevant point of the text.</p> - -<p>The original text used Y with breve (Ῠ) in 49 entry headings that -were latinized versions of a Greek word, for example ĂLῨTAE (ἀλύται). -These have been changed to Y with tilde (Ỹ), ĂLỸTAE (ἀλύται), because -there is no Y with breve in the Unicode Latin tables.</p> - -<p>There are a few references in the main text to entries that do not -exist in this (Shorter) version of the Dictionary, for example: -<span class="smcap">Furtum, Atticurges</span>, and in the Classified Index there are several -dozen more, for example: Pala, Follis, Dianomae, Pyrgos.</p> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been -corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within -the text and consultation of external sources.</p> - -<p>Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the -text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p> - -<p> -<a href="#tn-24">Pg 24</a>: ‘ἀμπυκτῆρ’ replaced by ‘ἀμπυκτήρ’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-33">Pg 33</a>: ‘ἀρχιτεκτονια’ replaced by ‘ἀρχιτεκτονία’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-37">Pg 37</a>: ‘corytus’ has been italicized for consistency.<br /> -<a href="#tn-42">Pg 42</a>: ‘ἀμφιδεᾶ’ replaced by ‘ἀμφιδέα’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-46">Pg 46</a>: ‘by the Emperior’ replaced by ‘by the Emperor’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-51">Pg 51</a>: ‘of each parties’ replaced by ‘of such parties’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-57">Pg 57</a>: ‘Basilica Portia, in’ replaced by ‘Basilica Porcia, in’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-146">Pg 146</a>: ‘have tried causes’ replaced by ‘have tried cases’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-150">Pg 150</a>: ‘oath of secresy’ replaced by ‘oath of secrecy’ (twice).<br /> -<a href="#tn-154">Pg 154</a>: ‘στρῶματα’ replaced by ‘στρώματα’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-157">Pg 157</a>: ‘traduc equum’ replaced by ‘traducere equum’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-180">Pg 180</a>: ‘εστια’ replaced by ‘ἑστία’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-211">Pg 211</a>: ‘once distinguised’ replaced by ‘once distinguished’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-212">Pg 212</a>: ‘be distingushed’ replaced by ‘be distinguished’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-215">Pg 215</a>: ‘μοχλόν’ replaced by ‘μοχλὸν’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-222">Pg 222</a>: ‘ἀνάκλίντρον’ replaced by ‘ἀνάκλιντρον’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-249">Pg 249</a>: ‘ἠγεμὼν’ replaced by ‘ἡγεμὼν’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-250">Pg 250</a>: ‘this conventio.’ replaced by ‘this convention.’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-266">Pg 266</a>: ‘ἱστός’ replaced by ‘ἱστὸς’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-299">Pg 299</a>: ‘In (B.C. 445), the’ replaced by ‘In B.C. 445, the’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-332">Pg 332</a>: ‘the downfal of’ replaced by ‘the downfall of’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-350">Pg 350</a>: ‘the developement of’ replaced by ‘the development of’.<br /> -<a href="#tn-419">Pg 419</a>: ‘gave headachs’ replaced by ‘gave headaches’.<br /> -</p> -</div> - - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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