diff options
| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 20:09:26 -0800 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 20:09:26 -0800 |
| commit | e1927bb37660e30df44b03d4d1f41d786021d8aa (patch) | |
| tree | 638ddc7d1f6ad4ea984fe7189947c3b508fc0a75 /old/65909-0.txt | |
| parent | b26b873d674a274b6aa243a09ddfa6b9f26cce4c (diff) | |
Diffstat (limited to 'old/65909-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/65909-0.txt | 48533 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 48533 deletions
diff --git a/old/65909-0.txt b/old/65909-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index fc091f0..0000000 --- a/old/65909-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,48533 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman -Antiquities, by William Smith - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities - -Author: William Smith - -Release Date: July 24, 2021 [eBook #65909] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: John Campbell, Delphine Lettau, alternate illustrations from - TIA and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND -ROMAN ANTIQUITIES *** - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. - - Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been - placed at the end of the relevant entry. Footnotes for Tables I-XVI - have been kept at the bottom of each relevant Table. - - Basic fractions are displayed as ½ ⅓ ¼ etc; other fractions are - mostly shown in the form a-b/c, for example 1/72 or 69-4/9. The - book also has some fractions in the form a-b, for example 1-40th or - 7-100ths. - - Each entry in the dictionary is a Latin name and uses vowel breves - and macrons to indicate pronunciation. Greek words in the text use - polytonic Greek. Some other less common characters are found in this - book and these will display on this device as: - ⛛ (0x26DB inverted Greek Δ) - M̄ (M with 0x0304 combining macron) - C̄ (C with 0x0304 combining macron) - ⬤ (0x2B24 black circle) - - Several of the Tables at the back of the book are very dense and - wider than can be displayed on some devices. Use of a small-size - monospace font may help. - - The original text was printed in two-column format; the indexes at - the back of the book reference the page and the column, a (left) or - b (right). This etext uses the normal single column format so that - the column reference does not apply; only the page reference is - relevant. - - Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book. - - - - - A - - SMALLER DICTIONARY - - OF - - Greek and Roman Antiquities. - - - - -THE STUDENT’S MANUALS: - -_A SERIES OF HISTORICAL CLASS BOOKS FOR ADVANCED SCHOLARS._ - - - THE STUDENT’S HUME; a History of England from the Invasion of - Julius Cæsar By DAVID HUME continued to the Treaty of Berlin, 1878. - By J S BREWER. With Coloured Maps and Woodcuts. Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - ⁂ Questions on the Student’s Hume. 12mo. _2s._ - - THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF FRANCE. From the Earliest Times to the - Establishment of the Second Empire 1852. By REV W H PEARSON. - Woodcuts. Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF GREECE. From the Earliest Times to the - Roman Conquest. By Dr WM. SMITH. With Coloured Maps and Woodcuts. - Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - ⁂ Questions on the Student’s Greece. 12mo. 2_s._ - - THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF ROME. From the Earliest Times to the - Establishment of the Empire. By DEAN LIDDELL. With Coloured Map and - Woodcuts. Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S GIBBON. Being an Epitome of the History of the - Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. By DR WM. SMITH. Woodcuts. - Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF EUROPE DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. By HENRY - HALLAM, LL D. Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the Accession - of Henry VII. to the Death of George II. By _Henry Hallam LL D_. - Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST, from the EARLIEST TIMES - to the CONQUEST of ALEXANDER THE GREAT including Egypt, Assyria, - Babylonia, Media, Persia, Asia Minor, and Phœnicia. By PHILIP - SMITH, B A. With Woodcuts Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. By REV W L BEVAN M A. - Woodcuts. Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL - AND DESCRIPTIVE. By REV W L BEVAN, M A. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. _7s. - 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By GEORGE P MARSH. - Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. By T B SHAW, M A. Post - 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Selected from the - Chief Writers. By THOS B SHAW M A. Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. From the Creation - of the World to the return of the Jews from Captivity. With an - Introduction to the Books of the Old Testament. By PHILIP SMITH B - A. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY. With an Introduction - containing the Connection of the Old and New Testaments. By PHILIP - SMITH B A. Maps and Woodcuts. Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. By PHILIP SMITH B - A. Woodcuts. 2 vols. Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ each. - - PART I--From the Times of the Apostles to the full Establishment of - the Holy Roman Empire and the Papal Power. A.D. 30-1380. - - PART II--The Middle Ages and the Reformation. A.D. 1381-1593. - - THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ENGLISH CHURCH HISTORY. By CANON PERRY M A. - 2 vols. Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ each. - - FIRST PERIOD--From the Planting of the Church in Britain to the - Accession of Henry VIII. 596-1509. - - SECOND PERIOD--From the Accession of Henry VIII to the Silencing of - Convocation in the Eighteenth Century. 1509-1717. - - THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY, with Questions and - References. By WILLIAM FLEMING, D D. Post 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - - - - A - - SMALLER DICTIONARY - - OF - - Greek and Roman Antiquities. - - - BY WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D., - EDITOR OF THE ‘CLASSICAL AND LATIN DICTIONARIES,’ ETC. - - - [Illustration] - - ABRIDGED FROM THE LARGER DICTIONARY. - - _TWELFTH EDITION._ - - ILLUSTRATED WITH TWO HUNDRED WOODCUTS. - - LONDON: - JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. - 1884. - - _The right of Translation is reserved._ - - - - -DR. WM. SMITH’S DICTIONARIES. - - - A DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE; ITS ANTIQUITIES, BIOGRAPHY, GEOGRAPHY, - AND NATURAL HISTORY. With Illustrations. 3 vols. Medium 8vo. _5l. - 5s._ - - A CONCISE BIBLE DICTIONARY. Condensed from the above. With Maps and - 300 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. _21s._ - - A SMALLER BIBLE DICTIONARY. Abridged from the above. With Maps and - 40 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - A DICTIONARY OF CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES. The History, Institutions, - and Antiquities of the Christian Church. With Illustrations. 2 - vols. Medium 8vo. _3l. 13s. 6d._ - - A DICTIONARY OF CHRISTIAN BIOGRAPHY, LITERATURE, SECTS, AND - DOCTRINES. Vols I. II. and III. Medium 8vo. _31s. 6d._ each. - - A DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Including the Laws, - Institutions, Domestic Usages, Painting, Sculpture, Music, the - Drama, &c. With 500 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. _28s._ - - A DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGY. - Containing a History of the Ancient World, civil, literary, and - ecclesiastical. With 564 Illustrations. 3 vols. Medium 8vo. _84s._ - - A DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN GEOGRAPHY. Including the political - history of both countries and cities, as well as their geography. - With 530 Illustrations. 2 vols. Medium 8vo. _56s._ - - A CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY, BIOGRAPHY, AND GEOGRAPHY. With - 750 Woodcuts. 8vo. _18s._ - - A SMALLER CLASSICAL DICTIONARY. Abridged from the above. With 200 - Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Abridged from - the larger Work. With 200 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. _7s. 6d._ - - A LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. Based on the Works of FORCELLINI and - FREUND. With Tables of the Roman Calendar, Measures, Weights, and - Monies. Medium 8vo. _21s._ - - A SMALLER LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY: with Dictionary of Proper Names - and Tables of Roman Calendar, etc. Abridged from the above. Square - 12mo. _7s. 6d._ - - A COPIOUS AND CRITICAL ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY. Medium 8vo. _21s._ - - A SMALLER ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY. Abridged from the above. Square - 12mo. _7s. 6d._ - - -LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SOWS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET -AND CHARING CROSS. - - - - -A - -SMALLER DICTIONARY - -OF - -GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. - - - - -ĂBĂCUS (ἄβαξ), denoted primarily a square tablet of any description, -and was hence employed in the following significations:--(1) A table, -or side-board, chiefly used for the display of gold and silver -cups, and other kinds of valuable and ornamental utensils. The use -of abaci was first introduced at Rome from Asia Minor after the -victories of Cn. Manlius Vulso, B.C. 187, and their introduction was -regarded as one of the marks of the growing luxury of the age.--(2) -A draught-board or chess-board.--(3) A board used by mathematicians -for drawing diagrams, and by arithmeticians for the purposes of -calculation.--(4) A painted panel, coffer, or square compartment in -the wall or ceiling of a chamber.--(5) In architecture, the flat -square stone which constituted the highest member of a column, being -placed immediately under the architrave. - -[Illustration: Abacus.] - - -ABOLLA, a cloak chiefly worn by soldiers, and thus opposed to the -toga, the garb of peace. [TOGA.] The abolla was used by the lower -classes at Rome, and consequently by the philosophers who affected -severity of manners and life. Hence the expression of Juvenal, -_facinus majoris abollae_,--“a crime committed by a very deep -philosopher.” - -[Illustration: Abolla. (Bellori, Arc. Triumph., pl. 11, 12.)] - - -ABRŎGĀTĬO. [LEX.] - - -ABSŎLŪTĬO. [JUDEX.] - - -ĂCAENA (ἀκαίνη, ἄκαινα, or in later Greek ἄκενα, in one place -ἄκαινον), a measuring rod of the length of ten Greek feet. It was -used in measuring land, and thus resembles the Roman decempeda. - - -ĂCATĬUM (ἀκάτιον, a diminutive of ἄκατος), a small vessel or boat -used by the Greeks, which appears to have been the same as the Roman -_scapha_. The _Acatia_ were also sails adapted for fast sailing. - - -ACCENSUS. (1) A public officer, who attended on several of the Roman -magistrates. The Accensi summoned the people to the assemblies, -and those who had law-suits to court; they preserved order in the -courts, and proclaimed the time of the day when it was the third -hour, the sixth hour, and the ninth hour. An accensus anciently -preceded the consul who had not the fasces, which custom, after being -long disused, was restored by Julius Cæsar in his first consulship. -Accensi also attended on the governors of provinces.--(2) The accensi -were also a class of soldiers in the Roman army, who were enlisted -after the full number of the legion had been completed, in order to -supply any vacancies that might occur in the legion. They were taken, -according to the census of Servius Tullius, from the fifth class of -citizens, and were placed in battle in the rear of the army, behind -the triarii. - - -ACCLĀMĀTĬO, was the public expression of approbation or -disapprobation, pleasure or displeasure, by loud acclamations. -On many occasions, there appear to have been certain forms of -acclamations always used by the Romans; as, for instance, at -marriages, _Io Hymen_, _Hymenaee_, or _Talassio_; at triumphs, -_Io Triumphe_; at the conclusion of plays, the last actor called -out _Plaudite_ to the spectators; orators were usually praised by -such expressions as _Bene et praeclare_, _Belle et festive_, _Non -potest melius_, &c. Under the empire the name of _acclamationes_ was -given to the praises and flatteries bestowed by the senate upon the -reigning emperor and his family. - - -ACCŬBĀTĬO, the act of reclining at meals. The Greeks and Romans were -accustomed, in later times, to recline at their meals; but this -practice could not have been of great antiquity in Greece, since -Homer always describes persons as sitting at their meals; and Isidore -of Seville, an ancient grammarian, also attributes the same custom -to the ancient Romans. Even in the time of the early Roman emperors, -children in families of the highest rank used to sit together, while -their fathers and elders reclined on couches at the upper part of the -room. Roman ladies continued the practice of sitting at table, even -after the recumbent position had become common with the other sex. -It appears to have been considered more decent, and more agreeable -to the severity and purity of ancient manners, for women to sit, -more especially if many persons were present. But, on the other -hand, we find cases of women reclining, where there was conceived -to be nothing bold or indelicate in their posture. Such is the case -in the preceding woodcut, which seems intended to represent a scene -of matrimonial felicity. For an account of the disposition of the -couches, and of the place which each guest occupied in a Greek and -Roman entertainment, see SYMPOSIUM and TRICLINIUM. - -[Illustration: Accubatio. Act of Reclining. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp., -Suppl., iii. 60.)] - - -ACCŪSĀTOR, ACCŪSĀTIO. [JUDEX.] - - -ĂCERRA (θυμιατήριον, λιβανωτρίς), the incense-box or censer used -in sacrifices. The acerra was also a small moveable altar placed -before the dead, on which perfumes were burnt. The use of acerrae -at funerals was forbidden by a law of the Twelve Tables as an -unnecessary expense. - -[Illustration: Acerra. (From a Frieze in the Museum Capitolinum.)] - - -ĂCĒTABŬLUM (ὀξίς, ὀξύβαφον, ὀξυβάφιον). (1) A vinegar-cup, wide and -open above, as we see in the annexed cut. The name was also given to -all cups resembling it in size and form, to whatever use they might -be applied.--(2) A Roman measure of capacity, fluid and dry. It was -one-fourth of the hemian, and therefore one-eighth of the sextarius. - -[Illustration: Acetabulum. (Dennis, Etruria, p. xcvi.)] - - -ĂCHĀĬCUM FOEDUS. The Achaean league is divided into two periods. -1. _The earlier period._--When the Heracleidae took possession -of Peloponnesus, which had until then been chiefly inhabited -by Achaeans, a portion of the latter, under Tisamenus, turned -northwards and occupied the north coast of Peloponnesus. The country -thus occupied derived from them its name of Achaia, and contained -twelve confederate towns, which were governed by the descendants -of Tisamenus, till at length they abolished the kingly rule after -the death of Ogyges, and established a democracy. In the time of -Herodotus the twelve towns of which the league consisted were: -Pellene, Aegeira, Aegae, Bura, Helice, Aegium, Rhypes (Rhypae), -Patreis (ae), Phareis (ae), Olenus, Dyme, and Tritaeeis (Tritaea). -After the time of Herodotus, Rhypes and Aegae disappeared from the -number, and Ceryneia and Leontium stepped into their place. The bond -which united the towns of the league was not so much a political -as a religious one, as is shown by the common sacrifice offered -at Helice to Poseidon, and after the destruction of that town, at -Aegium to Zeus, surnamed Homagyrius, and to Demeter Panachaea. The -confederation exercised no great influence in the affairs of Greece -down to the time when it was broken up by the Macedonians. 2. _The -later period._--When Antigonus in B.C. 281 made the unsuccessful -attempt to deprive Ptolemaeus Ceraunus of the Macedonian throne, -the Achaeans availed themselves of the opportunity of shaking off -the Macedonian yoke, and renewing their ancient confederation. The -grand object however now was no longer a common worship, but a -real political union among the confederates. The fundamental laws -were, that henceforth the confederacy should form one inseparable -state, that each town, which should join it, should have equal -rights with the others, and that all members, in regard to foreign -countries, should be considered as dependent, and bound to obey in -every respect the federal government, and those officers who were -entrusted with the executive. Aegium was the seat of the government, -and it was there that the citizens of the various towns met at -regular and stated times, to deliberate upon the common affairs of -the league, and if it was thought necessary, upon those of separate -towns, and even of individuals, and to elect the officers of the -league. The league acquired its great strength in B.C. 251, when -Aratus united Sicyon, his native place, with it, and some years -later gained Corinth also for it. Megara, Troezene, and Epidaurus -soon followed their example. Afterwards Aratus persuaded all the -more important towns of Peloponnesus to join the confederacy, and -thus Megalopolis, Argos, Hermione, Phlius, and others were added to -it. In a short period the league reached the height of its power, -for it embraced Athens, Megara, Aegina, Salamis, and the whole of -Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, Elis, Tegea, Orchomenos, -and Mantineia. The common affairs of the confederate towns were -regulated at general meetings attended by the citizens of all the -towns, and held regularly twice every year, in the spring and in -the autumn. These meetings, which lasted three days, were held in a -grove of Zeus Homagyrius in the neighbourhood of Aegium, and near a -sanctuary of Demeter Panachaea. Every citizen, both rich and poor, -who had attained the age of thirty, might attend the assemblies, -to which they were invited by a public herald, and might speak and -propose any measure. The subjects which were to be brought before -the assembly were prepared by a council (βουλή), which seems to have -been permanent. The principal officers of the confederacy were: -1. At first two strategi (στρατηγοί), but after the year B.C. 255 -there was only one, who in conjunction with an hipparchus (ἴππαρχος) -or commander of the cavalry and an under-strategus (ὑποστρατηγός) -commanded the army furnished by the confederacy, and was entrusted -with the whole conduct of war; 2. A public secretary (γραμματεύς); -and, 3. Ten demiurgi (δημιουργοί). All the officers of the league -were elected in the assembly held in the spring, at the rising of -the Pleiades, and legally they were invested with their several -offices only for one year, though it frequently happened that men of -great merit and distinction were re-elected for several successive -years. If one of the officers died during the period of his office, -his place was filled by his predecessor, until the time for the -new elections arrived. The perpetual discord of the members of the -league, the hostility of Sparta, the intrigues of the Romans, and the -folly and rashness of the later strategi, brought about not only the -destruction and dissolution of the confederacy, but of the freedom of -all Greece, which after the fall of Corinth, in B.C. 146, became a -Roman province under the name of Achaia. - - -ĂCĬES. [EXERCITUS.] - - -ĂCĪNĂCĒS (ἀκινάκης), a Persian sword, whence Horace speaks of the -_Medus acinaces_. The acinaces was a short and straight weapon, and -thus differed from the Roman _sica_, which was curved. It was worn on -the right side of the body, whereas the Greeks and Romans usually had -their swords suspended on the left side. The form of the acinaces, -with the mode of wearing it, is illustrated by the following -Persepolitan figures. - -[Illustration: Acinaces, Persian Sword. (From bas-reliefs at -Persepolis.)] - - -ACISCŬLUS. [ASCIA.] - - -ĀCLIS, a kind of dart with a leathern thong attached to it. [AMENTUM.] - - -ACROĀMA (ἀκρόαμα), which properly means any thing heard, was the name -given to a concert of players on different musical instruments, and -also to an interlude performed during the exhibition of the public -games. The word is also applied to the actors and musicians who were -employed to amuse guests during an entertainment, and is sometimes -used to designate the anagnostae. [ANAGNOSTES.] - - -ACRŎLĬTHI (ἀκρόλιθοι), statues, of which the extremities only were -of marble, and the remaining part of the body of wood either gilt or -covered with drapery. - - -ACRŎPŎLIS (ἀκρόπολις). In almost all Greek states, which were -usually built upon a hill, rock, or some natural elevation, there -was a castle or a citadel, erected upon the highest part of the rock -or hill, to which the name of _Acropolis_, higher or upper city, -was given. Thus we read of an acropolis at Athens, Corinth, Argos, -Messene, and many other places. The Capitolium at Rome answered the -same purpose as the Acropolis in the Greek cities; and of the same -kind were the tower of Agathocles at Utica, and that of Antonia at -Jerusalem. - - -ACROSTŎLĬUM. [NAVIS.] - - -ACRŎTĒRĬUM (ἀκρωτήριον), signifies the extremity of any thing, and -was applied by the Greeks to the extremities of the prow of a vessel -(ἀκροστόλιον), which were usually taken from a conquered vessel as -a mark of victory: the act of doing so was called ἀκρωτηριάζειν. In -architecture it signifies, 1. The sloping roof of a building. 2. The -pediment. 3. The pedestals for statues placed on the summit of a -pediment. In sculpture it signifies the extremities of a statue, as -wings, feet, hands, &c. - - -ACTA. (1) The public acts and orders of a Roman magistrate, which -after the expiration of his office were submitted to the senate for -approval or rejection. Under the empire, all the magistrates when -entering upon their office on the 1st of January swore approval of -the acts of the reigning emperor.--(2) ACTA FORENSIA were of two -kinds: first, those relating to the government, as leges, plebiscita, -edicta, the names of all the magistrates, &c., which formed part of -the _tabulae publicae_; and secondly, those connected with the courts -of law.--(3) ACTA MILITARIA, contained an account of the duties, -numbers, and expenses of each legion, and were probably preserved -in the military treasury founded by Augustus.--(4) ACTA SENATUS, -called also COMMENTARII SENATUS and ACTA PATRUM, contained an account -of the various matters brought before the senate, the opinions of -the chief speakers, and the decision of the house. By command of -Julius Caesar they were published regularly every day as part of -the government gazette. Augustus forbade the publication of the -proceedings of the senate, but they still continued to be preserved, -and one of the most distinguished senators was chosen by the emperor -to compile the account.--(5) ACTA DIURNA, a gazette published daily -at Rome by the authority of the government, during the later times -of the republic and under the empire, corresponding in some measure -to our newspapers. They were also called _Acta Publica_, _Acta -Urbana_, _Acta Rerum Urbanarum_, _Acta Populi_, and sometimes simply -_Acta_ or _Diurna_. They contained, 1. A list of births and deaths -in the city, an account of the money paid into the treasury from -the provinces, and every thing relating to the supply of corn. 2. -Extracts from the Acta Forensia. 3. Extracts from the Acta Senatus. -4. A court circular, containing an account of the births, deaths, -festivals, and movements of the imperial family. 5. An account of -such public affairs and foreign wars as the government thought proper -to publish. 6. Curious and interesting occurrences, such as prodigies -and miracles, the erection of new edifices, the conflagration of -buildings, funerals, sacrifices, a list of the various games, and -especially curious tales and adventures, with the names of the -parties. - - -ACTĬA (ἄκτια), a festival celebrated every four years at Actium in -Epirus, with wrestling, horse-racing, and sea-fights, in honour of -Apollo. There was a celebrated temple of Apollo at Actium. After -the defeat of Antony off Actium, Augustus enlarged the temple, and -instituted games to be celebrated every five years in commemoration -of his victory. - - -ACTĬO, is defined by a Roman jurist to be the right of pursuing by -judicial means what is a man’s due. The old actions of the Roman -law were called _legis actiones_ or _legitimae_, either because -they were expressly provided for by the laws of the Twelve Tables, -or because they were strictly adapted to the words of the laws, and -therefore could not be varied. But these forms of action gradually -fell into disuse, in consequence of the excessive nicety required, -and the failure consequent on the slightest error in the pleadings, -and they were eventually abolished by the Lex Aebutia, and two Leges -Juliae, except in a few cases. In the old Roman constitution, the -knowledge of the law was most closely connected with the institutes -and ceremonial of religion, and was accordingly in the hands of -the patricians alone, whose aid their clients were obliged to ask -in all their legal disputes. App. Claudius Caecus, perhaps one of -the earliest writers on law, drew up the various forms of actions, -probably for his own use and that of his friends: the manuscript was -stolen or copied by his scribe Cn. Flavius, who made it public; and -thus, according to the story, the plebeians became acquainted with -those legal forms which hitherto had been the exclusive property of -the patricians. After the abolition of the old legal actions, a suit -was prosecuted in the following manner:--An action was commenced by -the plaintiff summoning the defendant to appear before the praetor -or other magistrate who had _jurisdictio_; this process was called -_in jus vocatio_; and, according to the laws of the Twelve Tables, -was in effect a dragging of the defendant before the praetor, if -he refused to go quietly; and although this rude proceeding was -somewhat modified in later times, we find in the time of Horace -that if the defendant would not go quietly, the plaintiff called on -any bystander to witness, and dragged the defendant into court. The -parties might settle their dispute on their way to the court, or -the defendant might be bailed by a vindex. The vindex must not be -confounded with the vades. This settlement of disputes on the way -was called _transactio in via_, and serves to explain a passage in -St. Matthew, v. 25. When before the praetor, the parties were said -_jure agere_. The plaintiff then prayed for an action, and if the -praetor allowed it (_dabat actionem_), he then declared what action -he intended to bring against the defendant, which he called _edere -actionem_. This might be done in writing, or orally, or by the -plaintiff taking the defendant to the _album_ [ALBUM], and showing -him which action he intended to rely on. As the _formulae_ on the -album comprehended, or were supposed to comprehend, every possible -form of action that could be required by a plaintiff, it was presumed -that he could find among all the formulae some one which was adapted -to his case; and he was, accordingly, supposed to be without excuse -if he did not take pains to select the proper formula. If he took -the wrong one, or if he claimed more than his due, he lost his cause -(_causa cadebat_); but the praetor sometimes gave him leave to amend -his claim or _intentio_. It will be observed, that as the formulae -were so numerous and comprehensive, the plaintiff had only to select -the formula which he supposed to be suitable to his case, and it -would require no further variation than the insertion of the names -of the parties and of the thing claimed, or the subject-matter of -the suit, with the amount of damages, &c., as the case might be. -When the praetor had granted an action, the plaintiff required the -defendant to give security for his appearance before the praetor -(_in jure_) on a day named, commonly the day but one after the _in -jus vocatio_, unless the matter in dispute was settled at once. The -defendant, on finding a surety, was said _vades dare_, _vadimonium -promittere_, or _facere_; the surety, _vas_, was said _spondere_; -the plaintiff, when satisfied with the surety, was said _vadari -reum_, to let him go on his sureties, or to have sureties from him. -When the defendant promised to appear _in jure_ on the day named, -without giving any surety, this was called _vadimonium purum_. In -some cases, _recuperatores_ [JUDEX] were named, who, in case of the -defendant making default, condemned him in the sum of money named in -the _vadimonium_. If the defendant appeared on the day appointed, -he was said _vadimonium sistere_; if he did not appear, he was said -_vadimonium deseruisse_; and the praetor gave to the plaintiff -the _bonorum possessio_. Both parties, on the day appointed, were -summoned by a crier (_praeco_), when the plaintiff made his claim -or demand, which was very briefly expressed, and may be considered -as corresponding to our declaration at law. The defendant might -either deny the plaintiff’s claim, or he might reply to it by a -plea, _exceptio_. If he simply denied the plaintiff’s claim, the -cause was at issue, and a judex might be demanded. The forms of the -_exceptio_, also, were contained in the praetor’s edict, or, upon -hearing the facts, the praetor adapted the plea to the case. The -plaintiff might reply to the defendant’s _exceptio_. The plaintiff’s -answer was called _replicatio_. If the defendant answered the -_replicatio_, his answer was called _duplicatio_; and the parties -might go on to the _triplicatio_ and _quadruplicatio_, and even -further, if the matters in question were such that they could not -otherwise be brought to an issue. A person might maintain or defend -an action by his _cognitor_ or _procurator_, or, as we should say, -by his attorney. The plaintiff and defendant used a certain form -of words in appointing a cognitor, and it would appear that the -appointment was made in the presence of both parties. The cognitor -needed not to be present, and his appointment was complete when by -his acts he had signified his assent. When the cause was brought to -an issue, a judex or judices might be demanded of the praetor, who -named or appointed a judex, and delivered to him the formula, which -contained his instructions. The judices were said _dari_ or _addici_. -So far the proceedings were said to be _in jure_: the prosecution of -the actio before the judex requires a separate discussion. [JUDEX.] - - -ACTOR, signified generally a plaintiff. In a civil or private action, -the plaintiff was often called _petitor_; in a public action (_causa -publica_), he was called _accusator_. The defendant was called -_reus_, both in private and public causes: this term, however, -according to Cicero, might signify either party, as indeed we might -conclude from the word itself. In a private action the defendant -was often called _adversarius_, but either party might be called -_adversarius_ with respect to the other. Wards brought their actions -by their guardian or tutor. _Peregrini_, or aliens, originally -brought their action through their patronus; but afterwards in their -own name, by a fiction of law, that they were Roman citizens. A Roman -citizen might also generally bring his action by means of a cognitor -or procurator. [ACTIO.] Actor has also the sense of an agent or -manager of another’s business generally. The _actor publicus_ was an -officer who had the superintendence or care of slaves and property -belonging to the state. - - -ACTŬĀRĬAE NĀVES, transport-vessels, seem to have been built in a -lighter style than the ordinary ships of burden, from which they also -differed in being always furnished with oars, whereas the others were -chiefly propelled by sails. - - -ACTŬĀRĬI, short-hand writers, who took down the speeches in the -senate and the public assemblies. In the debate in the Roman senate -upon the punishment of those who had been concerned in the conspiracy -of Catiline, we find the first mention of short-hand writers, who -were employed by Cicero to take down the speech of Cato. - - -ACTUS, a Roman measure of length, also called _actus quadratus_, was -equal to half a jugerum, or 14,400 square Roman feet. The _actus -minimus_, or _simplex_, was 120 feet long, and four broad, and -therefore equal to 480 square Roman feet. Actus was also used to -signify a bridle-way. - - -ĂCUS (βελόνη, βελονίς, ῥαφίς), a needle, a pin. Pins were made not -only of metal, but also of wood, bone, and ivory. They were used for -the same purposes as with us, and also in dressing the hair. The mode -of platting the hair, and then fastening it with a pin or needle, is -shown in the annexed figure of a female head. This fashion has been -continued to our own times by the females of Italy. - -[Illustration: Acus. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp., Suppl., iii. 8.)] - - -ADDICTI. [NEXI.] - - -ADFĪNES. [AFFINES.] - - -ADLECTI, or ALLECTI, those persons under the empire who were admitted -to the privileges and honours of the praetorship, quaestorship, -aedileship, and other public offices, without having any duties to -perform. The senators called _adlecti_ seem to have been the same as -the conscripti. - - -ADLŎCŪTĬO. [ALLOCUTIO.] - - -ADMISSĬŌNĀLES, chamberlains at the imperial court, who introduced -persons into the presence of the emperor. They were divided into -four classes; the chief officer of each class was called _proximus -admissionum_; and the proximi were under the _magister admissionum_. -Their duty was called _officium admissionis_. They were usually -freedmen. - - -ĂDŎLESCENS, was applied in the Roman law to a person from the end of -his twelfth or fourteenth to the end of his twenty-fifth year, during -which period a person was also called _adultus_. The word adolescens, -however, is frequently used in a less strict sense in the Latin -writers in referring to a person much older than the above-mentioned -age. - - -ĂDŌNĬA (ἀδώνια), a festival celebrated in honour of Aphrodite and -Adonis in most of the Grecian cities. It lasted two days, and was -celebrated by women exclusively. On the first day they brought into -the streets statues of Adonis, which were laid out as corpses; and -they observed all the rites customary at funerals, beating themselves -and uttering lamentations. The second day was spent in merriment and -feasting; because Adonis was allowed to return to life, and spend -half the year with Aphrodite. - - -ĂDOPTĬO, adoption. (1) GREEK.--Adoption was called by the Athenians -εἰσποίησις, or sometimes simply ποίησις, or θέσις. The adoptive -father was said ποιεῖσθαι, εἰσποιεῖσθαι, or sometimes ποιεῖν: and -the father or mother (for a mother after the death of her husband -could consent to her son being adopted) was said ἐκποιεῖν: the son -was said ἐκποιεῖσθαι with reference to the family which he left; -and εἰσποιεῖσθαι with reference to the family into which he was -received. The son, when adopted, was called ποιητός, εἰσποιητός, or -θετός, in opposition to the legitimate son born of the body of the -father, who was called γνήσιος. A man might adopt a son either in -his lifetime or by his testament, provided he had no male offspring, -and was of sound mind. He might also, by testament, name a person -to take his property, in case his son or sons should die under -age. Only Athenian citizens could be adopted; but females could be -adopted (by testament at least) as well as males. The adopted child -was transferred from his own family and demus into those of the -adoptive father; he inherited his property, and maintained the sacra -of his adoptive father. It was not necessary for him to take his -new father’s name, but he was registered as his son in the register -of his phratria (φρατρικὸν γραμματεῖον). Subsequently to this, it -was necessary to enter him in the register of the adoptive father’s -demus (ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον), without which registration it -appears that he did not possess the full rights of citizenship as a -member of his new demus.--(2) ROMAN.--The Roman relation of parent -and child arose either from a lawful marriage or from adoption. -_Adoptio_ was the general name which comprehended the two species, -_adoptio_ and _adrogatio_; and as the adopted person passed from -his own familia into that of the person adopting, _adoptio_ caused -a _capitis diminutio_, and the lowest of the three kinds. [CAPUT.] -Adoption, in its specific sense, was the ceremony by which a person -who was in the power of his parent (_in potestate parentum_), -whether child or grandchild, male or female, was transferred to the -power of the person adopting him. It was effected under the authority -of a magistrate (_magistratus_), the praetor, for instance, at -Rome, or a governor (_praeses_) in the provinces. The person to be -adopted was emancipated [MANCIPATIO] by his natural father before -the competent authority, and surrendered to the adoptive father by -the legal form called _in jure cessio_. When a person was not in -the power of his parent (_sui juris_), the ceremony of adoption was -called _adrogatio_. Originally, it could only be effected at Rome, -and only by a vote of the populus (_populi auctoritate_) in the -comitia curiata (_lege curiata_); the reason of this being that the -caput or status of a Roman citizen could not, according to the laws -of the Twelve Tables, be effected except by a vote of the populus -in the comitia curiata. Clodius, the enemy of Cicero, was adrogated -into a plebeian family, in order to qualify himself to be elected -a tribune of the plebs. Females could not be adopted by adrogatio. -Under the emperors it became the practice to effect the adrogatio by -an imperial rescript. The effect of adoption was to create the legal -relation of father and son, just as if the adopted son were born of -the blood of the adoptive father in lawful marriage. The adopted -child was intitled to the name and sacra privata of the adopting -parent. A person, on passing from one gens into another, and taking -the name of his new familia, generally retained the name of his old -gens also, with the addition to it of the termination _anus_. Thus -Aemilius, the son of L. Aemilius Paullus, upon being adopted by P. -Cornelius Scipio, assumed the name of P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, -and C. Octavius, afterwards the emperor Augustus, upon being adopted -by the testament of his great-uncle the dictator, assumed the name of -C. Julius Caesar Octavianus. - - -ĂDŌRĀTĬO (προσκύνησις), adoration, was paid to the gods in the -following manner:--The individual stretched out his right hand to the -statue of the god whom he wished to honour, then kissed his hand, -and waved it to the statue. The adoratio differed from the _oratio_ -or prayers, which were offered with the hands folded together and -stretched out to the gods. The adoration paid to the Roman emperors -was borrowed from the Eastern mode, and consisted in prostration on -the ground, and kissing the feet and knees of the emperor. - - -ADRŎGĀTĬO. [ADOPTIO, (ROMAN).] - - -ĂDULTĔRĬUM, adultery. (1) GREEK.--Among the Athenians, if a man -caught another man in the act of criminal intercourse (μοιχεία) -with his wife, he might kill him with impunity; and the law was -also the same with respect to a concubine (παλλακή). He might also -inflict other punishment on the offender. It appears that there was -no adultery, unless a married woman was concerned. The husband might, -if he pleased, take a sum of money from the adulterer, by way of -compensation, and detain him till he found sureties for the payment. -The husband might also prosecute the adulterer in the action called -μοιχείας γραφή. If the act of adultery was proved, the husband could -no longer cohabit with his wife, under pain of losing his privileges -of a citizen (ἀτιμία). The adulteress was excluded even from those -temples which foreign women and slaves were allowed to enter; and if -she was seen there, any one might treat her as he pleased, provided -he did not kill her or mutilate her.--(2) ROMAN.--The word adulterium -properly signifies, in the Roman law, the offence committed by a -man’s having sexual intercourse with another man’s wife. _Stuprum_ -(called by the Greeks φθορά) signifies the like offence with a widow -or virgin. In the time of Augustus a law was enacted (probably about -B.C. 17), entitled _Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis_, which seems -to have contained special penal provisions against adultery; and -it is also not improbable that, by the old law or custom, if the -adulterer was caught in the fact, he was at the mercy of the injured -husband, and that the husband might punish with death his adulterous -wife. By the Julian law, a woman convicted of adultery was mulcted -in half of her dowry (_dos_) and the third part of her property -(_bona_), and banished (_relegata_) to some miserable island, such -as Seriphos, for instance. The adulterer was mulcted in half his -property, and banished in like manner. This law did not inflict the -punishment of death on either party; and in those instances under -the emperors in which death was inflicted, it must be considered as -an extraordinary punishment, and beyond the provisions of the Julian -law. The Julian law permitted the father (both adoptive and natural) -to kill the adulterer and adulteress in certain cases, as to which -there were several nice distinctions established by the law. If the -wife was divorced for adultery, the husband was entitled to retain -part of the dowry. By a constitution of the Emperor Constantine, the -offence in the adulterer was made capital. - - -ADVERSĀRĬA, a note-book, memorandum-book, posting-book, in which -the Romans entered memoranda of any importance, especially of money -received and expended, which were afterwards transcribed, usually -every month, into a kind of ledger. (_Tabulae justae, codex accepti -et expensi._) - - -ADVERSĀRĬUS. [ACTOR.] - - -ĂDŬNĂTI (ἀδύνατοι), were persons supported by the Athenian state, -who, on account of infirmity or bodily defects, were unable to obtain -a livelihood. The sum which they received from the state appears to -have varied at different times. In the time of Lysias and Aristotle, -one obolus a day was given; but it appears to have been afterwards -increased to two oboli. The bounty was restricted to persons whose -property was under three minae; and the examination of those who -were entitled to it belonged to the senate of the Five Hundred. -Peisistratus is said to have been the first to introduce a law for -the maintenance of those persons who had been mutilated in war. - - -ADVOCATUS, seems originally to have signified any person who gave -another his aid in any affair or business, as a witness for instance; -or for the purpose of aiding and protecting him in taking possession -of a piece of property. It was also used to express a person who -in any way gave his advice and aid to another in the management -of a cause; but, in the time of Cicero, the word did not signify -the orator or patronus who made the speech. Under the emperors it -signified a person who in any way assisted in the conduct of a cause, -and was sometimes equivalent to orator. The advocate’s fee was then -called _Honorarium_. - - -ĂDỸTUM. [TEMPLUM.] - - -AEDES. [DOMUS; TEMPLUM.] - -AEDĪLES (ἀγορανόμοι). The name of these functionaries is said to be -derived from their having the care of the temple (_aedes_) of Ceres. -The aediles were originally two in number: they were elected from the -plebs, and the institution of the office dates from the same time as -that of the tribunes of the plebs, B.C. 494. Their duties at first -seem to have been merely ministerial; they were the assistants of the -tribunes in such matters as the tribunes entrusted to them, among -which are enumerated the hearing of causes of smaller importance. -At an early period after their institution (B.C. 446), we find them -appointed the keepers of the senatus-consulta, which the consuls -had hitherto arbitrarily suppressed or altered. They were also the -keepers of the plebiscita. Other functions were gradually entrusted -to them, and it is not always easy to distinguish their duties from -some of those which belong to the censors. They had the general -superintendence of buildings, both sacred and private; under this -power they provided for the support and repair of temples, curiae, -&c., and took care that private buildings which were in a ruinous -state were repaired by the owners or pulled down. The care of the -supply and distribution of water, of the streets and pavements, with -the cleansing and draining of the city, belonged to the aediles; -and, of course, the care of the cloacae. They had the office of -distributing corn among the plebs, but this distribution of corn at -Rome must not be confounded with the duty of purchasing or procuring -it from foreign parts, which was performed by the consuls, quaestors, -and praetors, and sometimes by an extraordinary magistrate, as the -praefectus annonae. The aediles had to see that the public lands -were not improperly used, and that the pasture grounds of the state -were not trespassed on; and they had power to punish by fine any -unlawful act in this respect. They had a general superintendence over -buying and selling, and, as a consequence, the supervision of the -markets, of things exposed to sale, such as slaves, and of weights -and measures; from this part of their duty is derived the name under -which the aediles are mentioned by the Greek writers (ἀγορανόμοι). -It was their business to see that no new deities or religious rites -were introduced into the city, to look after the observance of -religious ceremonies, and the celebrations of the ancient feasts -and festivals. The general superintendence of police comprehended -the duty of preserving order, regard to decency, and the inspection -of the baths and houses of entertainment. The aediles had various -officers under them, as praecones, scribae, and viatores. The AEDILES -CURULES, who were also two in number, were originally chosen only -from the patricians, afterwards alternately from the patricians and -the plebs, and at last indifferently from both. The office of curule -aediles was instituted B.C. 365, and, according to Livy, on the -occasion of the plebeian aediles refusing to consent to celebrate the -Ludi Maximi for the space of four days instead of three; upon which a -senatus-consultum was passed, by which two aediles were to be chosen -from the patricians. From this time four aediles, two plebeian and -two curule, were annually elected. The distinctive honours of the -curule aediles were, the sella curulis, from whence their title is -derived, the toga praetexta, precedence in speaking in the senate, -and the jus imaginum. Only the curule aediles had the jus edicendi, -or the right of promulgating edicta; but the rules comprised in their -edicta served for the guidance of all the aediles. The edicta of the -curule aediles were founded on their authority as superintendents -of the markets, and of buying and selling in general. Accordingly, -their edicts had mainly, or perhaps solely, reference to the rules -as to buying and selling, and contracts for bargain and sale. The -persons both of the plebeian and curule aediles were sacrosancti. It -seems that after the appointment of the curule aediles, the functions -formerly exercised by the plebeian aediles were exercised, with some -few exceptions, by all the aediles indifferently. Within five days -after being elected, or entering on office, they were required to -determine by lot, or by agreement among themselves, what parts of -the city each should take under his superintendence; and each aedile -alone had the care of looking after the paving and cleansing of the -streets, and other matters, it may be presumed, of the same local -character within his district. The other duties of the office seem -to have been exercised by them jointly. In the superintendence of -the public festivals or solemnities, there was a further distinction -between the two sets of aediles. Many of these festivals, such as -those of Flora and Ceres, were superintended by either set of aediles -indifferently; but the plebeian games were under the superintendence -of the plebeian aediles, who had an allowance of money for that -purpose; and the fines levied on the pecuarii, and others, seem to -have been appropriated to these among other public purposes. The -celebration of the Ludi Magni or Romani, of the Ludi Scenici, or -dramatic representations, and the Ludi Megalesii, belonged specially -to the curule aediles, and it was on such occasions that they often -incurred a prodigious expense, with a view of pleasing the people, -and securing their votes in future elections. This extravagant -expenditure of the aediles arose after the close of the second Punic -war, and increased with the opportunities which individuals had of -enriching themselves after the Roman arms were carried into Greece, -Africa, and Spain. Even the prodigality of the emperors hardly -surpassed that of individual curule aediles under the republic; such -as C. Julius Caesar, the dictator, P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, -and, above all, M. Aemilius Scaurus, whose expenditure was not -limited to bare show, but comprehended objects of public utility, as -the reparation of walls, dock-yards, ports, and aquaeducts. In B.C. -45, Julius Caesar caused two curule aediles and four plebeian aediles -to be elected; and thenceforward, at least so long as the office of -aedile was of any importance, six aediles were annually elected. The -two new plebeian aediles were called Cereales, and their duty was -to look after the supply of corn. Though their office may not have -been of any great importance after the institution of a praefectus -annonae by Augustus, there is no doubt that it existed for several -centuries, and at least as late as the time of the emperor Gordian. -The aediles belonged to the class of the minores magistratus. The -plebeian aediles were originally chosen at the comitia centuriata, -but afterwards at the comitia tributa, in which comitia the curule -aediles also were chosen. It appears that until the lex annalis -was passed (B.C. 180) a Roman citizen might be a candidate for any -office after completing his twenty-seventh year. This law fixed the -age at which each office might be enjoyed, and it seems that the -age fixed for the aedileship was thirty-six. The aediles existed -under the emperors; but their powers were gradually diminished, and -their functions exercised by new officers created by the emperors. -After the battle of Actium, Augustus appointed a Praefectus urbi, -who exercised the general police, which had formerly been one of -the duties of the aediles. Augustus also took from the aediles, or -exercised himself, the office of superintending the religious rites, -and the banishing from the city of all foreign ceremonials; he also -assumed the superintendence of the temples, and thus may be said -to have destroyed the aedileship by depriving it of its old and -original function. The last recorded instance of the splendours of -the aedileship is the administration of Agrippa, who volunteered to -take the office, and repaired all the public buildings and all the -roads at his own expense, without drawing anything from the treasury. -The aedileship had, however, lost its true character before this -time. Agrippa had already been consul before he accepted the office -of aedile, and his munificent expenditure in this nominal office was -the close of the splendour of the aedileship. Augustus appointed -the curule aediles specially to the office of putting out fires, -and placed a body of 600 slaves at their command; but the praefecti -vigilum afterwards performed this duty. They retained, under the -early emperors, a kind of police, for the purpose of repressing open -licentiousness and disorder. The coloniae, and the municipia of the -later period, had also their aediles, whose numbers and functions -varied in different places. They seem, however, as to their powers -and duties, to have resembled the aediles of Rome. They were chosen -annually. - - -AEDĬTŬI, AEDĬTŬMI, AEDĬTĬMI (called by the Greeks νεωκόροι, ζάκοροι, -and ὑποζάκοροι), were persons who took care of the temples, attended -to the cleaning of them, &c. They appear to have lived in the -temples, or near them, and to have acted as ciceroni to those persons -who wished to see them. Subsequently among the Greeks, the menial -services connected with this office were left to slaves, and the -persons called _neocori_ became priestly officers of high rank, who -had the chief superintendence of temples, their treasures, and the -sacred rites observed in them. - -[Illustration: Aegis worn by Athena. - -From Torso at Dresden. From Ancient Statues.] - - -AEGIS (αἰγίς) signifies, literally, a goat-skin. According to ancient -mythology, the aegis worn by Zeus was the hide of the goat Amaltheia, -which had suckled him in his infancy. Homer always represents it as -part of the armour of Zeus, whom on this account he distinguishes by -the epithet _aegis-bearing_ (αἰγίοχος). He, however, asserts, that -it was borrowed on different occasions both by Apollo and Athena. -The aegis was connected with the shield of Zeus, either serving as -a covering over it, or as a belt by which it was suspended from the -right shoulder. Homer accordingly uses the word to denote not only -the goat-skin, which it properly signified, but also the shield to -which it belonged. The aegis was adorned in a style corresponding to -the might and majesty of the father of the gods. In the middle of it -was fixed the appalling Gorgon’s head, and its border was surrounded -with golden tassels (θύσανοι), each of which was worth a hecatomb. -The aegis is usually seen on the statues of Athena, in which it is -a sort of scarf falling obliquely over the right shoulder, so as to -pass round the body under the left arm. The serpents of the Gorgon’s -head are transferred to the border of the skin. (See the left-hand -figure in the cut.) The later poets and artists represent the aegis -as a breast-plate covered with metal in the form of scales. (See the -right-hand figure.) - - -AENĔĀTŌRES, were those who blew upon wind instruments in the Roman -army; namely, the _buccinatores_, _cornicines_, and _tubicines_. They -were also employed in the public games. - - -AENIGMA (αἴνιγμα), a riddle. It was an ancient custom among the -Greeks to amuse themselves by proposing riddles at their symposia, or -drinking parties. Those who were successful in solving them, received -a prize, which usually consisted of wreaths, cakes, &c., while those -who were unsuccessful were condemned to drink in one breath a certain -quantity of wine, sometimes mixed with salt water. Those riddles -which have come down to us are mostly in hexameter verse. The Romans -seem to have been too serious to find any great amusement in riddles. - - -AENUM, or ĂHĒNUM (sc. _vas_), a brazen vessel, used for boiling. -The word is also frequently used in the sense of a dyer’s copper; -and, as purple was the most celebrated dye of antiquity, we find the -expressions _Sidonium aënum_, _Tyrium aënum_, &c. - - -AEŌRA, or ĔŌRA (αἰώρα, ἐώρα), a festival at Athens, accompanied with -sacrifices and banquets, whence it is sometimes called εὔδειπνος. It -was probably instituted in honour of Icarius and his daughter Erigone. - - -AERA. [CHRONOLOGIA.] - - -AERĀRĬI, a class of Roman citizens, who were not included in the -thirty tribes instituted by Servius Tullius. Although citizens, they -did not possess the suffragium, or right of voting in the comitia. -They were _cives sine suffragio_. They also paid the tribute in a -different manner from the other citizens. The Aerarians were chiefly -artisans and freedmen. The Caerites, or inhabitants of the Etruscan -town of Caere, who obtained the franchise in early times, but without -the suffragium, were probably the first body of aerarians. Any -Roman citizen guilty of a crime punishable by the censors, might -be degraded to the rank of an aerarian; so that his civic rights -were suspended, at least for the time that he was an aerarian. All -citizens so degraded were classed among the Caerites; whence we find -the expressions _aerarium facere_ and _in tabulas Caeritum referre_ -used as synonymous. Persons who were made _infames_ likewise became -aerarians, for they lost the jus honorum and the suffragium. The -aerarians had to pay a tributum pro capite which was considerably -higher than that paid by the other citizens. They were not allowed to -serve in the legions. - - -AERĀRĬI TRĬBŪNI. [AES EQUESTRE.] - - -AERĀRĬUM (τὸ δημόσιον), the public treasury at Rome, and hence the -public money itself. After the banishment of the kings the temple -of Saturn was employed as the place for keeping the public money, -and it continued to be so used till the later times of the empire. -Besides the public money and the accounts connected with it, various -other things were preserved in the treasury; of these the most -important were:--1. The standards of the legions. 2. The various -laws passed from time to time, engraven on brazen tables. 3. The -decrees of the senate, which were entered there in books kept for the -purpose, though the original documents were preserved in the temple -of Ceres under the custody of the aediles. 4. Various other public -documents, the reports and despatches of all generals and governors -of provinces, the names of all foreign ambassadors that came to Rome, -&c. Under the republic the aerarium was divided into two parts: the -_common_ treasury, in which were deposited the regular taxes, and -from which were taken the sums of money needed for the ordinary -expenditure of the state; and the _sacred_ treasury (_aerarium -sanctum_ or _sanctius_), which was never touched except in cases of -extreme peril. Both of these treasuries were in the temple of Saturn, -but in distinct parts of the temple. The produce of a tax of five -per cent. (_vicesima_) upon the value of every manumitted slave, -called _aurum vicesimarium_, was paid into the sacred treasury, as -well as a portion of the immense wealth obtained by the Romans in -their conquests in the East. Under Augustus the provinces and the -administration of the government were divided between the senate, -as the representative of the old Roman people, and the Caesar: all -the property of the former continued to be called _aerarium_, and -that of the latter received the name of _fiscus_. Augustus also -established a third treasury, to provide for the pay and support of -the army, and this received the name of _aerarium militare_. He also -imposed several new taxes to be paid into this aerarium. In the time -of the republic, the entire management of the revenues of the state -belonged to the senate; and under the superintendence and control of -the senate the quaestors had the charge of the aerarium. In B.C. 28, -Augustus deprived the quaestors of the charge of the treasury and -gave it to two praefects, whom he allowed the senate to choose from -among the praetors at the end of their year of office. Various other -changes were made with respect to the charge of the aerarium, but it -was eventually entrusted, in the reign of Trajan, to praefects, who -appear to have held their office for two years. - - -AES (χαλκός), properly signifies a compound of copper and tin, -corresponding to what we call _bronze_. It is incorrect to translate -it _brass_, which is a combination of copper and zinc, since all the -specimens of ancient objects, formed of the material called aes, -are found upon analysis to contain no zinc. The employment of aes -was very general among the ancients; money, vases, and utensils of -all sorts, being made of it. All the most ancient coins in Rome and -the old Italian states were made of aes, and hence money in general -was called by this name. For the same reason we have _aes alienum_, -meaning debt, and _aera_ in the plural, pay to the soldiers. The -Romans had no other coinage except bronze or copper (_aes_), till -B.C. 269, five years before the first Punic war, when silver was -first coined; gold was not coined till sixty-two years after silver. -The first coinage of aes is usually attributed to Servius Tullius, -who is said to have stamped the money with the image of cattle -(_pecus_), whence it is called _pecunia_. According to some accounts, -it was coined from the commencement of the city, and we know that -the old Italian states possessed a bronze or copper coinage from the -earliest times. The first coinage was the _as_ [AS], which originally -was a pound weight; but as in course of time the weight of the _as_ -was reduced not only in Rome, but in the other Italian states, and -this reduction in weight was not uniform in the different states, -it became usual in all bargains to pay the asses according to their -weight, and not according to their nominal value. The _aes grave_ was -not the old heavy coins as distinguished from the lighter modern; but -it signified any number of copper coins reckoned according to the old -style, by weight. There was, therefore, no occasion for the state -to suppress the circulation of the old copper coins, since in all -bargains the asses were not reckoned by tale, but by weight.--Bronze -or copper (χαλκός) was very little used by the Greeks for money in -early times. Silver was originally the universal currency, and copper -appears to have been seldom coined till after the time of Alexander -the Great. The copper coin was called _Chalcous_ (χαλκούς). The -smallest silver coin at Athens was the quarter-obol, and the chalcous -was the half of that, or the eighth of an obol. In later times, the -obol was coined of copper as well as silver. - - -AES CIRCUMFORĀNĔUM, money borrowed from the Roman bankers -(_argentarii_), who had shops in porticoes round the forum. - - -AES ĔQUESTRE, AES HORDĔĀRĬUM, and AES MĪLĬTĀRE, were the ancient -terms for the pay of the Roman soldiers, before the regular -_stipendium_ was introduced. The _aes equestre_ was the sum of -money given for the purchase of the horse of an eques; the _aes -hordearium_, the sum paid yearly for its keep, in other words the -pay of an eques; and the _aes militare_, the pay of a foot soldier. -None of this money seems to have been taken from the public treasury, -but to have been paid by certain private persons, to whom this duty -was assigned by the state. The _aes hordearium_, which amounted to -2000 asses, had to be paid by single women (_viduae_, i.e. both -maidens and widows) and orphans (_orbi_), provided they possessed a -certain amount of property. The _aes equestre_, which amounted to -10,000 asses, was probably also paid by the same class of persons. -The _aes militare_, the amount of which is not expressly mentioned, -had to be paid by the _tribuni aerarii_, and if not paid, the foot -soldiers had a right of distress against them. It is generally -assumed that these _tribuni aerarii_ were magistrates connected with -the treasury, and that they were the assistants of the quaestors; -but there are good reasons for believing that the _tribuni aerarii_ -were private persons, who were liable to the payment of the _aes -militare_, and upon whose property a distress might be levied, if -the money were not paid. They were probably persons whose property -was rated at a certain sum in the census, and we may conjecture that -they obtained the name of _tribuni aerarii_ because they levied the -_tributum_, which was imposed for the purpose of paying the army, -and then paid it to the soldiers. These _tribuni aerarii_ were no -longer needed when the state took into its own hands the payment of -the troops; but they were revived in B.C. 70, as a distinct class in -the commonwealth, by the Lex Aurelia, which gave the judicia to the -senators, equites and tribuni aerarii. - - -AES UXŌRĬUM, was a tax paid by men who reached old age without having -married. It was first imposed by the censors in B.C. 403. [LEX JULIA -ET PAPIA POPPAEA.] - - -AESYMNĒTES (αἰσυμνήτης), a person who was sometimes invested with -unlimited power in the Greek states. His power partook in some degree -of the nature both of kingly and tyrannical authority; since he was -appointed legally, and did not usurp the government, but at the same -time was not bound by any laws in his public administration. The -office was not hereditary, nor was it held for life; but it only -continued for a limited time, or till some object was accomplished. -Thus we read that the inhabitants of Mytilene appointed Pittacus -aesymnetes, in order to prevent the return of Alcaeus and the other -exiles. Dionysius compares it with the dictatorship of Rome. In some -states, such as Cyme and Chalcedon, it was the title borne by the -regular magistrates. - - -AETAS. [INFANS; IMPUBES.] - - -AETŌLĬCUM FOEDUS (κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων), the Aetolian league, appears -as a powerful political body soon after the death of Alexander -the Great, viz. during the Lamian war against Antipater. The -characteristic difference between the Aetolian and Achaean leagues -was that the former originally consisted of a confederacy of nations -or tribes, while the latter was a confederacy of towns. The sovereign -power of the confederacy was vested in the general assemblies of -all the confederates (κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων, _concilium Aetolorum_), -and this assembly had the right to discuss all questions respecting -peace and war, and to elect the great civil or military officers -of the league. The ordinary place of meeting was Thermon, but on -extraordinary occasions assemblies were also held in other towns -belonging to the league, though they were not situated in the country -of Aetolia Proper. The questions which were to be brought before -the assembly were sometimes discussed previously by a committee, -selected from the great mass, and called Apocleti (ἀπόκλητοι). The -general assembly usually met in the autumn, when the officers of the -league were elected. The highest among them, as among those of the -Achaean league, bore the title of _Strategus_ (στρατηγός), whose -office lasted only for one year. The strategus had the right to -convoke the assembly; he presided in it, introduced the subjects for -deliberation, and levied the troops. The officers next in rank to the -strategus were the hipparchus and the public scribe. The political -existence of the league was destroyed in B.C. 189 by the treaty -with Rome, and the treachery of the Roman party among the Aetolians -themselves caused in B.C. 167 five hundred and fifty of the leading -patriots to be put to death, and those who survived the massacre were -carried to Rome as prisoners. - - -ĀĔTŌMA (ἀέτωμα). [FASTIGIUM.] - - -AFFĪNES, AFFĪNĬTAS, or ADFĪNES, ADFĪNĬTAS. Affines are the _cognati_ -[COGNATI] of husband and wife, the cognati of the husband becoming -the affines of the wife, and the cognati of the wife the affines -of the husband. The father of a husband is the _socer_ of the -husband’s wife, and the father of a wife is the _socer_ of the wife’s -husband. The term _socrus_ expresses the same affinity with respect -to the husband’s and wife’s mothers. A son’s wife is _nurus_, or -daughter-in-law to the son’s parents; a wife’s husband is _gener_, or -son-in-law to the wife’s parents. Thus the _avus_, _avia_--_pater_, -_mater_--of the wife became by the marriage respectively the _socer -magnus_, _prosocrus_, or _socrus magna_--_socer_, _socrus_--of the -husband, who becomes with respect to them severally _progener_ and -_gener_. In like manner the corresponding ancestors of the husband -respectively assume the same names with respect to the son’s wife, -who becomes with respect to them _pronurus_ and _nurus_. The son and -daughter of a husband or wife born of a prior marriage are called -_privignus_ and _privigna_, with respect to their step-father or -step-mother; and with respect to such children, the step-father -and step-mother are severally called _vitricus_ and _noverca_. The -husband’s brother becomes _levir_ with respect to the wife, and his -sister becomes _glos_ (the Greek γάλως). Marriage was unlawful among -persons who had become such affines as above mentioned. - - -ĂGALMA (ἄγαλμα) is a general name for a statue or image to represent -a god. - - -ĂGĀSO, a groom, whose business it was to take care of the horses. The -word is also used for a driver of beasts of burden, and is sometimes -applied to a slave who had to perform the lowest menial duties. - - -ĂGĂTHŎERGI (ἀγαθοεργοί). In time of war the kings of Sparta had a -body-guard of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan youths -(ἱππεῖς), of whom the five eldest retired every year, and were -employed for one year under the name of _Agathoergi_, in missions to -foreign states. - - -ĂGĔLA (ἀγέλη), an assembly of young men in Crete, who lived together -from their eighteenth year till the time of their marriage. An -_agela_ always consisted of the sons of the most noble citizens, and -the members of it were obliged to marry at the same time. - - -ĂGĒMA (ἄγημα from ἄγω), the name of a chosen body of troops in the -Macedonian army, usually consisting of horsemen. - - -ĂGER PUBLĬCUS, the public land, was the land belonging to the Roman -state. It was a recognised principle among the Italian nations that -the territory of a conquered people belonged to the conquerors. -Accordingly, the Romans were constantly acquiring fresh territory -by the conquest of the surrounding people. The land thus acquired -was usually disposed of in the following way. 1. The land which was -under cultivation was either distributed among colonists, who were -sent to occupy it, or it was sold, or it was let out to farm. 2. The -land which was then out of cultivation, and which, owing to war, -was by far the greater part, might be occupied by any of the Roman -citizens on the payment of a portion of the yearly produce; a tenth -of the produce of arable land, and a fifth of the produce of the -land planted with the vine, the olive, and other valuable trees. 3. -The land which had previously served as the common pasture land of -the conquered state, or was suitable for the purpose, continued to -be used as pasture land by the Roman citizens, who had, however, to -pay a certain sum of money for the cattle which they turned upon it. -The occupation of the public land spoken of above under the second -head was always expressed by the words _possessio_ and _possidere_, -and the occupier of the land was called the _possessor_. The land -continued to be the property of the state; and accordingly we must -distinguish between the terms _possessio_, which merely indicated -the use or enjoyment of the land, and _dominium_, which expressed -ownership, and was applied to private land, of which a man had the -absolute ownership. The right of occupying the public land belonged -only to citizens, and consequently only to the patricians originally, -as they were the state. The plebeians were only subjects, and -consequently had no right to the property of the state; but it is -probable that they were permitted to feed their cattle on the public -pasture lands. Even when the plebeians became a separate estate by -the constitution of Servius Tullius, they still obtained no right to -share in the possession of the public land, which continued to be the -exclusive privilege of the patricians; but as a compensation, each -individual plebeian received an assignment of a certain quantity of -the public land as his own property. Henceforth the possession of the -public land was the privilege of the patricians, and an assignment -of a portion of it the privilege of the plebeians. As the state -acquired new lands by conquest, the plebeians ought to have received -assignments of part of them, but since the patricians were the -governing body, they generally refused to make any such assignment, -and continued to keep the whole as part of the ager publicus, whereby -the enjoyment of it belonged to them alone. Hence, we constantly -read of the plebeians claiming, and sometimes enforcing, a division -of such land. With the extension of the conquests of Rome, the ager -publicus constantly increased, and thus a large portion of Italy fell -into the hands of the patricians, who frequently withheld from the -state the annual payments of a tenth and a fifth, which they were -bound to pay for the possession of the land, and thus deprived the -state of a fund for the expenses of the war. In addition to which -they used slaves as cultivators and shepherds, since freemen were -liable to be drawn off from field-labour to military service, and -slave-labour was consequently far cheaper. In this way the number -of free labourers was diminished, and that of slaves augmented. -To remedy this state of things several laws were from time to time -proposed and carried, which were most violently opposed by the -patricians. All laws which related to the _public_ land are called -by the general title of _Leges Agrariae_, and accordingly all the -early laws relating to the possession of the public land by the -patricians, and to the assignment of portions of it to the plebeians, -were strictly agrarian laws; but the first law to which this name -is usually applied was proposed soon after the establishment of the -republic by the consul, Sp. Cassius, in B.C. 486. Its object was to -set apart the portion of the public land which the patricians were to -possess, to divide the rest among the plebeians, to levy the payment -due for the possession, and to apply it to paying the army. The first -law, however, which really deprived the patricians of the advantages -they had previously enjoyed in the occupation of the public land was -the agrarian law of C. Licinius Stolo (B.C. 366), which limited each -individual’s possession of public land to 500 jugera, and declared -that no individual should have above 100 large and 500 smaller cattle -on the public pastures: it further enacted that the surplus land was -to be divided among the plebeians. As this law, however, was soon -disregarded, it was revived again by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (B.C. -133), with some alterations and additions. The details of the other -agrarian laws mentioned in Roman history are given under the name of -the lex by which they are called. [LEX.] - - -AGGER (χῶμα), from _ad_ and _gero_, was used in general for a heap -or mound of any kind. It was more particularly applied:--(1) To a -mound, usually composed of earth, which was raised round a besieged -town, and which was gradually increased in breadth and height, till -it equalled or overtopped the walls. The agger was sometimes made, -not only of earth, but of wood, hurdles, &c.; whence we read of the -agger being set on fire.--(2) To the earthen wall surrounding a Roman -encampment, composed of the earth dug from the ditch (_fossa_), which -was usually 9 feet broad and 7 feet deep; but if any attack was -apprehended, the depth was increased to 12 feet and the breadth to 13 -feet. Sharp stakes, &c., were usually fixed upon the agger, which was -then called _vallum_. When both words are used, the agger means the -mound of earth, and the vallum the stakes, &c., which were fixed upon -the agger. - - -ĂGITĀTŌRES. [CIRCUS.] - - -AGMEN. [EXERCITUS.] - - -AGNĀTI. [COGNATI.] - - -AGNŌMEN [NOMEN.] - - -ĂGŌNĀLĬA or ĂGŌNĬA, one of the most ancient festivals at Rome, its -institution being attributed to Numa Pompilius. It was celebrated on -the 9th of January, the 21st of May, and the 11th of December; to -which we should probably add the 17th of March, the day on which the -Liberalia was celebrated, since this festival is also called _Agonia_ -or _Agonium Martiale_. The object of this festival was a disputed -point among the ancients themselves. The victim which was offered -was a ram; the person who offered it was the rex sacrificulus; and -the place where it was offered was the regia. Now the ram was the -usual victim presented to the guardian gods of the state, and the -rex sacrificulus and the regia could be employed only for such -ceremonies as were connected with the highest gods and affected the -weal of the whole state. Regarding the sacrifice in this light, we -see a reason for its being offered several times in the year. The -etymology of the name was also a subject of much dispute among the -ancients; and the various etymologies that were proposed are given -at length by Ovid (_Fast._ i. 319-332). None of these, however, are -at all satisfactory; and we would therefore suggest that it may have -received its name from the sacrifice having been offered on the -Quirinal hill, which was originally called _Agonus_. - - -ĂGŌNES (ἀγῶνες), the general term among the Greeks for the contests -at their great national games. The word also signified law-suits, and -was especially employed in the phrase ἀγῶνες τιμητοί and ἀτίμητοι. -[TIMEMA.] - - -ĂGONŎTHĔTAE (ἀγωνοθέται), persons in the Grecian games who decided -disputes, and adjudged the prizes to the victors. Originally, the -person who instituted the contest and offered the prize was the -_Agonothetes_, and this continued to be the practice in those games -which were instituted by kings or private persons. But in the great -public games, such as the Isthmian, Pythian, &c., the _Agonothetae_ -were either the representatives of different states, as the -Amphictyons at the Pythian games, or were chosen from the people in -whose country the games were celebrated. During the flourishing times -of the Grecian republics the Eleans were the _Agonothetae_ in the -Olympic games, the Corinthians in the Isthmian games, the Amphictyons -in the Pythian games, and the Corinthians, Argives, and inhabitants -of Cleonae in the Nemaean games. The _Agonothetae_ were also called -_Aesymnetae_ (αἰσυμνῆται), _Agonarchae_ (ἀγωνάρχαι), _Agonodicae_ -(ἀγωνοδίκαι), _Athlothetae_ (ἀθλοθέται), _Rhabduchi_ (ῥαβδοῦχοι), -or _Rhabdonomi_ (ῥαβδονόμοι, from the staff which they carried as -an emblem of authority), _Brabeis_ (βραβεῖς), and _Brabeutae_ -(βραβευταί). - - -ĂGŎRA (ἀγορά) properly means an assembly of any kind, and is usually -employed by Homer to designate the general assembly of the people. -The Agora seems to have been considered an essential part of the -constitution of the early Grecian states. It was usually convoked -by the king, but occasionally by some distinguished chieftain, -as, for example, by Achilles before Troy. The king occupied the -most important seat in these assemblies, and near him sat the -nobles, while the people stood or sat in a circle around them. The -people appear to have had no right of speaking or voting in these -assemblies, but merely to have been called together to hear what -had been already agreed upon in the council of the nobles, and to -express their feelings as a body. The council of the nobles is called -_Boulé_ (βουλή) and _Thoöcus_ (θόωκος), and sometimes even _Agora_. -Among the Athenians, the proper name for the assembly of the people -was _Ecclesia_ (ἐκκλησία), and among the Dorians _Halia_ (ἁλία). The -term Agora was confined at Athens to the assemblies of the phylae and -demi. The name Agora was early transferred from the assembly itself -to the place in which it was held; and thus it came to be used for -the market-place, where goods of all descriptions were bought and -sold. Hence it answers to the Roman _forum_. - - -ĂGŎRĀNŎMI (ἀγορανόμοι), public functionaries in most of the Grecian -states, whose duties corresponded in many respects with those of the -Roman aediles. At Athens their number was ten, five for the city, and -five for the Peiraeus, and they were chosen by lot. The principal -duty of the Agoranomi was, as their name imports, to inspect the -market, and to see that all the laws respecting its regulation were -properly observed. They had the inspection of all things that were -sold in the market, with the exception of corn, which was subject -to the jurisdiction of special officers, called _Sitophylaces_ -(σιτοφύλακες). They regulated the price and quantity of articles -exposed for sale, and punished all persons convicted of cheating, -especially by means of false weights and measures. They had the power -of fining all citizens who infringed upon the rules of the market, -and of whipping all slaves and foreigners guilty of a like offence. -They also collected the market dues, and had the care of all the -temples and fountains in the market place. - - -AGRĀRĬAE LĒGES. [AGER PUBLICUS; LEX.] - - -AGRAULĬA (ἀγραύλια) was a festival celebrated by the Athenians -in honour of Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops. It was perhaps -connected with the solemn oath, which all Athenians, when they -arrived at manhood (ἔφηβοι), were obliged to take in the temple of -Agraulos, that they would fight for their country, and always observe -its laws. - - -AGRĪMENSŌRES, or “land surveyors,” a college established under the -Roman emperors. Like the jurisconsults, they had regular schools, -and were paid handsome salaries by the state. Their business was -to measure unassigned lands for the state, and ordinary lands for -the proprietors, and to fix and maintain boundaries. Their writings -on the subject of their art were very numerous; and we have still -scientific treatises on the law of boundaries, such as those by -Frontinus and Hyginus. - - -AGRIŌNĬA (ἀγριώνια), a festival which was celebrated at Orchomenus, -in Boeotia, in honour of Dionysus, surnamed Agrionius. A human being -used originally to be sacrificed at this festival, but this sacrifice -seems to have been avoided in later times. One instance, however, -occurred in the days of Plutarch. - - -AGRONŎMI (ἀγρονόμοι), the country-police, probably in Attica, whose -duties corresponded in most respects to those of the astynomi in the -city, and who appear to have performed nearly the same duties as the -hylori (ὑλωροί). - - -AGRŎTĔRAS THŬSIA (ἀγροτέρας θυσία), a festival celebrated every year -at Athens in honour of Artemis, surnamed Agrotera (from ἄγρα, the -chase). It was solemnized on the sixth of the month of Boëdromion, -and consisted of a sacrifice of 500 goats, which continued to be -offered in the time of Xenophon. Its origin is thus related:--When -the Persians invaded Attica, the Athenians made a vow to sacrifice -to Artemis Agrotera as many goats as there should be enemies slain -at Marathon. But as the number of enemies slain was so great that -an equal number of goats could not be found at once, the Athenians -decreed that 500 should be sacrificed every year. - - -AGYRTAE (ἀγύρται), mendicant priests, who were accustomed to travel -through the different towns of Greece, soliciting alms for the gods -whom they served, and whose images they carried, either on their -shoulders or on beasts of burthen. They were, generally speaking, -persons of the lowest and most abandoned character. - - -ĂHĒNUM. [AENUM.] - - -AIKIAS DĬKĒ (αἰκίας δίκη), an action brought at Athens, before the -court of the Forty (οἱ τετταράκοντα), against any individual who -had struck a citizen. Any citizen who had been thus insulted might -proceed against the offending party, either by the αἰκίας δίκη, -which was a private action, or by the ὕβρεως γραφή, which was looked -upon in the light of a public prosecution. - - -AITHOUSA (αἴθουσα), a word only used by Homer, is probably for -αἴθουσα στοά, a portico exposed to the sun. From the passages in -which it occurs, it seems to denote a covered portico, opening on to -the court of the house, αὐλή, in front of the vestibule, πρόθυρον. - - -ĀLA, part of a Roman house. [DOMUS.] - - -ĀLA, ĀLĀRES, ĀLĀRĬI. _Ala_, which literally means _a wing_, was from -the earliest epochs employed to denote the wing of an army, but in -process of time was frequently used in a restricted sense.--(1) When -a Roman army was composed of Roman citizens exclusively, the flanks -of the infantry when drawn up in battle array were covered on the -right and left by the cavalry; and hence _Ala_ denoted the body of -horse which was attached to and served along with the foot-soldiers -of the legion.--(2) When, at a later date, the Roman armies were -composed partly of Roman citizens and partly of _Socii_, either -_Latini_ or _Italici_, it became the practice to marshal the Roman -troops in the centre of the battle line and the Socii upon the wings. -Hence _ala_ and _alarii_ denoted the contingent furnished by the -allies, both horse and foot, and the two divisions were distinguished -as _dextera ala_ and _sinistra ala_.--(3) When the whole of the -inhabitants of Italy had been admitted to the privileges of Roman -citizens the terms _alarii_, _cohortes alariae_ were transferred -to the _foreign_ troops serving along with the Roman armies.--(4) -Lastly, under the empire, the term _ala_ was applied to regiments -of horse, raised it would seem with very few exceptions in the -provinces, serving apart from the legions and the cavalry of the -legions. - - -ĂLĂBARCHĒS (ἀλαβάρχης), the chief magistrate of the Jews at -Alexandria, whose duties, as far as the government was concerned, -chiefly consisted in raising and paying the taxes. - - -ĂLĂBASTER or ĂLĂBASTRUM, a vessel or pot used for containing -perfumes, or rather ointments, made of that species of marble which -mineralogists call _gypsum_, and which is usually designated by the -name of _alabaster_. When varieties of colour occur in the same -stone, and are disposed in bands or horizontal strata, it is often -called onyx alabaster; and when dispersed irregularly, as if in -clouds, it is distinguished as agate alabaster. The term seems to -have been employed to denote vessels appropriated to these uses, even -when they were not made of the material from which it is supposed -they originally received their name. Thus Theocritus speaks of -golden alabastra. These vessels were of a tapering shape, and very -often had a long narrow neck, which was sealed; so that when Mary, -the sister of Lazarus, is said by St. Mark to break the alabaster -box of ointment for the purpose of anointing our Saviour, it appears -probable that she only broke the extremity of the neck, which was -thus closed. - - -ĀLĀRĬI. [ALA.] - - -ĂLAUDA, a Gaulish word, the prototype of the modern French -_Alouette_, denoting a small crested bird of the lark kind. The name -alauda was bestowed by Julius Caesar on a legion of picked men, which -he raised at his own expense among the inhabitants of Transalpine -Gaul, about the year B.C. 55, which he equipped and disciplined after -the Roman fashion, and on which he at a subsequent period bestowed -the freedom of the state. The designation was, in all probability, -applied from a plume upon the helmet, resembling the “apex” of the -bird in question, or from the general shape and appearance of the -head-piece. - - -ALBŎGĂLĒRUS. [APEX.] - - -ALBUM, a tablet of any material on which the praetor’s edicts, and -the rules relating to actions and interdicts, were written. The -tablet was put up in a public place, in order that all the world -might have notice of its contents. According to some authorities, -the album was so called because it was either a white material or a -material whitened, and of course the writing would be of a different -colour. According to other authorities, it was so called because the -writing was in white letters. Probably the word album originally -meant any tablet containing anything of a public nature. We know that -it was, in course of time, used to signify a list of any public body; -thus we find _album judicum_, or the body out of which judices were -to be chosen [JUDEX], and _album senatorium_, or list of senators. - - -ĀLĔA, gaming, or playing at a game of chance of any kind: hence -_aleo_, _aleator_, a gamester, a gambler. Playing with _tali_, or -_tesserae_, was generally understood, because this was by far the -most common game of chance among the Romans. Gaming was forbidden -by the Roman laws, both during the times of the republic and under -the emperors, but was tolerated in the month of December at the -Saturnalia, which was a period of general relaxation; and old men -were allowed to amuse themselves in this manner at all times. - - -ĂLĬCŬLA (ἄλλιξ or ἄλληξ), an upper dress, in all probability -identical with the chlamys. - - -ĂLIMENTĀRII PŬĔRI ET PŬELLAE. In the Roman republic the poorer -citizens were assisted by public distributions of corn, oil, and -money, which were called _congiaria_. [CONGIARIUM.] The Emperor Nerva -was the first who extended them to children, and Trajan appointed -them to be made every month, both to orphans and to the children of -poor parents. The children who received them were called _pueri et -puellae alimentarii_, and also (from the emperor) _pueri puellaeque -Ulpiani_. - - -ĀLĬPĬLUS, a slave, who attended on bathers to remove the superfluous -hair from their bodies. - - -ĂLIPTAE (ἀλείπται), among the Greeks, were persons who anointed the -bodies of the athletae preparatory to their entering the palaestra. -The chief object of this anointing was to close the pores of the -body, in order to prevent much perspiration, and the weakness -consequent thereon. The athleta was again anointed after the contest, -in order to restore the tone of the strained muscles. He then bathed, -and had the dust, sweat, and oil scraped off his body, by means -of an instrument similar to the strigil of the Romans, and called -_stlengis_ (στλεγγίς), and afterwards _xystra_ (ξύστρα). The aliptae -took advantage of the knowledge they necessarily acquired of the -state of the muscles of the athletae, and their general strength or -weakness of body, to advise them as to their exercises and mode of -life. They were thus a kind of medical trainers. Among the Romans the -aliptae were slaves who scrubbed and anointed their masters in the -baths. They, too, like the Greek aliptae, appear to have attended to -their masters’ constitution and mode of life. They were also called -_unctores_. They used in their operations a kind of scraper called -strigil, towels (_lintea_), a cruise of oil (_guttus_), which was -usually of horn, a bottle (_ampulla_), and a small vessel called -_lenticula_. - - -[Illustration: Allocutio (Coin of Nero.)] - -ALLŎCŪTĬO, an harangue made by a Roman imperator to his soldiers, -to encourage them before battle, or on other occasions. On coins -we frequently find a figure of an imperator standing on a platform -and addressing the soldiers below him. Such coins bear the epigraph -ADLOCUTIO. - - -[Illustration: Allocutio. (Coin of Galba.)] - -ALŌA or HALŌA (ἀλῶα, ἁλῶα), an Attic festival, but celebrated -principally at Eleusis, in honour of Demeter and Dionysus, the -inventors of the plough and protectors of the fruits of the earth. - - -ALTĀRE. [ARA.] - - -ĂLŪTA. [CALCEUS.] - - -ĂLỸTAE (ἀλύται), persons whose business it was to keep order in -the public games. They received their orders from an _alytarches_ -(ἀλυτάρχης), who was himself under the direction of the agonothetae, -or hellenodicae. - - -ĀMĂNŬENSIS, or AD MĂNUM SERVUS, a slave, or freedman, whose office it -was to write letters and other things under his master’s direction. -The amanuenses must not be confounded with another sort of slaves, -also called _ad manum servi_, who were always kept ready to be -employed in any business. - - -ĂMĂRYNTHĬA, or ĂMĂRYSĬA (ἀμαρύνθια or ἀμαρύσια), a festival of -Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia, celebrated, as it seems, originally -at Amarynthus in Euboea, with extraordinary splendour, but also -solemnised in several places in Attica, such as Athmone. - - -AMBARVĀLIĂ. [ARVALES FRATRES.] - - -AMBĬTUS, which literally signifies “a going about,” cannot, perhaps, -be more nearly expressed than by our word _canvassing_. After the -plebs had formed a distinct class at Rome, and when the whole body -of the citizens had become very greatly increased, we frequently -read, in the Roman writers, of the great efforts which it was -necessary for candidates to make in order to secure the votes of the -citizens. At Rome, as in every community into which the element of -popular election enters, solicitation of votes, and open or secret -influence and bribery, were among the means by which a candidate -secured his election to the offices of state. The following are the -principal terms occurring in the Roman writers in relation to the -canvassing for the public offices:--A candidate was called _petitor_; -and his opponent with reference to him _competitor_. A candidate -(_candidatus_) was so called from his appearing in the public places, -such as the fora and Campus Martius, before his fellow-citizens, -in a whitened toga. On such occasions the candidate was attended -by his friends (_deductores_), or followed by the poorer citizens -(_sectatores_), who could in no other manner show their good will -or give their assistance. The word _assiduitas_ expressed both -the continual presence of the candidate at Rome and his continual -solicitations. The candidate, in going his rounds or taking his -walk, was accompanied by a _nomenclator_, who gave him the names -of such persons as he might meet; the candidate was thus enabled -to address them by their name, an indirect compliment, which could -not fail to be generally gratifying to the electors. The candidate -accompanied his address with a shake of the hand (_prensatio_). The -term _benignitas_ comprehended generally any kind of treating, as -shows, feasts, &c. The _ambitus_, which was the object of several -penal enactments, taken as a generic term, comprehended the two -species--_ambitus_ and _largitiones_ (bribery). _Liberalitas_ and -_benignitas_ are opposed by Cicero, as things allowable, to _ambitus_ -and _largitio_, as things illegal. Money was paid for votes; and, -in order to insure secrecy and secure the elector, persons called -_interpretes_ were employed to make the bargain, _sequestres_ to hold -the money till it was to be paid, and _divisores_ to distribute it. -The offence of ambitus was a matter which belonged to the judicia -publica, and the enactments against it were numerous. One of the -earliest, though not the earliest of all, the Lex Cornelia Baebia -(B.C. 181) was specially directed against _largitiones_. Those -convicted under it were incapacitated from being candidates for -ten years. The Lex Cornelia Fulvia (B.C. 159) punished the offence -with exile. The Lex Acilia Calpurnia (B.C. 67) imposed a fine on -the offending party, with exclusion from the senate and all public -offices. The Lex Tullia (B.C. 63), passed in the consulship of -Cicero, in addition to the penalty of the Acilian law, inflicted -ten years’ exsilium on the offender; and, among other things, -forbade a person to exhibit gladiatorial shows (_gladiatores dare_) -within any two years in which he was a candidate, unless he was -required to do so, on a fixed day, by a testator’s will. Two years -afterwards the Lex Aufidia was proposed, but not passed; by which, -among other things, it was provided that, if a candidate promised -(_pronuntiavit_) money to a tribe, and did not pay it, he should -be unpunished; but, if he did pay the money, he should further pay -to each tribe (annually?) 3000 sesterces as long as he lived. This -absurd proposal occasioned the witticism of Cicero, who said that -Clodius observed the law by anticipation; for he promised, but did -not pay. The Lex Licinia (B.C. 55) was specially directed against the -offence of _sodalitium_, or the wholesale bribery of a tribe by gifts -and treating; and another lex, passed (B.C. 52) when Pompey was sole -consul, had for its object the establishment of a speedier course -of proceeding on trials for ambitus. All these enactments failed -in completely accomplishing their object. That which no law could -suppress, so long as the old popular forms retained any of their -pristine vigour, was accomplished by the imperial usurpation. Caesar, -when dictator, nominated some of the candidates for public offices: -as to the consulship, he managed the appointments to that office just -as he pleased. The popular forms of election were observed during the -time of Augustus. Tiberius transferred the elections from the comitia -to the senate, by which the offence of ambitus, in its proper sense, -entirely disappeared. The trials for ambitus were numerous in the -time of the republic. The oration of Cicero in defence of L. Murena, -who was charged with ambitus, and that in defence of Cn. Plancius, -who was charged with _sodalitium_, are both extant. - - -AMBRŎSĬA (ἀμβροσία), the food of the gods, which conferred upon them -eternal youth and immortality, and was brought to Jupiter by pigeons. -It was also used by the gods for anointing their body and hair; -whence we read of the ambrosial locks of Jupiter. - - -AMBŪBAIAE (probably from the Syriac _abub aubub_, a pipe), Eastern -dancing girls, who frequented chiefly the Circus at Rome, and -obtained their living by prostitution and lascivious songs and dances. - - -AMBURBĬUM, a sacrifice which was performed at Rome for the -purification of the city. - - -AMENTUM. [HASTA.] - - -ĂMICTŌRĬUM. [STROPHIUM.] - - -ĂMICTUS. The verb _amicire_ is commonly opposed to _induere_, -the former being applied to the putting on of the outer garment, -the pallium, laena, or toga (ἱμάτιον, φᾶρος); the latter, to the -putting on of the inner garment, the tunic (χιτών). In consequence -of this distinction, the verbal nouns _amictus_ and _indutus_, even -without any further denomination of the dress being added, indicate -respectively the outer and inner clothing. In Greek _amicire_ is -expressed by ἀμφιέννυσθαι, ἀμπέχεσθαι, ἐπιβάλλεσθαι, περιβάλλεσθαι: -and _induere_ by ἐνδύνειν. Hence came ἀμπεχόνη, ἐπίβλημα, and -ἐπιβόλαιον, περίβλημα, and περιβόλαιον, an outer garment, a cloak, a -shawl; and ἔνδυμα, an inner garment, a tunic, a shirt. - - -AMPHICTỸŎNES (ἀμφικτύονες). Institutions called amphictyonic appear -to have existed in Greece from time immemorial. They seem to have -been originally associations of neighbouring tribes, formed for the -regulation of mutual intercourse and the protection of a common -temple or sanctuary, at which the representatives of the different -members met, both to transact business and to celebrate religious -rites and games. One of these associations was of much greater -importance than all the rest, and was called, by way of eminence, -the _Amphictyonic League_ or _Council_ (ἀμφικτυονία). It differed -from other similar associations in having two places of meeting, the -sanctuaries of two divinities; which were the temple of Demeter, in -the village of Anthela, near Thermopylae, where the deputies met -in autumn; and that of Apollo, at Delphi, where they assembled in -spring. Its connexion with the latter place not only contributed -to its dignity, but also to its permanence. Its early history is -involved in obscurity. Most of the ancients suppose it to have -been founded by Amphictyon, the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, from -whom they imagined that it derived its name: but this opinion is -destitute of all foundation, and arose from the ancients assigning -the establishment of their institutions to some mythical hero. There -can be little doubt as to the true etymology of the word. It was -originally written ἀμφικτίονες, and consequently signified those that -dwelt around some particular locality. Its institution, however, is -clearly of remote antiquity. It was originally composed of twelve -_tribes_ (not cities or states, it must be observed), each of which -tribes contained various independent cities or states. We learn -from Aeschines, that in B.C. 343, eleven of these tribes were as -follows:--The Thessalians, Boeotians (not Thebans only), Dorians, -Ionians, Perrhaebians, Magnetes, Locrians, Oetaeans or Oenianians, -Phthiots or Achaeans of Phthia, Malians, and Phocians; other lists -leave us in doubt whether the remaining tribe were the Dolopes or -Delphians; but as the Delphians could hardly be called a distinct -tribe, their nobles appearing to have been Dorians, it seems probable -that the Dolopes were originally members, and afterwards supplanted -by the Delphians. All the states belonging to each of these tribes -were on a footing of perfect equality. Thus Sparta enjoyed no -advantages over Dorium and Cytinium, two small towns in Doris: and -Athens, an Ionic city, was on a par with Eretria in Euboea, and -Priene in Asia Minor, two other Ionic cities. The ordinary council -was called _Pylaea_ (πυλαία), from its meeting in the neighbourhood -of Pylae (Thermopylae), but the name was given to the session at -Delphi as well as to that at Thermopylae. The council was composed of -two classes of representatives, one called _Pylagorae_ (Πυλαγόραι), -and the other _Hieromnemones_ (Ἱερομνήμονες). Athens sent three -Pylagorae and one Hieromnemon; of whom the former were elected -apparently for each session, and the latter by lot, probably for a -longer period. Respecting the relative duties of the Pylagorae and -Hieromnemones we have little information: the name of the latter -implies that they had a more immediate connection with the temple. We -are equally in the dark respecting the numbers who sat in the council -and its mode of proceeding. It would seem that all the deputies had -seats in the council, and took part in its deliberations; but if it -be true, as appears from Aeschines, that each of the tribes had only -two votes, it is clear that all the deputies could not have voted. In -addition to the ordinary council, there was an _ecclesia_ (ἐκκλησία), -or general assembly, including not only the classes above mentioned, -but also those who had joined in the sacrifices, and were consulting -the god. It was convened on extraordinary occasions by the chairman -of the council. Of the duties of the Amphictyons nothing will give us -a clearer view than the oath they took, which was as follows:--“They -would destroy no city of the Amphictyons, nor cut off their streams -in war or peace; and if any should do so, they would march against -him, and destroy his cities; and should any pillage the property of -the god, or be privy to or plan anything against what was in his -temple (at Delphi), they would take vengeance on him with hand and -foot, and voice, and all their might.” From this oath we see that -the main duty of the deputies was the preservation of the rights and -dignity of the temple of Delphi. We know, too, that after it was -burnt down (B.C. 548), they contracted with the Alcmaeonidae for its -rebuilding. History, moreover, teaches that if the council produced -any palpable effects, it was from their interest in Delphi; and -though they kept up a standing record of what ought to have been the -international law of Greece, they sometimes acquiesced in, and at -other times were parties to, the most iniquitous acts. Of this the -case of Crissa is an instance. This town lay on the Gulf of Corinth, -near Delphi, and was much frequented by pilgrims from the West. The -Crissaeans were charged by the Delphians with undue exactions from -these strangers. The council declared war against them, as guilty -of a wrong against the god. The war lasted ten years, till, at the -suggestion of Solon, the waters of the Pleistus were turned off, -then poisoned, and turned again into the city. The besieged drank -their fill, and Crissa was soon razed to the ground; and thus, if it -were an Amphictyonic city, was a solemn oath doubly violated. Its -territory--the rich Cirrhaean plain--was consecrated to the god, -and curses imprecated upon whomsoever should till or dwell in it. -Thus ended the First Sacred War (B.C. 585), in which the Athenians -were the instruments of Delphian vengeance. The second or Phocian -war (B.C. 350) was the most important in which the Amphictyons were -concerned; and in this the Thebans availed themselves of the sanction -of the council to take vengeance on their enemies, the Phocians. To -do this, however, it was necessary to call in Philip of Macedon, who -readily proclaimed himself the champion of Apollo, as it opened a -pathway to his own ambition. The Phocians were subdued (B.C. 346), -and the council decreed that all their cities, except Abae, should -be razed, and the inhabitants dispersed in villages not containing -more than fifty persons. Their two votes were given to Philip, who -thereby gained a pretext for interfering with the affairs of Greece; -and also obtained the recognition of his subjects as Hellenes. The -Third Sacred War arose from the Amphissians tilling the devoted -Cirrhaean plain. The Amphictyons called in the assistance of Philip, -who soon reduced the Amphissians to subjection. Their submission -was immediately followed by the battle of Chaeroneia (B.C. 338), -and the extinction of the independence of Greece. In the following -year, a congress of the Amphictyonic states was held, in which war -was declared as if by united Greece against Persia, and Philip -elected commander-in-chief. On this occasion the Amphictyons assumed -the character of national representatives as of old, when they set -a price upon the head of Ephialtes, for his treason to Greece at -Thermopylae. It has been sufficiently shown that the Amphictyons -themselves did not observe the oaths they took; and that they did not -much alleviate the horrors of war, or enforce what they had sworn -to do, is proved by many instances. Thus, for instance, Mycenae was -destroyed by Argos (B.C. 535), Thespiae and Plataeae by Thebes, -and Thebes herself swept from the face of the earth by Alexander, -without the Amphictyons raising one word in opposition. Indeed, a -few years before the Peloponnesian war, the council was a passive -spectator of what Thucydides calls the Sacred War (ὁ ἱερὸς πόλεμος), -when the Lacedaemonians made an expedition to Delphi, and put the -temple into the hands of the Delphians, the Athenians, after their -departure, restoring it to the Phocians. The council is rarely -mentioned after the time of Philip. We are told that Augustus wished -his new city, Nicopolis (A.D. 31), to be enrolled among the members. -Pausanias, in the second century of our era, mentions it as still -existing, but deprived of all power and influence. - - -AMPHĬDRŎMĬA (ἀμφιδρόμια or δρομιάμφιον ἧμαρ), a family festival of -the Athenians, at which the newly-born child was introduced into -the family, and received its name. The friends and relations of the -parents were invited to the festival of the amphidromia, which was -held in the evening, and they generally appeared with presents. The -house was decorated on the outside with olive branches when the child -was a boy, or with garlands of wool when the child was a girl; and a -repast was prepared for the guests. The child was carried round the -fire by the nurse, and thus, as it were, presented to the gods of the -house and to the family, and at the same time received its name, to -which the guests were witnesses. The carrying of the child round the -hearth was the principal part of the solemnity, from which its name -was derived. - -[Illustration: Longitudinal Section of the Flavian Amphitheatre.] - -[Illustration: Elevation of one side of the preceding Section. - -EXPLANATION. - - A, The arena. - - _p_, The wall or podium inclosing it. - - P, The podium itself, on which were chairs, or seats, for the - senators, &c. - - M′, The first maenianum, or slope of benches, for the equestrian - order. - - M″, The second maenianum. - - M‴, The third maenianum, elevated considerably above the preceding - one, and appropriated to the pullati. - - W, The colonnade, or gallery, which contained seats for women. - - E, The narrow gallery round the summit of the interior, for the - attendants who worked the velarium. - - _pr_, _pr_, The præcinctiones, or landings, at the top of the - first and second maenianum; in the pavement of which were grated - apertures, at intervals, to admit light into the vomitoria beneath - them. - - V V V V, Vomitoria. - - G G G, The three external galleries through the circumference of - the building, open to the arcades of the exterior. - - _g g_, Inner gallery. - -The situation and arrangement of the staircases, &c., are not -expressed, as they could not be rendered intelligible without plans -at various levels of the building.] - - -AMPHĬTHĔĀTRUM, an amphitheatre, was a place for the exhibition of -public shows of combatants, wild beasts, and naval engagements, and -was entirely surrounded with seats for the spectators; whereas, -in those for dramatic performances, the seats were arranged in a -semicircle facing the stage. An amphitheatre is therefore frequently -described as a double theatre, consisting of two such semicircles, -or halves, joined together, the spaces allotted to their orchestras -becoming the inner inclosure, or area, termed the _arena_. The -form, however, of the ancient amphitheatres was not a circle, but -invariably an ellipse. Gladiatorial shows and combats of wild beasts -(_venationes_) were first exhibited in the forum and the circus; and -it appears that the ancient custom was still preserved till the time -of Julius Caesar. The first building in the form of an amphitheatre -is said to have been erected by C. Scribonius Curio, one of Caesar’s -partisans; but the account which is given of this building sounds -rather fabulous. It is said to have consisted of two wooden theatres, -made to revolve on pivots, in such a manner that they could, by -means of windlasses and machinery, be turned round face to face, so -as to form one building. Soon after Caesar himself erected, in the -Campus Martius, a stationary amphitheatre, made of wood; to which -building the name of _amphitheatrum_ was for the first time given. -The first stone amphitheatre was built by Statilius Taurus, in the -Campus Martius, at the desire of Augustus. This was the only stone -amphitheatre at Rome till the time of Vespasian. One was commenced by -Caligula, but was not continued by Claudius. The one erected by Nero -in the Campus Martius was only a temporary building, made of wood. -The amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus was burnt in the fire of Rome -in the time of Nero; and hence, as a new one was needed, Vespasian -commenced the celebrated _Amphitheatrum Flavium_ in the middle of -the city, in the valley between the Caelian, the Esquiline, and the -Velia, on the spot originally occupied by the lake or large pond -attached to Nero’s palace. Vespasian did not live to finish it. It -was dedicated by Titus in A.D. 80, but was not completely finished, -till the reign of Domitian. This immense edifice, which is even -yet comparatively entire, covered nearly six acres of ground, and -was capable of containing about 87,000 spectators. It is called at -the present day the _Colosseum_ or _Colisaeum_. The interior of an -amphitheatre was divided into three parts, the _arena_, _podium_, and -_gradus_. The clear open space in the centre of the amphitheatre was -called the _arena_, because it was covered with sand, or sawdust, -to prevent the gladiators from slipping, and to absorb the blood. -The size of the arena was not always the same in proportion to the -size of the amphitheatre, but its average proportion was one-third -of the shorter diameter of the building. The arena was surrounded -by a wall distinguished by the name of _podium_; although such -appellation, perhaps, rather belongs to merely the upper part of -it, forming the parapet, or balcony, before the first or lowermost -seats, nearest to the arena. The arena, therefore, was no more than -an open oval court, surrounded by a wall about fifteen feet high; -a height considered necessary, in order to render the spectators -perfectly secure from the attacks of wild beasts. There were four -principal entrances leading into the arena; two at the ends of each -axis or diameter of it, to which as many passages led directly from -the exterior of the building; besides secondary ones, intervening -between them, and communicating with the corridors beneath the seats -on the podium. The wall or enclosure of the arena is supposed to -have been faced with marble, more or less sumptuous; besides which, -there appears to have been, in some instances at least, a sort of -net-work affixed to the top of the podium, consisting of railing, or -rather open trellis-work of metal. As a further defence, ditches, -called _euripi_, sometimes surrounded the arena. The term podium was -also applied to the terrace, or gallery itself, immediately above -the arena, which was no wider than to be capable of containing two, -or at the most, three ranges of moveable seats, or chairs. This, as -being by far the best situation for distinctly viewing the sports -in the arena, and also more commodiously accessible than the seats -higher up, was the place set apart for senators and other persons -of distinction, such as foreign ambassadors; and it was here, also, -that the emperor himself used to sit, in an elevated place, called -_suggestus_ or _cubiculum_, and likewise the person who exhibited -the games on a place elevated like a pulpit or tribunal (_editoris -tribunal_). Above the podium were the _gradus_, or seats of the other -spectators, which were divided into _maeniana_, or stories. The first -_maenianum_, consisting of fourteen rows of stone or marble seats, -was appropriated to the equestrian order. The seats appropriated -to the senators and equites were covered with cushions, which were -first used in the time of Caligula. Then, after an interval or space, -termed a _praecinctio_, and forming a continued landing-place from -the several staircases in it, succeeded the second maenianum, where -were the seats called _popularia_, for the third class of spectators, -or the populus. Behind this was the second praecinctio, bounded -by a rather high wall; above which was the third maenianum, where -there were only wooden benches for the _pullati_, or common people. -The next and last division, namely, that in the highest part of the -building, consisted of a colonnade, or gallery, where females were -allowed to witness the spectacles of the amphitheatre, but some parts -of it were also occupied by the pullati. Each maenianum was not -only divided from the other by the praecinctio, but was intersected -at intervals by spaces for passages left between the seats, called -_scalae_, or _scalaria_; and the portion between two such passages -was called _cuneus_, because the space gradually widened like a -wedge, from the podium to the top of the building. The entrances to -the seats from the outer porticoes were called _vomitoria_. At the -very summit was the narrow platform for the men who had to attend -to the _velarium_, or awning, by which the building was covered as -a defence against the sun and rain. The velarium appears usually to -have been made of wool, but more costly materials were sometimes -employed. The first of the preceding cuts represents a longitudinal -section of the Flavian amphitheatre, and the second, which is on a -larger scale, a part of the above section, including the exterior -wall, and the seats included between that and the arena. It will -serve to convey an idea of the leading form and general disposition -of the interior. For an account of the gladiatorial contests, and the -shows of wild beasts, exhibited in the amphitheatre, see GLADIATORES, -NAUMACHIA, and VENATIO. - - -[Illustration: Amphorae. (British Museum.)] - -AMPHŎRA (ἀμφορεύς), a vessel used for holding wine, oil, honey, -&c. The following cut represents amphorae in the British Museum. -They are of various forms and sizes; in general they are tall and -narrow, with a small neck, and a handle on each side of the neck -(whence the name, from ἀμφί, _on both sides_, and φέρω, to carry), -and terminating at the bottom in a point, which was let into a stand -or stuck in the ground, so that the vessel stood upright: several -amphorae have been found in this position in the cellars at Pompeii. -Amphorae were commonly made of earthenware. Homer mentions amphorae -of gold and stone, and the Egyptians had them of brass; glass vessels -of this form have been found at Pompeii. The most common use of the -amphora, both among the Greeks and the Romans, was for keeping wine. -The cork was covered with pitch or gypsum, and (among the Romans) -on the outside the title of the wine was painted, the date of the -vintage being marked by the names of the consuls then in office; or, -when the jars were of glass, little tickets (_pittoria_, _tesserae_) -were suspended from them, indicating these particulars.--The Greek -amphoreus and the Roman amphora were also names of fixed measures. -The amphoreus, which was also called _metretes_ (μετρητής) and -_cadus_ (κάδος), was equal to three Roman urnae = 8 gallons, 7·365 -pints, imperial measure. The Roman amphora was two-thirds of the -amphoreus, and was equal to 2 urnae = 8 congii = to 5 gallons, 7·577 -pints; its solid content was exactly a Roman cubic foot. - - -AMPLĬĀTĬO, an adjournment of a trial, which took place when the -judices after hearing the evidence of the advocates were unable to -come to a satisfactory conclusion. This they expressed by giving in -the tablets, on which were the letters N. L. (_non liquet_), and the -praetor, by pronouncing the word _amplius_, thereupon adjourned the -trial to any day he chose. The defendant and the cause were then said -_ampliari_. - - -[Illustration: Ampulla. (Sketched by G. Scharf from a relief at -Athens, discovered in 1840.)] - -AMPULLA (λήκυθος, βομβύλιος), a bottle, usually made among the Romans -either of glass or earthenware, rarely of more valuable materials. -Ampullae were more or less globular. From their round and swollen -shape, the word was used by Horace to indicate grand and turgid but -empty language. (“Projicit ampullas et sesquipedalia verba,” _Ar. -Poet._ 97.) Ampullae are frequently mentioned in connection with the -bath, since every Roman took with him to the bath a bottle of oil for -anointing the body after bathing. The dealer in bottles was called -_ampullarius_. - -[Illustration: Ampulla. (From a tomb at Myra in Lycia.)] - - -AMPYX (ἄμπυξ, ἀμπυκτήρ, Lat. _frontale_), a frontal, a broad band -or plate of metal, which ladies of rank wore above the forehead as -part of the head-dress. The frontal of a horse was called by the same -name. The annexed cut exhibits the frontal on the head of Pegasus, in -contrast with the corresponding ornament as shown on the heads of two -females. - -[Illustration: Ampyces, Frontlets. (From Paintings on Vases.)] - - -ĂMŬLĒTUM (περίαπτον, περίαμμα, φυλακτήριον), an amulet. This word in -Arabic (hamalet) means _that which is suspended_. It was probably -brought into Europe by Arabian merchants, together with the articles -to which it was applied. An amulet was any object,--a stone, a plant, -an artificial production, or a piece of writing,--which was suspended -from the neck, or tied to any part of the body, for the purpose of -warding off calamities and securing advantages of any kind. Faith in -the virtues of amulets was almost universal in the ancient world, so -that the art of medicine consisted in a very considerable degree of -directions for their application. - - -ĂMUSSIS or ĂMUSSĬUM, a carpenter’s and mason’s instrument, the use of -which was to obtain a true plane surface. - - -ĂNĂCEIA (ἀνάκεια, or ἀνάκειον), a festival of the Dioscuri or Anactes -(Ἄνακτες), as they were called at Athens. These heroes, however, -received the most distinguished honours in the Dorian and Achaean -states, where it may be supposed that every town celebrated a -festival in their honour, though not under the name of Anaceia. - - -ĂNACRĬSIS (ἀνάκρισις), an examination, was used to signify the -pleadings preparatory to a trial at Athens, the object of which was -to determine, generally, if the action would lie. The magistrates -were said ἀνακρίνειν τὴν δίκην or τοὺς ἀντιδίκους, and the parties -ἀνακρίνεσθαι. The process consisted in the production of proofs, of -which there were five kinds:--1. The laws; 2. Written documents; -3. Testimonies of witnesses present (μαρτυρίαι), or affidavits of -absent witnesses (ἐκμαρτυρίαι); 4. Depositions of slaves extorted -by the rack; 5. The oath of the parties. All these proofs were -committed to writing, and placed in a box secured by a seal (ἐχῖνος) -till they were produced at the trial. If the evidence produced at -the anacrisis was so clear and convincing that there could not -remain any doubt, the magistrate could decide the question without -sending the cause to be tried before the dicasts: this was called -_diamartyria_ (διαμαρτυρία). The archons were the proper officers -for holding the anacrisis; they are represented by Athena (Minerva), -in the _Eumenides_ of Aeschylus, where there is a poetical sketch of -the process in the law courts. For an account of the _anacrisis_ or -examination, which each archon underwent previously to entering on -office, see ARCHON. - - -ĂNĂGLỸPHA or ĂNĂGLYPTA (ἀνάγλυφα, ἀνάγλυπτα), chased or embossed -vessels made of bronze or of the precious metals, which derived their -name from the work on them being in relief, and not engraved. - - -ĂNĂGNOSTĒS, a slave, whose duty it was to read or repeat passages -from books during an entertainment, and also at other times. - - -ĂNĂGŌGĬA (ἀναγώγια), a festival celebrated at Eryx, in Sicily, in -honour of Aphrodite. The inhabitants of the place believed that, -during this festival, the goddess went over into Africa. - - -ĂNĂTŎCISMUS. [FENUS.] - - -ANCĪLE. [SALII.] - - -ANCŎRA. [NAVIS.] - - -ANDĂBĂTA. [GLADIATOR.] - - -ANDRŎGĔŌNIA (ἀνδρογεώνια), a festival with games, held every year in -the Cerameicus at Athens, in honour of the hero Androgeus, son of -Minos, who had overcome all his adversaries in the festive games of -the Panathenaea, and was afterwards killed by his jealous rivals. - - -ANDRŎLEPSĬA (ἀνδροληψία or ἀνδρολήψιον), a legal means by which the -Athenians were enabled to take vengeance upon a community in which an -Athenian citizen had been murdered, by seizing three individuals of -that state or city, as hostages, until satisfaction was given. - - -ANDRŌNĪTIS. [DOMUS, GREEK.] - - -ANGĂRĪA (ἀγγαρεία, Hdt. ἀγγαρήϊον), a word borrowed from the -Persians, signifying a system of posting by relays of horses, which -was used among that people, and which, according to Xenophon, was -established by Cyrus. The term was adopted by the Romans under the -empire to signify compulsory service in forwarding the messages of -the state. The Roman _angaria_, also called _angariarum exhibitio_ -or _praestatio_, included the maintenance and supply, not only of -horses, but of ships and messengers, in forwarding both letters and -burdens; it is defined as a _personale munus_; and there was no -ground of exemption from it allowed, except by the favour of the -emperor. - - -ANGĬPORTUS, or ANGĬPORTUM, a narrow lane between two rows of houses, -which might either be what the French call a _cul-de-sac_, or it -might terminate at both ends in some public street. - - -ANGUSTICLĀVĬI. [CLAVUS.] - - -ANNĀLES MAXĬMI. [PONTIFEX.] - - -ANNŌNA (from _annus_, like _pomona_ from _pomum_).--(1) The produce -of the year in corn, fruit, wine, &c., and hence,--(2) provisions -in general, especially the corn, which, in the later years of the -republic, was collected in the storehouses of the state, and sold to -the poor at a cheap rate in times of scarcity; and which, under the -emperors, was distributed to the people gratuitously, or given as pay -and rewards;--(3) the price of provisions;--(4) a soldier’s allowance -of provisions for a certain time. The word is used also in the -plural for yearly or monthly distributions of pay in corn, &c. - - -ANNŬLUS (δακτύλιος), a ring. It is probable that the custom of -wearing rings was very early introduced into Greece from Asia, where -it appears to have been almost universal. They were worn not merely -as ornaments, but as articles for use, as the ring always served as a -seal. A seal was called _sphragis_ (σφραγίς), and hence this name was -given to the ring itself, and also to the gem or stone for a ring in -which figures were engraved. Rings in Greece were mostly worn on the -fourth finger (παράμεσος). At Rome, the custom of wearing rings was -believed to have been introduced by the Sabines, who were described -in the early legends as wearing golden rings with precious stones of -great beauty. But, whenever introduced at Rome, it is certain that -they were at first always of iron; that they were destined for the -same purpose as in Greece, namely, to be used as seals; and that -every free Roman had a right to use such a ring. This iron ring was -worn down to the last period of the republic by such men as loved the -simplicity of the good old times. In the course of time, however, -it became customary for all the senators, chief magistrates, and at -last for the equites also, to wear a golden seal-ring. The right of -wearing a gold ring, which was subsequently called the _jus annuli -aurei_, or the _jus annulorum_, remained for several centuries at -Rome the exclusive privilege of senators, magistrates, and equites, -while all other persons continued to wear iron ones. During the -empire the right of granting the annulus aureus belonged to the -emperors, and some of them were not very scrupulous in conferring -this privilege. Augustus gave it to Mena, a freedman, and to Antonius -Musa, a physician. The emperors Severus and Aurelian conferred the -right of wearing golden rings upon all Roman soldiers; and Justinian -at length allowed all the citizens of the empire, whether ingenui -or libertini, to wear such rings. The ring of a Roman emperor was a -kind of state seal, and the emperor sometimes allowed the use of it -to such persons as he wished to be regarded as his representatives. -During the republic and the early times of the empire the jus annuli -seems to have made a person ingenuus (if he was a libertus), and to -have raised him to the rank of eques, provided he had the requisite -equestrian census, and it was probably never granted to any one -who did not possess this census. Those who lost their property, -or were found guilty of a criminal offence, lost the jus annuli. -The principal value of a ring consisted in the gem set in it, or -rather in the workmanship of the engraver. The stone most frequently -used was the onyx (σαρδῶνος, σαρδόνυξ), on account of its various -colours, of which the artist made the most skilful use. In the art -of engraving upon gems the ancients far surpassed anything that -modern times can boast of. The devices engraved upon rings were very -various: they were portraits of ancestors or of friends, subjects -connected with mythology; and in many cases a person had engraved -upon his seal some symbolical allusion to the real or mythical -history of his family. The bezel or part of the ring which contained -the gem was called _pala_. With the increasing love of luxury and -show, the Romans, as well as the Greeks, covered their fingers with -rings. Some persons also wore rings of immoderate size, and others -used different rings for summer and winter. Much superstition appears -to have been connected with rings, especially in the East and in -Greece. Some persons made it a lucrative trade to sell rings which -were believed to possess magic powers, and to preserve the wearers -from external danger. - - -ANNUS. [CALENDARIUM.] - - -ANQUĪSĪTĬO, signified, in criminal trials at Rome, the investigation -of the facts of the case with reference to the penalty that was to -be imposed: accordingly the phrases _pecunia capitis_ or _capitis -anquirere_ are used. Under the emperors the term _anquisitio_ lost -its original meaning, and was employed to indicate an accusation -in general; in which sense it also occurs even in the times of the -republic. - - -[Illustration: Temple in Antis. (Temple of Artemis at Eleusia.)] - -ANTAE (παραστάδες), square pillars, which were commonly joined to -the side-walls of a building, being placed on each side of the door, -so as to assist in forming the portico. These terms are seldom -found except in the plural; because the purpose served by antae -required that they should be erected corresponding to each other and -supporting the extremities of the same roof. The temple _in antis_ -was one of the simplest kind. It had in front antae attached to the -walls which inclosed the cella; and in the middle, between the antae, -two columns supporting the architrave. - - -ANTĔAMBŬLŌNES, slaves who were accustomed to go before their -masters, in order to make way for them through the crowd. The term -_anteambulones_ was also given to the clients, who were accustomed to -walk before their patroni, when the latter appeared in public. - - -ANTĔCESSŌRES, called also ANTĔCURSŌRES, horse-soldiers, who were -accustomed to precede an army on march, in order to choose a suitable -place for the camp, and to make the necessary provisions for the -army. They do not appear to have been merely scouts, like the -_speculatores_. - - -ANTĔCOENA. [COENA.] - - -ANTĔFIXA, terra-cottas, which exhibited various ornamental designs, -and were used in architecture to cover the frieze (_zophorus_) of -the entablature. These terra-cottas do not appear to have been used -among the Greeks, but were probably Etruscan in their origin, and -were thence taken for the decoration of Roman buildings. The name -_antefixa_ is evidently derived from the circumstance that they were -_fixed before_ the buildings which they adorned. Cato, the censor, -complained that the Romans of his time began to despise ornaments -of this description, and to prefer the marble friezes of Athens and -Corinth. The rising taste which Cato deplored may account for the -superior beauty of the antefixa preserved in the British Museum, -which were discovered at Rome. - - -ANTENNA. [NAVIS.] - - -ANTĔPĪLĀNI. [EXERCITUS.] - - -ANTĔSIGNĀNI. [EXERCITUS.] - - -ANTHESPHŎRĬA (ἀνθεσφόρια), a flower-festival, principally celebrated -in Sicily, in honour of Demeter and Persephone, in commemoration of -the return of Persephone to her mother in the beginning of spring. - - -ANTHESTĒRĬA. [DIONYSIA.] - - -ANTĬDŎSIS (ἀντίδοσις), in its literal and general meaning, “an -exchange,” was, in the language of the Attic courts, peculiarly -applied to proceedings under a law which is said to have originated -with Solon. By this, a citizen nominated to perform a leiturgia, -such as a trierarchy or choregia, or to rank among the property-tax -payers, in a class disproportioned to his means, was empowered to -call upon any qualified person not so charged to take the office in -his stead, or submit to a complete exchange of property, the charge -in question of course attaching to the first party, if the exchange -were finally effected. For the proceedings the courts were opened -at a stated time every year by the magistrates that had official -cognisance of the particular subject; such as the strategi in cases -of trierarchy and rating to the property-taxes, and the archon in -those of choregia. - - -ANTĬGRĂPHE (ἀντιγραφή) originally signified the writing put in by the -defendant, his “plea” in all causes whether public or private, in -answer to the indictment or bill of the prosecutor. It is, however, -also applied to the bill or indictment of the plaintiff or accuser. - - -ĀNTLĬA (ἄντλια), any machine for raising water, a pump. The most -important of these machines were:--(1) The tympanum; a tread-wheel, -worked by men treading on it.--(2) A wheel having wooden boxes -or buckets, so arranged as to form steps for those who trod the -wheel.--(3) The chain pump.--(4) The _cochlea_, or Archimedes’s -screw.--(5) The _ctesibica machina_, or forcing-pump.--Criminals -were condemned to the _antlia_ or tread-mill. The antlia with which -Martial (ix. 19) watered his garden, was probably the pole and bucket -universally employed in Italy, Greece, and Egypt. The pole is curved, -as shown in the annexed figure; because it is the stem of a fir or -some other tapering tree. - -[Illustration: Antlia.] - - -ANTYX (ἄντυξ), the rim or border of any thing, especially of a shield -or chariot. The rim of the large round shield of the ancient Greeks -was thinner than the part which it enclosed; but on the other hand, -the antyx of a chariot must have been thicker than the body to which -it gave both form and strength. In front of the chariot the antyx was -often raised above the body, into the form of a curvature, which -served the purpose of a hook to hang the reins upon. - -[Illustration: Antyx. (From an Etruscan tomb.)] - - -ĂPĂGŌGĒ (ἀπαγωγή), a summary process, allowed in certain cases by the -Athenian law. The term denotes not merely the act of apprehending -a culprit caught _in ipso facto_, but also the written information -delivered to the magistrate, urging his apprehension. The cases in -which the _apagoge_ was most generally allowed were those of theft, -murder, ill-usage of parents, &c. - - -ĂPĂTŪRĬA (ἀπατούρια) was a political festival, which the Athenians -had in common with all the Greeks of the Ionian name, with the -exception of those of Colophon and Ephesus. It was celebrated in the -month of Pyanepsion, and lasted for three days. The name ἀπατούρια -is not derived from ἀπατᾶν, to deceive, but is composed of ἀ = -ἅμα and πατύρια, which is perfectly consistent with what Xenophon -says of the festival, that when it is celebrated the fathers and -relations assemble together. According to this derivation, it is -the festival at which the phratriae met to discuss and settle their -own affairs. But, as every citizen was a member of a phratria, the -festival extended over the whole nation, who assembled _according to -phratriae_. The festival lasted three days. The third day was the -most important; for on that day, children born in that year, in the -families of the phratriae, or such as were not yet registered, were -taken by their fathers, or in their absence by their representatives -(κύριοι), before the assembled members of the phratria. For every -child a sheep or a goat was sacrificed. The father, or he who -supplied his place, was obliged to establish by oath that the child -was the offspring of free-born parents, and citizens of Athens. -After the victim was sacrificed, the phratores gave their votes, -which they took from the altar of Zeus Phratrius. When the majority -voted against the reception, the cause might be tried before one -of the courts of Athens; and if the claims of the child were found -unobjectionable, its name, as well as that of the father, was -entered into the register of the phratria, and those who had wished -to effect the exclusion of the child were liable to be punished. - - -ĂPERTA NĀVIS. [NAVIS.] - - -ĂPEX, a cap worn by the flamines and salii at Rome. The essential -part of the apex, to which alone the name properly belonged, was a -pointed piece of olive-wood, the base of which was surrounded with -a lock of wool. This was worn on the top of the head, and was held -there either by fillets only, or, as was more commonly the case, by -the aid of a cap which fitted the head, and was also fastened by -means of two strings or bands. The albogalerus, a white cap made of -the skin of a white victim sacrificed to Jupiter, and worn by the -flamen dialis, had the apex fastened to it by means of an olive twig. - -[Illustration: Apices, caps worn by the Salii. (From bas-reliefs and -coins.)] - - -APHLASTON (ἄφλαστον). [NAVIS.] - - -ĂPHRACTUS. [NAVIS.] - - -ĂPHRŎDĪSĬA (ἀφροδίσια) were festivals celebrated in honour of -Aphrodité, in a great number of towns in Greece, but particularly -in the island of Cyprus. Her most ancient temple was at Paphos. No -bloody sacrifices were allowed to be offered to her, but only pure -fire, flowers, and incense. - - -APLUSTRE. [NAVIS.] - - -ĂPŎCLĒTI (ἀποκλητοὶ). [AETOLICUM FOEDUS.] - - -ĂPODECTAE (ἀποδέκται), public officers at Athens, who were introduced -by Cleisthenes in the place of the ancient colacretae (κωλακρέται). -They were ten in number, one for each tribe, and their duty was -to collect all the ordinary taxes, and distribute them among the -separate branches of the administration which were entitled to them. - - -ĂPŎGRĂPHĒ (ἀπογραφή), literally, “a list, or register;” signified -also, (1) An accusation in public matters, more particularly when -there were several defendants. It differed but little, if at all, -from the ordinary _graphe_.--(2) A solemn protest or assertion -in writing before a magistrate, to the intent that it might be -preserved by him till it was required to be given in evidence.--(3) A -specification of property, said to belong to the state, but actually -in the possession of a private person; which specification was made -with a view to the confiscation of such property to the state. - - -ĂPOLLĬNĀRES LŪDI. [LUDI APOLLINARES.] - - -ĂPOLLŌNĬA (ἀπολλώνια), the name of a propitiatory festival solemnized -at Sicyon, in honour of Apollo and Artemis. - - -ĂPŎPHŎRĒTA (ἀποφόρητα) were presents, which were given to friends at -the end of an entertainment to take home with them. These presents -appear to have been usually given on festival days, especially during -the Saturnalia. - - -ĂPORRHĒTA (ἀπόῤῥητα), literally “things forbidden,” has two peculiar, -but widely different, acceptations in the Attic dialect. In one of -these it implies contraband goods; in the other, it denotes certain -contumelious epithets, from the application of which both the living -and the dead were protected by special laws. - - -ĂPŎSTŎLEUS (ἀποστολεύς), the name of a public officer at Athens. -There were ten magistrates of this name, and their duty was to see -that the ships were properly equipped and provided by those who were -bound to discharge the trierarchy. They had the power, in certain -cases, of imprisoning the trierarchs who neglected to furnish the -ships properly. - - -ĂPŎTHĒCA (ἀποθήκη), a place in the upper part of the house, in which -the Romans frequently placed the earthen amphorae in which their -wines were deposited. This place, which was quite different from the -_cella vinaria_, was above the _fumarium_; since it was thought that -the passage of the smoke through the room tended greatly to increase -the flavour of the wine. The position of the apotheca explains the -expression in Horace (_Carm._ ii. 21, 7), _Descende_, _testa_. - - -ĂPŎTHĔŌSIS (ἀποθέωσις), the enrolment of a mortal among the gods. The -mythology of Greece contains numerous instances of the deification of -mortals; but in the republican times of Greece we find few examples -of such deification. The inhabitants of Amphipolis, however, offered -sacrifices to Brasidas after his death. In the Greek kingdoms, -which arose in the East on the dismemberment of the empire of -Alexander, it appears to have been not uncommon for the successor -to the throne to offer divine honours to the former sovereign. -Such an apotheosis of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, is described by -Theocritus in his 17th Idyl. The term apotheosis, among the Romans, -properly signified the elevation of a deceased emperor to divine -honours. This practice, which was common upon the death of almost -all the emperors, appears to have arisen from the opinion which was -generally entertained among the Romans, that the souls or manes of -their ancestors became deities; and as it was common for children -to worship the manes of their fathers, so it was natural for divine -honours to be publicly paid to a deceased emperor, who was regarded -as the parent of his country. This apotheosis of an emperor was -usually called _consecratio_; and the emperor who received the honour -of an apotheosis was usually said _in deorum numerum referri_, or -_consecrari_, and whenever he is spoken of after his death, the title -of _divus_ is prefixed to his name. The funeral pile on which the -body of the deceased emperor was burnt, was constructed of several -stories in the form of chambers rising one above another, and in the -highest an eagle was placed, which was let loose as the fire began to -burn, and which was supposed to carry the soul of the emperor from -earth to heaven. - - -APPĀRĬTOR, the general name for a public servant of the magistrates -at Rome, namely, the ACCENSUS, CARNIFEX, COACTOR, INTERPRES, LICTOR, -PRAECO, SCRIBA, STATOR, VIATOR, of whom an account is given in -separate articles. They were called apparitores because they were -at hand to execute the commands of the magistrates (_quod iis -apparebant_). Their service or attendance was called _apparitio_. - - -APPELLĀTĬO, appeal.--(1) GREEK (ἔφεσις or ἀναδικία.) Owing to the -constitution of the Athenian tribunals, each of which was generally -appropriated to its peculiar subjects of cognisance, and therefore -could not be considered as homogeneous with or subordinate to any -other, there was little opportunity for bringing appeals properly -so called. It is to be observed also, that in general a cause was -finally and irrevocably decided by the verdict of the dicasts (δίκη -αὐτοτελής). There were only a few exceptions in which appeals and -new trials might be resorted to.--(2) ROMAN. The word _appellatio_, -and the corresponding verb _appellare_, are used in the early Roman -writers to express the application of an individual to a magistrate, -and particularly to a tribune, in order to protect himself from some -wrong inflicted, or threatened to be inflicted. It is distinguished -from _provocatio_, which in the early writers is used to signify -an appeal to the populus in a matter affecting life. It would seem -that the provocatio was an ancient right of the Roman citizens. -The surviving Horatius, who murdered his sister, appealed from the -duumviri to the populus. The decemviri took away the provocatio; but -it was restored by the _Lex Valeria et Horatia_, B.C. 449, in the -year after the decemvirate, and it was at the same time enacted, that -in future no magistrate should be made from whom there should be no -appeal. On this Livy remarks, that the plebs were now protected by -the _provocatio_ and the _tribunicium auxilium_; this latter term has -reference to the appellatio properly so called. The complete phrase -to express the provocatio is _provocare ad populum_; and the phrase -which expresses the appellatio is _appellare ad_, &c. - - -APSIS or ABSIS (ἁψίς), in architecture, signified first, any building -or portion of a building of a circular form or vaulted, and more -especially the circular and vaulted end of a Basilica. - - -ĂQUAE DUCTUS (ὑδραγωγία), literally, a water-conduit, but the word -is used especially for the magnificent structures by means of which -Rome and other cities of the Roman empire were supplied with water. -A Roman aqueduct, often called simply _aqua_, may be described in -general terms as a channel, constructed as nearly as possible with -a regular declivity from the source whence the water was derived to -the place where it was delivered, carried through hills by means of -tunnels, and over valleys upon a substruction of solid masonry or -arches. The aqueduct is mentioned by Strabo as among the structures -which were neglected by the Greeks, and first brought into use by -the Romans. Springs (κρῆναι, κρουνοί) were sufficiently abundant -in Greece to supply the great cities with water; and they were -frequently converted into public fountains by the formation of a head -for their waters, and the erection of an ornamental superstructure. -Of this we have an example in the _Enneacrunos_ at Athens, which -was constructed by Peisistratus and his sons. The Romans were in a -very different position, with respect to the supply of water, from -most of the Greek cities. They, at first, had recourse to the Tiber, -and to wells sunk in the city; but the water obtained from those -sources was very unwholesome, and must soon have proved insufficient, -from the growth of the population. It was this necessity that led -to the invention of aqueducts, in order to bring pure water from -the hills which surround the Campagna. The number of aqueducts was -gradually increased, partly at the public expense, and partly by -the munificence of individuals, till, in the fourth century of the -Christian era, they amounted to fourteen. Of these only four belong -to the time of the republic, while five were built in the reigns of -Augustus and Claudius.--1. The _Aqua Appia_, begun by the censor -Appius Claudius Caecus in B.C. 313. Its sources were near the _Via -Praenestina_, between the seventh and eighth mile-stones.--2. The -_Anio Vetus_ was commenced forty years later, B.C. 273, by the censor -M. Curius Dentatus, and was finished by M. Fulvius Flaccus. The -water was derived from the river Anio, above Tibur, at a distance of -20 Roman miles from the city; but, on account of its windings, its -actual length was 43 miles.--3. The _Aqua Marcia_, one of the most -important of the whole, was built by the praetor Q. Marcius Rex, by -command of the senate, in B.C. 144. It commenced at the side of the -_Via Valeria_, 36 miles from Rome.--4. The _Aqua Tepula_, built by -the censors Cn. Servilius Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus in B.C. -127, began at a spot in the Lucullan or Tusculan land, two miles -to the right of the tenth milestone on the _Via Latina_. It was -afterwards connected with.--5. The _Aqua Julia_, built by Agrippa in -his aedileship, B.C. 33. It was conducted from a source two miles -to the right of the twelfth milestone on the _Via Latina_, first to -the _Aqua Tepula_, in which it was merged as far as the reservoir -(_piscina_) on the _Via Latina_, seven miles from Rome. From this -reservoir the water was carried along two distinct channels, on -the same substructions; the lower channel being called the _Aqua -Tepula_, and the upper the _Aqua Julia_; and this double aqueduct -again was united with the _Aqua Marcia_, over the watercourse of -which the other two were carried.--6. The _Aqua Virgo_, built by -Agrippa, to supply his baths. From a source in a marshy spot by the -8th milestone on the _Via Collatina_, it was conducted by a very -circuitous route.--7. The _Aqua Alsietina_ (sometimes called also -_Aqua Augusta_), on the other side of the Tiber, was constructed -by Augustus from the _Lacus Alsietinus_ (_Lago di Martignano_), -which lay 6500 _passus_ to the right of the 14th milestone on the -_Via Claudia_.--8, 9. The two most magnificent aqueducts were the -_Aqua Claudia_ and the _Anio Novus_ (or _Aqua Aniena Nova_), both -commenced by Caligula in A.D. 36, and finished by Claudius in A.D. -50. The water of the _Aqua Claudia_ was derived from two copious and -excellent springs, near the 38th milestone on the _Via Sublacensis_. -Its length was nearly 46½ miles. The _Anio Novus_ began at the 42nd -milestone. It was the longest and the highest of all the aqueducts, -its length being nearly 59 miles, and some of its arches 109 feet -high. In the neighbourhood of the city these two aqueducts were -united, forming two channels on the same arches, the _Claudia_ -below and the _Anio Novus_ above. These nine aqueducts were all -that existed in the time of Frontinus, who was the _curator_ of the -aqueducts in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. There was also another -aqueduct, not reckoned with the nine, because its waters were no -longer brought all the way to Rome, viz.: 10. The _Aqua Crabra_.--The -following were of later construction. 11. The _Aqua Trajana_, brought -by Trajan from the _Lacus Sabatinus_ (now _Bracciano_).--12. The -_Aqua Alexandrina_, constructed by Alexander Severus; its source was -in the lands of Tusculum, about 14 miles from Rome.--13. The _Aqua -Septimiana_, built by Septimius Severus, was perhaps only a branch -of the _Aqua Julia_.--14. The _Aqua Algentia_ had its source at _M. -Algidus_ by the _Via Tusculana_. Its builder is unknown.--Great -pains were taken by successive emperors to preserve and repair the -aqueducts. From the Gothic wars downwards, they have for the most -part shared the fate of the other great Roman works of architecture; -their situation and purpose rendering them peculiarly exposed to -injury in war; but still their remains form the most striking -features of the Campagna, over which their lines of ruined arches, -clothed with ivy and the wild fig-tree, radiate in various directions. - -[Illustration: Triple Aqueduct.] - -Three of them still serve for their ancient use. They are--(1.) The -_Acqua Vergine_, the ancient _Aqua Virgo_. (2.) The _Acqua Felice_, -named after the conventual name of its restorer Sixtus V. (Fra -Felice), is, probably, a part of the ancient _Aqua Claudia_, though -some take it for the _Alexandrina_. (3.) The _Acqua Paola_, the -ancient _Alsietina_.--The following woodcut represents a restored -section of the triple aqueduct of Agrippa:--_a._ the _Aqua Marcia_; -_b._ the _Aqua Tepula_; _c._ the _Aqua Julia_. The two latter are of -brick and vaulted over. The air-vents are also shown.--The channel -of an aqueduct (_specus_, _canalis_) was a trough of brick or stone, -lined with cement, and covered with a coping, which was almost always -arched; and the water either ran directly through this trough, or -it was carried through pipes laid along the trough. These pipes -were of lead, or terra-cotta (_fictiles_), and sometimes, for the -sake of economy, of leather. At convenient points on the course of -the aqueduct, and especially near the middle and end, there was -generally a reservoir (_piscina_, _piscina limosa_) in which the -water might deposit any sediment that it contained. The water was -received, when it reached the walls of the city, in a vast reservoir -called _castellum_, which formed the _head of water_ and also served -the purpose of a _meter_. From this principal _castellum_ the water -flowed into other _castella_, whence it was distributed for public -and private use. The term _castellum_ is sometimes also applied to -the intermediate reservoirs already mentioned. During the republic, -the censors and aediles had the superintendence of the aqueducts. -Augustus first established _curatores_ (or _praefecti_) _aquarum_, -who were invested with considerable authority. They were attended -outside the city by two lictors, three public slaves, a secretary, -and other attendants. In the time of Nerva and Trajan, 460 slaves -were constantly employed under the orders of the _curatores aquarum_ -in attending to the aqueducts. They consisted of:--1. The _villici_, -whose duty it was to attend to the pipes and _calices_. 2. The -_castellarii_, who had the superintendence of all the _castella_, -both within and without the city. 3. The _circuitores_, so called -because they had to go from post to post, to examine into the state -of the works, and also to keep watch over the labourers employed -upon them. 4. The _silicarii_, or paviours. 5. The _tectores_, or -masons. These and other workmen appear to have been included under -the general term of AQUARII. - - -ĂQUAE ET IGNIS INTERDICTĬO. [EXSILIUM.] - - -ĂQUĀRĬI, slaves who carried water for bathing, &c., into the female -apartments. The aquarii were also public officers who attended to the -aqueducts. [AQUAE DUCTUS.] - - -ĂQUĬLA. [SIGNA MILITARIA.] - - -[Illustration: Arae, Altars.] - -ĀRA (βωμός, θυτήριον), an altar. _Ara_ was a general term denoting -any structure elevated above the ground, and used to receive upon -it offerings made to the gods. _Altare_, probably contracted from -_alta ara_, was properly restricted to the larger, higher, and -more expensive structures. Four specimens of ancient altars are -given below; the two in the former woodcut are square, and those -in the latter round, which is the less common form. At the top of -three of the above altars we see the hole intended to receive the -fire (ἐσχαρίς, ἐσχάρα): the fourth was probably intended for the -offering of fruits or other gifts, which were presented to the gods -without fire. When the altars were prepared for sacrifice, they were -commonly decorated with garlands or festoons. These were composed -of certain kinds of leaves and flowers, which were considered -consecrated to such uses, and were called _verbenae_. The altars -constructed with most labour and skill belonged to temples; and they -were erected either before the temple or within the cella of the -temple, and principally before the statue of the divinity to whom -it was dedicated. The altars in the area before the temple were -altars of burnt-offerings, at which animal sacrifices (_victimae_, -σφάγια, ἱερεῖα) were presented: only incense was burnt, or cakes and -bloodless sacrifices offered on the altars within the building. - -[Illustration: Arae, Altars.] - - -ĂRĀTRUM (ἄροτρον), a plough. Among the Greeks and Romans the three -most essential parts of the plough were,--the plough-tail (γύης, -_buris_, _bura_), the share-beam (ἔλυμα, _dens_, _dentale_), that -is, the piece of wood to which the share is fixed, and the pole -(ῥυμός], ἱστοβοεύς, _temo_). In the time and country of Virgil -it was the custom to force a tree into the crooked form of the -_buris_, or plough-tail. The upper end of the _buris_ being held by -the ploughman, the lower part, below its junction with the pole, -was used to hold the _dentale_ or share-beam, which was either -sheathed with metal, or driven bare into the ground, according to -circumstances. The term _vomer_ was sometimes applied to the end of -the _dentale_. To these three parts, the two following are added in -the description of the plough by Virgil:--1. The _earth-boards_, or -_mould-boards_ (_aures_), rising on each side, bending outwardly in -such a manner as to throw on either hand the soil which had been -previously loosened and raised by the share, and adjusted to the -share-beam (_dentale_), which was made double for the purpose of -receiving them. 2. The _handle_ (_stiva_). Virgil describes this -part as used to turn the plough at the end of the furrow; and it is -defined by an ancient commentator on Virgil as the “handle by which -the plough is directed.” It is probable that as the _dentalia_, -the two share-beams, were in the form of the Greek letter Λ, which -Virgil describes by _duplici dorso_, the _buris_ was fastened to the -left share-beam and the _stiva_ to the right, so that the plough of -Virgil was more like the modern Lancashire plough, which is commonly -held behind with both hands. Sometimes, however, the _stiva_ was -used alone and instead of the _buris_ or tail. In place of _stiva_ -the term _capulus_ is sometimes employed. The only other part of the -plough requiring notice is the coulter (_culter_), which was used by -the Romans as it is with us. It was inserted into the pole so as to -depend vertically before the share, cutting through the roots which -came in its way, and thus preparing for the more complete overturning -of the soil by the share. Two small wheels were also added to some -ploughs. The plough, as described by Virgil, corresponds in all -essential particulars with the plough now used about Mantua and -Venice. The Greeks and Romans usually ploughed their land three -times for each crop. The first ploughing was called _proscindere_, -or _novare_ (νεοῦσθαι, νεάζεσθαι); the second _offringere_, or -_iterare_; and the third, _lirare_, or _tertiare_. The field which -underwent the “proscissio” was called _vervactum_ or _novale_ -(νεός), and in this process the coulter was employed, because the -fresh surface was entangled with numberless roots which required -to be divided before the soil could be turned up by the share. The -term “_offringere_” from _ob_ and _frangere_, was applied to the -second ploughing; because the long parallel clods already turned -up were broken and cut across, by drawing the plough through them -at right angles to its former direction. The field which underwent -this process was called _ager iteratus_. After the second ploughing -the sower cast his seed. Also the clods were often, though not -always, broken still further by a wooden mallet, or by harrowing -(_occatio_). The Roman ploughman then, for the first time, attached -the earth-boards to his share. The effect of this adjustment was -to divide the level surface of the “ager _iteratus_” into ridges. -These were called _porcae_, and also _lirae_, whence came the verb -_lirare_, to make ridges, and also _delirare_, to decline from the -straight line. The earth-boards, by throwing the earth to each side -in the manner already explained, both covered the newly-scattered -seed, and formed between the ridges furrows (αὔλακες, _sulci_) for -carrying off the water. In this state the field was called _seges_ -and τρίπολος. When the ancients ploughed three times only, it was -done in the spring, summer, and autumn of the same year. But in -order to obtain a still heavier crop, both the Greeks and the Romans -ploughed four times, the proscissio being performed in the latter -part of the preceding year, so that between one crop and another two -whole years intervened. - -[Illustration: Aratrum, Plough (now used at Mantua). - - 1. Buris. - 2. Temo. - 3. Dentale. - 4. Culter. - 5. Vomer. - 6 6. Aures.] - - -ARBĬTER. [JUDEX.] - -ARCA (κιβωτός). (1) A chest, in which the Romans were accustomed to -place their money; and the phrase _ex arca solvere_ had the meaning -of paying in ready money. The term arcae was usually applied to -the chests in which the rich kept their money, and was opposed to -the smaller _loculi_, _sacculus_, and _crumena_.--(2) The coffin -in which persons were buried, or the bier on which the corpse was -placed previously to burial.--(3) A strong cell made of oak, in which -criminals and slaves were confined. - - -ARCĔRA, a covered carriage or litter, spread with cloths, which -was used in ancient times in Rome, to carry the aged and infirm. -It is said to have obtained the name of arcera on account of its -resemblance to an arca, or chest. - -[Illustration: Arcera. (Ginzrot, Wagen, Tav. 19, fig. 2.)] - - -ARCHEION (ἀρχεῖον) properly means any public place belonging to -the magistrates, but is more particularly applied to the archive -office, where the decrees of the people and other state documents -were preserved. This office is sometimes merely called τὸ δημοσίον. -At Athens the archives were kept in the temple of the mother of the -gods (μήτρῳον), and the charge of it was entrusted to the president -(ἐπιστάτης) of the senate of the Five-hundred. - - -ARCHĬĀTER (ἀρχίατρος), a medical title under the Roman emperors, the -exact signification of which has been the subject of much discussion, -but which most probably means “the chief of the physicians.” The -first person whom we find bearing this title is Andromachus, -physician to Nero. In after times the order appears to have been -divided, and we find two distinct classes of archiatri, viz., those -of the palace and those of the people. - - -ARCHĬMĪMUS. [MIMUS.] - - -ARCHĬTECTŪRA (ἀρχιτεκτονία, ἀρχιτεκτονική), architecture. The -necessity for a habitation, and the attempt to adorn those -habitations which were intended for the gods, are the two causes -from which the art derives its existence. In early times little -attention was paid to domestic architecture. The resources of the -art were lavished upon the temples of the gods; and hence the -greater part of the history of Grecian architecture is inseparably -connected with that of the temple, and has its proper place under -TEMPLUM, and the subordinate headings, such as COLUMNA, &c. But, -though the first rise of architecture, as a fine art, is connected -with the temple, yet, viewed as the science of construction, it must -have been employed, even earlier, for other purposes, such as the -erection of fortifications, palaces, treasuries, and other works of -utility. Accordingly, it is the general opinion of antiquaries, that -the very earliest edifices, of which we have any remains, are the -so-called Cyclopean works, in which we see huge unsquared blocks of -stone built together in the best way that their shapes would allow. -[MURUS.] In addition to these, however, there are other purposes -for which architecture, still using the term in its lower sense, -would be required in a very early stage of political society; such -as the general arrangement of cities, the provision of a place for -the transaction of public business, with the necessary edifices -appertaining to it [AGORA, FORUM], and the whole class of works which -we embrace under the head of civil engineering, such as those for -drainage [CLOACA, EMISSARIUS], for communication [VIA, PONS], and -for the supply of water [AQUAE DUCTUS]. Almost equally necessary are -places devoted to public exercise, health, and amusement, GYMNASIUM, -STADIUM, HIPPODROMUS, CIRCUS, BALNEUM, THEATRUM, AMPHITHEATRUM. -Lastly, the skill of the architect has been from the earliest times -employed to preserve the memory of departed men and past events; -and hence we have the various works of monumental and triumphal -architecture, which are described under the heads FUNUS, ARCUS, -COLUMNA. The history of architecture may be divided into five -periods. The first, which is chiefly mythical, comes down to the -time of Cypselus, Ol. 30, B.C. 660: the second period comes down to -the termination of the Persian war, Ol. 75. 2, B.C. 478: the third -is the brilliant period from the end of the Persian war to the death -of Alexander the Great, Ol. 114, B.C. 323: the fourth period extends -to the battle of Actium, B.C. 31: the fifth period embraces the -architecture of the Roman empire till it became mingled with the -Gothic. Strongly fortified cities, palaces, and treasuries are the -chief works of the earlier part of the first period; and to it may -be referred most of the so-called Cyclopean remains; while the era -of the Dorian invasion marks, in all probability, the commencement -of the Dorian style of temple architecture. In the second period -the art made rapid advances under the powerful patronage of the -aristocracies in some cities, as at Sparta, and of the tyrants in -others, as Cypselus at Corinth, Theagnes at Megara, Cleisthenes -at Sicyon, the Peisistratids at Athens, and Polycrates at Samos. -Architecture now assumed decidedly the character of a fine art, and -became associated with the sister arts of sculpture and painting, -which are essential to its development. Magnificent temples sprung -up in all the principal Greek cities; and while the Doric order was -brought almost, if not quite, to perfection, in Greece Proper, in -the Doric colonies of Asia Minor, and in Central Italy and Sicily, -the Ionic order appeared, already perfect at its first invention, in -the great temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The ruins still existing at -Paestum, Syracuse, Agrigentum, Selinus, Aegina, and other places, -are imperishable monuments of this period. To it also belong the -great works of the Roman kings. The commencement of the third and -most brilliant period of the art was signalized by the rebuilding of -Athens, the establishment of regular principles for the laying out -of cities by Hippodamus of Miletus, and the great works of the age -of Pericles, by the contemporaries of Phidias, at Athens, Eleusis, -and Olympia. The first part of the fourth period saw the extension -of the Greek architecture over the countries conquered by Alexander, -and, in the West, the commencement of the new style, which arose from -the imitation, with some alterations, of the Greek forms by Roman -architects, to which the conquest of Greece gave, of course, a new -impulse. By the time of Augustus, Rome was adorned with every kind -of public and private edifice, surrounded by villas, and furnished -with roads and aqueducts; and these various erections were adorned by -the forms of Grecian art; but already Vitruvius begins to complain -that the purity of that art is corrupted by the intermixture of -heterogeneous forms. This process of deterioration went on rapidly -during the fifth period, though combined at first with increasing -magnificence in the scale and number of the buildings erected. The -early part of this period is made illustrious by the numerous works -of Augustus and his successors, especially the Flavii, Nerva, Trajan, -Hadrian, and the Antonines, at Rome and in the provinces; but from -the time of the Antonines the decline of the art was rapid and -decided. In one department a new impulse was given to architecture -by the rise of Christian churches, which were generally built on the -model of the Roman Basilica. One of the most splendid specimens of -Christian architecture is the church of S. Sophia at Constantinople, -built in the reign of Justinian, A.D. 537, and restored, after its -partial destruction by an earthquake, in 554. But, long before this -time, the Greco-Roman style had become thoroughly corrupted, and -that new style, which is called the Byzantine, had arisen out of the -mixture of Roman architecture with ideas derived from the Northern -nations. - - -ARCHITHĔŌRUS (ἀρχιθέωρος). [DELIA.] - - -ARCHON (ἄρχων). The government of Athens began with monarchy, -and, after passing through a dynasty[1] and aristocracy, ended in -democracy. Of the kings of Athens, considered as the capital of -Attica, Theseus may be said to have been the first; for to him, -whether as a real individual or a representative of a certain period, -is attributed the union of the different and independent states of -Attica under one head. The last was Codrus; in acknowledgment of -whose patriotism in meeting death for his country, the Athenians -are said to have determined that no one should succeed him with the -title of king (βασιλεύς). It seems, however, equally probable that -it was the nobles who availed themselves of the opportunity to serve -their own interests, by abolishing the kingly power for another, the -possessors of which they called _Archontes_ (ἄρχοντες) or rulers. -These for some time continued to be like the kings of the house of -Codrus, appointed for life: still an important point was gained by -the nobles, the office being made accountable (ὑπεύθυνος), which of -course implies that the nobility had some control over it. This state -of things lasted for twelve reigns of archons. The next step was to -limit the continuance of the office to ten years, still confining -it to the Medontidae, or house of Codrus, so as to establish what -the Greeks called a dynasty, till the archonship of Eryxias, the -last archon of that family elected as such. At the end of his ten -years (B.C. 684), a much greater change took place: the archonship -was made annual, and its various duties divided among a college -of nine, chosen by suffrage (χειροτονία) from the Eupatridae, or -Patricians, and no longer elected from the Medontidae exclusively. -This arrangement lasted till the time of Solon, who still continued -the election by suffrage, but made the qualification for office -depend, not on birth, but property. The election by lot is believed -to have been introduced by Cleisthenes (B.C. 508). The last change -is supposed to have been made by Aristides, who after the battle of -Plataeae (B.C. 479) abolished the property qualification, throwing -open the archonship and other magistracies to all the citizens; that -is, to the Thetes, as well as the other classes, the former of whom -were not allowed by Solon’s laws to hold any magistracy at all. -Still, after the removal of the old restrictions, some security was -left to insure respectability; for, previously to an archon entering -on office, he underwent an examination, called the _anacrisis_ -(ἀνάκρισις), as to his being a legitimate and a good citizen, a good -son, and qualified in point of property, but the latter limitation -was either done away with by Aristides, or soon became obsolete. Yet, -even after passing a satisfactory _anacrisis_, each of the archons, -in common with other magistrates, was liable to be deposed on -complaint of misconduct made before the people, at the first regular -assembly in each prytany. On such an occasion the _epicheirotonia_ -(ἐπιχειροτονία), as it was called, took place: and we read that -in one case the whole college of archons was deprived of office -(ἀποχειροτονεῖσθαι). In consequence of the democratical tendency of -the assembly and courts of justice established by Solon, the archons -lost the great political power which they at one time possessed. -They became, in fact, not as of old directors of the government, -but merely municipal magistrates, exercising functions and bearing -titles described below. It has been already stated, that the duties -of the single archon were shared by a college of nine. The first, or -president of this body, was called _Archon_, by way of pre-eminence, -or _Archon Eponymus_ (ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος), from the year being -distinguished by and registered in his name. The second was styled -_Archon Basileus_ (ἄρχων βασιλεύς), or the King Archon; the third -_Polemarchus_ (πολέμαρχος), or commander-in-chief; the remaining -six, _Thesmothetae_ (θεσμοθέται), or legislators. As regards the -duties of the archons, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish -what belonged to them individually, and what collectively. It -seems that a considerable portion of the judicial functions of the -ancient kings devolved upon the _Archon Eponymus_, who was also -constituted a sort of state protector of those who were unable to -defend themselves. Thus he was to superintend orphans, heiresses, -families losing their representatives, widows left pregnant, and -to see that they were not wronged in any way. This archon had also -the superintendence of the greater Dionysia, and the Thargelia. -The functions of the _King Archon_ were almost all connected with -religion; his distinguishing title shows that he was considered a -representative of the old kings in their capacity of high priest, as -the Rex Sacrificulus was at Rome. Thus he presided at the Lenaea, -or older Dionysia; superintended the mysteries and the games called -_Lampadephoriae_, and had to offer up sacrifices and prayers in the -Eleusinium, both at Athens and Eleusis. Moreover, indictments for -impiety, and controversies about the priesthood, were laid before -him; and, in cases of murder, he brought the trial into the court of -the areiopagus, and voted with its members. His wife, also, who was -called _Basilissa_ (βασίλισσα), had to offer certain sacrifices, and -therefore it was required that she should be a citizen of pure blood, -without stain or blemish. The _Polemarch_ was originally, as his name -denotes, the commander-in-chief, and we find him discharging military -duties as late as the battle of Marathon, in conjunction with the ten -_Strategi_; he there took, like the kings of old, the command of the -right wing of the army. This, however, seems to be the last occasion -on record of this magistrate appointed by lot being invested with -such important functions; and in after ages we find that his duties -ceased to be military, having been, in a great measure, transferred -to the protection and superintendence of the resident aliens, so that -he resembled in many respects the praetor peregrinus at Rome. Thus, -all actions affecting aliens, the isoteles and proxeni were brought -before him previously to trial. Moreover, it was the polemarch’s -duty to offer the yearly sacrifice to Artemis, in commemoration of -the vow made by Callimachus, at Marathon, and to arrange the funeral -games in honour of those who fell in war. The six _Thesmothetae_ were -extensively connected with the administration of justice, and appear -to have been called legislators, because, in the absence of a written -code, they might be said to make laws, or _thesmi_ (θεσμοί), in the -ancient language of Athens, though in reality they only explained -them. They were required to review, every year, the whole body of -laws, that they might detect any inconsistencies or superfluities, -and discover whether any laws which were abrogated were in the public -records amongst the rest. Their report was submitted to the people, -who referred the necessary alterations to a legislative committee -chosen for the purpose, and called _Nomothetae_ (νομοθέται). The -chief part of the duties of the thesmothetae consisted in receiving -informations, and bringing cases to trial in the courts of law, of -the days of sitting in which they gave public notice. They did not -try them themselves, but seem to have constituted a sort of grand -jury, or inquest. The trial itself took place before the Dicastae. -[DICASTAE.] It is necessary to be cautious in our interpretation of -the words ἀρχή and ἄρχοντες, since they have a double meaning in -the Attic orators, sometimes referring to the archons peculiarly -so called, and sometimes to any other magistracy. The archons had -various privileges and honours. The greatest of the former was the -exemption from the trierarchies--a boon not allowed even to the -successors of Harmodius and Aristogeiton. As a mark of their office, -they wore a chaplet or crown of myrtle; and if any one struck or -abused one of the archons, when wearing this badge of office, he -became _atimus_ (ἄτιμος), or infamous in the fullest extent, thereby -losing his civic rights. The archons, at the close of their year -of service, were admitted among the members of the areiopagus. -[AREIOPAGUS.] - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[1] By this is meant that the supreme power, though not monarchical, -was confined to one family. - - -[Illustration: Arch of Tiryns. (Gell’s Itinerary, pl. 16.)] - -ARCUS (also fornix), an arch. A true arch is formed of a series -of wedge-like stones, or of bricks, supporting each other, and -all bound firmly together by their mutual pressure. It would seem -that the arch, as thus defined, and as used by the Romans, was not -known to the Greeks in the early periods of their history. But they -made use of a contrivance, even in the heroic age, by which they -were enabled to gain all the advantages of our archway in making -corridors, or hollow galleries, and which in appearance resembled -the pointed arch, such as is now termed Gothic. This was effected -by cutting away the superincumbent stones in the manner already -described, at an angle of about 45° with the horizon. The mode of -construction and appearance of such arches is represented in the -annexed drawing of the walls of Tiryns. The gate of Signia (_Segni_) -in Latium exhibits a similar example. The principle of the true arch -seems to have been known to the Romans from the earliest period; -it is used in the _Cloaca Maxima_. It is most probably an Etruscan -invention. The use of it constitutes one leading distinction between -Greek and Roman architecture, for by its application the Romans were -enabled to execute works of far bolder construction than those of -the Greeks. The Romans, however, never used any other form of arch -than the semicircle. The arcus triumphalis, triumphal arch, was a -structure peculiar to the Romans, erected in honour of an individual, -or in commemoration of a conquest. Triumphal arches were built -across the principal streets of Rome, and, according to the space -of their respective localities, consisted of a single archway, or -a central one for carriages, and two smaller ones on each side for -foot-passengers. Those actually made use of on the occasion of a -triumphal entry and procession were merely temporary and hastily -erected; and, having served their purpose, were taken down again, and -sometimes replaced by others of more durable materials. Stertinius -is the first upon record who erected anything of the kind. He built -an arch in the Forum Boarium, about B.C. 196, and another in the -Circus Maximus, each of which was surmounted by gilt statues. There -are twenty-one arches recorded by different writers, as having been -erected in the city of Rome, five of which now remain:--1. _Arcus -Drusi_, which was erected to the honour of Claudius Drusus on the -Appian way. 2. _Arcus Titi_, at the foot of the Palatine, which -was erected to the honour of Titus, after his conquest of Judaea; -the bas-reliefs of this arch represent the spoils from the temple -of Jerusalem carried in triumphal procession. 3. _Arcus Septimii -Severi_, which was erected by the senate (A.D. 207) at the end of -the Via Sacra, in honour of that emperor and his two sons, Caracalla -and Geta, on account of his conquest of the Parthians and Arabians. -4. _Arcus Gallieni_, erected to the honour of Gallienus by a private -individual, M. Aurelius Victor. 5. _Arcus Constantini_, which was -larger than the arch of Titus. As a specimen of the triumphal arches, -a drawing of the arch of Drusus is given in the preceding page. - -[Illustration: Arch of Drusus at Rome] - - -ARCUS (βιός, τόξον), the bow used for shooting arrows, is one of the -most ancient of all weapons, but is characteristic of Asia rather -than of Europe. In the Roman armies it was scarcely ever employed -except by auxiliaries; and these auxiliaries, called _sagittarii_, -were chiefly Cretes and Arabians. The upper of the two figures below -shows the Scythian or Parthian bow unstrung; the lower one represents -the usual form of the Grecian bow, which had a double curvature, -consisting of two circular portions united by the handle. When not -used, the bow was put into a case (τοξοθήκη, γωρυτός, _corytus_), -which was made of leather, and sometimes ornamented. It frequently -held the arrows as well as the bow, and on this account is often -confounded with the _pharetra_ or quiver. - -[Illustration: Arcus, Bow. (From paintings on vases.) - -Corytus, Bow-case. (From a Relief in the Vatican, Visconti, iv. -tav. 43.)] - - -ĀRĔA (ἅλως, or ἁλωά), the threshing-floor, was a raised place in the -field, open on all sides to the wind. Great pains were taken to make -this floor hard; it was sometimes paved with flint stones, but more -usually covered with clay and smoothed with a roller. - - -ĂREIOPĂGUS (ὁ Ἄρειος πάγος, or hill of Ares) was a rocky eminence, -lying to the west of, and not far from the Acropolis at Athens. It -was the place of meeting of the council (Ἡ ἐν Ἀρείῳ πάγῳ βουλή), -which was sometimes called _The Upper Council_ (Ἡ ἄνω βουλή), to -distinguish it from the senate of Five-hundred, which sat in the -Cerameicus within the city. It was a body of very remote antiquity, -acting as a criminal tribunal, and existed long before the time -of Solon, but he so far modified its constitution and sphere of -duty, that he may almost be called its founder. What that original -constitution was, must in some degree be left to conjecture, though -there is every reason to suppose that it was aristocratical, the -members being taken, like the ephetae, from the noble patrician -families. [EPHETAE.] By the legislation of Solon the Areiopagus was -composed of the ex-archons, who, after an unexceptionable discharge -of their duties, “went up” to the Areiopagus, and became members -of it for life, unless expelled for misconduct. As Solon made the -qualification for the office of archon to depend not on birth but -on property, the council after his time ceased to be aristocratic -in constitution; but, as we learn from Attic writers, continued so -in spirit. In fact, Solon is said to have formed the two councils, -the senate and the Areiopagus, to be a check upon the democracy; -that, as he himself expressed it, “the state riding upon them as -anchors might be less tossed by storms.” Nay, even after the archons -were no longer elected by suffrage, but by lot, and the office was -thrown open by Aristides to all the Athenian citizens, the “upper -council” still retained its former tone of feeling. Moreover, besides -these changes in its constitution, Solon altered and extended its -functions. Before his time it was only a criminal court, trying cases -of “wilful murder and wounding, of arson and poisoning,” whereas he -gave it extensive powers of a censorial and political nature. Thus -we learn that he made the council an “overseer of everything, and -the guardian of the laws,” empowering it to inquire how any one got -his living and to punish the idle; and we are also told that the -Areiopagites were “superintendents of good order and decency,” terms -as unlimited and undefined as Solon not improbably wished to leave -their authority. When heinous crimes had notoriously been committed, -but the guilty parties were not known, or no accuser appeared, the -Areiopagus inquired into the subject, and reported to the demus. The -report or information was called _apophasis_. This was a duty which -they sometimes undertook on their own responsibility, and in the -exercise of an old established right, and sometimes on the order of -the demus. Nay, to such an extent did they carry their power, that -on one occasion they apprehended an individual (Antiphon), who had -been acquitted by the general assembly, and again brought him to a -trial, which ended in his condemnation and death. Again, we find them -revoking an appointment whereby Aeschines was made the advocate of -Athens before the Amphictyonic council, and substituting Hyperides -in his room. They also had duties connected with religion, one of -which was to superintend the sacred olives growing about Athens, and -try those who were charged with destroying them; and in general it -was their office to punish the impious and irreligious. Independent, -then, of its jurisdiction as a criminal court in cases of wilful -murder, which Solon continued to the Areiopagus, its influence must -have been sufficiently great to have been a considerable obstacle -to the aggrandisement of the democracy at the expense of the other -parties in the state. Accordingly, we find that Pericles, who was -opposed to the aristocracy, resolved to diminish its power and -circumscribe its sphere of action. His coadjutor in this work was -Ephialtes, a statesman of inflexible integrity, and also a military -commander. They experienced much opposition in their attempts, not -only in the assembly, but also on the stage, where Aeschylus produced -his tragedy of the Eumenides, the object of which was to impress upon -the Athenians the dignity, sacredness, and constitutional worth of -the institution which Pericles and Ephialtes wished to reform. Still -the opposition failed: a decree was carried by which, as Aristotle -says, the Areiopagus was “mutilated,” and many of its hereditary -rights abolished, though it is difficult to ascertain the precise -nature of the alterations which Pericles effected. The jurisdiction -of the Areiopagus in cases of murder was still left to them. In such -cases the process was as follows:--The king archon brought the case -into court, and sat as one of the judges, who were assembled in -the open air, probably to guard against any contamination from the -criminal. The accuser first came forwards to make a solemn oath that -his accusation was true, standing over the slaughtered victims, and -imprecating extirpation upon himself and his whole family were it -not so. The accused then denied the charge with the same solemnity -and form of oath. Each party then stated his case with all possible -plainness, keeping strictly to the subject, and not being allowed -to appeal in any way to the feelings or passions of the judges. -After the first speech, a criminal accused of murder might remove -from Athens, and thus avoid the capital punishment fixed by Draco’s -_Thesmi_, which on this point were still in force. Except in cases -of parricide, neither the accuser nor the court had power to prevent -this; but the party who thus evaded the extreme punishment was not -allowed to return home, and when any decree was passed at Athens to -legalize the return of exiles, an exception was always made against -those who had thus left their country. The Areiopagus continued -to exist, in name at least, till a very late period. Thus we find -Cicero mentioning the council in his letters; and an individual is -spoken of as an Areiopagite under the emperors Gratian and Theodosius -(A.D. 380). The case of St. Paul is generally quoted as an instance -of the authority of the Areiopagus in religious matters; but the -words of the sacred historian do not necessarily imply that he was -brought before the council. It may, however, be remarked, that the -Areiopagites certainly took cognizance of the introduction of new -and unauthorised forms of religious worship, called ἐπίθετα ἱερά, in -contradistinction to the πάτρια or older rites of the state. - - -ĂRĒNA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] - - -ĂRĔTĀLŎGI, persons who amused the company at the Roman dinner tables. - - -ARGĒI, the name given by the pontifices to the places consecrated -by Numa for the celebration of religious services. Varro calls them -the chapels of the argei, and says they were twenty-seven in number, -distributed in the different districts of the city. There was a -tradition that these argei were named from the chieftains who came -with Hercules, the Argive, to Rome, and occupied the Capitoline, -or, as it was anciently called, Saturnian hill. It is impossible -to say what is the historical value or meaning of this legend; we -may, however, notice its conformity with the statement that Rome was -founded by the Pelasgians, with whom the name of Argos was connected. -The name argei was also given to certain figures thrown into the -Tiber from the Sublician bridge, on the Ides of May in every year. -This was done by the pontifices, the vestals, the praetors, and other -citizens, after the performance of the customary sacrifices. The -images were thirty in number, made of bulrushes, and in the form of -men. Ovid makes various suppositions to account for the origin of -this rite; we can only conjecture that it was a symbolical offering, -to propitiate the gods, and that the number was a representative -either of the thirty patrician curiae at Rome, or perhaps of the -thirty Latin townships. - - -ARGENTĀRĬI, bankers or money changers. (1) GREEK. The bankers at -Athens were called _Trapezitae_ (τραπεζίται), from their tables -(τραπεζαι) at which they sat, while carrying on their business, and -which were in the market place. Their principal occupation was that -of changing money; but they frequently took money, at a moderate -premium, from persons who did not like to occupy themselves with -the management of their own affairs, and placed it out at interest. -Their usual interest was 36 per cent.; a rate that at present -scarcely occurs except in cases of money lent on bottomry. The only -instance of a bank recognized and conducted on behalf of the state -occurs at Byzantium, where at one time it was let by the republic -to capitalists to farm. Yet the state probably exercised some kind -of superintendence over the private bankers, since it is hardly -possible otherwise to account for the unlimited confidence which they -enjoyed.--(2) ROMAN. The _Argentarii_ at Rome must be distinguished -from the _mensarii_ and _nummularii_, or public bankers. [MENSARII.] -The argentarii were private persons, who carried on business on their -own responsibility, and were not in the service of the republic; -but the shops or _tabernae_ about the forum, which they occupied, -and in which they transacted their business, were state property. -The business of the argentarii may be divided into the following -branches. 1. _Permutatio_, or the exchange of foreign coin for Roman, -and in later times the giving of bills of exchange payable in foreign -towns. 2. The keeping of sums of money for other persons. Such money -might be deposited by the owner merely to save himself the trouble -of keeping it and making payments, and in this case it was called -_depositum_; the argentarius then paid no interest, and the money was -called _vacua pecunia_. Or the money was deposited on condition of -the argentarius paying interest; in this case the money was called -_creditum_. A payment made through a banker was called _per mensam_, -_de mensa_, or _per mensae scripturam_, while a payment made by the -debtor in person was a payment _ex arca_ or _de domo_. An argentarius -never paid away any person’s money without being either authorised by -him in person or receiving a cheque which was called _perscriptio_. -The argentarii kept accurate accounts in books called _codices_, -_tabulae_, or _rationes_, and there is every reason for believing -that they were acquainted with what is called in book-keeping double -entry. When a party found to be in debt paid what he owed, he had -his name effaced (_nomen expedire_ or _expungere_) from the banker’s -books. 3. Their connection with commerce and public auctions. In -private sales and purchases, they sometimes acted as agents for -either party (_interpretes_), and sometimes they undertook to sell -the whole estate of a person, as an inheritance. At public auctions -they were almost invariably present, registering the articles sold, -their prices, and purchasers, and receiving the payment from the -purchasers. 4. The testing of the genuineness of coins (_probatio -nummorum_). This, however, seems originally to have been a part of -the duty of public officers, the mensarii or nummularii, until in -the course of time the opinion of an argentarius also came to be -looked upon as decisive. 5. The _solidorum venditio_, that is, the -obligation of purchasing from the mint the newly coined money, and -circulating it among the people. This branch of their functions -occurs only under the empire. The argentarii formed a collegium, -divided into _societates_ or corporations, which alone had the right -to admit new members of their guild. None but freemen could become -members of such a corporation. It has already been observed that the -argentarii had their shops round the forum: hence to become bankrupt -was expressed by _foro cedere_, or _abire_, or _foro mergi_. - - -ARGENTUM (ἄργυρος), silver. The relative value of gold and silver -differed considerably at different periods in Greek and Roman -history. Herodotus mentions it as 13 to 1; Plato, as 12 to 1; -Menander, as 10 to 1; and Livy as 10 to 1, about B.C. 189. According -to Suetonius, Julius Caesar, on one occasion, exchanged silver for -gold in the proportion of 9 to 1; but the most usual proportion under -the early Roman emperors was about 12 to 1. The proportion in modern -times, since the discovery of the American mines, has varied between -17 to 1 and 14 to 1. In the earliest times the Greeks obtained their -silver chiefly as an article of commerce from the Phocaeans and the -Samians; but they soon began to work the rich mines of their own -country and its islands. The chief mines were in Siphnos, Thessaly, -and Attica. In the last-named country, the silver mines of Laurion -furnished a most abundant supply, and were generally regarded as -the chief source of the wealth of Athens. The Romans obtained most -of their silver from the very rich mines of Spain, which had been -previously worked by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, and which, -though abandoned for those of Mexico, are still not exhausted. By -far the most important use of silver among the Greeks was for money. -There are sufficient reasons for believing that, until some time -after the end of the Peloponnesian war, the Athenians had no gold -currency. [AURUM.] It may be remarked that all the words connected -with money are derived from ἄργυρος, and not from χρυσός, as -καταργυρόω, “to bribe with money;” ἀργυραμοιβός, “a money changer,” -&c.; and ἄργυρος is itself not unfrequently used to signify money -in general, as _aes_ is in Latin. At Rome, on the contrary, silver -was not coined till B.C. 269, before which period Greek silver was -in circulation at Rome; and the principal silver coin of the Romans, -the _denarius_, was borrowed from the Greek _drachma_. For further -details respecting silver money, see DENARIUS, DRACHMA. From a very -early period, silver was used also in works of art; and the use of it -for mere purposes of luxury and ostentation, as in plate, was very -general both in Greece and Rome. - - -ARGỸRASPĬDES (ἀργυράσπιδες), a division of the Macedonian army, who -were so called because they carried shields covered with silver -plates. - - -ARGỸROCŎPEION (ἀργυροκοπεῖον), the place where money was coined, the -mint, at Athens. - - -ĂRĬES (κριός), the battering-ram, was used to batter down the walls -of besieged cities. It consisted of a large beam, made of the trunk -of a tree, especially of a fir or an ash. To one end was fastened a -mass of bronze or iron (κεφαλή, ἐμβολή, προτομή), which resembled in -its form the head of a ram. The aries in its simplest state was borne -and impelled by human hands, without other assistance. In an improved -form, the ram was surrounded with iron bands, to which rings were -attached for the purpose of suspending it by ropes or chains from a -beam fixed transversely over it. By this contrivance the soldiers -were relieved from the necessity of supporting the weight of the ram, -and could with ease give it a rapid and forcible motion backwards and -forwards. The use of this machine was further aided by placing the -frame in which it was suspended upon wheels, and also by constructing -over it a wooden roof, so as to form a “testudo,” which protected the -besieging party from the defensive assaults of the besieged. - -[Illustration: Aries, Battering Ram. (From Column of Trajan.)] - - -ĀRISTOCRĂTĬA (ἀριστοκρατία), signifies literally “the government of -the best men,” and as used by Plato, Aristotle, Polybius, &c., it -meant the government of a class whose supremacy was founded not on -wealth merely, but on personal distinction. That there should be -an aristocracy, moreover, it was essential that the administration -of affairs should be conducted with a view to the promotion of the -general interests, not for the exclusive or predominant advantage -of the privileged class As soon as the government ceased to be -thus conducted, or whenever the only title to political power in -the dominant class was the possession of superior wealth, the -constitution was termed an oligarchy (ὀλιγαρχία), which, in the -technical use of the term, was always looked upon as a corruption -(παρέκβασις) of an aristocracy. In the practical application of the -term aristocracy, however, the personal excellence which was held to -be a necessary element was not of a higher kind than what, according -to the deeply-seated ideas of the Greeks, was commonly hereditary in -families of noble birth, and in early times would be the ordinary -accompaniments of noble rank, namely, wealth, military skill, and -superior education and intelligence. It is to be noted that the word -ἀριστοκρατία is never, like the English term _aristocracy_, the name -of a class, but only of a particular political constitution. - - -[Illustration: Greek Soldier. (From an ancient vase.) - -Roman Soldiers. (From Column of Trajan.)] - -ARMA, ARMĀTŪRA (ἔντεα, τεύχεα, Hom.; ὅπλα), arms, armour. Homer -describes in various passages an entire suit of armour, and we -observe that it consisted of the same portions which were used by -the Greek soldiers ever after. Moreover, the order of putting them -on is always the same. The heavy-armed warrior, having already a -tunic around his body, and preparing for combat, puts on--1. his -greaves (κνημῖδες, _ocreae_); 2. his cuirass (θώραξ, _lorica_), to -which belonged the μίτρη underneath, and the zone (ζώνη, ζωστῆρ, -_cingulum_), above; 3. his sword (ξίφος, _ensis_, _gladius_), hung on -the left side of his body by means of a belt which passed over the -right shoulder; 4. the large round shield (σάκος, ἀσπίς, _clipeus_, -_scutum_), supported in the same manner; 5. his helmet (κόρυς, κυνέη, -_cassis_, _galea_); 6. he took his spear (ἔγχος, δόρυ, _hasta_), or -in many cases, two spears. The form and use of these portions are -described in separate articles, under their Latin names. The annexed -cut exhibits them all. Those who were defended in the manner which -has now been represented are called by Homer _aspistae_ (ἀσπισταί), -from their great shield (ἀσπίς); also _angemachi_ (ἀγχεμάχοι), -because they fought hand to hand with their adversaries; but much -more commonly _promachi_ (πρόμαχοι), because they occupied the -front of the army. In later times, the heavy-armed soldiers were -called _hoplitae_ (ὁπλίται), because the term _hopla_ (ὄπλα) more -especially denoted the defensive armour, the shield and thorax. By -wearing these they were distinguished from the light-armed (ψιλοί, -ἄνοπλοι, γυμνοί, γυμνῆται, γυμνῆτες), who, instead of being defended -by the shield and thorax, had a much slighter covering, sometimes -consisting of skins, and sometimes of leather or cloth; and instead -of the sword or lance, they commonly fought with darts, stones, bows -and arrows, or slings. Besides the heavy and light-armed soldiers, -another description of men, the _peltastae_ (πελτασταί), also -formed a part of the Greek army, though we do not hear of them in -early times. Instead of the large round shield, they carried a -smaller one called the _pelté_ (πέλτη), and in other respects their -armour, though heavier and more effective than that of the psili, -was much lighter than that of the hoplites. The weapon on which they -principally depended was the spear. The Roman legions consisted, as -the Greek infantry for the most part did, of heavy and light-armed -troops (_gravis et levis armatura_). The preceding figure represents -two heavy-armed Roman soldiers. All the essential parts of the Roman -heavy armour (_lorica_, _ensis_, _clipeus_, _galea_, _hasta_) are -mentioned together, except the spear, in a well-known passage of St. -Paul (_Eph._ vi. 17). - - -ARMĀRĬUM, originally a place for keeping arms, afterwards a cupboard, -in which were kept not only arms, but also clothes, books, money, and -other articles of value. The armarium was generally placed in the -atrium of the house. - - -ARMILLA (ψάλιον, ψέλιον, or ψέλλιον, χλιδών, ἀμφιδέα), a bracelet or -armlet, worn both by men and women. It was a favourite ornament of -the Medes and Persians. Bracelets do not appear to have been worn -among the Greeks by the male sex, but Greek ladies had bracelets of -various materials, shapes, and styles of ornament. They frequently -exhibited the form of snakes, and were in such cases called snakes -(ὄφεις) by the Athenians. According to their length, they went once, -twice, or thrice round the arm, or even a greater number of times. -The Roman generals frequently bestowed armillae upon soldiers for -deeds of extraordinary merit. - -[Illustration: Armillae, Bracelets. (Museo Borbonico, vol. ii. tav. -14 vol. vii. tav. 46.) - -Armilla, Bracelet. (On Statue of Sleeping Ariadne in Vatican.)] - - -ARMĬLUSTRĬUM, a Roman festival for the purification of arms. It was -celebrated every year on the 19th of October, when the citizens -assembled in arms, and offered sacrifices in the place called -Armilustrum, or Vicus Armilustri. - - -ARRA, ARRĂBO, or ARRHA, ARRHABO, was the thing which purchasers -and vendors gave to one another, whether it was a sum of money or -anything else, as an evidence of the contract being made: it was -no essential part of the contract of buying and selling, but only -evidence of agreement as to price. The term arrha, in its general -sense of an evidence of agreement, was also used on other occasions, -as in the case of betrothment (_sponsalia_). Sometimes the word -arrha is used as synonymous with _pignus_, but this is not the legal -meaning of the term. - - -ARRHĒPHŎRĬA (ἀῤῥηφόρια), a festival celebrated at Athens in honour -of Athena (Minerva). Four girls, of between seven and eleven years -(ἀῤῥηφόροι, ἐρσηφόροι, ἐῤῥηφόροι), were selected every year by -the king archon from the most distinguished families, two of whom -superintended the weaving of the sacred peplus of Athena; the two -others had to carry the mysterious and sacred vessels of the goddess. -These latter remained a whole year on the Acropolis; and when the -festival commenced, the priestess of the goddess placed vessels upon -their heads, the contents of which were neither known to them nor to -the priestess. With these they descended to a natural grotto within -the district of Aphrodite in the gardens. Here they deposited the -sacred vessels, and carried back something else, which was covered -and likewise unknown to them. After this the girls were dismissed -and others were chosen to supply their place in the acropolis. - - -ARRŎGĀTĬO. [ADOPTIO.] - - -ARTĂBA (ἀρτάβη), a Persian measure of capacity = 1 medimnus and 3 -choenices (Attic) = 102 Roman sextarii = 12 gallons, 5·092 pints. - - -ARTĔMĪSĬA (ἀρτεμίσια), a festival celebrated at Syracuse in honour -of Artemis Potamia and Soteira. It lasted three days, which were -principally spent in feasting and amusements, Festivals of the same -name, and in honour of the same goddess, were held in many places in -Greece, but principally at Delphi. - - -ARTOPTA. [PISTOR.] - - -ĂRŪRA (ἄρουρα), a Greek measure of surface, mentioned by Herodotus, -who says that it is a hundred Egyptian cubits in every direction. Now -the Egyptian cubit contained nearly 17¾ inches; therefore the square -of 100 by 17¾ inches, _i.e._ nearly 148 feet, gives the number of -square feet (English) in the arura, viz. 21,904. - - -ĂRUSPEX. [HARUSPEX.] - - -ARVĀLES FRĀTRES, formed a college or company of twelve priests, and -were so called from offering public sacrifices for the fertility -of the fields. That they were of extreme antiquity is proved by -the legend which refers their institution to Romulus, of whom it -is said, that when his nurse Acca Laurentia lost one of her twelve -sons, he allowed himself to be adopted by her in his place, and -called himself and the remaining eleven “Fratres Arvales.” We also -find a college called the Sodales Titii, and as the latter were -confessedly of Sabine origin, and instituted for the purpose of -keeping up the Sabine religious rites, it is probable that these -colleges corresponded one to the other--the Fratres Arvales being -connected with the Latin, and the Sodales Titii with the Sabine -element of the Roman state. The office of the fratres arvales was -for life, and was not taken away even from an exile or captive. -One of their annual duties was to celebrate a three days’ festival -in honour of Dea Dia, supposed to be Ceres, sometimes held on the -17th, 19th, and 20th, sometimes on the 27th, 29th, and 30th of May. -But besides this festival of the Dea Dia, the fratres arvales were -required on various occasions, under the emperors, to make vows -and offer up thanksgivings. Under Tiberius, the Fratres Arvales -performed sacrifices called the _Ambarvalia_, at various places on -the borders of the ager Romanus, or original territory of Rome; -and it is probable that this was a custom handed down from time -immemorial, and, moreover, that it was a duty of the priesthood to -invoke a blessing on the whole territory of Rome. There were also the -private _ambarvalia_, which were so called from the victim (_hostia -ambarvalis_) that was slain on the occasion being led three times -round the corn-fields, before the sickle was put to the corn. This -victim was accompanied by a crowd of merry-makers, the reapers and -farm-servants dancing and singing, as they marched, the praises of -Ceres, and praying for her favour and presence, while they offered -her the libations of milk, honey, and wine. This ceremony was also -called a _lustratio_, or purification. - - -ARX signifies a height within the walls of a city, upon which a -citadel was built, and thus came to be applied to the citadel -itself. Thus one of the summits of the Capitoline hill at Rome is -called _Arx_. The _Arx_ was the regular place at Rome for taking -the auspices, and was hence likewise called _auguraculum_; or, more -probably, the auguraculum was a place in the Arx. - - -AS, or _Libra_, a pound, the unit of weight among the Romans. [LIBRA.] - - -AS, the unit of value in the Roman and old Italian coinages, was -made of copper, or of the mixed metal called AES. It was originally -of the weight of a pound of twelve ounces, whence it was called _as -libralis_ and _aes grave_. The oldest form of the _as_ is that which -bears the figure of an animal (a bull, ram, boar, or sow). The next -and most common form is that which has the two-faced head of Janus on -one side, and the prow of a ship on the other (whence the expression -used by Roman boys in tossing up, _Capita aut navim_.) Pliny informs -us, that in the time of the first Punic war (B.C. 264-241), in -order to meet the expenses of the state, this weight of a pound was -diminished, and asses were struck of the same weight as the sextans -(that is, two ounces, or one-sixth of the ancient weight); and that -thus the republic paid off its debts, gaining five parts in six; that -afterwards, in the second Punic war, in the dictatorship of Q. Fabius -Maximus (B.C. 217), asses of one ounce were made, and the denarius -was decreed to be equal to sixteen asses, the republic thus gaining -one half; but that in military pay the denarius was always given for -ten asses; and that soon after, by the Papirian law (about B.C. 191), -asses of half an ounce were made. The value of the as, of course, -varied with its weight. Before the reduction to two ounces, ten asses -were equal to the denarius = about 8½ pence English [DENARIUS]. -Therefore the as = 3·4 farthings. By the reduction the denarius -was made equal to sixteen asses; therefore the as = 2⅛ farthings. -The as was divided into parts, which were named according to the -number of ounces they contained. They were the _deunx_, _dextans_, -_dodrans_, _bes_, _septunx_, _semis_, _quincunx_, _triens_, -_quadrans_ or _teruncius_, _sextans_, _sescunx_ or _sescuncia_, and -uncia, consisting respectively of 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, -1½, and 1 ounces. Of these divisions the following were represented -by coins; namely, the _semis_, _quincunx_, _triens_, _quadrans_, -_sextans_, and _uncia_. After the reduction in the weight of the -as, coins were struck of the value of 2, 3, 4, and even 10 asses, -which were called respectively _dussis_ or _dupondius_, _tressis_, -_quadrussis_, and _decussis_. Other multiples of the as were denoted -by words of similar formation, up to _centussis_, 100 asses; but most -of them do not exist as coins. In certain forms of expression, in -which _aes_ is used for money without specifying the denomination, -we must understand the as. Thus _deni aeris_, _mille aeris_, _decies -aeris_, mean respectively 10, 1000, 1,000,000 _asses_. The word _as_ -was used also for any whole which was to be divided into equal parts; -and those parts were called _unciae_. Thus these words were applied -not only to weight and money, but to measures of length, surface, -and capacity, to inheritances, interest, houses, farms, and many -other things. Hence the phrases _haeres ex asse_, the heir to a whole -estate; _haeres ex dodrante_, the heir to three-fourths. The _as_ was -also called in ancient times _assarius_ (sc. _nummus_), and in Greek -τὸ ἀσσάριον. According to Polybius, the assarius was equal to half -the obolus. - - -ASCĬA (σκέπαρνον), an adze. The annexed cut shows two varieties of -the adze. The instrument at the bottom was called _acisculus_, and -was chiefly used by masons. - -[Illustration: Asciae, adzes. (From ancient monuments and a coin.)] - - -ASCLĒPIEIA (ἀσκληπίεια), the name of festivals which were probably -celebrated in all places where temples of Asclepius (Aesculapius) -existed. The most celebrated, however, was that of Epidaurus, which -took place every five years, and was solemnized with contests of -rhapsodists and musicians, and with solemn processions and games. - - -ASCŌLĬASMUS (ἀσκωλιασμός, the leaping upon the leathern bag, ἀσκός) -was one of the many kinds of amusements in which the Athenians -indulged during the Anthesteria and other festivals in honour of -Dionysus. Having sacrificed a he-goat to the god, they made a bag out -of the skin, smeared it with oil, and then tried to dance upon it. - -[Illustration: Ascoliasmus. (From an ancient gem.)] - - -ĂSĔBEIAS GRĂPHĒ (ἀσεβείας γραφή), one of the many forms prescribed -by the Attic laws for the impeachment of impiety. Any citizen not -incapacitated by disfranchisement (ἀτιμία) seems to have been a -competent accuser; and citizens, resident aliens, and strangers, were -equally liable to the accusation. Whether the causes were brought -into the areiopagus, or the common heliastic court, seems to have -been determined by the form of action adopted by the prosecutor, or -the degree of competency to which the areiopagus rose or fell at the -different periods of Athenian history. - - -ĂSĬARCHAE (ἀσιάρχαι) were, in the Roman province of Asia, the chief -presidents of the religious rites, whose office it was to exhibit -games and theatrical amusements every year, in honour of the gods and -the Roman emperor, at their own expense, like the Roman aediles. They -were ten in number, selected annually by the different towns of Asia, -and approved of by the Roman proconsul; of these, one was the chief -asiarch, and frequently, but not always, resided at Ephesus. - - -ASSĀRĬUS NUMMUS. [AS.] - - -ASSERTOR, or ADSERTOR, contains the same root as the verb _adserere_, -which, when coupled with the word _manu_, signifies to lay hold -of a thing, to draw it towards one. Hence the phrase _adserere -in libertatem_, or _liberali adserere manu_, applies to him who -lays his hand on a person reputed to be a slave, and _asserts_, or -maintains his freedom. The person who thus maintained the freedom of -a reputed slave was called _adsertor_. The person whose freedom was -thus claimed was said to be _adsertus_. The expressions _liberalis -causa_, and _liberalis manus_, which occur in connection with the -verb _adserere_, will easily be understood from what has been said. -Sometimes the word _adserere_ alone was used as equivalent to -_adserere in libertatem_. The expression _asserere in servitutem_, to -claim a person as a slave, occurs in Livy. - - -ASSESSOR, or ADSESSOR, literally one who sits by the side of -another. Since the consuls, praetors, governors of provinces, and -the judices, were often imperfectly acquainted with the law and -forms of procedure, it was necessary that they should have the aid -of those who had made the law their study. The assessors sat on the -tribunal with the magistrate. Their advice or aid was given during -the proceedings as well as at other times, but they never pronounced -a judicial sentence. - - -ASSĬDUI. [LOCUPLETES.] - - -ASTRĂGĂLUS (ἀστράγαλος), literally, that particular bone in the -ankles of certain quadrupeds, which the Greeks, as well as the -Romans, used for dice and other purposes. [TALUS.] In architecture -it signifies a certain moulding (the astragal) which seems to have -derived its name from its resemblance to a string or chain of _tali_, -and it is in fact always used in positions where it seems intended to -bind together the parts to which it is applied. It belongs properly -to the more highly decorated forms of the Ionic order, in which it -appears as a lower edging to the larger mouldings, especially the -_echinus_ (ovolo), particularly in the capital, as shown in the -following woodcut. - -[Illustration: Astragalus. (Capital of an Ionic Column. Dilettanti -Society, Ionian Antiquities.)] - - -ASTRĂTEIAS GRĂPHĒ (ἀστρατείας γραφή), the accusation instituted at -Athens against persons who failed to appear among the troops after -they had been enrolled for a campaign by the generals. The defendant, -if convicted, incurred disfranchisement (ἀτιμία) both in his own -person and that of his descendants. - - -ASTRŎLŎGĬA, astrology. A belief very early arose, which still -prevails unshaken in the East, that a close connection subsisted -between the position and movements of the heavenly bodies and the -fate of man. Few doubted that the destiny of a child might be -predicted with certainty by those who were skilled to interpret -the position of the stars at the moment of his birth, and that the -result of any undertaking might be foretold from the aspect of the -firmament when it was commenced. Hence a numerous and powerful -class of men arose who were distinguished by various designations. -From the country where their science was first developed, they -were called _Chaldaei_ or _Babylonii_; from observing the stars, -_astronomi_, _astrologi_, _planetarii_; from employing diagrams such -as were used by geometricians, _mathematici_; from determining the -lot of man at his natal hour, _genethliaci_; from prophesying the -consummation of his struggles, ἀποτελεσματικοί; while their art was -known as ἀστρολογία, μετεωρολογία, γενεθλιαλογία, ἀποτελεσματική, -_Ars Chaldaeorum_, _Mathesis_, or, from the tables they consulted, -πινακική. Their calculations were termed _Babylonii numeri_, -Χαλδαίων μέθοδοι, Χαλδαίων ψηφίδες, _Rationes Chaldaicae_; their -responses when consulted _Chaldaeorum monita_, _Chaldaeorum natalicia -praedicta_, _Astrologorum praedicta_. The stars and constellations -to which attention was chiefly directed were the planets and the -signs of the zodiac, some of which were supposed to exert uniformly -a benign influence (ἀγαθοποιοὶ ἀστέρες), such as Venus, Jupiter, -Luna, Virgo, Libra, Taurus; others to be uniformly malign (κακοποιοὶ -ἀστέρες), such as Saturnus, Mars, Scorpio, Capricornus; others to be -doubtful (ἐπίκοινοι ἀστέρες), such as Mercurius. The exact period of -birth (_hora genitalis_) being the critical moment, the computations -founded upon it were styled γένεσις(_genitura_), ὡροσκόπος -(_horoscopus_), or simply θέμα, and the star or stars in the -ascendant _sidus natalitium_, _sidera natalitia_. Astrologers seem -to have found their way very early into Italy. In B.C. 139 an edict -was promulgated by C. Cornelius Hispallus, at that time praetor, by -which the Chaldaeans were ordered to quit Italy within ten days, and -they were again banished from the city in B.C. 33, by M. Agrippa, who -was then aedile. Another severe ordinance was levelled by Augustus -against this class, but the frequent occurrence of such phrases as -“expulit et mathematicos,” “pulsis Italia mathematicis,” in the -historians of the empire prove how firm a hold these pretenders must -have obtained over the public mind, and how profitable the occupation -must have been which could induce them to brave disgrace, and -sometimes a cruel death. - - -ASTỸNŎMI (ἀστυνόμοι), or street-police of Athens, were ten in number, -five for the city, and as many for the Peiraeeus. The _astynomi_ and -_agoranomi_ divided between them most of the functions of the Roman -aediles. [AGORANOMI.] - - -ĂSῩLUM (ἄσυλον). In the Greek states the temples, altars, sacred -groves, and statues of the gods, generally possessed the privilege -of protecting slaves, debtors, and criminals, who fled to them for -refuge. The laws, however, do not appear to have recognised the -right of all such sacred places to afford the protection which was -claimed, but to have confined it to a certain number of temples, or -altars, which were considered in a more especial manner to have the -ἀσυλία, or _jus asyli_. There were several places in Athens which -possessed this privilege; of which the best known was the Theseium, -or temple of Theseus, in the city, near the gymnasium, which was -chiefly intended for the protection of ill-treated slaves, who could -take refuge in this place, and compel their masters to sell them to -some other person. In the time of Tiberius, the number of places -possessing the jus asyli in the Greek cities in Greece and Asia -Minor became so numerous, as seriously to impede the administration -of justice; and, consequently, the senate, by the command of the -emperor, limited the jus asyli to a few cities. The asylum, which -Romulus is said to have opened at Rome to increase the population of -the city, was a place of refuge for the inhabitants of other states, -rather than a sanctuary for those who had violated the laws of the -city. In the republican and early imperial times, a right of asylum, -such as existed in the Greek states, does not appear to have been -recognised by the Roman law; but it existed under the empire, and a -slave could fly to the temples of the gods, or the statues of the -emperors, to avoid the ill-usage of his master. - - -ĂTĔLEIA (ἀτέλεια), immunity from public burthens, was enjoyed at -Athens by the archons for the time being; by the descendants of -certain persons, on whom it had been conferred as a reward for great -services, as in the case of Harmodius and Aristogeiton; and by the -inhabitants of certain foreign states. It was of several kinds: it -might be a general immunity (ἀτέλεια ἁπάντων); or a more special -exemption, as from custom-duties, from the liturgies, or from -providing sacrifices. - - -ĀTELLĀNAE FĂBŬLAE were a species of farce or comedy, so called from -Atella, a town of the Osci, in Campania. From this circumstance, -and from being written in the Oscan dialect, they were also called -_Ludi Osci_. These Atellane plays were not _praetextatae_, _i.e._ -comedies in which magistrates and persons of rank were introduced, -nor _tabernariae_, the characters in which were taken from low life; -they rather seem to have been a union of high comedy and its parody. -They were also distinguished from the mimes by the absence of low -buffoonery and ribaldry, being remarkable for a refined humour, such -as could be understood and appreciated by educated people. They were -not performed by regular actors (_histriones_), but by Roman citizens -of noble birth, who were not on that account subjected to any -degradation, but retained their rights as citizens, and might serve -in the army. The Oscan or Opican language, in which these plays were -written, was spread over the whole of the south of Italy, and from -its resemblance to the Latin could easily be understood by the more -educated Romans. - - -ĂTHĒNAEUM (ἀθήναιον), a school (_ludus_) founded by the Emperor -Hadrian at Rome, for the promotion of literary and scientific studies -(_ingenuarum artium_), and called Athenaeum from the town of Athens, -which was still regarded as the seat of intellectual refinement. -The Athenaeum was situated on the Capitoline hill. It was a kind of -university, with a staff of professors, for the various branches -of study. Besides the instruction given by these magistri, poets, -orators, and critics were accustomed to recite their compositions -there, and these prelections were sometimes honoured with the -presence of the emperors themselves. The Athenaeum seems to have -continued in high repute till the fifth century. - - -ATHLĒTAE (ἀθληταί, ἀθλητῆρες), persons who contended in the public -games of the Greeks and Romans for prizes (ἆθλα, whence the name of -ἀθληταί), which were given to those who conquered in contests of -agility and strength. The name was in the later period of Grecian -history, and among the Romans, properly confined to those persons -who entirely devoted themselves to a course of training which might -fit them to excel in such contests, and who, in fact, made athletic -exercises their profession. The athletae differed, therefore, from -the _agonistae_ (ἀγωνισταί), who only pursued gymnastic exercises -for the sake of improving their health and bodily strength, and who, -though they sometimes contended for the prizes in the public games, -did not devote their whole lives, like the athletae, to preparing -for these contests. Athletae were first introduced at Rome, B.C. -186, in the games exhibited by M. Fulvius, on the conclusion of -the Aetolian war. Aemilius Paullus, after the conquest of Perseus, -B.C. 167, is said to have exhibited games at Amphipolis, in which -athletae contended. Under the Roman emperors, and especially under -Nero, who was passionately fond of the Grecian games, the number of -athletae increased greatly in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor. Those -athletae who conquered in any of the great national festivals of -the Greeks were called _Hieronicae_ (ἱερονῖκαι), and received the -greatest honours and rewards. Such a conqueror was considered to -confer honour upon the state to which he belonged; he entered his -native city through a breach made in the walls for his reception, in -a chariot drawn by four white horses, and went along the principal -street of the city to the temple of the guardian deity of the state. -Those games, which gave the conquerors the right of such an entrance -into the city, were called _Iselastici_ (from εἰσελαύνειν). This term -was originally confined to the four great Grecian festivals, the -Olympian, Isthmian, Nemean, and Pythian, but was afterwards applied -to other public games. In the Greek states, the victors in these -games not only obtained the greatest glory and respect, but also -substantial rewards. They were generally relieved from the payment -of taxes, and also enjoyed the first seat (προεδρία) in all public -games and spectacles. Their statues were frequently erected at the -cost of the state, in the most frequented part of the city, as the -market-place, the gymnasia, and the neighbourhood of the temples. At -Athens, according to a law of Solon, the conquerors in the Olympic -games were rewarded with a prize of 500 drachmae; and the conquerors -in the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, with one of 100 drachmae; -and at Sparta they had the privilege of fighting near the person -of the king. The privileges of the athletae were secured, and in -some respects increased, by the Roman emperors. The term athletae, -though sometimes applied metaphorically to other combatants, was -properly limited to those who contended for the prize in the five -following contests:--1. _Running_ (δρόμος, _cursus_). [STADIUM.] -2. _Wrestling_ (πάλη, _lucta_). 3. _Boxing_ (πυγμή, _pugilatus_). -4. The _pentathlum_ (πένταθλον), or, as the Romans called it, -_quinquertium_. 5. The _pancratium_ (παγκράτιον). Of all these an -account is given in separate articles. Great attention was paid to -the training of the athletae. They were generally trained in the -_palaestrae_, which, in the Grecian states, were distinct places from -the gymnasia. Their exercises were superintended by the gymnasiarch, -and their diet was regulated by the aliptes. [ALIPTAE.]--The -athletae were accustomed to contend naked. In the descriptions of -the games given in the Iliad, the combatants are represented with -a girdle about their loins; and the same practice, as we learn -from Thucydides, anciently prevailed at the Olympic games, but was -discontinued afterwards. - - -ĂTĪMĬA (ἀτιμία), the forfeiture of a man’s civil rights at Athens. -It was either total or partial. A man was totally deprived of his -rights, both for himself and for his descendants (καθάπαξ ἄτιμος), -when he was convicted of murder, theft, false witness, partiality as -arbiter, violence offered to a magistrate, and so forth. This highest -degree of atimia excluded the person affected by it from the forum, -and from all public assemblies; from the public sacrifices, and from -the law courts; or rendered him liable to immediate imprisonment, -if he was found in any of these places. It was either temporary -or perpetual, and either accompanied or not with confiscation of -property. Partial atimia only involved the forfeiture of some -few rights, as, for instance, the right of pleading in court. -Public debtors were suspended from their civic functions till they -discharged their debt to the state. People who had once become -altogether atimi were very seldom restored to their lost privileges. -The converse term to _atimia_ was _epitimia_ (ἐπιτιμία). - - -ATLANTES (ἄτλαντες) and TĔLĂMŌNES (τελαμῶνες), terms used in -architecture, the former by the Greeks, the latter by the Romans, to -designate those male figures which are sometimes fancifully used, -like the female _Caryatides_, in place of columns. Both words are -derived from τλῆναι, and the former evidently refers to the fable of -Atlas, who supported the vault of heaven, the latter _perhaps_ to -the strength of the Telamonian Ajax. - -[Illustration: Atlantes. (From Temple at Agrigentum: Professor -Cockerell.)] - - -ĀTRĀMENTUM, a term applicable to any black colouring substance, for -whatever purpose it may be used, like the _melan_ (μέλαν) of the -Greeks. There were, however, three principal kinds of atramentum: -one called _librarium_, or _scriptorium_ (in Greek, γραφικὸν μέλαν), -writing-ink; another called _sutorium_, which was used by the -shoemakers for dyeing leather; the third _tectorium_, or _pictorium_, -which was used by painters for some purposes, apparently as a sort -of varnish. The inks of the ancients seem to have been more durable -than our own; they were thicker and more unctuous, in substance and -durability more resembling the ink now used by printers. An inkstand -was discovered at Herculaneum, containing ink as thick as oil, and -still usable for writing. The ancients used inks of various colours. -Red ink, made of _minium_ or vermilion, was used for writing the -titles and beginning of books. So also was ink made of _rubrica_, -“red ochre;” and because the headings of _laws_ were written with -rubrica, the word rubric came to be used for the civil law. So -_album_, a white or whited table, on which the praetors’ edicts -were written, was used in a similar way. A person devoting himself -to _album_ and _rubrica_, was a person devoting himself to the law. -[ALBUM.] - - -ĀTRĬUM (called αὐλή by the Greeks and by Virgil, and also μεσαύλιον, -περίστυλον, περίστῳον) is used in a distinctive as well as collective -sense, to designate a particular part in the private houses of the -Romans [DOMUS], and also a class of public buildings, so called -from their general resemblance in construction to the atrium of a -private house. An atrium of the latter description was a building by -itself, resembling in some respects the open basilica [BASILICA], -but consisting of three sides. Such was the Atrium Publicum in -the capitol, which, Livy informs us, was struck with lightning, -B.C. 216. It was at other times attached to some temple or other -edifice, and in such case consisted of an open area and surrounding -portico in front of the structure. Several of these buildings are -mentioned by the ancient historians, two of which were dedicated to -the same goddess, Libertas. The most celebrated, as well as the most -ancient, was situated on the Aventine Mount. In this atrium there -was a tabularium, where the legal tablets (_tabulae_) relating to -the censors were preserved. The other Atrium Libertatis was in the -neighbourhood of the Forum Caesaris, and was immediately behind the -Basilica Paulli or Aemilia. - - -AUCTĬO signifies generally “an increasing, an enhancement,” and hence -the name is applied to a public sale of goods, at which persons -bid against one another. The sale was sometimes conducted by an -_argentarius_, or by a _magister auctionis_; and the time, place, -and conditions of sale, were announced either by a public notice -(_tabula_, _album_, &c.), or by a crier (_praeco_). The usual phrases -to express the giving notice of a sale were, _auctionem proscribere, -praedicare_; and to determine on a sale, _auctionem constituere_. -The purchasers (_emtores_), when assembled, were sometimes said -_ad tabulam adesse_. The phrases signifying to bid are, _liceri_, -_licitari_, which was done either by word of mouth, or by such -significant hints as are known to all people who have attended an -auction. The property was said to be knocked down (_addici_) to the -purchaser. The praeco, or crier, seems to have acted the part of the -modern auctioneer, so far as calling out the biddings, and amusing -the company. Slaves, when sold by auction, were placed on a stone, -or other elevated thing, as is the case when slaves are sold in -the United States of North America; and hence the phrase _homo de -lapide emtus_. It was usual to put up a spear (_hasta_) in auctions; -a symbol derived, it is said, from the ancient practice of selling -under a spear the booty acquired in war. - - -AUCTOR, a word which contains the same element as _aug-eo_, and -signifies generally one who enlarges, confirms, or gives to a -thing its completeness and efficient form. The numerous technical -significations of the word are derivable from this general notion. As -he who gives to a thing that which is necessary for its completeness -may in this sense be viewed as the chief actor or doer, the -word auctor is also used in the sense of one who originates or -proposes a thing; but this cannot be viewed as its primary meaning. -Accordingly, the word auctor, when used in connection with lex or -senatus consultum, often means him who originates and proposes.--The -expressions _patres auctores fiunt_, _patres auctores facti_, have -given rise to much discussion. In the earlier periods of the Roman -state, the word _patres_ was equivalent to _patricii_; in the later -period, when the patricians had lost all importance as a political -body, the term patres signified the senate. Hence some ambiguity has -arisen. The expression _patres auctores fiunt_, when used of the -early period of Rome, means that the determinations of the populus -in the comitia centuriata were confirmed by the patricians in the -comitia curiata. Till the time of Servius Tullius there were only -the comitia curiata, and this king first established the comitia -centuriata, in which the plebs also voted, and consequently it was -not till after this time that the phrase _patres auctores fiunt_ -could be properly applied. Livy, however, uses it of an earlier -period. The comitia curiata first elected the king, and then by -another vote conferred upon him the imperium. The latter was called -_lex curiata de imperio_, an expression not used by Livy, who -employs instead the phrase _patres auctores fiunt_ (Liv. i. 17, 22, -32).--After the exile of the last Tarquin, the patres, that is the -patricians, had still the privilege of confirming at the comitia -curiata the vote of the comitia centuriata, that is, they gave to -it the _patrum auctoritas_; or, in other words, the _patres_ were -_auctores facti_. In the fifth century of the city a change was made. -By one of the laws of the plebeian dictator Q. Publilius Philo, it -was enacted that in the case of leges to be enacted at the comitia -centuriata, the _patres_ should be _auctores_, that is, the curiae -should give their assent before the vote of the comitia centuriata. -By a lex Maenia of uncertain date the same change was made as to -elections.--But both during the earlier period and afterwards no -business could be brought before the comitia without first receiving -the sanction of the senate; and accordingly the phrase _patres -auctores fiunt_ came now to be applied to the approval of a measure -by the senate before it was confirmed by the votes of the people. -This preliminary approval was also termed _senatus auctoritas_.--When -the word auctor is applied to him who recommends but does not -originate a legislative measure, it is equivalent to _suasor_. -Sometimes both auctor and suasor are used in the same sentence, and -the meaning of each is kept distinct. With reference to dealings -between individuals, auctor has the sense of owner. In this sense -auctor is the seller (_venditor_), as opposed to the buyer (_emtor_): -and hence we have the phrase _a malo auctore emere_. Auctor is also -used generally to express any person under whose authority any legal -act is done. In this sense, it means a tutor who is appointed to aid -or advise a woman on account of the infirmity of her sex. - - -AUCTŌRĀMENTUM, the pay of gladiators. [GLADIATORES.] - - -AUCTŌRĬTAS. The technical meanings of this word correlate with those -of auctor. The auctoritas senatus was not a senatus-consultum; it -was a measure, incomplete in itself, which received its completion -by some other authority. Auctoritas, as applied to property, is -equivalent to legal ownership, being a correlation of auctor. - - -AUDĪTŌRĬUM, as the name implies, is any place for hearing. It was -the practice among the Romans for poets and others to read their -compositions to their friends, who were sometimes called the -auditorium; but the word was also used to express any place in which -any thing was heard, and under the empire it was applied to a court -of justice. Under the republic the place for all judicial proceedings -was the comitium and the forum. But for the sake of shelter and -convenience it became the practice to hold courts in the Basilicae, -which contained halls, which were also called auditoria. It is first -under M. Aurelius that the auditorium principis is mentioned, by -which we must understand a hall or room in the imperial residence; -and in such a hall Septimius Severus and the later emperors held -their regular sittings when they presided as judges. The latest -jurists use the word generally for any place in which justice was -administered. - - -AUGUR, AUGŬRĬUM; AUSPEX, AUSPĬCĬUM. _Augur_ or _auspex_ meant -a diviner by birds, but came in course of time, like the Greek -οἰωνός, to be applied in a more extended sense: his art was called -_augurium_ or _auspicium_. Plutarch relates that the _augures_ were -originally termed _auspices_. The word _auspex_ was supplanted by -_augur_, but the scientific term for the observation continued on -the contrary to be _auspicium_ and not _augurium_. By Greek writers -on Roman affairs, the augurs are called οἰωνοπόλοι, οἰωνοσκόποι, -οἰωνισταί, οἱ ἐπ’ οἰωνοῖς ἱερεῖς. The belief that the flight of -birds gave some intimation of the will of the gods seems to have -been prevalent among many nations of antiquity, and was common to -the Greeks, as well as the Romans; but it was only among the latter -people that it was reduced to a complete system, governed by fixed -rules, and handed down from generation to generation. In Greece, -the oracles supplanted the birds, and the future was learnt from -Apollo and other gods, rarely from Zeus, who possessed very few -oracles in Greece. The contrary was the case at Rome: it was from -Jupiter that the future was learnt, and the birds were regarded -as his messengers. It must be remarked in general, that the Roman -auspices were essentially of a practical nature; they gave no -information respecting the course of future events, they did not -inform men _what was to happen_, but simply taught them _what they -were to do, or not to do_; they assigned no reason for the decision -of Jupiter--they simply announced, yes or no. The words _augurium_ -and _auspicium_ came to be used in course of time to signify the -observation of various kinds of signs. They were divided into five -sorts: _ex caelo_, _ex avibus_, _ex tripudiis_, _ex quadrupedibus_, -_ex diris_. Of these, the last three formed no part of the ancient -auspices.--1. _Ex caelo._ This included the observation of the -various kinds of thunder and lightning, and was regarded as the -most important, _maximum auspicium_. Whenever it was reported by a -person authorised to take the auspices, that Jupiter thundered or -lightened, the comitia could not be held.--2. _Ex avibus._ It was -only a few birds which could give auguries among the Romans. They -were divided into two classes: _Oscines_, those which gave auguries -by singing, or their voice, and _Alites_, those which gave auguries -by their flight. To the former class belonged the raven (_corvus_) -and the crow (_cornix_), the first of these giving a favourable omen -(_auspicium ratum_) when it appeared on the right, the latter, on the -contrary, when it was seen on the left: likewise the owl (_noctua_) -and the hen (_gallina_). To the _aves alites_ belonged first of all -the eagle (_aquila_), which is called pre-eminently the bird of -Jupiter (_Jovis ales_), and next the vulture (_vultur_). Some birds -were included both among the _oscines_ and the _alites_: such were -the _Picus Martius_, and _Feronius_, and the _Parra_. These were the -principal birds consulted in the auspices. When the birds favoured an -undertaking, they were said _addicere_, _admittere_ or _secundare_, -and were then called _addictivae_, _admissivae_, _secundae_, or -_praepetes_: when unfavourable they were said _abdicere_, _arcere_, -_refragari_, &c., and were then called _adversae_ or _alterae_. -The birds which gave unfavourable omens were termed _funebres_, -_inhibitae_, _lugubres_, _malae_, &c., and such auspices were called -_clivia_ and _clamatoria_.--3. _Ex tripudiis._ These auspices were -taken from the feeding of chickens, and were especially employed on -military expeditions. The chickens were kept in a cage, under care of -a person called _pullarius_; and when the auspices were to be taken, -the pullarius opened the cage and threw to the chickens pulse or a -kind of soft cake. If they refused to come out or to eat, or uttered -a cry (_occinerent_), or beat their wings, or flew away, the signs -were considered unfavourable. On the contrary, if they ate greedily, -so that something fell from their mouth and struck the earth, it -was called _tripudium solistimum_ (_tripudium_ quasi _terripavium_, -_solistimum_, from _solum_, according to the ancient writers), and -was held a favourable sign.--4. _Ex quadrupedibus._ Auguries could -also be taken from four-footed animals; but these formed no part of -the original science of the augurs, and were never employed by them -in taking auspices on behalf of the state, or in the exercise of -their art properly so called. They must be looked upon simply as a -mode of private divination. When a fox, a wolf, a horse, a dog, or -any other kind of quadruped ran across a person’s path or appeared in -an unusual place, it formed an augury.--5. _Ex diris_, sc. _signis_. -Under this head was included every kind of augury which does not fall -under any of the four classes mentioned above, such as sneezing, -stumbling, and other accidental things. There was an important -augury of this kind connected with the army, which was called _ex -acuminibus_, that is, the flames appearing at the points of spears or -other weapons. The ordinary manner of taking the auspices, properly -so called (i.e. _ex caelo_ and _ex avibus_), was as follows: The -person who was to take them first marked out with a wand (_lituus_) -a division in the heavens called _templum_ or _tescum_, within which -he intended to make his observations. The station where he was to -take the auspices was also separated by a solemn formula from the -rest of the land, and was likewise called _templum_ or _tescum_. -He then proceeded to pitch a tent in it (_tabernaculum capere_), -and this tent again was also called _templum_, or, more accurately, -_templum minus_. [TEMPLUM.] Within the walls of Rome, or, more -properly speaking, within the pomoerium, there was no occasion to -select a spot and pitch a tent on it, as there was a place on the -Arx on the summit of the Capitoline hill, called _Auguraculum_, -which had been consecrated once for all for this purpose. In like -manner there was in every Roman camp a place called _augurale_, which -answered the same purpose; but on all other occasions a place had to -be consecrated, and a tent to be pitched, as, for instance, in the -Campus Martius, when the comitia centuriata were to be held. The -person who was then taking the auspices waited for the favourable -signs to appear; but it was necessary during this time that there -should be no interruption of any kind whatsoever (_silentium_), and -hence the word _silentium_ was used in a more extended sense to -signify the absence of every thing that was faulty. Every thing, on -the contrary, that rendered the auspices invalid was called _vitium_; -and hence we constantly read in Livy and other writers of _vitio -magistratus creati_, _vitio lex lata_, &c. The watching for the -auspices was called _spectio_ or _servare de coelo_, the declaration -of what was observed _nuntiatio_, or, if they were unfavourable, -_obnuntiatio_. In the latter case, the person who took the auspices -seems usually to have said _alio die_, by which the business in hand, -whether the holding of the _comitia_ or any thing else, was entirely -stopped.--In ancient times no one but a patrician could take the -auspices. Hence the possession of the auspices (_habere auspicia_) -is one of the most distinguished prerogatives of the patricians; -they are said to be _penes patrum_, and are called _auspicia -patrum_. It would further appear that every patrician might take -the auspices; but here a distinction is to be observed between the -_auspicia privata_ and _auspicia publica_. One of the most frequent -occasions on which the _auspicia privata_ were taken, was in case of -a marriage: and this was one great argument used by the patricians -against _connubium_ between themselves and the plebeians, as it -would occasion, they urged, _perturbationem auspiciorum publicorum -privatorumque_. In taking these private auspices, it would appear -that any patrician was employed who knew how to form _templa_ and -was acquainted with the art of augury. The case, however, was very -different with respect to the _auspicia publica_, generally called -_auspicia_ simply, or those which concerned the state. The latter -could only be taken by the persons who represented the state, and who -acted as mediators between the gods and the state; for though all the -patricians were eligible for taking the auspices, yet it was only the -magistrates who were in actual possession of them. In case, however, -there was no patrician magistrate, the auspices became vested in the -whole body of the patricians (_auspicia ad patres redeunt_), who had -recourse to an _interregnum_ for the renewal of them, and for handing -them over in a perfect state to the new magistrates: hence we find -the expressions _repetere de integro auspicia_, and _renovare per -interregnum auspicia_.--The distinction between the duties of the -magistrates and the augurs in taking the auspices is one of the -most difficult points connected with this subject, but perhaps a -satisfactory solution of these difficulties may be found by taking -an historical view of the question. We are told not only that the -kings were in possession of the auspices, but that they themselves -were acquainted with the art and practised it. Romulus is stated to -have appointed three augurs, but only as his assistants in taking -the auspices, a fact which it is important to bear in mind. Their -dignity gradually increased in consequence of their being employed -at the inauguration of the kings, and also in consequence of their -becoming the preservers and depositaries of the science of augury. -Formed into a collegium, they handed down to their successors the -various rules of the science, while the kings, and subsequently the -magistrates of the republic, were liable to change. Their duties thus -became two-fold, to assist the magistrates in taking up auspices, -and to preserve a scientific knowledge of the art. As the augurs -were therefore merely the assistants of the magistrates, they could -not take the auspices without the latter, though the magistrates on -the contrary could dispense with their assistance. At the same time -it must be borne in mind, that as the augurs were the interpreters -of the science, they possessed the right of declaring whether the -auspices were valid or invalid. They thus possessed in reality a -veto upon every important public transaction; and they frequently -exercised this power as a political engine to vitiate the election -of such parties as were unfavourable to the enclusive privileges of -the patricians. But although the augurs could declare that there was -some fault in the auspices, yet, on the other hand, they could not, -by virtue of their office, declare that any unfavourable sign had -appeared to them, since it was not to them that the auspices were -sent. Thus we are told that the augurs did not possess the _spectio_. -This _spectio_ was of two kinds, one more extensive and the other -more limited. In the one case the person who exercised it could put a -stop to the proceedings of any other magistrate by his obnuntiatio: -this was called _spectio et nuntiatio_ (perhaps also _spectio cum -nuntiatione_), and belonged only to the highest magistrates, the -consuls, dictators, interreges, and, with some modifications, to -the praetors. In the other case, the person who took the auspices -only exercised the _spectio_ in reference to the duties of his own -office, and could not interfere with any other magistrate: this -was called _spectio sine nuntiatione_, and belonged to the other -magistrates, the censors, aediles, and quaestors. Now as the augurs -did not possess the auspices, they consequently could not possess -the spectio (_habere spectionem_); but as the augurs were constantly -employed by the magistrates to take the auspices, they _exercised_ -the spectio, though they did not _possess_ it in virtue of their -office. When they were employed by the magistrates in taking the -auspices, they possessed the right of the _nuntiatio_, and thus had -the power, by the declaration of unfavourable signs (_obnuntiatio_), -to put a stop to all important public transactions.--The auspices -were not conferred upon the magistrates in any special manner. It -was the act of their election which made them the recipients of the -auspices, since the comitia, in which they were appointed to their -office, were held _auspicato_, and consequently their appointment -was regarded as ratified by the gods. The auspices, therefore, -passed immediately into their hands upon the abdication of their -predecessors in office.--The auspices belonging to the different -magistrates were divided into two classes, called _auspicia maxima_ -or _majora_ and _minora_. The former, which belonged originally to -the kings, passed over to the consuls, censors, and praetors, and -likewise to the extraordinary magistrates, the dictators, interreges, -and consular tribunes. The quaestors and the curule aediles, on the -contrary, had only the _auspicia minora_.--It was a common opinion in -antiquity that a college of three augurs was appointed by Romulus, -answering to the number of the early tribes, the Ramnes, Tities, -and Lucerenses, but the accounts vary respecting their origin and -number. At the passing of the Ogulnian law (B.C. 300) the augurs were -four in number. This law increased the number of pontiffs to eight, -by the addition of four plebeians, and that of the augurs to nine -by the addition of five plebeians. The number of nine augurs lasted -down to the dictatorship of Sulla, who increased them to fifteen, -a multiple of the original three, probably with a reference to the -early tribes. A sixteenth was added by Julius Caesar after his -return from Egypt. The members of the college of augurs possessed -the right of self-election (_cooptatio_) until B.C. 103, the year -of the Domitian law. By this law it was enacted that vacancies in -the priestly colleges should be filled up by the votes of a minority -of the tribes, _i.e._ seventeen out of thirty-five chosen by lot. -The Domitian law was repealed by Sulla B.C. 81, but again restored -B.C. 63, during the consulship of Cicero, by the tribune T. Annius -Labienus, with the support of Caesar. It was a second time abrogated -by Antony B.C. 44; whether again restored by Hirtius and Pansa in -their general annulment of the acts of Antony, seems uncertain. -The emperors possessed the right of electing augurs at pleasure. -The augurs were elected for life, and even if capitally convicted, -never lost their sacred character. When a vacancy occurred, the -candidate was nominated by two of the elder members of the college, -the electors were sworn, and the new member was then solemnly -inaugurated. On such occasion there was always a splendid banquet -given, at which all the augurs were expected to be present. The only -distinction in the college was one of age; an elder augur always -voted before a younger, even if the latter filled one of the higher -offices in the state. The head of the college was called _magister -collegii_. As insignia of their office the augurs wore the _trabea_, -or public dress, and carried in their hand the _lituus_ or curved -wand. [LITUUS.] On the coins of the Romans, who filled the office -of augur, we constantly find the _lituus_, and along with it, not -unfrequently, the _capis_, an earthen vessel which was used by them -in sacrifices. The science of the augurs was called _jus augurum_ -and _jus augurium_, and was preserved in books (_libri augurales_), -which are frequently mentioned in the ancient writers. The expression -for consulting the augurs was _referre ad augures_, and their -answers were called _decreta_ or _responsa augurum_. The science of -augury had greatly declined in the time of Cicero; and although he -frequently deplores its neglect in his _De Divinatione_, yet neither -he nor any of the educated classes appears to have had any faith in -it. - -[Illustration: Coin representing the lituus and capis on the reverse.] - - -AŪGŬRĀCŬLUM. [ARX; AUGUR, p. 50, b.] - - -AUGŬRĀLE. [AUGUR, p. 50, b.] - - -AUGŬRIUM. [AUGUR.] - - -AUGUSTĀLES--(1) (sc. _ludi_, also called _Augustalia_, sc. -_certamina_, _ludicra_), games celebrated in honour of Augustus, at -Rome and in other parts of the Roman empire. After the battle of -Actium, a quinquennial festival was instituted; and the birthday -of Augustus, as well as that on which the victory was announced at -Rome, were regarded as festival days. It was not, however, till -B.C. 11 that the festival on the birthday of Augustus was formally -established by a decree of the senate, and it is this festival which -is usually meant when the Augustales or Augustalia are mentioned. -It was celebrated iv. Id. Octobr. At the death of Augustus, this -festival assumed a more solemn character, was added to the Fasti, -and celebrated to his honour as a god. It was henceforth exhibited -annually in the circus, at first by the tribunes of the plebs, at the -commencement of the reign of Tiberius, but afterwards by the praetor -peregrinus.--(2) The name of two classes of priests, one at Rome and -the other in the municipia. The _Augustales_ at Rome, properly called -_sodales Augustales_, were an order of priests instituted by Tiberius -to attend to the worship of Augustus and the Julia gens. They were -chosen by lot from among the principal persons of Rome, and were -twenty-one in number, to which were added Tiberius, Drusus, Claudius, -and Germanicus, as members of the imperial family. They were also -called _sacerdotes Augustales_, and sometimes simply _Augustales_. -The _Augustales_ in the municipia are supposed by most modern writers -to have been a class of priests selected by Augustus from the -libertini to attend to the religions rites connected with the worship -of the Lares, which that emperor was said to have put up in places -where two or more ways met; but there are good reasons for thinking -that they were instituted in imitation of the Augustales at Rome, and -for the same object, namely, to attend to the worship of Augustus. -They formed a collegium and were appointed by the _decuriones_, or -senate of the municipia. The six principal members of the college -were called _Seviri_, a title which seems to have been imitated from -the _Seviri_ in the equestrian order at Rome. - - -AUGUSTUS, a name bestowed upon Octavianus in B.C. 27, by the senate -and the Roman people. It was a word used in connection with religion, -and designated a person as sacred and worthy of worship; hence -the Greek writers translate it by Σεβαστός. It was adopted by all -succeeding emperors, as if descended, either by birth or adoption, -from the first emperor of the Roman world. The name of _Augusta_ -was frequently bestowed upon females of the imperial family; but -_Augustus_ belonged exclusively to the reigning emperor till towards -the end of the second century of the Christian aera, when M. Aurelius -and L. Verus both received this surname. From this time we frequently -find two or even a greater number of _Augusti_. From the time of -Probus the title became _perpetuus Augustus_, and from Philippus or -Claudius Gothicus _semper Augustus_, the latter of which titles was -borne by the so-called Roman emperors in Germany. [CAESAR.] - - -AULAEUM. [SIPARIUM.] - - -AURĔUS. [AURUM.] - - -AURĪGA. [CIRCUS.] - - -[Illustration: Aureus Nummus. (British Museum.)] - -AURUM (χρυσός), gold. Gold was scarce in Greece. The chief places -from which the Greeks procured their gold were India, Arabia, -Armenia, Colchis, and Troas. It was found mixed with the sands of the -Pactolus and other rivers. Almost the only method of purifying gold, -known to the ancients, seems to have been that of grinding and then -roasting it, and by this process they succeeded in getting it very -pure. This is what we are to understand by the phrase χρυσίον ἄπεφθον -in Thucydides, and by the word _obrussa_ in Pliny. The art of gilding -was known to the Greeks from the earliest times of which we have any -information. The time when gold was first coined at Athens is very -uncertain, but on the whole it appears most probable that gold money -was not coined there, or in Greece Proper generally, till the time of -Alexander the Great, if we except a solitary issue of debased gold at -Athens in B.C. 407. But from a very early period the Asiatic nations, -and the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, as well -as Sicily and Cyrene, possessed a gold coinage, which was more or -less current in Greece. Herodotus says that the Lydians were the -first who coined gold, and the stater of Croesus appears to have been -the earliest gold coin known to the Greeks. The Daric was a Persian -coin. Staters of Cyzicus and Phocaea had a considerable currency in -Greece. There was a gold coinage in Samos as early as the time of -Polycrates. The islands of Siphnos and Thasos, which possessed gold -mines, appear to have had a gold coinage at an early period. The -Macedonian gold coinage came into circulation in Greece in the time -of Philip, and continued in use till the subjection of Greece to the -Romans. [DARICUS; STATER.] The standard gold coin of Rome was the -_aureus nummus_, or _denarius aureus_, which, according to Pliny, -was first coined 62 years after the first silver coinage [ARGENTUM], -that is, in the year 207 B.C. The lowest denomination was the -_scrupulum_, which was made equal to 20 sestertii. The weight of the -scrupulum was 18·06 grains. The annexed cut represents a gold coin -of 60 sestertii. Pliny adds that afterwards aurei were coined of 40 -to the pound, which weight was diminished, till under Nero they were -45 to the pound. The average weight of the aurei of Augustus, in the -British Museum, is 121·26 grains: and as the weight was afterwards -diminished, we may take the average at 120 grains. The value of the -aureus in terms of the sovereign = 1_l._ 1_s._ 1_d._ and a little -more than a halfpenny. This is its value according to the present -worth of gold; but its current value in Rome was different from -this, on account of the difference in the worth of the metal. The -aureus passed for 25 denarii; therefore, the denarius being 8½_d._, -it was worth 17_s._ 8½_d._ The ratio of the value of gold to that of -silver is given in the article ARGENTUM. Alexander Severus coined -pieces of one-half and one-third of the aureus, called _Semissis_ -and _tremissis_, after which time the aureus was called _solidus_. -Constantine the Great coined aurei of 72 to the pound; at which -standard the coin remained to the end of the empire. - -[Illustration: Aureus of Augustus. (British Museum.)] - - -AURUM CŎRŌNĀRĬUM. When a general in a Roman province had obtained a -victory, it was the custom for the cities in his own provinces, and -for those from the neighbouring states, to send golden crowns to him, -which were carried before him in his triumph at Rome. In the time of -Cicero it appears to have been usual for the cities of the provinces, -instead of sending crowns on occasion of a victory, to pay money, -which was called _aurum coronarium_. This offering, which was at -first voluntary, came to be regarded as a regular tribute, and was -sometimes exacted by the governors of the provinces, even when no -victory had been gained. - - -AURUM VĪCĒSĬMĀRĬUM. [AERARIUM.] - - -AUSPEX. [AUGUR.] - - -AUSPĬCĬUM. [AUGUR.] - - -AUTHEPSA (αὐθέψης), which literally means “self-boiling,” or -“self-cooking,” was the name of a vessel which is supposed to have -been used for heating water, or for keeping it hot. - - -AUTŎNŎMI (αὐτονόμοι), the name given by the Greeks to those states -which were governed by their own laws, and were not subject to any -foreign power. This name was also given to those cities subject to -the Romans, which were permitted to enjoy their own laws and elect -their own magistrates. - - -AUXĬLĬA. [SOCII.] - - -AXĀMENTA. [SALII.] - - -AXĪNĒ. [SECURIS.] - - -AXIS. [CURRUS.] - - -AXŎNES (ἄξονες), also called _kurbeis_ (κύρβεις), wooden tablets of -a square or pyramidal form, made to turn on an axis, on which were -written the laws of Solon. According to some writers the _Axones_ -contained the civil, and the _Kurbeis_ the religious laws; according -to others the _Kurbeis_ had four sides and the _Axones_ three. But at -Athens, at all events, they seem to have been identical. They were at -first preserved in the Acropolis, but were afterwards placed in the -agora, in order that all persons might be able to read them. - - - - -BĀLISTA, BALLISTA. [TORMENTUM.] - - -BALNĔUM or BĂLĬNĔUM (λοετρόν or λουτρόν, βαλανεῖον, also _balneae_ -or _balineae_), a bath. _Balneum_ or _balineum_ signifies, in -its primary sense, a bath or bathing vessel, such as most Romans -possessed in their own houses; and from that it came to mean -the chamber which contained the bath. When the baths of private -individuals became more sumptuous, and comprised many rooms, the -plural _balnea_ or _balinea_ was adopted, which still, in correct -language, had reference only to the baths of private persons. -_Balneae_ and _balineae_, which have no singular number, were the -public baths. But this accuracy of diction is neglected by many of -the later writers. _Thermae_ (from θέρμη, warmth) means properly -warm springs, or baths of warm water, but was afterwards applied to -the structures in which the baths were placed, and which were both -hot and cold. There was, however, a material distinction between the -_balneae_ and _thermae_, inasmuch as the former was the term used -under the republic, and referred to the public establishments of -that age, which contained no appliances for luxury beyond the mere -convenience of hot and cold baths, whereas the latter name was given -to those magnificent edifices which grew up under the empire, and -which comprised within their range of buildings all the appurtenances -belonging to the Greek gymnasia, as well as a regular establishment -appropriated for bathing.--Bathing was a practice familiar to the -Greeks of both sexes from the earliest times. The artificial warm -bath was taken in a vessel called _asaminthus_ (ἀσάμινθος) by Homer, -and _puelus_ (πύελος) by the later Greeks. It did not contain water -itself, but was only used for the bather to sit in, while the -warm water was poured over him. On Greek vases, however, we never -find anything corresponding to a modern bath in which persons can -stand or sit; but there is always a round or oval basin (λουτήρ or -λουτήριον), resting on a stand, by the side of which those who are -bathing are standing undressed and washing themselves. In the Homeric -times it was customary to take first a cold and afterwards a warm -bath; but in later times it was the usual practice of the Greeks to -take first a warm or vapour, and afterwards a cold bath. At Athens -the frequent use of the public baths, most of which were warm baths -(βαλανεῖα, called by Homer θερμὰ λοετρά), was regarded in the time -of Socrates and Demosthenes as a mark of luxury and effeminacy. -Accordingly, Phocion was said to have never bathed in a public bath, -and Socrates to have used it very seldom. After bathing both sexes -anointed themselves, in order that the skin might not be left harsh -and rough, especially after warm water. Oil (ἔλαιον) is the only -ointment mentioned by Homer, but in later times precious unguents -(μῦρα) were used for this purpose. The bath was usually taken before -the principal meal of the day (δεῖπνον). The Lacedaemonians, who -considered warm water as enervating, used two kinds of baths; namely, -the cold daily bath in the Eurotas, and a dry sudorific bath in a -chamber heated with warm air by means of a stove, and from them -the chamber used by the Romans for a similar purpose was termed -_Laconicum_. A sudorific or vapour bath (πυρία or πυριατήριον) is -mentioned as early as the time of Herodotus. At what period the use -of the warm bath was introduced among the Romans is not recorded; but -we know that Scipio had a warm bath in his villa at Liternum, and -the practice of heating an apartment with warm air by flues placed -immediately under it, so as to produce a vapour bath, is stated to -have been invented by Sergius Orata, who lived in the age of Crassus, -before the Marsic war. By the time of Cicero the use of baths of -warm water and hot air had become common, and in his time there were -baths at Rome which were open to the public upon payment of a small -fee. In the public baths at Rome the men and women used originally to -bathe in separate sets of chambers; but under the empire it became -the common custom for both sexes to bathe indiscriminately in the -same bath. This practice was forbidden by Hadrian and M. Aurelius; -and Alexander Severus prohibited any baths, common to both sexes, -from being opened in Rome. The price of a bath was a quadrant, the -smallest piece of coined money, from the age of Cicero downwards, -which was paid to the keeper of the bath (_balneator_). Children -below a certain age were admitted free. It was usual with the Romans -to take the bath after exercise, and before the principal meal -(_coena_) of the day; but the debauchees of the empire bathed also -after eating as well as before, in order to promote digestion, and to -acquire a new appetite for fresh delicacies. - -[Illustration: Roman Bath. (Fresco from the Thermae of Titus.)] - -Upon quitting the bath the Romans as well as the Greeks were -anointed with oil. The Romans did not content themselves with a -single bath of hot or cold water; but they went through a course of -baths in succession, in which the agency of air as well as water was -applied. It is difficult to ascertain the precise order in which -the course was usually taken; but it appears to have been a general -practice to close the pores, and brace the body after the excessive -perspiration of the vapour bath, either by pouring cold water over -the head, or by plunging at once into the _piscina_. To render the -subjoined remarks more easily intelligible, the preceding woodcut is -inserted, which is taken from a fresco painting upon the walls of -the thermae of Titus at Rome. The chief parts of a Roman bath were -as follow:--1. _Apodyterium._ Here the bathers were expected to take -off their garments, which were then delivered to a class of slaves, -called _capsarii_, whose duty it was to take charge of them. These -men were notorious for dishonesty, and were leagued with all the -thieves of the city, so that they connived at the robberies which -they were placed to prevent. There was probably an _Elaeothesium_ -or _Unctorium_, as appears from the preceding cut, in connection -with the apodyterium, where the bathers might be anointed with -oil.--2. _Frigidarium_ or _Cella Frigidaria_, where the cold bath -was taken. The cold bath itself was called _Natatio_, _Natatorium_, -_Piscina_, _Baptisterium_, or _Puteus_.--3. _Tepidarium_ would seem -from the preceding cut to have been a bathing room, for a person -is there apparently represented pouring water over a bather. But -there is good reason for thinking that this was not the case. In -most cases the tepidarium contained no water at all, but was a -room merely heated with warm air of an agreeable temperature, in -order to prepare the body for the great heat of the vapour and warm -baths, and upon returning from the latter, to obviate the danger -of a too sudden transition to the open air.--4. The _Caldarium_ or -_Concamerata Sudatio_ contained at one extremity the vapour bath -(_Laconicum_), and at the other the warm bath (_balneum_ or _calda -lavatio_), while the centre space between the two ends was termed -_sudatio_ or _sudatorium_. In larger establishments the vapour bath -and warm bath were in two separate cells, as we see in the preceding -cut: in such cases the former part _alone_ was called _concamerata -sudatio_. The whole rested on a suspended pavement (_suspensura_), -under which was a fire (_hypocaustum_), so that the flames might heat -the whole apartment. (See cut.) The warm water bath (_balneum_ or -_calda lavatio_), which is also called _piscina_ or _calida piscina_, -_labrum_ and _solium_, appears to have been a capacious marble vase, -sometimes standing upon the floor, like that in the preceding cut, -and sometimes either partly elevated above the floor, as it was at -Pompeii, or entirely sunk into it. After having gone, through the -regular course of perspiration, the Romans made use of instruments -called _strigiles_ or _strigles_, to scrape off the perspiration. - -[Illustration: Strigil. (From a Relief at Athens.)] - -The strigil was also used by the Greeks, who called it _stlengis_ -(στλεγγίς) or _xystra_ (ξύστρα). The figure in the cut on p. 24 is -represented with a strigil in his hand. As the strigil was not a -blunt instrument, its edge was softened by the application of oil, -which was dropped upon it from a small vessel called _guttus_ or -_ampulla_, which had a narrow neck, so as to discharge its contents -drop by drop, from whence the name is taken. - -[Illustration: Strigil and Guttus. (From a Statue in the Vatican.)] - -In the _Thermae_, spoken of above, the baths were of secondary -importance. They were a Roman adaptation of the Greek gymnasium, -contained exedrae for the philosophers and rhetoricians to lecture -in, porticoes for the idle, and libraries for the learned, and were -adorned with marbles, fountains, and shaded walks and plantations. -M. Agrippa, in the reign of Augustus, was the first who afforded -these luxuries to his countrymen, by bequeathing to them the thermae -and gardens which he had erected in the Campus Martius. The example -set by Agrippa was followed by Nero, and afterwards by Titus, the -ruins of whose thermae are still visible, covering a vast extent, -partly under ground and partly above the Esquiline hill. Thermae were -also erected by Trajan, Caracalla, and Diocletian, of the two last -of which ample remains still exist. Previously to the erection of -these establishments for the use of the population, it was customary -for those who sought the favour of the people to give them a day’s -bathing free of expense. From thence it is fair to infer that the -quadrant paid for admission into the _balneae_ was not exacted at the -_thermae_, which, as being the works of the emperors, would naturally -be opened with imperial generosity to all, and without any charge. - - -BALTĔUS (τελαμών), a belt, a shoulder belt, was used to suspend the -sword. See the figs. on p. 41. In the Homeric times the Greeks used -a belt to support the shield. The balteus was likewise employed -to suspend the quiver, and sometimes together with it the bow. -More commonly the belt, whether employed to support the sword, the -shield, or the quiver, was made of leather, and was frequently -ornamented with gold, silver, and precious stones. In a general -sense _balteus_ was applied not only to the belt which passed over -the shoulder, but also to the girdle (_cingulum_), which encompassed -the waist. In architecture, Vitruvius applies the term _Baltei_ to -the bands surrounding the volute on each side of an Ionic capital. -Other writers apply it to the _praecinctiones_ of an amphitheatre. -[AMPHITHEATRUM.] - - -BĂRATHRON (βάραθρον), also called ORUGMA (ὄρυγμα), a deep cavern or -chasm, like the Ceadas at Sparta, behind the Acropolis at Athens, -into which criminals were thrown. [CEADAS.] - - -BARBA (πώγων, γένειον, ὑπήνη), the beard. The Greeks seem generally -to have worn the beard till the time of Alexander the Great; and -a thick beard was considered as a mark of manliness. The Greek -philosophers in particular were distinguished by their long beards -as a sort of badge. The Romans in early times wore the beard uncut, -and the Roman beards are said not to have been shaved till B.C. 300, -when P. Ticinius Maena brought over a barber from Sicily; and Pliny -adds, that the first Roman who is said to have been shaved every day -was Scipio Africanus. His custom, however, was soon followed, and -shaving became a regular thing. In the later times of the republic -there were many who shaved the beard only partially, and trimmed it, -so as to give it an ornamental form; to them the terms _bene barbati_ -and _barbatuli_ are applied. In the general way at Rome, a long -beard (_barba promissa_) was considered a mark of slovenliness and -_squalor_. The first time of shaving was regarded as the beginning -of manhood, and the day on which this took place was celebrated as -a festival. There was no particular time fixed for this to be done. -Usually, however, it was done when the young Roman assumed the toga -virilis. The hair cut off on such occasions was consecrated to -some god. Thus Nero put his up in a gold box, set with pearls, and -dedicated it to Jupiter Capitolinus. Under the emperor Hadrian the -beard began to revive. Plutarch says that the emperor wore it to hide -some scars on his face. The practice afterwards became common, and -till the time of Constantine the Great, the emperors appear in busts -and coins with beards. The Romans let their beards grow in time of -mourning; the Greeks, on the other hand, on such occasions shaved the -beard close. - - -BARBĬTUS (βάρβιτος), or BARBĬTON (βάρβιτον), a stringed instrument, -the original form of which is uncertain. Later writers use it as -synonymous with the lyra. [LYRA.] - - -BASCAUDA, a British basket. This term, which remains with very little -variation in the Welsh “basgawd” and the English “basket,” was -conveyed to Rome together with the articles denoted by it. - - -BĂSĬLĬCA (sc. _aedes_, _aula_, _porticus_--βασιλική, also _regia_), -a building which served as a court of law and an exchange, or place -of meeting for merchants and men of business. The word was adopted -from the Athenians, whose second archon was styled _archon basileus_ -(ἄρχων βασιλεύς), and the tribunal where he adjudicated _stoa -basileius_ (ἡ βασίλειος στοά), the substantive _aula_ or _porticus_ -in Latin being omitted for convenience, and the distinctive epithet -converted into a substantive. The first edifice of this description -at Rome was not erected until B.C. 182. It was situated in the -forum adjoining the curia, and was denominated Basilica Porcia, in -commemoration of its founder, M. Porcius Cato. Besides this there -were twenty others erected at different periods, within the city -of Rome. The forum, or, where there was more than one, the one -which was in the most frequented and central part of the city, was -always selected for the site of a basilica; and hence it is that the -classic writers not unfrequently use the terms _forum_ and _basilica_ -synonymously. The ground plan of all these buildings is rectangular, -and their width not more than half, nor less than one-third of the -length. This area was divided into three naves, consisting of a -centre (_media porticus_), and two side aisles, separated from the -centre one, each by a single row of columns. At one end of the centre -aisle was the tribunal of the judge, in form either rectangular or -circular, as is seen in the annexed plan of the basilica at Pompeii. -In the centre of the tribunal was placed the curule chair of the -praetor, and seats for the judices and the advocates. The two side -aisles, as has been said, were separated from the centre one by a -row of columns, behind each of which was placed a square pier or -pilaster (_parastata_), which supported the flooring of an upper -portico, similar to the gallery of a modern church. The upper gallery -was in like manner decorated with columns, of lower dimensions than -those below; and these served to support the roof, and were connected -with one another by a parapet-wall or balustrade (_pluteus_), which -served as a defence against the danger of falling over, and screened -the crowd of loiterers above (_sub-basilicani_) from the people of -business in the area below. Many of these edifices were afterwards -used as Christian churches, and many churches were built after the -model above described. Such churches were called _basilicae_, which -name they retain to the present day, being still called at Rome -_basiliche_. - -[Illustration: Ground Plan of a Basilica.] - - -BASTERNA, a kind of litter (_lectica_) in which women were carried -in the time of the Roman emperors. It appears to have resembled the -Lectica [LECTICA] very closely; and the only difference apparently -was, that the lectica was carried by slaves, and the basterna by two -mules. - - -BAXA, or BAXĔA, a sandal made of vegetable leaves, twigs, or fibres, -worn on the stage by comic actors. - - -BĒMA (βῆμα). [ECCLESIA.] - - -BENDĬDEIA (βενδίδεια), a Thracian festival in honour of the goddess -Bendis, who is said to be identical with the Grecian Artemis and with -the Roman Diana. The festival was of a bacchanalian character. From -Thrace it was brought to Athens, where it was celebrated in the -Peiraeeus, on the 19th or 20th of the month Thargelion, before the -Panathenaea Minora. The temple of Bendis was called Bendideion. - - -BĔNĔFĬCĬUM, BĔNĔFĬCĬĀRĬUS. The term _beneficium_ is of frequent -occurrence in the Roman law, in the sense of some special privilege -or favour granted to a person in respect of age, sex, or condition. -But the word was also used in other senses. In the time of Cicero -it was usual for a general, or a governor of a province, to report -to the treasury the names of those under his command who had done -good service to the state: those who were included in such report -were said _in beneficiis ad aerarium deferri_. _In beneficiis_ in -these passages may mean that the persons so reported were considered -as persons who had deserved well of the state; and so the word -_beneficium_ may have reference to the services of the individuals; -but as the object for which their services were reported was the -benefit of the individuals, it seems that the term had reference also -to the reward, immediate or remote, obtained for their services. The -honours and offices of the Roman state, in the republican period, -were called the _beneficia_ of the Populus Romanus. Beneficium also -signified any promotion conferred on or grant made to soldiers, who -were thence called _beneficiarii_. - - -BESTIĀRĬI (θηριομάχοι), persons who fought with wild beasts in the -games of the circus. They were either persons who fought for the sake -of pay (_auctoramentum_), and who were allowed arms, or they were -criminals, who were usually permitted to have no means of defence -against the wild beasts. - - -BIBLĬŎPŌLA (βιβλιοπώλης), also called _librarius_, a bookseller. -The shop was called _apotheca_ or _taberna libraria_, or merely -_libraria_. The Romans had their Paternoster-row; for the bibliopolae -or librarii lived mostly in one street, called Argiletum. Another -favourite quarter of the booksellers was the Vicus Sandalarius. -There seems also to have been a sort of bookstalls by the temples of -Vertumnus and Janus. - - -BIBLĬŎTHĒCA (βιβλιοθήκη, or ἀποθήκη βιβλίων), primarily, the place -where a collection of books was kept; secondarily, the collection -itself. Public collections of books appear to have been very ancient. -That of Peisistratus (B.C. 550) was intended for public use; it -was subsequently removed to Persia by Xerxes. About the same time -Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, is said to have founded a library. In -the best days of Athens, even private persons had large collections -of books; but the most important and splendid public library of -antiquity was that founded by the Ptolemies at Alexandria, begun -under Ptolemy Soter, but increased and re-arranged in an orderly -and systematic manner by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who also appointed a -fixed librarian, and otherwise provided for the usefulness of the -institution. A great part of this splendid library was consumed -by fire in the siege of Alexandria by Julius Caesar; but it was -soon restored, and continued in a flourishing condition till it -was destroyed by the Arabs, A.D. 640. The Ptolemies were not long -without a rival in zeal. Eumenes, king of Pergamus, became a patron -of literature and the sciences, and established a library, which, -in spite of the prohibition against exporting papyrus issued by -Ptolemy, who was jealous of his success, became very extensive, and -perhaps next in importance to the library of Alexandria. The first -public library in Rome was that founded by Asinius Pollio, and was -in the atrium Libertatis on Mount Aventine. The library of Pollio -was followed by that of Augustus in the temple of Apollo on Mount -Palatine and by another, bibliothecae Octavianae, in the theatre of -Marcellus. There were also libraries on the Capitol, in the temple of -Peace, in the palace of Tiberius, besides the Ulpian library, which -was the most famous, founded by Trajan. Libraries were also usually -attached to the Thermae. [BALNEUM.] Private collections of books were -made at Rome soon after the second Punic war. The zeal of Cicero, -Atticus, and others, in increasing their libraries is well known. It -became, in fact, the fashion to have a room elegantly furnished as a -library, and reserved for that purpose. The charge of the libraries -in Rome was given to persons called _librarii_. - - -BĪCOS (βῖκος), the name of an earthen vessel in common use among the -Greeks, for holding wine, and salted meat and fish. - - -BĬDENTAL, the name given to a place where any one had been struck -by lightning, or where any one had been killed by lightning and -buried. Such a place was considered sacred. Priests, who were -called _bidentales_, collected the earth which had been torn up by -lightning, and every thing that had been scorched, and burnt it in -the ground with a sorrowful murmur. The officiating priest was said -_condere fulgur_; he further consecrated the spot by sacrificing a -two-year-old sheep (_bidens_), whence the name of the place and of -the priest, and he also erected an altar, and surrounded it with a -wall or fence. To move the bounds of a bidental, or in any way to -violate its sacred precincts, was considered as sacrilege. - - -BIDIAEI (βιδιαῖοι), magistrates in Sparta, whose business was to -inspect the gymnastic exercises. They were either five or six in -number. - - -BĪGA or BĪGAE. [CURRUS.] - - -BĪGĀTUS. [DENARIUS.] - - -BĬPENNIS. [SECURIS.] - - -BĬRĒMIS. (1.) A ship with two banks of oars. [NAVIS.] Such ships -were called _dicrota_ by the Greeks, which term is also used by -Cicero.--(2.) A boat rowed by two oars. - - -BISSEXTUS ANNUS. [CALENDARIUM, ROMAN.] - - -BŎĒDRŎMĬA (βοηδρόμια), a festival celebrated at Athens on the seventh -day of the month Boëdromion, in honour of Apollo Boëdromius. The name -Boëdromius, by which Apollo was called in Boeotia and many other -parts of Greece, seems to indicate that by this festival he was -honoured as a martial god, who, either by his actual presence or by -his oracles, afforded assistance in the dangers of war. - - -BOEŌTARCHĒS (βοιωτάρχης, or βοιωτάρχος), the name of the chief -magistrates of the Boeotian confederacy, chosen by the different -states. Their duties were chiefly of a military character. Each -state of the confederacy elected one boeotarch, the Thebans two. -The total number from the whole confederacy varied with the number -of the independent states, but at the time of the Peloponnesian war -they appear to have been ten or twelve. The boeotarchs, when engaged -in military service, formed a council of war, the decisions of which -were determined by a majority of votes, the president being one of -the two Theban boeotarchs, who commanded alternately. Their period of -service was a year, beginning about the winter solstice; and whoever -continued in office longer than his time was punishable with death, -both at Thebes and in other cities. - - -BŎNA, property. The phrase _in bonis_ is frequently used as opposed -to _dominium_ or _Quiritarian ownership_ (_ex jure Quiritium_). The -ownership of certain kinds of things among the Romans could only be -transferred from one person to another with certain formalities, or -acquired by usucapion (that is, the uninterrupted possession of a -thing for a certain time). But if it was clearly the intention of -the owner to transfer the ownership, and the necessary forms only -were wanting, the purchaser had the thing _in bonis_, and he had -the enjoyment of it, though the original owner was still _legally_ -the owner, and was said to have the thing _ex jure Quiritium_, -notwithstanding he had parted with the thing. The person who -possessed a thing _in bonis_ was protected in the enjoyment of it -by the praetor, and consequently after a time would obtain the -Quiritarian ownership of it by usucapion. [USUCAPIO.] - - -BŎNA CĂDŪCA. _Caducum_ literally signifies that which falls: thus -_glans caduca_ is the mast which falls from a tree. The strict legal -sense of _caducum_ and _bona caduca_ is as follows:--If a thing is -left by testament to a person, so that he can take it by the jus -civile, but from some cause has not taken it, that thing is called -_caducum_, as if it had _fallen_ from him. Or if a _heres ex parte_, -or a legatee, died before the opening of the will, the thing was -_caducum_. That which was caducum came, in the first place, to -those among the heredes who had children; and if the heredes had -no children, it came among those of the legatees who had children. -In case there was no prior claimant the caducum belonged to the -aerarium; and subsequently to the fiscus. [AERARIUM.] - - -BŎNA FĬDES implies, generally speaking, the absence of all fraud and -unfair dealing or acting. In various actions arising out of mutual -dealings, such as buying and selling, lending and hiring, partnership -and others, bona fides is equivalent to aequum and justum; and such -actions were sometimes called bonae fidei actiones. The formula of -the praetor, which was the authority of the judex, empowered him -in such cases to inquire and determine _ex bona fide_, that is, -according to the real merits of the case: sometimes aequius melius -was used instead of ex bona fide. - - -BŎNŌRUM CESSĬO. There were two kinds of bonorum cessio, _in jure_ -and _extra jus_. The _in jure cessio_ was a mode of transferring -ownership by means of a fictitious suit. The _bonorum cessio extra -jus_ was introduced by a Julian law, passed either in the time of -Julius Caesar or Augustus, which allowed an insolvent debtor to give -up his property to his creditors. The debtor thus avoided the infamia -consequent on the bonorum emtio, which was involuntary, and he was -free from all personal execution. He was also allowed to retain a -small portion of his property for his support. The property thus -given up was sold, and the proceeds distributed among the creditors. - - -BŎNŌRUM COLLĀTĬO. By the strict rules of the civil law an emancipated -son had no right to the inheritance of his father, whether he died -testate or intestate. But, in course of time, the praetor granted to -emancipated children the privilege of equal succession with those who -remained in the power of the father at the time of his death; but -only on condition that they should bring into one common stock with -their father’s property, and for the purpose of an equal division -among all the father’s children, whatever property they had at the -time of the father’s death, and which would have been acquired for -the father in case they had still remained in his power. This was -called bonorum collatio. - - -BŎNŌRUM EMTĬO ET EMTOR. The expression bonorum emtio applies to a -sale of the property either of a living or of a dead person. It -was in effect, as to a living debtor, an execution. In the case of -a dead person, his property was sold when it was ascertained that -there was neither heres nor bonorum possessor, nor any other person -entitled to succeed to it. In the case of the property of a living -person being sold, the praetor, on the application of the creditors, -ordered it to be possessed (_possideri_) by the creditors for thirty -successive days, and notice to be given of the sale. This explains -the expression in Livy (ii. 24): “ne quis militis, donec in castris -esset, bona _possideret_ aut venderet.” - - -BŎNŌRUM POSSESSĬO was the right of suing for or retaining a patrimony -or thing which belonged to another at the time of his death. The -bonorum possessio was given by the edict both _contra tabulas_, -_secundum tabulas_, and _intestati_. 1. An emancipated son had -no legal claim on the inheritance of his father; but if he was -omitted in his father’s will, or not expressly exheredated, the -praetor’s edict gave him the bonorum possessio contra tabulas, on -condition that he would bring into hotchpot (_bonorum collatio_) -with his brethren who continued in the parent’s power, whatever -property he had at the time of the parent’s death. 2. The _bonorum -possessio secundum tabulas_ was that possession which the praetor -gave, conformably to the words of the will, to those named in it as -heredes, when there was no person intitled to make a claim against -the will, or none who chose to make such a claim. 3. In the case of -intestacy (_intestati_) there were seven degrees of persons who might -claim the bonorum possessio, each in his order, upon there being -no claim of a prior degree. The first three degrees were children, -_legitimi heredes_, and _proximi cognati_. Emancipated children could -claim as well as those who were not emancipated, and adoptive as well -as children of the blood; but not children who had been adopted into -another family. If a freedman died intestate, leaving only a wife -(in manu) or an adoptive son, the patron was entitled to the bonorum -possessio of one half of his property. - - -BŎŌNAE (βοῶναι), persons in Athens who purchased oxen for the -public sacrifices and feasts. They are spoken of by Demosthenes -in conjunction with the ἱεροποιοί and those who presided over the -mysteries. - - -BORĔASMUS (βορεασμός or βορεασμοί), a festival celebrated by the -Athenians in honour of Boreas, which, as Herodotus seems to think, -was instituted during the Persian war, when the Athenians, being -commanded by an oracle to invoke their γαμβρὸς ἐπίκουρος, prayed to -Boreas. But considering that Boreas was intimately connected with -the early history of Attica, we have reason to suppose that even -previous to the Persian wars certain honours were paid to him, which -were perhaps only revived and increased after the event recorded by -Herodotus. The festival, however, does not seem ever to have had any -great celebrity. - - -BOULĒ (βουλή--ἡ τῶν πεντακοσίων). In the heroic ages, represented to -us by Homer, the _boulé_ is simply an aristocratical council of the -elders amongst the nobles, sitting under their king as president, -which decided on public business and judicial matters, frequently in -connection with, but apparently not subject to an _agora_, or meeting -of the freemen of the state. [AGORA.] This form of government, though -it existed for some time in the Ionian, Aeolian, and Achaean states, -was at last wholly abolished in these states. Among the Dorians, -however, especially among the Spartans, this was not the case, for -they retained the kingly power of the Heracleidae, in conjunction -with the _Gerousia_ or assembly of elders, of which the kings were -members. [GEROUSIA.] At Athens on the contrary, the _boulé_ was a -representative, and in most respects a popular body (δημοτικόν). The -first institution of the Athenian _boulé_ is generally attributed to -Solon; but there are strong reasons for supposing that, as in the -case of the _Areiopagus_, he merely modified the constitution of a -body which he found already existing. But be this as it may, it is -admitted that Solon made the number of his _boulé_ 400, 100 from -each of the four tribes. When the number of the tribes was raised -to ten by Cleisthenes (B.C. 510), the council also was increased to -500, fifty being taken from each of the ten tribes. The _bouleutae_ -(βουλευταί) or councillors were appointed by lot, and hence they are -called councillors made by the bean (οἱ ἀπὸ τοῦ κυάμου βουλευταί), -from the use of beans in drawing lots. They were required to submit -to a scrutiny or _docimasia_, in which they gave evidence of being -genuine citizens, of never having lost their civic rights by -_atimia_, and also of being above 30 years of age. They remained -in office for a year, receiving a drachma (μισθὸς βουλευτικός) for -each day on which they sat: and independent of the general account -(εὐθύναι), which the whole body had to give at the end of the year, -any single member was liable to expulsion for misconduct by his -colleagues. The senate of 500 was divided into ten sections of fifty -each, the members of which were called _prytanes_ (πρυτάνεις), and -were all of the same tribe; they acted as presidents both of the -council and the assemblies during thirty-five or thirty-six days, -as the case might be, so as to complete the lunar year of 354 days -(12×29½). Each tribe exercised these functions in turn; the period -of office was called a _prytany_ (πρυτανεία), and the tribe that -presided the _presiding tribe_; the order in which the tribes -presided was determined by lot, and the four supernumerary days were -given to the tribes which came last in order. Moreover, to obviate -the difficulty of having too many in office at once, every fifty -was subdivided into five bodies of ten each; its prytany also being -portioned out into five periods of seven days each; so that only ten -senators presided for a week over the rest, and were thence called -_proedri_ (πρόεδροι). Again, out of these proedri an _epistates_ -(ἐπιστάτης) was chosen for one day to preside as a chairman in the -senate, and the assembly of the people; during his day of office -he kept the public records and seal. The prytanes had the right of -convening the council and the assembly (ἐκκλησία). The duty of the -proedri and their president was to propose subjects for discussion, -and to take the votes both of the councillors and the people; -for neglect of their duty they were liable to a fine. Moreover, -whenever a meeting, either of the council or of the assembly, was -convened, the chairman of the proedri selected by lot nine others, -one from each of the non-presiding tribes; these also were called -proedri, and possessed a chairman of their own, likewise appointed -by lot from among themselves. But the proedri who proposed the -subject for discussion to the assembly belonged to the presiding -tribe. It is observed, under AREIOPAGUS, that the chief object of -Solon, in forming the senate and the areiopagus, was to control the -democratical powers of the state: for this purpose he ordained that -the senate should discuss and vote upon all matters before they were -submitted to the assembly, so that nothing could be laid before the -people on which the senate had not come to a previous decision. -This decision, or bill, was called _probouleuma_ (προβούλευμα); but -then not only might this _probouleuma_ be rejected or modified by -the assembly, but the latter also possessed and exercised the power -of coming to a decision completely different from the will of the -senate. In addition to the bills which it was the duty of the senate -to propose of their own accord, there were others of a different -character, viz. such as any private individual might wish to have -submitted to the people. To accomplish this, it was first necessary -for the party to obtain, by petition, the privilege of access to -the senate, and leave to propose his motion; and if the measure met -with their approbation, he could then submit it to the assembly. A -proposal of this kind, which had the sanction of the senate, was -also called _probouleuma_, and frequently related to the conferring -of some particular honour or privilege upon an individual. Thus the -proposal of Ctesiphon for crowning Demosthenes is so styled. In the -assembly the bill of the senate was first read, perhaps by the crier, -after the introductory ceremonies were over; and then the proedri put -the question to the people, whether they approved of it. The people -declared their will by a show of hands (προχειροτονία). If it was -confirmed it became a _psephisma_ (ψήφισμα), or decree of the people, -binding upon all classes. The form for drawing up such decrees varied -in different ages. In the time of Demosthenes the decrees commence -with the name of the archon; then come the day of the month, the -tribe in office, and, lastly, the name of the proposer. The motive -for passing the decree is next stated; and then follows the decree -itself, prefaced with the formula δεδόχθαι τῇ βουλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ. -The senate-house was called _Bouleuterion_ (βουλευτηριον). The -prytanes also had a building to hold their meetings in, where they -were entertained at the public expense during their prytany. This -was called the _Prytaneion_, and was used for a variety of purposes. -[PRYTANEION.] - - -BRĀCAE, or BRACCAE (ἀναξυρίδες), trowsers, pantaloons, were common -to all the nations which encircled the Greek and Roman population, -extending from the Indian to the Atlantic ocean, but were not worn -by the Greeks and Romans themselves. Accordingly the monuments -containing representations of people different from the Greeks and -Romans exhibit them in trowsers, thus distinguishing them from the -latter people. - - -BRAURŌNĬA (βραυρώνια), a festival celebrated in honour of Artemis -Brauronia, in the Attic town of Brauron, where Orestes and -Iphigeneia, on their return from Tauris, were supposed by the -Athenians to have landed, and left the statue of the Taurian goddess. -It was held every fifth year, and the chief solemnity consisted in -the Attic girls between the ages of five and ten years going in -solemn procession to the sanctuary, where they were consecrated to -the goddess. During this act the priests sacrificed a goat, and the -girls performed a propitiatory rite, in which they imitated bears. -This rite may have simply risen from the circumstance that the bear -was sacred to Artemis, especially in Arcadia. There was also a -quinquennial festival called Brauronia, which was celebrated by men -and dissolute women, at Brauron, in honour of Dionysus. - - -BRUTTĬĀNI, slaves whose duty it was to wait upon the Roman -magistrates. They are said to have been originally taken from among -the Bruttians. - - -BUCCĬNA (βυκάνη), a kind of horn trumpet, anciently made out of a -shell (_buccinum_), the form of which is exhibited in the specimen -annexed. The _buccina_ was distinct from the _cornu_; but it is -often confounded with it. The buccina seems to have been chiefly -distinguished by the twisted form of the shell, from which it was -originally made. In later times it was carved from horn, and perhaps -from wood or metal, so as to imitate the shell. The _buccina_ was -chiefly used to proclaim the watches of the day and of the night, -hence called _buccina prima_, _secunda_, &c. It was also blown at -funerals, and at festive entertainments both before sitting down to -table and after. - -[Illustration: Buccina, Trumpet. (Blanchini, De Mus. Instrum. Vet.)] - - -BULLA, a circular plate or boss of metal, so called from its -resemblance in form to a bubble floating upon water. Bright studs -of this description were used to adorn the sword belt; but we most -frequently read of _bullae_ as ornaments worn by children, suspended -from the neck, and especially by the sons of the noble and wealthy. -Such an one is called _heres bullatus_ by Juvenal. The bulla was -usually made of thin plates of gold. The use of the bulla, like that -of the praetexta, was derived from the Etruscans. It was originally -worn only by the children of the patricians, but subsequently by all -of free birth. - -[Illustration: Bulla. (From the Collection of Mr. Rogers; the gold -chord added from a specimen in the Brit. Mus.)] - - -BŪRIS. [ARATRUM.] - - -BUSTUM. It was customary among the Romans to burn the bodies of the -dead before burying them. When the spot appointed for that purpose -adjoined the place of sepulture, it was termed _bustum_; when it -was separate from it, it was called _ustrina_. From this word the -gladiators, who were hired to fight round the burning pyre of the -deceased, were called _bustuarii_. - - -BUXUM or BUXUS, probably means the wood of the box-tree, but was -given as a name to many things made of this wood. The tablets used -for writing on, and covered with wax (_tabulae ceratae_), were -usually made of box. In the same way the Greek πυξίον, formed from -πύξος, “box-wood,” came to be applied to any tablets, whether they -were made of this wood or any other substance. Tops and combs were -made of box-wood, and also all wind instruments, especially the flute. - - -BYSSUS (βύσσος), linen, and not cotton. The word byssus appears to -come from the Hebrew _butz_, and the Greeks probably got it through -the Phoenicians. - - - - -CĂBEIRĬA (καβείρια), mysteries, festivals, and orgies, solemnised -in all places in which the Pelasgian Cabeiri were worshipped, but -especially in Samothrace, Imbros, Lemnos, Thebes, Anthedon, Pergamus, -and Berytos. Little is known respecting the rites observed in these -mysteries, as no one was allowed to divulge them. The most celebrated -were those of the island of Samothrace, which, if we may judge from -those of Lemnos, were solemnised every year, and lasted for nine -days. Persons on their admission seem to have undergone a sort of -examination respecting the life they had led hitherto, and were then -purified of all their crimes, even if they had committed murder. - - -CĀDŪCĔUS (κηρύκειον, κηρύκιον), the staff or mace carried by heralds -and ambassadors in time of war. This name is also given to the staff -with which Hermes or Mercury is usually represented, as is shown in -the following figure of that god. From _caduceus_ was formed the -word _caduceator_, which signified a person sent to treat of peace. -The persons of the caduceatores were considered sacred. - -[Illustration: Hermes bearing the Caduceus. (Museo Borbonico, vol. -vi. pl. 2.)] - - -CĂDŪCUM. [BONA CADUCA.] - - -CĂDUS (κάδος, κάδδος), a large vessel usually made of earthenware, -which was used for keeping wine, drawing water, &c. The name of -cadus was sometimes given to the vessel or urn in which the counters -or pebbles of the dicasts were put, when they gave their vote on a -trial, but the diminutive καδίσκος was more commonly used in this -signification. - - -CAELĀTŪRA (τορευτική), a branch of the fine arts, under which all -sorts of ornamental work in metal, except actual statues, appear to -be included. The principal processes, which these words were used -to designate, seem to have been of three kinds: hammering metal -plates into moulds or dies, so as to bring out a raised pattern; -engraving the surface of metals with a sharp tool; and working a -pattern of one metal upon or into the surface of another: in short, -the various processes which we describe by the words _chasing_, -_damascening_, &c. The objects on which the _caelator_ exercised his -art were chiefly weapons and armour--especially shields, chariots, -tripods, and other votive offerings, quoits, candelabra, thrones, -curule chairs, mirrors, goblets, dishes, and all kinds of gold and -silver plate. The ornamental work with which the chaser decorated -such objects consisted either of simple running patterns, chiefly in -imitation of plants and flowers, or of animals, or of mythological -subjects, and, for armour, of battles. The mythological subjects -were reserved for the works of the greatest masters of the art: they -were generally executed in very high relief (_anaglypha_). In the -finest works, the ornamental pattern was frequently distinct from -the vessel, to which it was either fastened permanently, or so that -it could be removed at pleasure, the vessel being of silver, and the -ornaments of gold, _crustae aut emblemata_. The art of ornamental -metal-work was in an advanced stage of progress among the Greeks of -the heroic period, as we see from numerous passages of Homer: but its -origin, in the high artistic sense, is to be ascribed to Phidias, -and its complete development to Polycletus. In the last age of the -Roman Republic, the prevailing wealth and luxury, and the presence of -Greek artists at Rome, combined to bring the art more than ever into -requisition. After this period it suddenly fell into disuse. - - -CAELĬBĀTUS. [AES UXORIUM; LEX JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA.] - - -CAERĬTUM TĂBŬLAE. [AERARII.] - - -CAESAR, a title of the Roman emperors, was originally a family name -of the Julia gens; it was assumed by Octavianus as the adopted son -of the great dictator, C. Julius Caesar, and was by him handed down -to his adopted son Tiberius. It continued to be used by Caligula, -Claudius, and Nero, as members either by adoption or female descent -of Caesar’s family; but although the family became extinct with -Nero, succeeding emperors still retained the name as part of their -titles, and it was the practice to prefix it to their own names, as -for instance, _Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus_. When Hadrian -adopted Aelius Varus, he allowed the latter to take the title of -Caesar; and from this time, though the title of _Augustus_ continued -to be confined to the reigning emperor, that of _Caesar_ was also -granted to the second person in the state and the heir presumptive to -the throne. [AUGUSTUS.] - - -CĂLĂMISTRUM, an instrument made of iron, and hollow like a reed -(_calamus_), used for curling the hair. For this purpose it was -heated, the person who performed the office of heating it in wood -ashes (_cinis_) being called _ciniflo_, or _cinerarius_. - - -CĂLĂMUS, a sort of reed which the ancients used as a pen for writing. -The best sorts were got from Aegypt and Cnidus. - - -CĂLANTĬCA. [COMA.] - - -CĂLĂTHUS (κάλαθος, also called τάλαρος), usually signified the basket -in which women placed their work, and especially the materials for -spinning. In the following cut a slave, belonging to the class called -_quasillariae_, is presenting her mistress with the calathus. -Baskets of this kind were also used for other purposes, such as for -carrying fruits, flowers, &c. The name of calathi was also given to -cups for holding wine. Calathus was properly a Greek word, though -used by the Latin writers. The Latin word corresponding to it was -_qualus_ or _quasillus_. From _quasillus_ came _quasillaria_, the -name of the slave who spun, and who was considered the meanest of the -female slaves. - -[Illustration: Slave presenting a Calathus. (From a Painting on a -Vase.)] - - -CALCĔUS, CALCĔĀMEN, CALCĔĀMENTUM (ὑποδήμα, πέδιλον), a shoe or boot, -anything adapted to cover and preserve the feet in walking. The use -of shoes was by no means universal among the Greeks and Romans. The -Homeric heroes are represented without shoes when armed for battle. -Socrates, Phocion, and Cato, frequently went barefoot. The Roman -slaves had no shoes. The covering of the feet was removed before -reclining at meals. People in grief, as for instance at funerals, -frequently went barefooted. Shoes may be divided into those in which -the mere sole of a shoe was attached to the sole of the foot by -ties or bands, or by a covering for the toes or the instep [SOLEA; -CREPIDA; SOCCUS]; and those which ascended higher and higher, -according as they covered the ankles, the calf, or the whole of the -leg. To calceamenta of the latter kind, _i.e._ to shoes and boots, -as distinguished from sandals and slippers, the term _calceus_ was -applied in its proper and restricted sense. There were also other -varieties of the _calceus_ according to its adaptation to particular -professions or modes of life. Thus the CALIGA was principally worn -by soldiers; the PERO by labourers and rustics; and the COTHURNUS -by tragedians, hunters, and horsemen. The _calcei_ probably did -not much differ from our shoes, and are exemplified in a painting -at Herculaneum, which represents a female wearing bracelets, a -wreath of ivy, and a panther’s skin, while she is in the attitude -of dancing and playing on the cymbals. The form and colour of the -calceus indicated rank and office. Roman senators wore high shoes -like buskins, fastened in front with four black thongs. They were -also sometimes adorned with a small crescent: we do not find on any -ancient statues the crescent, but we may regard the bottom right hand -figure in the annexed cut as representing the shoe of a senator. -Among the calcei worn by senators, those called _mullei_, from their -resemblance to the scales of the red mullet, were particularly -admired; as well as others called _alutae_, because the leather was -softened by the use of alum. - -[Illustration: Greek Shoes. (From ancient Vases.) - -Roman Shoes. (Museo Borbonico.)] - - -CALCŬLĀTOR (λογιστής), a keeper of accounts in general, and also a -teacher of arithmetic. In Roman families of importance there was a -_calculator_ or account-keeper, who is, however, more frequently -called by the name of _dispensator_, or procurator: he was a kind of -steward. - - -CALCŬLI, little stones or pebbles, used for various purposes, as, -for instance, among the Athenians for voting. Calculi were used -in playing a sort of draughts. Subsequently, instead of pebbles, -ivory, or silver, or gold, or other men (as we call them) were used; -but they still bore the name of calculi. Calculi were also used -in reckoning; and hence the phrases _calculum ponere_, _calculum -subducere_. - - -CALDĀRĬUM. [BALNEUM.] - - -CĂLENDAE or KĂLENDAE. [CALENDARIUM.] - - -CĂLENDĀRĬUM or KĂLENDĀRĬUM, generally signified an account-book, -in which were entered the names of a person’s debtors, with the -interest which they had to pay, and it was so called because the -interest had to be paid on the calends of each month. The word, -however, was also used in the signification of a modern calendar or -almanac. (1) GREEK CALENDAR. The Greek year was divided into twelve -lunar months, depending on the actual changes of the moon. The first -day of the month (νουμηνία) was not the day of the conjunction, but -the day on the evening of which the new moon appeared; consequently -full moon was the middle of the month. The lunar month consists of -twenty-nine days and about thirteen hours; accordingly some months -were necessarily reckoned at twenty-nine days, and rather more of -them at thirty days. The latter were called _full_ months (πληρεῖς), -the former _hollow_ months (κοῖλοι). As the twelve lunar months -fell short of the solar year, they were obliged every other year -to interpolate an intercalary month (μὴν ἐμβολιμαῖος) of thirty or -twenty-nine days. The ordinary year consisted of 354 days, and the -interpolated year, therefore, of 384 or 383. This interpolated year -(τριέτηρις) was seven days and a half too long, and to correct the -error, the intercalary month was from time to time omitted. The Attic -year began with the summer solstice: the following is the sequence of -the Attic months and the number of days in each:--Hecatombaeon (30), -Metageitnion (29), Boedromion (30), Pyanepsion (29), Maemacterion -(30), Poseideon (29), Gamelion (30), Anthesterion (29), Elaphebolion -(30), Munychion (29), Thargelion (30), Scirophorion (29). The -intercalary month was a second Poseideon inserted in the middle of -the year. Every Athenian month was divided into three decads. The -days of the first decad were designated as ἱσταμένου or ἀρχομένου -μηνος, and were counted on regularly from one to ten; thus, δευτέρα -ἀρχομένου or ἱσταμένου is “the second day of the month.” The days -of the second decad were designated as ἐπὶ δέκα or μεσοῦντος, and -were counted on regularly from the 11th to the 20th day, which was -called εἴκας. There were two ways of counting the days of the last -decad; they were either reckoned onwards from the 20th (thus, πρώτη -ἐπὶ εἰκάδι was the 21st), or backwards from the last day, with -the addition φθίνοντος, παυομένου, λήγοντος, or ἀπίοντος; thus, -the twenty-first day of a hollow month was ἐνάτη φθίνοντος; of a -full month, δεκάτη φθίνοντος. The last day of the month was called -ἕνη καὶ νέα, “the old and new,” because as the lunar month really -consisted of more than twenty-nine and less than thirty days, the -last day might be considered as belonging equally to the old and -new month. Separate years were designated at Athens by the name of -the chief archon, hence called _archon eponymus_ (ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος), -or “the name giving archon;” at Sparta, by the first of the ephors; -at Argos, by the priestess of JUNO, &c.--(2) ROMAN CALENDAR. The -old Roman, frequently called the Romulian year, consisted of only -ten months, which were called Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius, -Quinctilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, December. That -March was the first month in the year is implied in the last six -names. Of these months, four, namely, Martius, Maius, Quinctilis, -and October, consisted of thirty-one days, the other six of thirty. -The four former were distinguished in the latest form of the Roman -calendar by having their nones two days later than any of the other -months. The symmetry of this arrangement will appear by placing the -numbers in succession:--31, 30; 31, 30; 31, 30, 30; 31, 30, 30. -The Romulian year therefore consisted of 304 days, and contained -thirty-eight nundinae or weeks; every eighth day, under the name of -_nonae_, or _nundinae_, being especially devoted to religious and -other public purposes. Hence we find that the number of _dies fasti_ -afterwards retained in the Julian calendar tally exactly with these -thirty-eight nundines; besides which, it may be observed that a year -of 304 days bears to a solar year of 365 days nearly the ratio of -five to six, six of the Romulian years containing 1824, five of the -solar years 1825 days; and hence we may explain the origin of the -well-known quinquennial period called the lustrum, which ancient -writers expressly call an _annus magnus_; that is, in the modern -language of chronology, a cycle. It was consequently the period at -which the Romulian and solar years coincided. The next division of -the Roman year was said to have been made by Numa Pompilius, who -instituted a lunar year of 12 months and 355 days. Livy says that -Numa so regulated his lunar year of twelve months by the insertion -of intercalary months, that at the end of every _nineteenth_ year -(_vicesimo anno_) it again coincided with the same point in the -sun’s course from which it started. It is well known that 19 years -constitute a most convenient cycle for the junction of a lunar and -solar year. It seems certain that the Romans continued to use a lunar -year for some time after the establishment of the republic; and it -was probably at the time of the decemviral legislation that the -lunar year was abandoned. By the change which was then made the year -consisted of 12 months, the length of each of which was as follows:-- - - Martius, 31 days. - Aprilis, 29 ” - Maius, 31 ” - Junius, 29 ” - Quinctilis, 31 ” - Sextilis, 29 ” - September, 29 ” - October, 31 ” - November, 29 ” - December, 29 ” - Januarius, 29 ” - Februarius, 28 ” - -The year thus consisted of 355 days, and this was made to correspond -with the solar year by the insertion of an intercalary month -(_mensis intercalaris_ or _intercalarius_), called _Mercedonius_ -or _Mercidonius_. This month of 22 or 23 days seems to have been -inserted in alternate years. As the festivals of the Romans were for -the most part dependent upon the calendar, the regulation of the -latter was entrusted to the college of pontifices, who in early times -were chosen exclusively from the body of patricians. It was therefore -in the power of the college to add to their other means of oppressing -the plebeians, by keeping to themselves the knowledge of the days on -which justice could be administered, and assemblies of the people -could be held. In the year 304 B.C., one Cn. Flavius, a secretary -(_scriba_) of Appius Claudius, is said fraudulently to have made the -_Fasti_ public. The other privilege of regulating the year by the -insertion of the intercalary month gave the pontiffs great political -power, which they were not backward to employ. Every thing connected -with the matter of intercalation was left to their unrestrained -pleasure; and the majority of them, on personal grounds, added to or -took from the year by capricious intercalations, so as to lengthen or -shorten the period during which a magistrate remained in office, and -seriously to benefit or injure the farmer of the public revenue. The -calendar was thus involved in complete confusion, and accordingly we -find that in the time of Cicero the year was three months in advance -of the real solar year. At length, in the year B.C. 46, Caesar, now -master of the Roman world, employed his authority, as pontifex -maximus, in the correction of this serious evil. The account of the -way in which he effected this is given by Censorinus:--“The confusion -was at last carried so far that C. Caesar, the pontifex maximus, in -his third consulate, with Lepidus for his colleague, inserted between -November and December two intercalary months of 67 days, the month -of February having already received an intercalation of 23 days, and -thus made the whole year to consist of 445 days. At the same time he -provided against a repetition of similar errors, by casting aside -the intercalary month, and adapting the year to the sun’s course. -Accordingly, to the 355 days of the previously existing year he added -ten days, which he so distributed between the seven months having -29 days that January, Sextilis, and December received two each, the -others but one; and these additional days he placed at the end of -the several months, no doubt with the wish not to remove the various -festivals from those positions in the several months which they had -so long occupied. Hence in the present calendar, although there are -seven months of 31 days, yet the four months, which from the first -possessed that number, are still distinguishable by having their -nones on the seventh, the rest having them on the fifth of the month. -Lastly, in consideration of the quarter of a day, which he regarded -as completing the true year, he established the rule that, at the -end of every four years, a single day should be intercalated, where -the month had been hitherto inserted, that is, immediately after the -terminalia; which day is now called the _bissextum_.” The mode of -denoting the days of the month will cause no difficulty, if it be -recollected that the kalends always denote the first of the month; -that the nones occur on the seventh of the four months of March, -May, Quinctilis or July, and October, and on the fifth of the other -months; that the ides always fall eight days later than the nones; -and lastly, that the intermediate days are in all cases reckoned -backwards upon the Roman principle of counting both extremes. For the -month of January the notation will be as follows:-- - - 1. Kal. Jan. - 2. a. d. IV. Non. Jan. - 3. a. d. III. Non. Jan. - 4. Prid. Non. Jan. - 5. Non. Jan. - 6. a. d. VIII. Id. Jan. - 7. a. d. VII. Id. Jan. - 8. a. d. VI. Id. Jan. - 9. a. d. V. Id. Jan. - 10. a. d. IV. Id. Jan. - 11. a. d. III. Id. Jan. - 12. Prid. Id. Jan. - 13. Id. Jan. - 14. a. d. XIX. Kal. Feb. - 15. a. d. XVIII. Kal. Feb. - 16. a. d. XVII. Kal. Feb. - 17. a. d. XVI. Kal. Feb. - 18. a. d. XV. Kal. Feb. - 19. a. d. XIV. Kal. Feb. - 20. a. d. XIII. Kal. Feb. - 21. a. d. XII. Kal. Feb. - 22. a. d. XI. Kal. Feb. - 23. a. d. X. Kal. Feb. - 24. a. d. IX. Kal. Feb. - 25. a. d. VIII. Kal. Feb. - 26. a. d. VII. Kal. Feb. - 27. a. d. VI. Kal. Feb. - 28. a. d. V. Kal. Feb. - 29. a. d. IV. Kal. Feb. - 30. a. d. III. Kal. Feb. - 31. Prid. Kal. Feb. - -The letters _a d_ are often, through error, written together, and so -confounded with the preposition _ad_ which would have a different -meaning, for _ad kalendas_ would signify _by_, i.e. _on or before -the kalends_. The letters are in fact an abridgment of _ante diem_, -and the full phrase for “on the second of January,” would be _ante -diem quartum nonas Januarias_. The word _ante_ in this expression -seems really to belong in sense to _nonas_, and to be the cause why -_nonas_ is an accusative. Whether the phrase _kalendae Januarii_ was -ever used by the best writers is doubtful. The words are commonly -abbreviated; and those passages where Aprilis, Decembris, &c. occur -are of no avail, as they are probably accusatives. The _ante_ may be -omitted, in which case the phrase will be _die quarto nonarum_. In -the leap year (to use a modern phrase), the last days of February -were called,-- - - Feb. 23. a. d. VII. Kal. Mart. - Feb. 24. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart. posteriorem. - Feb. 25. a. d. VI. Kal. Mart. priorem. - Feb. 26. a. d. V. Kal. Mart. - Feb. 27. a. d. IV. Kal. Mart. - Feb. 28. a. d. III. Kal. Mart. - Feb. 29. Prid. Kal. Mart. - -In which the words _prior_ and _posterior_ are used in reference to -the retrograde direction of the reckoning. From the fact that the -intercalated year has two days called _ante diem sextum_, the name -bissextile has been applied to it. The term _annus bissextilis_, -however, does not occur in any classical writer, but in place of -it the phrase _annus bissextus_.--The names of two of the months -were changed in honour of Julius Caesar and Augustus. Julius was -substituted for Quinctilis, the month in which Caesar was born, in -the second Julian year, that is, the year of the dictator’s death, -for the first Julian year was the first year of the _corrected_ -Julian calendar, that is, B.C. 45. The name Augustus in place of -Sextilis was introduced by the emperor himself in B.C. 27. The month -of September in like manner received the name of Germanicus from -the general so called, and the appellation appears to have existed -even in the time of Macrobius. Domitian, too, conferred his name -upon October; but the old word was restored upon the death of the -tyrant.--The Julian calendar supposes the mean tropical year to -be 365 d. 6 h.; but this exceeds the real amount by 11′ 12″, the -accumulation of which, year after year, caused at last considerable -inconvenience. Accordingly, in the year 1582, Pope Gregory XIII. -again reformed the calendar. The ten days by which the year had been -unduly retarded were struck out by a regulation that the day after -the fourth of October in that year should be called the fifteenth; -and it was ordered that whereas hitherto an intercalary day had been -inserted every four years, for the future three such intercalations -in the course of four hundred years should be omitted, viz., in -those years which are divisible without remainder by 100, but not by -400. Thus, according to the Julian calendar, the years 1600, 1700, -1800, 1900, 2000, were to be bissextile as before. The bull which -effected this change was issued Feb. 24th, 1582. The Protestant parts -of Europe resisted what they called a papistical invention for more -than a century. In England the Gregorian calendar was first adopted -in 1752. In Russia, and those countries which belonged to the Greek -church, the Julian year, or _old style_, as it is called, still -prevails. In the ancient calendars the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, -G, H, were used for the purpose of fixing the nundines in the week -of eight days; precisely in the same way in which the first seven -letters are still employed in ecclesiastical calendars, to mark the -days of the Christian week. - - -CĂLĬGA, a strong and heavy sandal worn by the Roman soldiers, but -not by the superior officers. Hence the common soldiers, including -centurions, were distinguished by the name of _caligati_. The emperor -Caligula received that cognomen when a boy, in consequence of wearing -the caliga, and being inured to the life of a common soldier. The -cuts on pp. 1, 41, show the difference between the caliga of the -common soldier and the calceus worn by men of higher rank. - - -CĂLIX (κύλιξ). (1) a drinking-cup used at symposia and on similar -occasions.--(2) A vessel used in cooking.--(3) A tube in the -aquaeducts attached to the extremity of each pipe, where it entered -the castellum. - -[Illustration: Calices, Drinking-cups. (Museo Borbonico, vol. v. pl. -18.)] - - -CALLIS, a beaten path or track made by the feet of cattle. The -sheep-walks in the mountainous parts of Campania and Apulia were -the property of the Roman state; and as they were of considerable -value, one of the quaestors usually had these _calles_ assigned to -him as his province, whence we read of the _Callium provincia_. His -principal duties were to receive the _scriptura_, or tax paid for -the pasturage of the cattle, and to protect life and property in -these wild and mountainous districts. When the senate wished to put -a slight upon the consuls on one occasion they endeavoured to assign -to them as their provinces, the care of the woods (_silvae_) and -sheep-walks (_calles_). - - -CALLISTEIA (καλλιστεῖα), a festival, or perhaps merely a part of one, -held by the women of Lesbos; at which they assembled in the sanctuary -of Hera, and the fairest received the prize of beauty. Similar -contests of beauty are said to have been held in other places. - - -CĀLŌNES, the slaves or servants of the Roman soldiers, so called -from carrying wood (κᾶλα) for their use. The word _calo_, however, -was also applied to farm-servants. The _calones_ and _lixae_ are -frequently spoken of together, but they were not the same: the latter -were freemen, who merely followed the camp for the purposes of gain -and merchandise, and were so far from being indispensable to an army, -that they were sometimes forbidden to attend it. - - -CĂLUMNĬA. When an accuser failed in his proof, and the accused -party was acquitted, there might be an inquiry into the conduct and -motives of the accuser. If the person who made this judicial inquiry -found that the accuser had merely acted from error of judgment, he -acquitted him in the form _non probasti_; if he convicted him of evil -intention, he declared his sentence in the words _calumniatus es_, -which sentence was followed by the legal punishment. The punishment -for _calumnia_ was fixed by the lex Remmia, or as it is sometimes, -perhaps incorrectly, named, the lex Memmia. But it is not known when -this lex was passed, nor what were its penalties. It appears from -Cicero, that the false accuser might be branded on the forehead with -the letter K, the initial of Kalumnia. The punishment for calumnia -was also _exsilium, relegatio in insulam_, or loss of rank (_ordinis -amissio_); but probably only in criminal cases, or in matters -relating to status. - - -CĂMĂRA (καμάρα), or CĂMĔRA. (1) A particular kind of arched -ceiling, formed by semicircular bands or beams of wood, arranged at -small lateral distances, over which a coating of lath and plaster -was spread, and the whole covered in by a roof, resembling in -construction the hooped awnings in use amongst us.--(2) A small boat -used in early times by the people who inhabited the shores of the -Palus Maeotis, capable of containing from twenty-five to thirty men. -These boats were made to work fore and aft, like the fast-sailing -proas of the Indian seas, and continued in use until the age of -Tacitus. - - -CĂMILLI, CĂMILLAE, boys and girls employed in the religious rites and -ceremonies of the Romans. They were required to be perfect in form, -and sound in health, free born, and with both their parents alive; -or, in other words, according to the expression of the Romans, _pueri -seu puellae ingenui, felicissimi, patrimi matrimique_. - - -CĂMĪNUS. [DOMUS.] - - -CAMPESTRE (sc. _subligar_), a kind of girdle or apron, which the -Roman youths wore around their loins, when they exercised naked in -the Campus Martius. The campestre was sometimes worn in warm weather, -in place of the tunic under the toga. - - -CAMPUS MARTĬUS. [See CLASSICAL DICTIONARY.] - - -CĂNĂBUS (κάναβος), a figure of wood in the form of a skeleton, round -which the clay or plaster was laid in forming models. Figures of a -similar kind, formed to display the muscles and veins, were studied -by painters in order to acquire some knowledge of anatomy. - - -CĀNATHRON (κάναθρον), a carriage, the upper part of which was made of -basket-work, or more properly the basket itself, which was fixed in -the carriage. - - -CANCELLĀRĬUS. [CANCELLI.] - - -CANCELLI, lattice-work, placed before a window, a door-way, the -tribunal of a judge, or any other place. Hence was derived the -word _Cancellarius_, which originally signified a porter, who -stood at the latticed or grated door of the emperor’s palace. The -cancellarius also signified a legal scribe or secretary, who sat -within the cancelli or lattice-work. The chief scribe or secretary -was called Cancellarius κατ’ ἐξοχήν, and was eventually invested with -judicial power at Constantinople. From this word has come the modern -Chancellor. - - -CANDĒLA, a candle, made either of wax (_cerea_), or tallow -(_sebacea_), was used universally by the Romans before the invention -of oil lamps (_lucernae_). In later times candelae were only used -by the poorer classes; the houses of the more wealthy were always -lighted by lucernae. - - -CANDĒLABRUM, originally a candlestick, but afterwards the name of a -stand for supporting lamps (λυχνοῦχοι), in which signification it -most commonly occurs. The candelabra of this kind were usually made -to stand upon the ground, and were of a considerable height. The -most common kind were made of wood; but those which have been found -in Herculaneum and Pompeii are mostly of bronze. Sometimes they were -made of the more precious metals, and even of jewels. The candelabra -did not always stand upon the ground, but were also placed upon -the table. Such candelabra usually consisted of pillars, from the -capitals of which several lamps hung down, or of trees, from whose -branches lamps also were suspended. - -[Illustration: Candelabrum in the Vatican. (Visconti, vol. IV. tav. -5.)] - - -CANDĬDĀTUS. [AMBITUS.] - - -CANDYS (κάνδυς), a robe worn by the Medes and Persians over their -trowsers and other garments. It had wide sleeves, and was made of -woollen cloth, which was either purple or of some other splendid -colour. In the Persepolitan sculptures, from which the annexed -figures are taken, nearly all the principal personages wear it. - -[Illustration: Candys, Persian Cloak. (From Bas-relief at -Persepolis.)] - - -CĂNĒPHŎROS (κανηφόρος), a virgin who carried a flat circular basket -(κάνεον, _canistrum_) at sacrifices, in which the chaplet of flowers, -the knife to slay the victim, and sometimes the frankincense -were deposited. The name, however, was more particularly applied -to two virgins of the first Athenian families who were appointed -to officiate as canephori at the Panathaenaea. The preceding cut -represents the two canephori approaching a candelabrum. Each of them -elevates one arm to support the basket while she slightly raises her -tunic with the other. - -[Illustration: Canephori. (British Museum.)] - - -CANTHĂRUS (κάνθαρος), a kind of drinking cup, furnished with handles. -It was the cup sacred to Bacchus, who is frequently represented on -ancient vases holding it in his hand. - -[Illustration: Cantharus. (From an ancient Vase.)] - - -CANTĬCUM, an interlude between the acts of a Roman comedy, and -sometimes, perhaps, of a tragedy. It consisted of flute music, -accompanied by a kind of recitative performed by a single actor, -or if there were two, the second was not allowed to speak with the -first. In the canticum, as violent gesticulation was required, it -appears to have been the custom, from the time of Livius Andronicus, -for the actor to confine himself to the gesticulation, while another -person sang the recitative. - - -CĂPILLUS. [COMA.] - - -CĂPISTRUM (φορβειά), a halter, or tie for horses, asses, or other -animals, placed round the head or neck, and made of osiers or other -fibrous materials. The Greek word φορβειά was also applied to a -contrivance used by pipers and trumpeters to compress their mouths -and cheeks, and thus to aid them in blowing. It is often seen in -works of ancient art, and was said to be the invention of Marsyas. -[TIBIA.] - - -CĂPĬTE CENSI. [CAPUT.] - - -CĂPĬTIS DĒMĬNŪTĬO. [CAPUT.] - - -CĂPĬTŌLĪNI LŪDI. [LUDI.] - - -CĂPĬTŌLĬUM. [See CLASS. DICTIONARY.] - - -CĂPĬTŬLUM. [COLUMNA.] - - -CAPSA, or SCRĪNĬUM, a box for holding books among the Romans. These -boxes were of a cylindrical form. There does not appear to have -been any difference between the _capsa_ and _scrinium_, except that -the latter word was usually applied to those boxes which held a -considerable number of rolls. The slaves who had the charge of these -book-chests were called _capsarii_, and also _custodes scriniorum_; -and the slaves who carried in a capsa behind their young masters -the books, &c. of the sons of respectable Romans, when they went to -school, were called by the same name. - -[Illustration: The Muse Clio with a Capsa. (Pitture d’Ercolano, vol. -ii. pl. 2.)] - - -CAPSĀRĬI, the name of three different classes of slaves. [BALNEUM; -CAPSA.] - - -CĂPUT, the head. The term “head” is often used by the Roman writers -as equivalent to “person,” or “human being.” By an easy transition -it was used to signify “life:” thus, _capite damnari_, _plecti_, -&c., are equivalent to capital punishment. _Caput_ is also used -to express a man’s _status_, or civil condition; and the persons -who were registered in the tables of the censor are spoken of as -_capita_, sometimes with the addition of the word _civium_, and -sometimes not. Thus to be registered in the census was the same -thing as _caput habere_: and a slave and a filius familias, in this -sense of the word, were said to have no _caput_. The sixth class of -Servius Tullius comprised the _proletarii_ and the _capite censi_, -of whom the latter, having little or no property, were barely rated -as so many _head_ of citizens.--He who lost or changed his status -was said to be _capite minutus_, _deminutus_, or _capitis minor_. -_Capitis minutio_ or _deminutio_ was a change of a person’s status -or civil condition, and consisted of three kinds.--A Roman citizen -possessed freedom (_libertas_), citizenship (_civitas_), and family -(_familias_): the loss of all three constituted the _maxima capitis -deminutio_. This capitis deminutio was sustained by those who refused -to be registered at the census, or neglected the registration, and -were thence called _incensi_. The _incensus_ was liable to be sold, -and so to lose his liberty. Those who refused to perform military -service might also be sold.--The loss of citizenship and family only, -as when a man was interdicted from fire and water, was the _media -capitis deminutio_. [EXSILIUM.]--The change of family by adoption, -and by the in manum conventio, was the _minima capitis deminutio_.--A -_judicium capitale_, or _poena capitalis_, was one which affected a -citizen’s caput. - - -CĂPUT. [FENUS.] - - -CĂPUT EXTŌRUM. The Roman soothsayers (_haruspices_) pretended to a -knowledge of coming events from the inspection of the entrails of -victims slain for that purpose. The part to which they especially -directed their attention was the liver, the convex upper portion of -which seems to have been called the _caput extorum_. Any disease -or deficiency in this organ was considered an unfavourable omen; -whereas, if healthy and perfect, it was believed to indicate good -fortune. If no caput was found, it was a bad sign (_nihil tristius -accidere potuit_); if well defined or double, it was a lucky omen. - - -CĂRĂCALLA, an outer garment used in Gaul, and not unlike the Roman -_lacerna_. It was first introduced at Rome by the emperor Aurelius -Antoninus Bassianus, who compelled all the people that came to -court to wear it, whence he obtained the surname of Caracalla. This -garment, as worn in Gaul, does not appear to have reached lower than -the knee, but Caracalla lengthened it so as to reach the ankle. - - -CARCER (_kerker_, German; γοργύρα, Greek), a prison, is connected -with ἕρκος and εἵργω, the guttural being interchanged with the -aspirate. (1) GREEK. Imprisonment was seldom used amongst the Greeks -as a legal punishment for offences; they preferred banishment to -the expense of keeping prisoners in confinement. The prisons in -different countries were called by different names; thus there -was the _Ceadas_ (Κεάδας), at Sparta; and, among the Ionians, the -_Gorgyra_ (γοργύρα), as at Samos. The prison at Athens was in former -times called _Desmoterion_ (δεσμωτήριον), and afterwards, by a -sort of euphemism, οἴκημα. It was chiefly used as a guard-house or -place of execution, and was under the charge of the public officers -called the Eleven.--(2) ROMAN. A prison was first built at Rome by -Ancus Martius, overhanging the forum. This was enlarged by Servius -Tullius, who added to it a souterrain, or dungeon, called from him -the _Tullianum_. Sallust describes this as being twelve feet under -ground, walled on each side, and arched over with stone work. For -a long time this was the only prison at Rome, being, in fact, the -“Tower,” or state prison of the city, which was sometimes doubly -guarded in times of alarm, and was the chief object of attack in -many conspiracies. There were, however, other prisons besides this, -though, as we might expect, the words of Roman historians generally -refer to this alone. In the _Tullianum_ prisoners were generally -executed, and this part of the prison was also called _robur_. - - -CARCĔRES. [CIRCUS.] - - -CARCHĒSĬUM (καρχήσιον). (1) A beaker or drinking-cup, which was used -by the Greeks in very early times. It was slightly contracted in the -middle, and its two handles extended from the top to the bottom. It -was much employed in libations of wine, milk, and honey.--(2) The -upper part of the mast of a ship. [NAVIS.] - - -CARMENTĀLĬA, a festival celebrated in honour of Carmenta or -Carmentis, who is fabled to have been the mother of Evander, who -came from Pallantium in Arcadia, and settled in Latium: he was said -to have brought with him a knowledge of the arts, and the Latin -alphabetical characters as distinguished from the Etruscan. This -festival was celebrated annually on the 11th of January. A temple -was erected to the same goddess, at the foot of the Capitoline -hill, near the Porta Carmentalis, afterwards called Scelerata. The -name Carmenta is said to have been given to her from her prophetic -character, carmens or carmentis being synonymous with vates. The word -is, of course, connected with _carmen_, as prophecies were generally -delivered in verse. - - -CARNEIA (καρνεῖα), a great national festival, celebrated by the -Spartans in honour of Apollo Carneios. The festival began on the -seventh day of the month of Carneios = Metageitnion of the Athenians, -and lasted for nine days. It was of a warlike character, similar to -the Attic Boëdromia. During the time of its celebration nine tents -were pitched near the city, in each of which nine men lived in -the manner of a military camp, obeying in everything the commands -of a herald. The priest conducting the sacrifices at the Carneia -was called _Agetes_ (Ἀγητής), whence the festival was sometimes -designated by the name _Agetoria_ or _Agetoreion_ (Ἀγητόρια or -Ἀγητόρειον), and from each of the Spartan tribes five men (Καρνεᾶται) -were chosen as his ministers, whose office lasted four years, -during which period they were not allowed to marry. When we read in -Herodotus and Thucydides that the Spartans during the celebration of -this festival were not allowed to take the field against an enemy, we -must remember that this restriction was not peculiar to the Carneia, -but common to all the great festivals of the Greeks: traces of it are -found even in Homer. - - -CARNĬFEX, the public executioner at Rome, who executed slaves and -foreigners, but not citizens, who were punished in a manner different -from slaves. It was also his business to administer the torture. -This office was considered so disgraceful, that he was not allowed -to reside within the city, but lived without the Porta Metia or -Esquilina, near the place destined for the punishment of slaves, -called Sestertium under the emperors. - - -CARPENTUM, a cart; also a two-wheeled carriage, enclosed, and with -an arched or sloping cover overhead. The carpentum was used to -convey the Roman matrons in the public festal processions; and this -was a high distinction, since the use of carriages in the city was -entirely forbidden during the whole of the republican period. Hence -the privilege of riding in a carpentum in the public festivals was -sometimes granted to females of the imperial family. This carriage -contained seats for two, and sometimes for three persons, besides -the coachman. It was commonly drawn by a pair of mules, but more -rarely by oxen or horses, and sometimes by four horses like a -quadriga.--Carpenta, or covered carts, were much used by the Britons, -the Gauls, and other northern nations. These, together with the -carts of the more common form, including baggage-waggons, appear to -have been comprehended under the term _carri_, or _carra_, which is -the Celtic name with a Latin termination. The Gauls took a great -multitude of them on their military expeditions, and when they were -encamped, arranged them in close order, so as to form extensive lines -of circumvallation. - - -CARRĀGO, a kind of fortification, consisting of a great number of -waggons placed round an army. It was employed by barbarous nations, -as, for instance, the Scythians, Gauls, and Goths. Carrago also -signifies sometimes the baggage of an army. - - -CARRŪCA, a carriage, the name of which only occurs under the -emperors. It appears to have been a species of rheda [RHEDA], had -four wheels, and was used in travelling. These carriages were -sometimes used in Rome by persons of distinction, like the carpenta; -in which case they appear to have been covered with plates of bronze, -silver, and even gold, which were sometimes ornamented with embossed -work. - - -CARRUS. [CARPENTUM.] - - -CĂRỸA or CĂRỸĀTIS (καρύα, καρυατίς), a festival celebrated at Caryae, -in Laconia, in honour of Artemis Caryatis. It was celebrated every -year by Lacedaemonian maidens with national dances of a very lively -kind. - - -CĂRỸĀTĬDES, female figures used in architecture instead of columns. -Their name is usually derived from Caryae, a city in Arcadia, near -the Laconian border, the women of which are said to have been reduced -to slavery by the Greeks, because Caryae had joined the Persians at -the invasion of Greece. But this tale is probably apocryphal. One of -the porticos of the Erechtheum at Athens is supported by Caryatides. - - -CASSIS. [GALEA.] - - -CASTELLUM ĂQUAE. [AQUAE DUCTUS.] - - -CASTRA. Roman armies never halted for a single night without forming -a regular entrenchment, termed _castra_, capable of receiving within -its limits the whole body of fighting men, their beasts of burden, -and the baggage. So completely was this recognised as a part of the -ordinary duties of each march, that _pervenire ad locum tertiis ... -quartis ... septuagesimis castris_ are the established phrases for -expressing the number of days occupied in passing from one point to -another. Whenever circumstances rendered it expedient for a force to -occupy the same ground for any length of time, then the encampment -was distinguished as _castra stativa_. In wild and barbarian lands, -where there were no large towns and no tribes on whose faith -reliance could be placed, armies, whether of invasion or occupation, -were forced to remain constantly in camps. They usually, however, -occupied different ground in summer and in winter, whence arose the -distinction between _castra aestiva_ and _castra hiberna_, both alike -being _stativa_. But whether a camp was temporary or permanent, -whether tenanted in summer or in winter, the main features of the -work were always the same for the same epoch. In hiberna, huts of -turf or stone would be substituted for the open tents of the aestiva -(hence _aedificare hiberna_), and in stativa held for long periods -the defences would present a more substantial and finished aspect, -but the general outline and disposition of the parts were invariable. -Polybius has transmitted to us a description of a Roman camp, from -which the annexed plan has been drawn up. It is such as would be -formed at the close of an ordinary day’s march by a regular consular -army consisting of two Roman legions with the full contingent of -Socii. Each legion is calculated at 4200 infantry and 300 cavalry; -the Socii furnished an equal number of infantry, and twice as many -cavalry, so that the whole force would amount to 16,800 foot and -1800 horse. Skill in the selection of a spot for a camp (_capere -locum castris_) was ever considered as a high quality in a general, -and we find it recorded among the praises of the most renowned -commanders that they were wont in person to perform this duty. Under -ordinary circumstances, however, the task was devolved upon one of -the military tribunes, and a certain number of centurions appointed -from time to time for the purpose. These having gone forward in -advance of the army until they reached the place near which it was -intended to halt, and having taken a general survey of the ground, -selected a spot from whence a good view of the whole proposed area -might be obtained. This spot was considerably within the limits of -the contemplated enclosure, and was marked by a small white flag. The -next object was to ascertain in what direction water and fodder might -be most easily and securely provided. These two preliminary points -being decided, the business of measuring out the ground (_metari -castra_) commenced, and was executed, as we learn from various -sources, with graduated rods (_decempedae_) by persons denominated -_metatores_. In practice the most important points were marked by -white poles, some of which bore flags of various colours, so that the -different battalions on reaching the ground could at once discover -the place assigned to them. - -[Illustration: A, praetorium.--B, tents of the tribunes.--C, tents -of the praefecti sociorum.--D, street 100 feet wide.--E, F, G, and -H, streets 50 feet wide.--L, select foot and volunteers.--K, select -horse and volunteers.--M, extraordinary horse of the allies.--N, -extraordinary foot of the allies.--O, reserved for occasional -auxiliaries.--Q, the street called Quintana, 50 feet wide.--V P, via -principalis, 100 feet wide.] - -The white flag A, which served as the starting point of the -whole construction, marked the position of the consul’s tent, or -_praetorium_, so called because _praetor_ was the ancient term for -any one invested with supreme command. A square area was left open, -extending a hundred feet each way from the praetorium. The camp was -divided into two parts, the upper and the lower. The upper part -formed about a third of the whole. In it was the _praetorium_ (A) or -general’s tent. A part of the praetorium was called the _Augurale_, -as the auguries were there taken by the general. On the right and -left of the praetorium were the _forum_ and _quaestorium_; the former -a sort of market-place, the latter appropriated to the quaestor and -the camp stores under his superintendence. On the sides of and facing -the forum and quaestorium, were stationed select bodies of horse -(K) taken from the extraordinaries, with mounted volunteers, who -served out of respect to the consul, and were stationed near him. And -parallel to these were posted similar bodies of foot-soldiers (L). -Before the quaestorium and the forum were the tents of the twelve -tribunes of the two legions (B), and before the select bodies of -horse and infantry the tents of the praefecti sociorum were probably -placed (C). Again, behind the praetorium, the quaestorium, and the -forum, ran a street or _via_ (D), 100 feet broad, from one side of -the camp to the other. Along the upper side of this street was ranged -the main body of the “extraordinary” horse (M): they were separated -into two equal parts by a street fifty feet broad (E). At the back -of this body of cavalry was posted a similar body of infantry (N), -selected from the allies, and facing the opposite way, _i.e._ towards -the ramparts of the camp. The vacant spaces (O) on each side of these -troops were reserved for foreigners and occasional auxiliaries. -The lower part of the camp was divided from the upper by a street, -called the _Via Principalis_ (V P), or _Principia_, a hundred feet -broad. Here the tribunal of the general was erected, from which he -harangued the soldiers, and here the tribunes administered justice. -Here also the principal standards, the altars of the gods, and the -images of the emperors were placed. The lower part of the camp was -occupied by the two legions and the troops of the allies according -to the arrangement of the preceding cut. Between the ramparts and -the tents was left a vacant space of 200 feet on every side, which -was useful for many purposes: thus it served for the reception of -any booty that was taken, and facilitated the entrance and exit of -the army. The camp had four gates, one at the top and bottom, and -one at each of the sides; the top or back-gate, which was the side -most away from the enemy, was called the _decumana_. The bottom or -the front gate was the _practoria_, the gates of the sides were the -_porta principalis dextra_, and the _porta principalis sinistra_. The -whole camp was surrounded by a trench (_fossa_), generally nine feet -deep and twelve broad, and a rampart (_vallum_) made of the earth -that was thrown up (_agger_), with stakes (_valli_) fixed at the -top of it. The labour of this work was so divided, that the allies -completed the two sides of the camp alongside of which they were -stationed, and the two Roman legions the rest.--In describing the -Roman camp and its internal arrangements, we have confined ourselves -to the information given by Polybius, which, of course, applies only -to his age, and to armies constituted like those he witnessed. When -the practice of drawing up the army according to cohorts, ascribed -to Marius or Caesar [EXERCITUS], had superseded the ancient division -into maniples, and the distinction of triarii, &c., the internal -arrangements of the camp must have been changed accordingly. In -each legion the tribunes divided themselves into three sections of -two each, and each section in turn undertook for two months the -superintendence of all matters connected with the camp. Out of the -twenty maniples of Principes and Triarii in each legion, two were -appointed to take charge of the broad passage or street called -_Principia_, extending right across the camp in front of the tents -of the tribunes. Of the remaining eighteen maniples of Principes and -Hastati in each legion, three were assigned by lot to each of the six -tribunes, and of these three maniples one in turn rendered each day -certain services to the tribune to whom it was specially attached. -One maniple was selected each day from the whole legionary force, -to keep guard beside the tent of the general. Three sentinels were -usually posted at the tents of the quaestor, and of the legati: and -by night sentinels kept watch at every maniple, being chosen out of -the maniple which they guarded. The Velites mounted guard by day -and by night along the whole extent of the vallum: to them also in -bodies of ten was committed the charge of the gates, while strong -bodies of infantry and cavalry were thrown forward in advance of -each gate, to resist any sudden onset, and give timely notice of the -approach of the enemy.--_Excubiae_; _excubias agere_; _excubare_; -are the general terms used with reference to mounting guard whether -by night or by day. _Vigiliae_; _vigilias agere_; _vigilare_; are -restricted to night duty: _Excubiae_ and _Vigiliae_ frequently -denote not only the service itself, but also the individuals who -performed it. _Stationes_ is used specially to denote the advanced -posts thrown forward in front of the gates. _Custodes_ or _Custodiae_ -the parties who watched the gates themselves, _Praesidia_ the -sentinels on the ramparts, but all these words are employed in many -other significations also. The duty of going the rounds (_Vigilias -circuire s. circumire_) was committed to the Equites, and for this -purpose each legion supplied daily four, picked out from each turma -in rotation by the commander of the troop. The eight persons thus -selected decided by lot in which watch they should make their rounds, -two being assigned to each watch. They then repaired to the tribune, -and each individual received a written order specifying the posts -which he was to visit, every post being visited in each watch by one -or other of the two to whom the watch belonged. Sometimes we find -centurions, tribunes, and even the general in chief represented as -going the rounds, but, under ordinary circumstances, the duty was -performed as we have described. The watchword for the night was not -communicated verbally, but by means of a small rectangular tablet -of wood (πλατεῖον ἐπιγεγραμμένον--_tessera_) upon which it was -written.--_Breaking up a Camp._ On the first signal being given by -the trumpet, the tents were all struck and the baggage packed, the -tents of the general and the tribunes being disposed of before the -others were touched. At the second signal the baggage was placed upon -the beasts of burden; at the third, the whole army began to move. - - -CĂTĂLŎGUS (κατάλογος), the catalogue of those persons in Athens who -were liable to regular military service. At Athens, those persons -alone who possessed a certain amount of property were allowed to -serve in the regular infantry, whilst the lowest class, the thetes, -had not this privilege. [CENSUS.] Thus the former are called οἱ ἐκ -καταλόγου στρατεύοντες, and the latter οἱ ἔξω τοῦ καταλόγου. - - -CĂTĂPHRACTA. [LORICA.] - - -CĂTĂPHRACTI (κατάφρακτοι). (1) Heavy-armed cavalry, the horses -of which were also covered with defensive armour. Among many of -the Eastern nations, who placed their chief dependence upon their -cavalry, we find horses protected in this manner; but among the -Romans we do not read of any troops of this description till the -later times of the empire, when the discipline of the legions was -destroyed, and the chief dependence began to be placed on the -cavalry. This species of troops was common among the Persians from -the earliest times, from whom it was adopted by their Macedonian -conquerors. They were called by the Persians _clibanarii_.--(2) -Decked vessels, in opposition to _Aphracti_. - - -CĂTĂPĪRĀTĒR (καταπειρατηρία, βολίς), the lead used in sounding (ἐν τῷ -βολίζειν), or fathoming the depth of water in navigation. The mode of -employing this instrument appears to have been precisely the same as -that now in use. - - -CĂTĂPULTA. [TORMENTUM.] - - -CĂTĂRACTA (καταῤῥάκτης), a portcullis, so called because it fell with -great force and a loud noise. It was an additional defence, suspended -by iron rings and ropes, before the gates of a city, in such a manner -that, when the enemy had come up to the gates, the portcullis might -be let down so as to shut them in, and to enable the besieged to -assail them from above. - - -CĂTEIA, a missile used in war by the Germans, Gauls, and some of the -Italian nations, supposed to resemble the ACLIS. - - -CĂTĒNA, dim. CĂTELLA (ἄλυσις, dim. ἀλύσιον, ἀλυσίδιον), a chain. -The chains which were of superior value, either on account of the -material or the workmanship, are commonly called _catellae_ (ἀλύσια), -the diminutive expressing their fineness and delicacy as well as -their minuteness. The specimens of ancient chains which we have in -bronze lamps, in scales, and in ornaments for the person, especially -necklaces, show a great variety of elegant and ingenious patterns. -Besides a plain circle or oval, the separate link is often shaped -like the figure 8, or is a bar with a circle at each end, or assumes -other forms, some of which are here shown. The links are also found -so closely entwined, that the chain resembles platted wire or thread, -like the gold chains now manufactured at Venice. This is represented -in the lowest figure of the woodcut. - -[Illustration: Ancient Chains.] - - -CĂTERVĀRĬI. [GLADIATORES.] - - -[Illustration: Cathedra. (From a Painting on a Vase.)] - -CĂTHEDRA, a seat or chair, was more particularly applied to a soft -seat used by women, whereas _sella_ signified a seat common to both -sexes. The cathedrae were, no doubt, of various forms and sizes; but -they usually appear to have had backs to them. On the cathedra in the -annexed cut is seated a bride, who is being fanned by a female slave -with a fan made of peacock’s feathers. Women were also accustomed to -be carried abroad in these cathedrae instead of in lecticae, which -practice was sometimes adopted by effeminate persons of the other -sex. The word cathedra was also applied to the chair or pulpit from -which lectures were read. - - -CĂTĪNUS, or CĂTĪNUM, a large dish, on which fish and meat were served -up at table. Hence Horace speaks of an _angustus catinus_ as an -indication of niggardliness on the part of the host. - - -CĂVAEDĬUM. [DOMUS.] - - -CĂVĔA. [THEATRUM.] - - -CAUPŌNA. (1) An inn, where travellers obtained food and lodging; in -which sense it answered to the Greek words πανδοκεῖον, καταγώγιον, -and κατάλυσις. Inns for the accommodation of persons of all classes -existed among the Greeks and Romans, although they were not equal -either in size or convenience to similar places in modern times. -An inn was also called _taberna_ and _taberna diversoria_, or -simply _diversorium_ or _deversorium_.--(2) A shop, where wine -and ready-dressed meat were sold, thus corresponding to the Greek -καπηλεῖον. The person who kept a caupona was called _caupo_. In -Greek κάπηλος signifies in general a retail trader, who sold goods -in small quantities; but the word is more particularly applied to -a person who sold ready-dressed provisions, and especially wine in -small quantities. In these καπηλεῖα only persons of the very lowest -class were accustomed to eat and drink. In Rome itself there were, no -doubt, inns to accommodate strangers; but these were probably only -frequented by the lower classes, since all persons in respectable -society could easily find accommodation in the houses of their -friends. There were, however, in all parts of the city, numerous -houses where wine and ready-dressed provisions were sold. The houses -where persons were allowed to eat and drink were usually called -_popinae_ and not _cauponae_; and the keepers of them, _popae_. They -were principally frequented by slaves and the lower classes, and -were consequently only furnished with stools to sit upon instead of -couches. The _Thermopolia_, where the _calida_ or warm wine and water -was sold, appear to have been the same as the _popinae_. Many of -these popinae were little better than the _lupanaria_ or brothels; -whence Horace calls them _immundas popinas_. The _ganeae_, which are -sometimes mentioned in connection with the _popinae_, were brothels, -whence they are often classed with the _lustra_. Under the emperors -many attempts were made to regulate the popinae, but apparently -with little success. All persons who kept inns or houses of public -entertainment of any kind were held in low estimation both among -the Greeks and Romans. They appear to have fully deserved the bad -reputation which they possessed, for they were accustomed to cheat -their customers by false weights and measures, and by all the means -in their power. - - -CAUSĬA (καυσία), a hat with a broad brim, which was made of felt, and -worn by the Macedonian kings. Its form is seen in the annexed figure. -The Romans adopted it from the Macedonians. - -[Illustration: Causia, Hat. (From a Painting on a Vase.)] - - -CAUTĬO, CĂVĒRE. These words are of frequent occurrence, and have a -great variety of significations, according to the matter to which -they refer. Their general signification is that of security given by -one person to another, or security which one person obtains by the -advice or assistance of another. The _cautio_ was most frequently a -writing, which expressed the object of the parties to it; accordingly -the word cautio came to signify both the instrument (_chirographum_ -or _instrumentum_) and the object which it was the purpose of the -instrument to secure. Cicero uses the expression _cautio chirographi -mei_. The phrase _cavere aliquid alicui_ expressed the fact of one -person giving security to another as to some particular thing or act. -The word _cautio_ was also applied to the release which a debtor -obtained from his creditor on satisfying his demand; in this sense -cautio is equivalent to a modern receipt; it is the debtor’s security -against the same demand being made a second time. Thus _cavere ab -aliquo_ signifies to obtain this kind of security. _Cavere_ is also -applied to express the professional advice and assistance of a lawyer -to his client for his conduct in any legal matter. _Cavere_ and its -derivatives are also used to express the provisions of a law, by -which any thing is forbidden or ordered, as in the phrase, _Cautum -est lege_, &c. It is also used to express the words in a will, by -which a testator declares his wish that certain things should be done -after his death. - - -CĔADAS or CAEADAS (κεάδας or καιάδας), a deep cavern or chasm, like -the Barathron at Athens, into which the Spartans were accustomed to -thrust persons condemned to death. - - -CĔLĔRES, are said by Livy to have been three hundred horsemen, -who formed the body-guard of Romulus both in peace and war. There -can, however, be little doubt that these Celeres were not simply -the body-guard of the king, but were the same as the equites, -or horsemen, a fact which is expressly stated by some writers. -[EQUITES.] The etymology of Celeres is variously given. Some writers -derived it from their leader Celer, who was said to have slain Remus, -but most writers connected it with the Greek κέλης, in reference to -the quickness of their service. The Celeres were under the command -of a _Tribunus Celerum_, who stood in the same relation to the king -as the magister equitum did in a subsequent period to the dictator. -He occupied the second place in the state, and in the absence of the -king had the right of convoking the comitia. Whether he was appointed -by the king, or elected by the comitia, has been questioned, but the -former is the more probable. - - -CELLA, in its primary sense, means a store-room of any kind. Of these -there were various descriptions, which took their distinguishing -denominations from the articles they contained, as, for instance, -the _cella penuaria_ or _penaria_, the _cella olearia_ and _cella -vinaria_. The slave to whom the charge of these stores was intrusted, -was called _cellarius_, or _promus_, or _condus_, “quia _promit_ quod -_conditum est_,” and sometimes _promus condus_ and _procurator peni_. -This answers to our butler and housekeeper. Any number of small rooms -clustered together like the cells of a honeycomb were also termed -_cellae_; hence the dormitories of slaves and menials are called -_cellae_, and _cellae familiaricae_, in distinction to a bed-chamber, -which was _cubiculum_. Thus a sleeping-room at a public-house is -also termed _cella_. _Cella ostiarii_, or _janitoris_, is the -porter’s lodge. In the baths the _cella caldaria_, _tepidaria_, and -_frigidaria_, were those which contained respectively the warm, -tepid, and cold bath. [BALNEAE.] The interior of a temple, that is -the part included within the outside shell (σηκός), was also called -_cella_. There was sometimes more than one _cella_ within the same -peristyle or under the same roof, in which case each cell took -the name of the deity whose statue it contained, as _cella_ Jovis, -_cella_ Junonis, _cella_ Minervae, as in the temple of Jupiter on the -Capitoline. - - -CĔNOTĂPHĬUM, a cenotaph (κενός and τάφος), was an empty or honorary -tomb, erected as a memorial of a person whose body was buried -elsewhere, or not found for burial at all. - - -CENSOR (τιμητής), the name of two magistrates of high rank in the -Roman republic. Their office was called _Censura_ (τιμητεία or -τιμητία). The _Census_, which was a register of Roman citizens and -of their property, was first established by Servius Tullius, the -fifth king of Rome. After the expulsion of the kings it was taken -by the consuls; and special magistrates were not appointed for the -purpose of taking it till the year B.C. 443. The reason of this -alteration was owing to the appointment in the preceding year of -tribuni militum with consular power in place of the consuls; and -as these tribunes might be plebeians, the patricians deprived the -consuls, and consequently their representatives, the tribunes, of -the right of taking the census, and entrusted it to two magistrates, -called _Censores_, who were to be chosen exclusively from the -patricians. The magistracy continued to be a patrician one till B.C. -351, when C. Marcius Rutilus was the first plebeian censor. Twelve -years afterwards, B.C. 339, it was provided by one of the Publilian -laws, that one of the censors must necessarily be a plebeian, but it -was not till B.C. 280 that a plebeian censor performed the solemn -purification of the people (_lustrum condidit_). In B.C. 131 the two -censors were for the first time plebeians.--The censors were elected -in the comitia centuriata held under the presidency of a consul. As -a general principle, the only persons eligible to the office were -those who had previously been consuls; but a few exceptions occur. -At first there was no law to prevent a person being censor a second -time; but the only person, who was twice elected to the office, was -C. Marcius Rutilus in B.C. 265; and he brought forward a law in this -year, enacting that no one should be chosen censor a second time, and -received in consequence the surname of Censorinus.--The censorship -is distinguished from all other Roman magistracies by the length of -time during which it was held. The censors were originally chosen -for a whole lustrum, that is, a period of five years; but their -office was limited to eighteen months, as early as ten years after -its institution (B.C. 433), by a law of the dictator Mam. Aemilius -Mamercinus. The censors also held a very peculiar position with -respect to rank and dignity. No imperium was bestowed upon them, -and accordingly they had no lictors. The _jus censurae_ was granted -to them by a _lex centuriata_, and not by the curiae, and in that -respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors. But -notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest -dignity in the state, with the exception of the dictatorship; it was -a _sanctus magistratus_, to which the deepest reverence was due. -They possessed of course the sella curulis. The funeral of a censor -was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a -_funus censorium_ was voted even to the emperors.--The censorship -continued in existence for 421 years, namely, from B.C. 443 to -B.C. 22; but during this period many lustra passed by without any -censor being chosen at all. Its power was limited by one of the -laws of the tribune Clodius (B.C. 58). After the year B.C. 22 the -emperors discharged the duties of the censorship under the name of -_Praefectura Morum_.--The duties of the censors may be divided into -three classes, all of which were however closely connected with -one another: I. _The Census_, or register of the citizens and of -their property, in which were included the _lectio senatus_, and -the _recognitio equitum_; II. _The Regimen Morum_; and III. _The -administration of the finances of the state_, under which were -classed the superintendence of the public buildings and the erection -of all new public works.--I. The CENSUS, the first and principal -duty of the censors, for which the proper expression is _censum -agere_, was always held in the Campus Martius, and from the year -B.C. 435 in a special building called _Villa Publica_. After the -auspicia had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier -(_praeco_) to appear before the censors. Each tribe was called up -separately, and every paterfamilias had to appear in person before -the censors, who were seated in their curule chairs. The census was -conducted _ad arbitrium censoris_; but the censors laid down certain -rules, sometimes called _leges censui censendo_, in which mention -was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census, -and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these -laws each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family, -and of his property upon oath, _ex animi sententia_. First he had -to give his full name (_praenomen_, _nomen_, and _cognomen_) and -that of his father, or if he were a freedman that of his patron, -and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He was then asked, -_Tu, ex animi tui sententia, uxorem habes?_ and if married he had -to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and -ages of his children, if any. Single women (_viduae_) and orphans -(_orbi orbaeque_) were represented by their tutores; their names -were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the -sum total of capita. After a citizen had stated his name, age, -family, &c., he then had to give an account of all his property, -so far as it was subject to the census. In making this statement -he was said _censere_ or _censeri_, as a deponent, “to value or -estimate himself,” or as a passive “to be valued or estimated:” -the censor, who received the statement, was also said _censere_, -as well as _accipere censum_. Only such things were liable to the -census (_censui censendo_) as were property _ex jure Quiritium_. Land -formed the most important article in the census; next came slaves and -cattle. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return -of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing, -jewels, and carriages. We can hardly doubt that the censors possessed -the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the -citizens themselves had put. The tax (_tributum_) was usually one -per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors; -but on one occasion the censors, as a punishment, compelled a person -to pay eight per thousand (_octuplicato censu_, Liv. iv. 24). A -person who voluntarily absented himself from the census, and thus -became _incensus_, was subject to the severest punishment. It is -probable that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence. -After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the -amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the -tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation -of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was -determined by the amount of his property. [COMITIA CENTURIATA.] -These lists formed a most important part of the _Tabulae Censoriae_, -under which name were included all the documents connected in any -way with the discharge of the censors’ duties. These lists, as far -at least as they were connected with the finances of the state, -were deposited in the aerarium, which was the temple of Saturn; but -the regular depository for all the archives of the censors was in -earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the Villa publica, and -in later times the temple of the Nymphs. The censors had also to -make out the lists of the senators for the ensuing lustrum, or till -new censors were appointed; striking out the names of such as they -considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who -were qualified. [SENATUS.] In the same manner they held a review of -the equites equo publico, and added and removed names as they judged -proper. [EQUITES.] After the lists had been completed, the number of -citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced; and accordingly -we find that, in the account of a census, the number of citizens is -likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as _capita_, -sometimes with the addition of the word _civium_, and sometimes not; -and hence to be registered in the census was the same thing as _caput -habere_. [CAPUT.]--II. REGIMEN MORUM. This was the most important -branch of the censors’ duties, and the one which caused their office -to be the most revered and the most dreaded in the Roman state. It -naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding -unworthy persons from the lists of citizens. They were constituted -the conservators of public and private virtue and morality; they -were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality, -but their great object was to maintain the old Roman character and -habits, the _mos majorum_. The proper expression for this branch of -their power was _regimen morum_, which was called in the times of -the empire _cura_ or _praefectura morum_. The punishment inflicted -by the censors in the exercise of this branch of their duties was -called _Nota_ or _Notatio_, or _Animadversio Censoria_. In inflicting -it they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of -duty; they had to take an oath that they would act neither through -partiality nor favour; and in addition to this, they were bound in -every case to state in their lists, opposite the name of the guilty -citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him,--_Subscriptio -censoria_. The consequence of such a nota was only _ignominia_ and -not infamia [INFAMIA], and the censorial verdict was not a _judicium_ -or res _judicata_, for its effects were not lasting, but might be -removed by the following censors, or by a lex. A nota censoria was -moreover not valid, unless both censors agreed. The ignominia was -thus only a transitory capitis deminutio, which does not appear even -to have deprived a magistrate of his office, and certainly did not -disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy, -for being appointed as judices by the praetor, or for serving in the -Roman armies. This superintendence of the conduct of Roman citizens -extended so far, that it embraced the whole of the public and private -life of the citizens. Thus we have instances of their censuring -or punishing persons for not marrying, for breaking a promise of -marriage, for divorce, for bad conduct during marriage, for improper -education of children, for living in an extravagant and luxurious -manner, and for many other irregularities in private life. Their -influence was still more powerful in matters connected with the -public life of the citizens. Thus we find them censuring or punishing -magistrates who were forgetful of the dignity of their office or -guilty of bribery, as well as persons who were guilty of improper -conduct towards magistrates, of perjury, and of neglect of their -duties both in civil and military life. The punishments inflicted -by the censors are generally divided into four classes:--1. _Motio_ -or _ejectio e senatu_, or the exclusion of a man from the number of -senators. This punishment might either be a simple exclusion from the -list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded -from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an aerarian. The censors -in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished -to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, passed over -the names of those who were no longer to be senators. Hence the -expression _praeteriti senatores_ is equivalent to _e senatu ejecti_. -2. The _ademptio equi_, or the taking away the equus publicus from -an eques. This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined -with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank -of an aerarian. [EQUITES.] 3. The _motio e tribu_, or the exclusion -of a person from his tribe. If the further degradation to the rank -of an aerarian was combined with the motio e tribu, it was always -expressly stated. 4. The fourth punishment was called _referre in -aerarios_ or _facere aliquem aerarium_, and might be inflicted on any -person who was thought by the censors to deserve it. [AERARII.]--III. -THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE FINANCES OF THE STATE, was another part -of the censors’ office. In the first place the _tributum_, or -property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount -of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the -regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the -censors. [TRIBUTUM.] They also had the superintendence of all the -other revenues of the state, the _vectigalia_, such as the tithes -paid for the public lands, the salt-works, the mines, the customs, -&c. [VECTIGALIA.] All these branches of the revenue the censors -were accustomed to let out to the highest bidder for the space of a -lustrum or five years. The act of letting was called _venditio_ or -_locatio_, and seems to have taken place in the month of March. The -censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the -concurrence of the senate, of imposing new vectigalia, and even of -selling the land belonging to the state. The censors, however, did -not receive the revenues of the state. All the public money was paid -into the aerarium, which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the -senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which -employed the quaestors as its officers. [AERARIUM; SENATUS.]--In one -important department the censors were entrusted with the expenditure -of the public money; though the actual payments were no doubt made -by the quaestors. The censors had the general superintendence of -all the public buildings and works (_opera publica_); and to meet -the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the senate -voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which -they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ -according to their discretion. They had to see that the temples and -all other public buildings were in a good state of repair (_aedes -sacras tueri_ and _sarta tecta exigere_), that no public places -were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons (_loca -tueri_), and that the aquaeducts, roads, drains, &c. were properly -attended to. The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them -in proper condition were let out by the censors by public auction to -the lowest bidder. The persons who undertook the contract were called -_conductores_, _mancipes_, _redemptores_, _susceptores_, &c.; and the -duties they had to discharge were specified in the _Leges Censoriae_. -The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the -worship of the gods. In these respects it is not easy to define -with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles: -but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the -aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors had -reference to all financial matters.--After the censors had performed -their various duties and taken the census, the _lustrum_ or solemn -purification of the people followed. When the censors entered upon -their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this -purification (_lustrum facere_ or _condere_), but both censors were -obliged of course to be present at the ceremony. [LUSTRUM.]--In the -Roman and Latin colonies and in the municipia there were censors, -who likewise bore the name of _quinquennales_. They are spoken of -under COLONIA. A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even -under the republic; but there seems to have been no general census -taken in the provinces till the time of Augustus. At Rome the census -still continued to be taken under the empire, but the old ceremonies -connected with it were no longer continued, and the ceremony of the -lustration was not performed after the time of Vespasian.--The word -_census_, besides the meaning of “valuation” of a person’s estate, -has other significations, which must be briefly mentioned: 1. It -signified the amount of a person’s property, and hence we read of -_census senatorius_, the estate of a senator; _census equestris_, the -estate of an eques. 2. The lists of the censors. 3. The tax which -depended upon the valuation in the census. - - -CENSUS.--(1) GREEK.--The Greek term for a man’s property as -ascertained by the census, as well as for the act of ascertaining -it, is τίμημα. The only Greek state concerning whose arrangement -of the census we have any satisfactory information, is Athens. -Previous to the time of Solon no census had been instituted at -Athens. According to his census, all citizens were divided into four -classes: 1. _Pentacosiomedimni_ (Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι), or persons -possessing landed property which yielded an annual income of at least -500 medimni of dry or liquid produce. 2. _Hippeis_ (Ἱππεῖς), i.e. -knights or persons able to keep a war-horse, were those whose lands -yielded an annual produce of at least 300 medimni, whence they are -also called τριακοσιομέδιμνοι. 3. _Zeugitae_ (Ζευγῖται), i.e. persons -able to keep a yoke of oxen (ζεῦγος), were those whose annual income -consisted of at least 150 medimni. 4. The _Thetes_ (Θῆτες) contained -all the rest of the free population, whose income was below that of -the Zeugitae. The constitution of Athens, so long as it was based -upon these classes, was a timocracy (τιμοκρατία, or ἀπὸ τιμημάτων -πολιτεία). The highest magistracy at Athens, or the archonship, -was at first accessible only to persons of the first class, -until Aristides threw all the state offices open to all classes -indiscriminately. The maintenance of the republic mainly devolved -upon the first three classes, the last being exempted from all taxes. -As the land in the legislation of Solon was regarded as the capital -which yielded an annual income, he regulated his system of taxation -by the value of the land, which was treated as the taxable capital. -Lists of this taxable property (ἀπογραφαί) were kept at first by -the naucrari, who also had to conduct the census, and afterwards -by the demarchi.--As property is a fluctuating thing, the census -was repeated from time to time, but the periods differed in the -various parts of Greece, for in some a census was held every year, -and in others every two or four years. At Athens every person had to -state the amount of his property, and if there was any doubt about -his honesty, it seems that a counter-valuation (ἀντιτίμησις) might -be made. This system of taxation according to classes, and based -upon the possession of productive estates, underwent a considerable -change in the time of the Peloponnesian war, though the divisions -into classes themselves continued to be observed for a considerable -time after. As the wants of the republic increased, and as many -citizens were possessed of large property, without being landed -proprietors, the original land-tax was changed into a property-tax. -This property-tax was called εἰσφορά, concerning which see EISPHORA. -Compare LEITURGIAE; and for the taxes paid by resident aliens, -METOICI.--(2) ROMAN. [CENSOR.] - - -CENTESĬMA, namely _pars_, or the hundredth part, also called -_vectigal rerum venalium_, or _centesima rerum venalium_, was a tax -of one per cent. levied at Rome and in Italy upon all goods that were -exposed for public sale at auctions. It was collected by persons -called _coactores_. This tax was perhaps introduced after the civil -war between Marius and Sulla. Its produce was assigned by Augustus -to the _aerarium militare_. Tiberius reduced the tax to one half -per cent. (_ducentesima_), after he had changed Cappadocia into -a province, and had thereby increased the revenue of the empire. -Caligula in the beginning of his reign abolished the tax altogether -for Italy. - -CENTUMVĬRI, were judices, who resembled other judices in this -respect, that they decided cases under the authority of a -magistratus; but they differed from other judices in being a definite -body or collegium. This collegium seems to have been divided into -four parts, each of which sometimes sat by itself. The origin of -the court is unknown. According to an ancient writer, three were -chosen out of each tribe, and consequently the whole number out of -the 35 tribes would be 105, who, in round numbers, were called the -hundred men. If the centumviri were chosen from the tribes, this -seems a strong presumption in favour of the high antiquity of the -court. It was the practice to set up a spear in the place where -the centumviri were sitting, and accordingly the word _hasta_, or -_hasta centumviralis_, is sometimes used as equivalent to the words -_judicium centumvirale_. The praetor presided in this court. The -jurisdiction of the centumviri was chiefly confined to civil matters, -but it appears that crimina sometimes came under their cognizance. -The younger Pliny, who practised in this court, makes frequent -allusions to it in his letters. - - -CENTŬRĬA. [EXERCITUS; COMITIA.] - - -CENTŬRĬĀTA CŎMĪTĬA. [COMITIA.] - - -CENTŬRĬO. [EXERCITUS.] - - -CENTUSSIS. [As.] - - -CĒRA (κηρός), wax. For its employment in painting, see PICTURA; -and for its application as a writing material, see TABULAE and -TESTAMENTUM. - - -CĔRĔĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome in honour of Ceres, whose -wanderings in search of her lost daughter Proserpine were represented -by women, clothed in white, running about with lighted torches. -During its continuance, games were celebrated in the Circus Maximus, -the spectators of which appeared in white; but on any occasion of -public mourning the games and festivals were not celebrated at all, -as the matrons could not appear at them except in white. The day -of the Cerealia is doubtful; some think it was the ides or 13th of -April, others the 7th of the same month. - - -CĔRĔVĪSĬA, CERVĪSĬA (ζύθος), ale or beer, was almost or altogether -unknown to the Greeks and Romans; but it was used very generally by -the surrounding nations, whose soil and climate were less favourable -to the growth of vines. According to Herodotus, the Egyptians -commonly drank “barley wine;” and Diodorus Siculus says that the -Egyptian beer was nearly equal to wine in strength and flavour. The -Iberians and Thracians, and the people in the north of Asia Minor, -instead of drinking their beer out of cups, placed it before them in -a large bowl or vase, which was sometimes of gold or silver. This -being full to the brim with the grains, as well as the fermented -liquor, the guests, when they pledged one another, drank together -out of the same bowl by stooping down to it, although, when this -token of friendship was not intended, they adopted the more refined -method of sucking up the fluid through tubes of cane. The Suevi and -other northern nations offered to their gods libations of beer, and -expected that to drink it in the presence of Odin would be among the -delights of Valhalla. - - -CĒRŌMA (κήρωμα), the oil mixed with wax (κηρός) with which wrestlers -were anointed; also the place where they were anointed, and, in later -times, the place where they wrestled. - - -CĔRŪCHI. [NAVIS.] - - -CESTRUM. [PICTURA.] - - -CESTUS. (1) The thongs or bands of leather, which were tied round -the hands of boxers, in order to render their blows more powerful -(ἱμάντες, or ἱμάντες πυκτικοί). The cestus was used by boxers in the -earliest times, and is mentioned in the Iliad; but in the heroic -times it consisted merely of thongs of leather, and differed from the -cestus used in later times in the public games, which was a most -formidable weapon, being frequently covered with knots and nails, and -loaded with lead and iron.--(2) A band or tie of any kind, but more -particularly the zone or girdle of Venus, on which was represented -every thing that could awaken love. - -[Illustration: Cestus. (Fabretti, de Col. Traj., p. 261.)] - - -CETRA, or CAETRA, a target, _i.e._ a small round shield, made of the -hide of a quadruped. It formed part of the defensive armour of the -Osci, and of the people of Spain, Mauritania, and Britain, and seems -to have been much the same as the target of the Scotch Highlanders. -The Romans do not appear to have used the cetra; but we find mention -of _cetratae cohortes_ levied in the provinces. Livy compares it to -the _pelta_ of the Greeks and Macedonians, which was also a small -light shield. - - -CHALCĬOĒCĬA (χαλκιοίκια), an annual festival, with sacrifices, held -at Sparta in honour of Athena, surnamed _Chalcioecus_ (Χαλκίοικος), -i.e. the goddess of the brazen-house. Young men marched on the -occasion in full armour to the temple of the goddess; and the ephors, -although not entering the temple, but remaining within its sacred -precincts, were obliged to take part in the sacrifice. - - -CHALCUS (χαλκοῦς), a denomination of Greek copper-money. Bronze or -copper (χαλκός) was very little used by the Greeks for money till -after the time of Alexander the Great. The χαλκία πονηρὰ at Athens -issued in B.C. 406 were a peculiar exception; and they were soon -afterwards called in, and the silver currency restored. It is not -improbable, however, that the copper coin called χαλκοῦς was in -circulation in Athens still earlier. The smallest silver coin at -Athens was the quarter-obol, and the χαλκοῦς was the half of that, or -the eighth of an obol. Its value was somewhat more than 3-4ths of a -farthing. The χαλκοῦς in later times was divided into lepta, of which -it contained seven. In later times the obol was coined of copper as -well as silver. - - -CHĂRISTĬA (from χαρίζομαι, to grant a favour or pardon), a solemn -feast among the Romans, to which none but relations and members -of the same family were invited, in order that any quarrel or -disagreement which had arisen amongst them might be made up. The day -of celebration was the 19th of February. - - -CHEIRŎNŎMĬA (χειρονομία), a mimetic movement of the hands, which -formed a part of the art of dancing among the Greeks and Romans. In -gymnastics it was applied to the movements of the hands in pugilistic -combat. - - -CHEIRŎTŎNĬA (χειροτονία). In the Athenian assemblies two modes -of voting were practised, the one by pebbles (ψηφίζεσθαι), the -other by a show of hands (χειροτονεῖν). The latter was employed in -the election of those magistrates who were chosen in the public -assemblies, and who were hence called χειροτονητοί, in voting upon -laws, and in some kinds of trials on matters which concerned the -people. We frequently find, however, the word ψηφίζεσθαι used where -the votes were really given by show of hands. The manner of voting -by a show of hands was as follows:--The herald said: “Whoever thinks -that Meidias is guilty, let him lift up his hand.” Then those who -thought so stretched forth their hands. Then the herald said again: -“Whoever thinks that Meidias is not guilty, let him lift up his -hand;” and those who were of this opinion stretched forth their -hands. The number of hands was counted each time by the herald; and -the president, upon the herald’s report, declared on which side the -majority voted. It is important to understand clearly the compounds -of this word. A vote condemning an accused person is καταχειροτονία: -one acquitting him, ἀποχειροτονία; ἐπιχειροτονεῖν is to confirm by -a majority of votes: ἐπιχειροτονία τῶν νομῶν was a revision of the -laws, which took place at the beginning of every year: ἐπιχειροτονία -τῶν ἀρχῶν was a vote taken in the first assembly of each prytany on -the conduct of the magistrates; in these cases, those who voted for -the confirmation of the law, or for the continuance in office of -the magistrate, were said ἐπιχειροτονεῖν, those on the other side -ἀποχειροτονεῖν: διαχειροτονία is a vote for one of two alternatives: -ἀντιχειροτονεῖν, to vote against a proposition. The compounds of -ψηφίζεσθαι have similar meanings. - - -CHĪRŎGRĂPHUM (χειρόγραφον), meant first, as its derivation implies, a -hand-writing or autograph. In this its simple sense, χείρ in Greek and -_manus_ in Latin are often substituted for it. From this meaning was -easily derived that of a signature to a will or other instrument, -especially a note of hand given by a debtor to his creditor. - - -CHITON (χιτών). [TUNICA.] - - -CHLAENA (χλαῖνα). [PALLIUM.] - - -[Illustration: Chlamys. (The Figure on the left from a Painting on a -Vase; that on the right from the Brit. Mus.)] - -CHLĂMỸS (χλαμύς, _dim._ χλαμύδιον), a scarf, denoted an article of -the _amictus_, or outer raiment of the Greeks. It was for the most -part woollen; and it differed from the _himation_ (ἱμάτιον), or -cloak, the usual amictus of the male sex, in being smaller, finer, -and oblong instead of square, its length being generally about twice -its breadth. The scarf does not appear to have been much worn by -children. It was generally assumed on reaching adolescence, and was -worn by the ephebi from about seventeen to twenty years of age, and -hence was called χλαμὺς ἐφηβηική. It was also worn by the military, -especially of high rank, over their body armour, and by hunters and -travellers, more particularly on horseback. The usual mode of wearing -the scarf was to pass one of its shorter sides round the neck, and -to fasten it by means of a brooch (_fibula_), either over the breast -(cut, HASTA), in which case it hung down the back, or over the -right shoulder, so as to cover the left arm (cut, CAUSIA). In the -following cut it is worn again in another way. The aptitude of the -scarf to be turned in every possible form around the body, made it -useful even for defence. The hunter used to wrap his chlamys about -his left arm when pursuing wild animals, and preparing to fight with -them. The annexed woodcut exhibits a figure of Neptune armed with the -trident in his right hand, and having a chlamys to protect the left. -When Diana goes to the chase, as she does not require her scarf for -purposes of defence, she draws it from behind over her shoulders, -and twists it round her waist so that the belt of her quiver passes -across it. (See woodcut.) Among the Romans the scarf came more -into use under the emperors. Caligula wore one enriched with gold. -Severus, when he was in the country or on an expedition, wore a scarf -dyed with the coccus. - -[Illustration: Chlamys. (Neptune from a Coin, and Diana from a Statue -in the Vatican.)] - - -CHOENIX (χοῖνιξ), a Greek measure of capacity, the size of which is -differently given; it was probably of different sizes in the several -states. Some writers make it equal to three cotylae (nearly 1½ pints -English); others to four cotylae (nearly 2 pints English); others -again make it eight cotylae (nearly 4 pints English). - - -CHŎRĒGUS (χορηγός), a person who had to bear the expenses of the -choregia (χορηγία), one of the regularly recurring state burthens -(ἐγκύκλιοι λειτουργίαι) at Athens. The choregus was appointed by his -tribe, though we are not informed according to what order. The same -person might serve as choregus for two tribes at once; and after B.C. -412 a decree was passed allowing two persons to unite and undertake a -choregia together. The duties of the choregia consisted in providing -the choruses for tragedies and comedies, the lyric choruses of men -and boys, the pyrrhicists, the cyclic choruses, and the choruses of -flute-players for the different religious festivals at Athens. When -a poet intended to bring out a play, he had to get a chorus assigned -him by the archon [CHORUS], who nominated a choregus to fulfil the -requisite duties. He had first to collect his chorus, and then to -procure a teacher (χοροδιδάσκαλος), whom he paid for instructing the -choreutae. The chorus were generally maintained, during the period -of their instruction, at the expense of the choregus. The choregus -who exhibited the best musical or theatrical entertainment received -as a prize a tripod, which he had the expense of consecrating, and -sometimes he had also to build the monument on which it was placed. -There was a whole street at Athens formed by the line of these -tripod-temples, and called “The Street of the Tripods.” - -CHŎRUS (χορός) probably signified originally a company of dancers -dancing in a ring. In later times, a choric performance always -implies the singing or musical recitation of a poetical composition, -accompanied by appropriate dancing and gesticulation, or at least -by a measured march. In all the Dorian states, especially among the -Spartans, choral performances were cultivated with great assiduity. -Various causes contributed to this, as, for example, their universal -employment in the worship of Apollo, the fact that they were not -confined to the men, but that women also took part in them, and that -many of the dances had a gymnastic character given them, and were -employed as a mode of training to martial exercises. [SALTATIO.] -Hence Doric lyric poetry became almost exclusively choral, which -was not the case with the other great school of Greek lyric poetry, -the Aeolian; so that the Doric dialect came to be looked upon as -the appropriate dialect for choral compositions, and Doric forms -were retained by the Athenians even in the choral compositions -which were interwoven with their dramas. The instrument commonly -used in connection with the Doric choral poetry was the cithara. -A great impetus was given to choral poetry by its application to -the dithyramb. This ancient Bacchanalian performance seems to have -been a hymn sung by one or more of an irregular band of revellers, -to the music of the flute. Arion, a contemporary of Periander, was -the first who gave a regular choral form to the dithyramb. This -chorus, which ordinarily consisted of fifty men or youths, danced -in a ring round the altar of Dionysus. Hence such choruses were -termed _cyclic_ (κύκλιοι χοροί). With the introduction of a regular -choral character, Arion also substituted the cithara for the flute. -It was from the dithyramb that the Attic tragedy was developed. For -details see TRAGOEDIA. From the time of Sophocles onwards the regular -number of the chorus in a tragedy was 15; but it is impossible to -arrive at any definite conclusion with regard to the number of the -chorus in the early dramas of Aeschylus. The fact that the number -of the dithyrambic chorus was 50, and that the mythological number -of the Oceanides and Danaides was the same, tempts one to suppose -that the chorus in the Prometheus and the Supplices consisted of -50. Most writers, however, agree in thinking that such a number was -too large to have been employed. The later chorus of 15 was arranged -in a quadrangular form (τετράγωνος). It entered the theatre by the -passage to the right of the spectators. [THEATRUM.] Its entrance -was termed πάροδος; its leaving the stage in the course of the play -μετάστασις; its re-entrance ἐπιπάροδος; its exit ἄφοδος. As it -entered in three lines, with the spectators on its left, the stage on -its right, the middle choreutes of the left row (τρίτος ἀριστέρου) -was the Coryphaeus or Hegemon, who in early times at least was not -unfrequently the choregus himself. Of course the positions first -taken up by the choreutae were only retained till they commenced -their evolutions. To guide them in these, lines were marked upon -the boards with which the orchestra was floored. The flute as well -as the cithara was used as an accompaniment to the choric songs. -The dance of the tragic chorus was called ἐμμέλεια.--The ordinary -number of the chorus in a comedy was 24. Like the tragic chorus it -was arranged in a quadrangular form, and entered the orchestra from -opposite sides, according as it was supposed to come from the city -or from the country. It consisted sometimes half of male and half of -female choreutae. The dance of the comic chorus was the κόρδαξ. In -the Satyric drama the chorus consisted of Satyrs: its number is quite -uncertain. Its dance was called σίκιννις. When a poet intended to -bring forward a play, he had to apply for a chorus (χορὸν αἰτεῖν) to -the archons, to the king archon if the play was to be brought forward -at the Lenaea, to the archon eponymus if at the great Dionysia. -If the play were thought to deserve it, he received a chorus -(χορὸν λαμβάνειν), the expenses of which were borne by a choregus. -[CHOREGUS.] The poet then either trained (διδάσκειν) the chorus -himself, or entrusted that business to a professed chorus trainer -(χοροδιδάσκαλος), who usually had an assistant (ὑποδιδάσκαλος). -For training the chorus in its evolutions there was also an -ὀρχηστοδιδάσκαλος. - - -CHOUS, or CHOEUS (χοῦς or χοεῦς), was equal to the Roman congius, -and contained six ξέσται, or sextarii (nearly six pints English). -It seems that there was also a smaller measure of the same name, -containing two sextarii (nearly two pints English). - - -CHRŎNOLŎGĬA (χρονολογία), chronology. The Greeks reckoned their -years generally according to their magistrates, in the early times -according to the years of the reign of their kings, and afterwards -according to their annual magistrates. At Athens the year was called -by the name of one of the nine archons, who from this circumstance -was called ἄρχων ἐπώνυμος, or the archon par excellence; and at -Sparta the years were called after one of the five ephors, who for -this reason was likewise termed ἐπώνυμος. In Argos time was counted -according to the years of the high priestess of Hera, who held her -office for life (ἡρεσίς); and the inhabitants of Elis probably -reckoned according to the Olympic games, which were celebrated every -fifth year during the first full moon which followed after the summer -solstice. Thus there was no era which was used by _all_ the Greeks in -common for the ordinary purposes of life.--Timaeus, who flourished -about B.C. 260, was the first historian who counted the years by -Olympiads, each of which contained four years. The beginning of the -Olympiads is commonly fixed in the year 3938 of the Julian period, or -in B.C. 776. If we want to reduce any given Olympiad to years before -Christ, _e.g._ Ol. 87, we take the number of the Olympiads actually -elapsed, that is, 86, multiply it by 4, and deduct the number -obtained from 776, so that the first year of the 87th Ol. will be the -same as the year 432 B.C. If the number of Olympiads amounts to more -than 776 years, that is, if the Olympiad falls after the birth of -Christ, the process is the same as before, but from the sum obtained -by multiplying the Olympiads by 4, we must deduct the number 776, and -what remains is the number of the years after Christ. As the Olympic -games were celebrated 293 times, we have 293 Olympic cycles, that is, -1172 years, 776 of which fall before, and 396 after Christ.--Some -writers also adopted the Trojan era, the fall of Troy being placed -by Eratosthenes and those who adopted this era, in the year B.C. -1184. After the time of Alexander the Great, several other eras were -introduced in the kingdoms that arose out of his empire. The first -was the Philippic era, sometimes also called the era of Alexander or -the era of Edessa; it began on the 12th of November B.C. 324, the -date of the accession of Philip Arrhidaeus. The second was the era of -the Seleucidae, beginning on the 1st of October B.C. 312, the date -of the victory of Seleucus Nicator at Gaza, and of his re-conquest -of Babylonia. This era was used very extensively in the East. The -Chaldaean era differed from it only by six months, beginning in the -spring of B.C. 311. Lastly, the eras of Antioch, of which there were -three, but the one most commonly used began in November B.C. 49.--The -Romans during the time of the republic reckoned their years by the -names of the consuls, which were registered in the Fasti. Along -with this era there existed another, used only by the historians. -It reckoned the years from the foundation of the city (_ab urbe -condita_); but the year of the foundation of the city was a question -of uncertainty among the Romans themselves. M. Terentius Varro placed -it on the 21st of April in the third year of the 6th Olympiad, that -is, B.C. 753; and this is the era most commonly used. To find out -the year B.C. corresponding to the year A.U.C., subtract the year -A.U.C. from 754; thus 605 A.U.C. = 149 B.C. To find out the year A.D. -corresponding to the year A.U.C., subtract 753 from the year A.U.C.; -thus 767 A.U.C. = 14 A.D. - - -CHRȲSENDĔTA, costly dishes used by the Romans at their -entertainments, apparently made of silver, with golden ornaments. - - -CIDĂRIS. [TIARA.] - - -CINCTUS GABĪNUS. [TOGA.] - - -CINGŬLUM. [ZONA.] - - -CĬNĔRĀRĬUS. [CALAMISTRUM.] - - -CĬNĔRES. [FUNUS.] - - -CĬNĬFLO. [CALAMISTRUM.] - - -CIPPUS, a low column, sometimes round, but more frequently -rectangular. Cippi were used for various purposes; the decrees of -the senate were sometimes inscribed upon them; and with distances -engraved upon them, they also served as mile-stones. They were, -however, more frequently employed as sepulchral monuments. It was -also usual to place at one corner of the burying-ground a cippus, on -which the extent of the burying-ground was marked, towards the road -(_in fronte_), and backwards to the fields (_in agrum_). - -[Illustration: Cippus, in the Vatican.] - - -CIRCENSES LŪDI. [CIRCUS.] - - -CIRCĬTŌRES, or CIRCŬĬTŌRES. [CASTRA.] - - -[Illustration: Ground Plan of the Circus.] - -CIRCUS. When Tarquinius Priscus had taken the town of Apiolae from -the Latins, he commemorated his success by an exhibition of races -and pugilistic contests in the Murcian valley, between the Palatine -and Aventine hills, around which a number of temporary platforms -were erected by the patres and equites, called _spectacula_, -_fori_, or _foruli_, from their resemblance to the deck of a ship; -each one raising a stage for himself, upon which he stood to view -the games. This course, with its surrounding scaffoldings, was -termed circus; either because the spectators stood round to see -the shows, or because the procession and races went round in a -circuit. Previously, however, to the death of Tarquin, a permanent -building was constructed for the purpose, with regular tiers of -seats in the form of a theatre. To this the name of Circus Maximus -was subsequently given, as a distinction from the Flaminian and -other similar buildings, which it surpassed in extent and splendour; -and hence it is often spoken of as _the_ Circus, without any -distinguishing epithet. Of the Circus Maximus scarcely a vestige now -remains; but this loss is fortunately supplied by the remains of a -small circus on the Via Appia, the ground-plan of which is in a state -of considerable preservation: it is represented in the annexed cut, -and may be taken as a model of all others. Around the double lines -(A, A) were arranged the seats (_gradus_, _sedilia_, _subsellia_), as -in a theatre, termed collectively the _cavea_; the lowest of which -were separated from the ground by a _podium_, and the whole divided -longitudinally by _praecinctiones_, and diagonally into _cunei_, with -their _vomitoria_ attached to each. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] Towards the -extremity of the upper branch of the _cavea_, the general outline -is broken by an outwork (B), which was probably the _pulvinar_, or -station for the emperor, as it is placed in the best situation for -seeing both the commencement and end of the course, and in the most -prominent part of the circus. In the opposite branch is observed -another interruption to the uniform line of seats (C), betokening -also, from its construction, a place of distinction; which might have -been assigned to the person at whose expense the games were given -(_editor spectaculorum_). In the centre of the area was a low wall -(D) running lengthways down the course, which, from its resemblance -to the position of the dorsal bone in the human frame, was termed -_spina_. At each extremity of the spina were placed, upon a base (E, -E), three wooden cylinders, of a conical shape, like cypress trees, -which were called _metae_--the goals. Their situation is distinctly -seen in the cut on p. 89. The most remarkable objects upon the -_spina_ were two columns (F) supporting seven conical balls, which, -from their resemblance to eggs, were called _ova_. Their use was to -enable the spectators to count the number of rounds which had been -run; and they were seven in number, because seven was the number of -the circuits made in each race. As each round was run, one of the -_ova_ was either put up or taken down. An egg was adopted for this -purpose, in honour of Castor and Pollux. At the other extremity of -the spina were two similar columns (G), sustaining dolphins, termed -_delphinae_, or _delphinarum columnae_, which do not appear to have -been intended to be removed, but only placed there as corresponding -ornaments to the _ova_; and the figure of the dolphin was selected in -honour of Neptune. These figures are also seen in the cut on p. 89. -At the extremity of the circus in which the two horns of the _cavea_ -terminate, were placed the stalls for the horses and chariots (H, -H), commonly called _carceres_, but more anciently the whole line of -building at this end of the circus was termed _oppidum_: hence in the -circus, of which the plan is given above, we find two towers (I, I) -at each end of the _carceres_. The number of _carceres_ is supposed -to have been usually twelve, as in this plan. - -[Illustration: Carceres opening of the Gates. (From a marble at -Velletri.)] - -[Illustration: Carceres, with Gates open. (Marble in British Museum.)] - -They were vaults, closed in front by gates of open wood-work -(_cancelli_), which were opened simultaneously upon the signal -being given, by removing a rope attached to pilasters of the kind -called _Hermae_, placed for that purpose between each stall, upon -which the gates were immediately thrown open by a number of men, as -represented in the preceding woodcut. The cut below represents a set -of four _carceres_, with their _Hermae_, and _cancelli_ open, as -left after the chariots had started; in which the gates are made to -open inwards. The preceding account and woodcuts will be sufficient -to explain the meaning of the various words by which the _carceres_ -were designated in poetical language, namely, _claustra_, _crypta_, -_fauces_, _ostia_, _fores carceris_, _repagula_, _limina equorum_. -There were five entrances to the circus; one (L) in the centre of -the carceres, called _porta pompae_, because it was the one through -which the Circensian procession entered, and the others at M, M, N, -and O. At the entrance of the course, exactly in the direction of the -line (J, K), were two small pedestals (_hermuli_) on each side of -the _podium_, to which was attached a chalked rope (_alba linea_), -for the purpose of making the start fair, precisely as is practised -at Rome for the horse-races during Carnival. Thus, when the doors -of the _carceres_ were thrown open, if any of the horses rushed out -before the others, they were brought up by this rope until the whole -were fairly abreast, when it was loosened from one side, and all -poured into the course at once. This line was also called _calx_, -and _creta_. The _metae_ served only to regulate the turnings of -the course, the _alba linea_ answered to the starting and winning -post of modern days.--From this description the Circus Maximus -differed little, except in size and magnificence of embellishment. -The numbers which the Circus Maximus was capable of containing are -computed at 150,000 by Dionysius, 260,000 by Pliny, and 385,000 by -P. Victor, all of which are probably correct, but have reference -to different periods of its history. Its length, in the time of -Julius Caesar, was three stadia, the width one, and the depth of -the buildings occupied half a stadium. When the Circus Maximus was -permanently formed by Tarquinius Priscus, each of the thirty curiae -had a particular place assigned to it; but as no provision was made -for the plebeians in this circus, it is supposed that the Circus -Flaminius was designed for the games of the commonalty, who in early -times chose their tribunes there, on the Flaminian field. However, -in the latter days of the republic, these invidious distinctions -were lost, and all classes sat promiscuously in the circus. The -seats were then marked off at intervals by a line or groove drawn -across them (_linea_), so that the space included between two lines -afforded sitting room for a certain number of spectators. Under the -empire, however, the senators and equites were separated from the -common people. The seat of the emperor (_pulvinar or cubiculum_) -was most likely in the same situation in the Circus Maximus as in -the one above described.--The Circensian games (_Ludi Circenses_) -were first instituted by Romulus, according to the legends, when he -wished to attract the Sabine population to Rome, for the purpose of -furnishing his own people with wives, and were celebrated in honour -of the god Consus, or Neptunus Equestris, from whom they were styled -_Consuales_. But after the construction of the Circus Maximus they -were called indiscriminately _Circenses_, _Romani_, or _Magni_. They -embraced six kinds of games:--I. CURSUS; II. LUDUS TROJAE; III. PUGNA -EQUESTRIS; IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM; V. VENATIO; VI. NAUMACHIA. The two -last were not peculiar to the circus, but were exhibited also in -the amphitheatre, or in buildings appropriated for them. The games -commenced with a grand procession (_Pompa Circensis_), in which all -those who were about to exhibit in the circus, as well as persons of -distinction, bore a part. The statues of the gods formed the most -conspicuous feature in the show, which were paraded upon wooden -platforms, called _fercula_ and _thensae_. The former were borne -upon the shoulders, as the statues of saints are carried in modern -processions; the latter were drawn along upon wheels.--I. CURSUS, -the races. The carriage usually employed in the circus was drawn -by two or four horses (_bigae_, _quadrigae_). [CURRUS.] The usual -number of chariots which started for each race was four. The drivers -(_aurigae_, _agitatores_) were also divided into four companies, each -distinguished by a different colour, to represent the four seasons of -the year, and called a _factio_: thus _factio prasina_, the green, -represented the spring; _factio russata_, red, the summer; _factio -veneta_, azure, the autumn; and _factio alba_ or _albata_, white, -the winter. Originally there were but two factions, _albata_ and -_russata_, and consequently only two chariots started at each race. -The driver stood in his car within the reins, which went round his -back. This enabled him to throw all his weight against the horses, -by leaning backwards; but it greatly enhanced his danger in case -of an upset. To avoid this peril, a sort of knife or bill-hook was -carried at the waist, for the purpose of cutting the reins in a case -of emergency. When all was ready, the doors of the carceres were -flung open, and the chariots were formed abreast of the _alba linea_ -by men called _moratores_ from their duty; the signal for the start -was then given by the person who presided at the games, sometimes by -sound of trumpet, or more usually by letting fall a napkin; whence -the Circensian games are called _spectacula mappae_. The _alba linea_ -was then cast off, and the race commenced, the extent of which was -seven times round the _spina_, keeping it always on the left. A -course of seven circuits was termed _unus missus_, and twenty-five -was the number of races run in each day, the last of which was called -_missus aerarius_, because in early times the expense of it was -defrayed by a collection of money (_aes_) made amongst the people. -The victor descended from his car at the conclusion of the race, and -ascended the _spina_, where he received his reward (_bravium_, from -the Greek βραβεῖον), which consisted in a considerable sum of money. - -[Illustration: Chariot Race in the Circus. (Florentine Gem.)] - -The horse-racing followed the same rules as the chariots. The -enthusiasm of the Romans for these races exceeded all bounds. Lists -of the horses (_libella_), with their names and colours, and those -of the drivers, were handed about, and heavy bets made upon each -faction; and sometimes the contests between two parties broke out -into open violence and bloody quarrels, until at last the disputes -which originated in the circus had nearly lost the Emperor Justinian -his crown.--II. LUDUS TROJAE, a sort of sham-fight, said to have been -invented by Aeneas, performed by young men of rank on horseback, -and often exhibited by the emperors.--III. PUGNA EQUESTRIS ET -PEDESTRIS, a representation of a battle, upon which occasions a camp -was formed in the circus.--IV. CERTAMEN GYMNICUM. See ATHLETAE, and -the references to the articles there given.--V. [VENATIO.]--VI. -[NAUMACHIA.] - - -[Illustration: Cisium. (From monument at Igel, near Treves.)] - -CĬSĬUM, a light open carriage with two wheels, adapted to carry two -persons rapidly from place to place. The cisia were quickly drawn -by mules. Cicero mentions the case of a messenger who travelled 56 -miles in 10 hours in such vehicles, which were kept for hire at the -stations along the great roads; a proof that the ancients considered -six Roman miles per hour as an extraordinary speed. - - -[Illustration: Cista. (From a Painting on a Vase.)] - -[Illustration] - -CISTA (κίστη). (1) A small box or chest, in which anything might -be placed, but more particularly applied to the small boxes which -were carried in procession in the festivals of Demeter and Dionysus. -These boxes, which were always kept closed in the public processions, -contained sacred things connected with the worship of these deities. -In the representations of Dionysiac processions on ancient vases -women carrying cistae are frequently introduced.--(2) The ballot-box, -into which those who voted in the comitia and in the courts of -justice cast their tabellae. It is represented in the annexed cut, -and should not be confounded with the _situla_ or _sitella_, into -which sortes or lots were thrown. [SITULA.] - - -CISTŎPHŎRUS (κιστοφόρος), a silver coin, which is supposed to belong -to Rhodes, and which was in general circulation in Asia Minor at the -time of the conquest of that country by the Romans. It took its name -from the device upon it, which was either the sacred chest (_cista_) -of Bacchus, or more probably a flower called κιστός. Its value is -extremely uncertain: some writers suppose it to have been worth in -our money about 7¼_d._ - - -CĬTHĂRA. [LYRA.] - - -CĪVIS. [CIVITAS.] - - -CĪVĬTAS, citizenship. (1) GREEK (πολιτεία). Aristotle defines a -citizen (πολίτης) to be one who is a partner in the legislative -and judicial power (μέτοχος κρίσεως καὶ ἀρχῆς). No definition will -equally apply to all the different states of Greece, or to any single -state at different times; the above seems to comprehend more or less -properly all those whom the common use of language entitled to the -name. A state in the heroic ages was the government of a prince; the -citizens were his subjects, and derived all their privileges, civil -as well as religious, from their nobles and princes. The shadows -of a council and assembly were already in existence, but their -business was to obey. Upon the whole the notion of citizenship -in the heroic ages only existed so far as the condition of aliens -or of domestic slaves was its negative. The rise of a dominant -class gradually overthrew the monarchies of ancient Greece. Of -such a class, the chief characteristics were good birth and the -hereditary transmission of privileges, the possession of land, and -the performance of military service. To these characters the names -_gamori_ (γάμοροι), _knights_ (ἱππεῖς), _eupatridae_ (εὐπατρίδαι), -&c. severally correspond. Strictly speaking, these were the only -citizens; yet the lower class were quite distinct from bondmen or -slaves. It commonly happened that the nobility occupied the fortified -towns, while the _demus_ (δῆμος) lived in the country and followed -agricultural pursuits: whenever the latter were gathered within -the walls, and became seamen or handicraftsmen, the difference of -ranks was soon lost, and wealth made the only standard. The quarrels -of the nobility among themselves, and the admixture of population -arising from immigrations, all tended to raise the lower orders from -their political subjection. It must be remembered, too, that the -possession of domestic slaves, if it placed them in no new relation -to the governing body, at any rate gave them leisure to attend to -the higher duties of a citizen, and thus served to increase their -political efficiency. During the convulsions which followed the -heroic ages, naturalisation was readily granted to all who desired -it; as the value of citizenship increased, it was, of course, more -sparingly bestowed. The ties of hospitality descended from the prince -to the state, and the friendly relations of the Homeric heroes -were exchanged for the προξενίαι of a later period. In political -intercourse, the importance of these last soon began to be felt, -and the _Proxenus_ at Athens, in after times, obtained rights only -inferior to actual citizenship. [HOSPITIUM.] The isopolite relation -existed, however, on a much more extended scale. Sometimes particular -privileges were granted: as ἐπιγαμία, the right of intermarriage; -ἔγκτησις, the right of acquiring landed property; ἀτέλεια, immunity -from taxation, especially ἀτέλεια μετοικίου, from the tax imposed on -resident aliens. All these privileges were included under the general -term ἰσοτέλεια, or ἰσοπολίτεια, and the class who obtained them were -called ἰσοτελεῖς. They bore the same burthens with the citizens, -and could plead in the courts or transact business with the people, -without the intervention of a προστάτης, or patron. Respecting -the division of the Athenian citizens into tribes, phratriae and -demes, see the articles TRIBUS and DEMUS.--If we would picture to -ourselves the true notion which the Greeks embodied in the word -_polis_ (πόλις), we must lay aside all modern ideas respecting the -nature and object of a state. With us practically, if not in theory, -the _essential_ object of a state hardly embraces more than the -protection of life and property. The Greeks, on the other hand, had -the most vivid conception of the state as a whole, every part of -which was to co-operate to some great end to which all other duties -were considered as subordinate. Thus the aim of democracy was said to -be liberty; wealth, of oligarchy; and education, of aristocracy. In -all governments the endeavour was to draw the social union as close -as possible, and it seems to have been with this view that Aristotle -laid down a principle which answered well enough to the accidental -circumstances of the Grecian states, that a _polis_ must be of a -certain size. This unity of purpose was nowhere so fully carried out -as in the government of Sparta. The design of Spartan institutions -was evidently to unite the governing body among themselves against -the superior numbers of the subject population. The division of -lands, the syssitia, the education of their youth, all tended to -this great object. [HELOTES; PERIOECI.] In legal rights all Spartans -were equal: but there were yet several gradations, which, when once -formed, retained their hold on the aristocratic feelings of the -people. First, there was the dignity of the Heraclide families; -and, connected with this, a certain pre-eminence of the Hyllean -tribe. Another distinction was that between the _Homoioi_ (ὅμοιοι) -and _Hypomeiones_ (ὑπομείονες), which, in later times, appears -to have been considerable. The latter term probably comprehended -those citizens who, from degeneracy of manners or other causes, had -undergone some kind of civil degradation. To these the _Homoioi_ -were opposed, although it is not certain in what the precise -difference consisted. All the Spartan citizens were included in the -three tribes, Hylleans, Dymanes or Dymanatae, and Pamphilians, each -of which was divided into ten obes or phratries. The citizens of -Sparta, as of most oligarchical states, were landowners, although -this does not seem to have been looked upon as an essential of -citizenship.--(2) ROMAN. _Civitas_ means the whole body of _cives_, -or members, of any given state, and the word is frequently used -by the Roman writers to express the rights of a Roman citizen, as -distinguished from those of other persons not Roman citizens, as -in the phrases, _dare civitatem_, _donare civitate_, _usurpare -civitatem_. Some members of a political community (_cives_) may have -more political rights than others; and this was the case at Rome -under the republic, in which we find a distinction made between -two great classes of Roman citizens, one that had, and another -that had not, a share in the sovereign power (_optimo jure_, _non -optimo jure cives_). That which peculiarly distinguished the higher -class, or the _optimo jure cives_, was the right to vote in a tribe -(_jus suffragiorum_), and the capacity of enjoying magistracy (_jus -honorum_). The inferior class, or the _non optimo jure cives_, did -not possess the above rights, which the Romans called _jus publicum_, -but they only had the _jus privatum_, which comprehended the _jus -connubii_ and _jus commercii_, and those who had not these had no -citizenship.--Under the empire we find the free persons who were -within the political limits of the Roman state divided into three -great classes. The same division probably existed in an early period -of the Roman state, and certainly existed in the time of Cicero. -These classes were, _Cives_, _Latini_, and _Peregrini_. _Civis_ is he -who possesses the complete rights of a Roman citizen. _Peregrinus_ -was incapable of exercising the rights of _commercium_ and -_connubium_, which were the characteristic rights of a Roman citizen; -but he had a capacity for making all kinds of contracts which were -allowable by the jus gentium. The _Latinus_ was in an intermediate -state; he had not the _connubium_, and consequently he had not the -_patria potestas_ nor rights of agnatio; but he had the _commercium_ -or the right of acquiring quiritarian ownership, and he had also a -capacity for all acts incident to quiritarian ownership, as the power -of making a will in Roman form, and of becoming heres under a will. -The rights of a Roman citizen were acquired in several ways, but most -commonly by a person being born of parents who were Roman citizens. -A slave might obtain the civitas by manumission (_vindicta_), by the -census, and by a testamentum, if there was no legal impediment; but -it depended on circumstances whether he became a _civis Romanus_, -a _Latinus_, or in the number of the _peregrini dediticii_. -[MANUMISSIO.] The civitas could be conferred on a foreigner by a lex, -as in the case of Archias, who was a civis of Heraclea, a civitas -which had a foedus with Rome, and who claimed the civitas Romana -under the provisions of a lex of Silvanus and Carbo, B.C. 89. By the -provisions of this lex, the person who chose to take the benefit of -it was required, within sixty days after the passing of the lex, to -signify to the praetor his wish and consent to accept the civitas -(_profiteri_). This lex was intended to give the civitas, under -certain limitations, to foreigners who were citizens of foederate -states (_foederatis civitatibus adscripti_). [FOEDERATAE CIVITATES.] -Thus the great mass of the Italians obtained the civitas, and the -privileges of the former civitates foederatae were extended to the -provinces, first to part of Gaul, and then to Sicily, under the name -of Jus Latii or Latinitas. This Latinitas gave a man the right of -acquiring the Roman citizenship by having exercised a magistratus -in his own civitas; a privilege which belonged to the foederatae -civitates of Italy before they obtained the Roman civitas. - - -CLĀRĬGĀTĬO. [FETIALES.] - - -CLASSĬCUM. [CORNU.] - - -CLĀVUS ANNĀLIS. In the early ages of Rome, when letters were yet -scarcely in use, the Romans kept a reckoning of their years by -driving a nail (_clavus_), on the ides of each September, into the -side walls of the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, which ceremony -was performed by the consul or a dictator. - - -CLĀVUS GŬBERNĀCŬLI. [NAVIS.] - - -CLĀVUS LĀTUS, CLĀVUS ANGUSTUS. The _clavus_, as an article of dress, -seems to have been a purple band worn upon the tunic and toga, and -was of two fashions, one broad and the other narrow, denominated -respectively _clavus latus_ and _clavus angustus_. The former was a -single broad band of purple, extending perpendicularly from the neck -down the centre of the tunic; the latter probably consisted of two -narrow purple slips, running parallel to each from the top to the -bottom of the tunic, one from each shoulder. The _latus clavus_ was -a distinctive badge of the senatorian order; and hence it is used to -signify the senatorial dignity, and _laticlavius_, the person who -enjoys it. The _angustus clavus_ was the decoration of the equestrian -order; but the right of wearing the latus clavus was also given to -the children of equestrians, at least in the time of Augustus, as a -prelude to entering the senate-house. This, however, was a matter -of personal indulgence, and was granted only to persons of very -ancient family and corresponding wealth, and then by special favour -of the emperor. In such cases the latus clavus was assumed with the -toga virilis, and worn until the age arrived at which the young -equestrian was admissible into the senate, when it was relinquished -and the angustus clavis resumed, if a disinclination on his part, or -any other circumstances, prevented him from entering the senate, as -was the case with Ovid. But it seems that the latus clavus could be -again resumed if the same individual subsequently wished to become -a senator, and hence a fickle character is designated as one who is -always changing his clavus. The latus clavus is said to have been -introduced at Rome by Tullus Hostilius, and to have been adopted by -him after his conquest of the Etruscans; nor does it appear to have -been confined to any particular class during the earlier periods, but -to have been worn by all ranks promiscuously. It was laid aside in -public mourning. - - -CLEPSȲDRA. [HOROLOGIUM.] - - -CLĒRŪCHI (κληροῦχοι), the name of Athenian citizens who occupied -conquered lands; their possession was called _cleruchia_ (κληρουχία). -The Athenian Cleruchi differed from the ἄποικοι or ordinary -colonists. The only object of the earlier colonies was to relieve -surplus population, or to provide a home for those whom internal -quarrels had exiled from their country. Most usually they originated -in private enterprise, and became independent of, and lost their -interest in, the parent state. On the other hand, it was essential -to the very notion of a _cleruchia_ that it should be a public -enterprise, and should always retain a connection more or less -intimate with Athens herself. The connection with the parent state -subsisted in all degrees. Sometimes, as in the case of Lesbos, the -holders of land did not reside upon their estates, but let them to -the original inhabitants, while themselves remained at Athens. The -condition of these cleruchi did not differ from that of Athenian -citizens who had estates in Attica. All their political rights they -not only retained, but exercised as Athenians. Another case was where -the cleruchi resided on their estates, and either with or without -the old inhabitants, formed a new community. These still retained -the rights of Athenian citizens, which distance only precluded them -from exercising: they used the Athenian courts; and if they or their -children wished to return to Athens, naturally and of course they -regained the exercise of their former privileges. Sometimes, however, -the connection might gradually dissolve, and the cleruchi sink into -the condition of mere allies, or separate wholly from the mother -country. It was to Pericles that Athens was chiefly indebted for the -extension and permanence of her colonial settlements. His principal -object was to provide for the redundancies of population, and raise -the poorer citizens to a fortune becoming the dignity of Athenian -citizens. It was of this class of persons that the settlers were -chiefly composed; the state provided them with arms, and defrayed the -expenses of their journey. The Cleruchiae were lost by the battle of -Aegospotami, but partially restored on the revival of Athenian power. - - -CLĒTĒRES or CLĒTORES (κλητῆρες, κλῆτορες), summoners, were at Athens -not official persons, but merely witnesses to the prosecutor that he -had served the defendant with a notice of the action brought against -him, and the day upon which it would be requisite for him to appear -before the proper magistrate. - - -CLĪBĂNĀRĬI. [CATAPHRACTI.] - - -CLĬENS is said to contain the same element as the verb _cluere_, -to “hear” or “obey,” and may be accordingly compared with the -German word _höriger_, “a dependant,” from _hören_, “to hear.” In -the earliest times of the Roman state we find a class of persons -called _clientes_, who must not be confounded with the plebeians, -from whom they were distinct. The clients were not slaves: they had -property of their own and freedom, and appear to have had votes in -the comitia centuriata, but they did not possess the full rights of -Roman citizens; and the peculiarity of their condition consisted in -every client being in a state of dependence upon or subjection to -some patrician, who was called his _patronus_, and to whom he owed -certain rights and duties. The patronus, on the other hand, likewise -incurred certain obligations towards his client. This relationship -between patronus and cliens was expressed by the word _clientela_, -which also expressed the whole body of a man’s clients. The relative -rights and duties of the patrons and the clients were, according -to Dionysius, as follows:--The patron was the legal adviser of -the cliens; he was the client’s guardian and protector, as he was -the guardian and protector of his own children; he maintained the -client’s suit when he was wronged, and defended him when another -complained of being wronged by him: in a word, the patron was the -guardian of the client’s interests, both private and public. The -client contributed to the marriage portion of the patron’s daughter, -if the patron was poor; and to his ransom, or that of his children, -if they were taken prisoners; he paid the costs and damages of a suit -which the patron lost, and of any penalty in which he was condemned; -he bore a part of the patron’s expenses incurred by his discharging -public duties, or filling the honourable places in the state. Neither -party could accuse the other, or bear testimony against the other, -or give his vote against the other. This relationship between patron -and client subsisted for many generations, and resembled in all -respects the relationship by blood. The relation of a master to his -liberated slave (_libertus_) was expressed by the word _patronus_, -and the libertus was the cliens of his patronus. Distinguished -Romans were also the protectors of states and cities, which were in -a certain relation of subjection or dependence to Rome. In the time -of Cicero we also find _patronus_ in the sense of adviser, advocate, -or defender, opposed to _cliens_ in the sense of the person defended -or the consultor,--a use of the word which must be referred to the -original character of the patronus. - - -CLĬENTĒLA. [CLIENS.] - - -CLĬPĔUS (ἀσπίς), the large shield worn by the Greeks and Romans, -which was originally of a circular form, and is said to have been -first used by Proetus and Acrisius of Argos, and therefore is called -_clipeus Argolicus_, and likened to the sun. But the clipeus is -often represented in Roman sculpture of an oblong oval, which makes -the distinction between the common buckler and that of Argos. The -outer rim was termed ἄντυξ by the Greeks; and in the centre was a -projection called ὀμφάλος or _umbo_, which served as a sort of weapon -by itself, or caused the missiles of the enemy to glance off from the -shield. In the Homeric times, the Greeks merely used a leather strap -(τελαμών) to support the shield, but subsequently a handle (ὄχανον or -ὀχάνη). The usual form of the clipeus is exhibited in the figure of -the Greek warrior on p. 41. When the census was instituted by Servius -Tullius at Rome, the first class only used the _clipeus_, and the -second were armed with the _scutum_ [SCUTUM]; but after the Roman -soldiery received pay, the _clipeus_ was discontinued altogether for -the _scutum_. - - -CLĪTELLAE, a pair of panniers, and therefore only used in the plural -number. - - -CLŎĀCA, a sewer, a drain. Rome was intersected by numerous sewers, -some of which were of an immense size: the most celebrated of them -was the _cloaca maxima_, the construction of which is ascribed to -Tarquinius Priscus. It was formed by three tiers of arches, one -within the other, the innermost of which is a semicircular vault -of 14 feet in diameter. The manner of its construction is shown in -the preceding cut. Under the republic, the administration of the -sewers was entrusted to the censors: but under the empire, particular -officers were appointed for that purpose, called _cloacarum -curatores_, who employed condemned criminals in cleansing and -repairing them. - -[Illustration: Cloaca Maxima at Rome.] - - -CŌA VESTIS, the Coan robe, was a transparent dress, chiefly worn by -women of loose reputation. It has been supposed to have been made of -silk, because in Cos silk was spun and woven at a very early period. - -[Illustration: Coa Vestis. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)] - - -CŎACTOR, the name of collectors of various sorts, _e.g._ the servants -of the publicani, or farmers of the public taxes, who collected -the revenues for them, and those who collected the money from the -purchasers of things sold at a public auction. Horace informs us that -his father was a coactor of this kind. Moreover, the servants of the -money-changers were so called, from collecting their debts for them. -The “coactores agminis” were the soldiers who brought up the rear of -a line of march. - - -CŎCHLĔA (κοχλίας), which properly means a snail, was also used to -signify other things of a spiral form. (1) A screw, used in working -clothes-presses, and oil and wine presses.--(2) A spiral pump for -raising water, invented by Archimedes, from whom it has ever since -been called the Archimedean screw.--(3) A peculiar kind of door -through which the wild beasts passed from their dens into the arena -of the amphitheatre. - - -COCHLĔAR. (κοχλιάριον), a kind of spoon, which appears to have -terminated with a point at one end, and at the other was broad and -hollow like our own spoons. The pointed end was used for drawing -snails (_cochleae_) out of their shells, and eating them, whence it -derived its name; and the broader part for eating eggs, &c. Cochlear -was also the name given to a small measure like our spoonful. - - -CŌDEX, identical with _caudex_, as _Claudius_ and _Clodius_, -_claustrum_ and _clostrum_, _cauda_ and _coda_, originally signified -the trunk or stem of a tree. The name codex was especially applied -to wooden tablets bound together and lined with a coat of wax, for -the purpose of writing upon them, and when, at a later age, parchment -or paper, or other materials were substituted for wood, and put -together in the shape of a book, the name of codex was still given -to them. In the time of Cicero we find it also applied to the tablet -on which a bill was written. At a still later period, during the -time of the emperors, the word was used to express any collection -of laws or constitutions of the emperors, whether made by private -individuals or by public authority, as the _Codex Gregorianus_, -_Codex Theodosianus_, and _Codex Justinianeus_. - - -COEMPTĬO. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - -COENA (δεῖπνον), the principal meal of the Greeks and Romans, -dinner. (1) GREEK. Three names of meals occur in the Iliad and -Odyssey--_ariston_ (ἄριστον), _deipnon_ (δεῖπνον), _dorpon_ (δόρπον). -The word _ariston_ uniformly means the early, as _dorpon_ does the -late meal; but _deipnon_, on the other hand, is used for either, -apparently without any reference to time. In the Homeric age it -appears to have been usual to sit during mealtimes. Beef, mutton, -and goat’s flesh were the ordinary meats, usually eaten roasted. -Cheese, flour, and occasionally fruits, also formed part of the -Homeric meals. Bread, brought on in baskets, and salt (ἃλς, to -which Homer gives the epithet θεῖος), are mentioned. The Greeks -of a later age usually partook of three meals, called _acratisma_ -(ἀκράτισμα), _ariston_, and _deipnon_. The last, which corresponds -to the _dorpon_ of the Homeric poems, was the evening meal or -dinner; the _ariston_ was the luncheon; and the _acratisma_, which -answers to the _ariston_ of Homer, was the early meal or breakfast. -The _acratisma_ was taken immediately after rising in the morning. -It usually consisted of bread, dipped in unmixed wine (ἄκρατος), -whence it derived its name. Next followed the _ariston_ or luncheon; -but the time at which it was taken is uncertain. It is frequently -mentioned in Xenophon’s Anabasis, and appears to have been taken at -different times, as would naturally be the case with soldiers in -active service. We may conclude from many circumstances that this -meal was taken about the middle of the day, and that it answered -to the Roman _prandium_. The _ariston_ was usually a simple meal, -but of course varied according to the habits of individuals. The -principal meal was the _deipnon_. It was usually taken rather late -in the day, frequently not before sunset. The Athenians were a social -people, and were very fond of dining in company. Entertainments -were usually given, both in the heroic ages and later times, when -sacrifices were offered to the gods, either on public or private -occasions; and also on the anniversary of the birthdays of members -of the family, or of illustrious persons, whether living or dead. -When young men wished to dine together they frequently contributed -each a certain sum of money, called _symbole_ (συμβολή), or brought -their own provisions with them. When the first plan was adopted, -they were said ἀπὸ συμβολῶν δειπνεῖν, and one individual was usually -entrusted with the money to procure the provisions, and make all the -necessary preparations. This kind of entertainment, in which each -guest contributed to the expense, is mentioned in Homer under the -name of ἔρανος. An entertainment in which each person brought his own -provisions with him, or at least contributed something to the general -stock, was called a δεῖπνον ἀπὸ σπυρίδος, because the provisions -were brought in baskets.--The most usual kind of entertainments, -however, were those in which a person invited his friends to his own -house. It was expected that they should come dressed with more than -ordinary care, and also have bathed shortly before. As soon as the -guests arrived at the house of their host, their shoes or sandals -were taken off by the slaves and their feet washed. After their feet -had been washed, the guests reclined on the couches. It has already -been remarked that Homer never describes persons as reclining, but -always as sitting at their meals; but at what time the change was -introduced is uncertain. The Dorians of Crete always sat; but the -other Greeks reclined. The Greek women and children, however, like -the Roman, continued to sit at their meals. [ACCUBATIO.] It was usual -for only two persons to recline on each couch. After the guests had -placed themselves on the couches, the slaves brought in water to -wash their hands. The dinner was then served up; whence we read of -τὰς τραπέζας εἰσφέρειν, by which expression we are to understand not -merely the dishes, but the tables themselves, which were small enough -to be moved with ease. In eating, the Greeks had no knives or forks, -but made use of their fingers only, except in eating soups or other -liquids, which they partook of by means of a spoon, called μυστίλη, -μύστρον, or μύστρος. It would exceed the limits of this work to give -an account of the different dishes which were introduced at a Greek -dinner, though their number is far below those which were usually -partaken of at a Roman entertainment. The most common food among -the Greeks was the μάζα, a kind of frumenty or soft cake, which was -prepared in different ways. Wheaten or barley bread was the second -most usual species of food; it was sometimes made at home, but more -usually bought at the market of the ἀρτοπῶλαι or ἀρτοπώλιδες. The -vegetables ordinarily eaten were mallows (μαλάχη), lettuces (θρίδαξ), -cabbages (ῥάφανοι), beans (κύαμοι), lentils (φακαῖ), &c. Pork was -the most favourite animal food, as was the case among the Romans. -It is a curious fact, which Plato has remarked, that we never read -in Homer of the heroes partaking of fish. In later times, however, -fish was one of the most favourite foods of the Greeks. A dinner -given by an opulent Athenian usually consisted of two courses, called -respectively πρῶται τράπεζαι and δεύτεραι τράπεζαι. The first course -embraced the whole of what we consider the dinner, namely, fish, -poultry, meat, &c.; the second, which corresponds to our dessert -and the Roman _bellaria_, consisted of different kinds of fruit, -sweetmeats, confections, &c. When the first course was finished, the -tables were taken away, and water was given to the guests for the -purpose of washing their hands. Crowns made of garlands of flowers -were also then given to them, as well as various kinds of perfumes. -Wine was not drunk till the first course was finished; but as soon as -the guests had washed their hands, unmixed wine was introduced in a -large goblet, of which each drank a little, after pouring out a small -quantity as a libation. This libation was said to be made to the -“good spirit” (ἀγαθοῦ δαίμονος), and was usually accompanied with the -singing of the paean and the playing of flutes. After this libation -mixed wine was brought in, and with their first cup the guests -drank to Διὸς Σωτῆρος. With the libations the _deipnon_ closed; and -at the introduction of the dessert (δεύτεραι τράπεζαι) the πότος, -συμπόσιον or κῶμος commenced, of which an account is given under -SYMPOSIUM.--(2) ROMAN. As the Roman meals are not always clearly -distinguished, it will be convenient to treat of all under the most -important one; and we shall confine ourselves to the description of -the ordinary life of the middle ranks of society in the Augustan age, -noticing incidentally the most remarkable deviations. The meal with -which the Roman sometimes began the day was the _jentaculum_, which -was chiefly taken by children, or sick persons, or the luxurious. An -irregular meal (if we may so express it) was not likely to have any -very regular time: two epigrams of Martial, however, seem to fix the -hour at about three or four o’clock in the morning. Bread formed the -substantial part of this early breakfast, to which cheese, or dried -fruit, as dates and raisins, were sometimes added. Next followed the -_prandium_ or luncheon, with persons of simple habits a frugal meal, -usually taken about twelve or one o’clock. The _coena_, or principal -meal of the day, corresponding to our “dinner,” was usually taken -about three o’clock in the time of Cicero and Augustus, though we -read of some persons not dining till near sunset. A Roman dinner -at the house of a wealthy man usually consisted of three courses. -The first was called _promulsis_, _antecoena_, or _gustatio_, and -was made up of all sorts of stimulants to the appetite. Eggs also -were so indispensable to the first course that they almost gave a -name to it (_ab ovo usque ad mala_). The frugality of Martial only -allowed of lettuce and Sicenian olives; indeed he himself tells us -that the _promulsis_ was a refinement of modern luxury. It would far -exceed our limits to mention all the dishes which formed the second -course of a Roman dinner. Of birds, the Guinea hen (_Afra avis_), the -pheasant (_phasiana_, so called from Phasis, a river of Colchis), -and the thrush, were most in repute; the liver of a capon steeped in -milk, and beccaficos (_ficedulae_) dressed with pepper, were held a -delicacy. The peacock, according to Macrobius, was first introduced -by Hortensius the orator, at an inaugural supper, and acquired such -repute among the Roman gourmands as to be commonly sold for fifty -denarii. Other birds are mentioned, as the duck (_anas_), especially -its head and breast; the woodcock (_attagen_), the turtle, and -flamingo (_phoenicopterus_), the tongue of which, Martial tells us, -particularly commended itself to the delicate palate. Of fish, the -variety was perhaps still greater; the charr (_scarus_), the turbot -(_rhombus_), the sturgeon (_acipenser_), the mullet (_mullus_), were -highly prized, and dressed in the most various fashions. Of solid -meat, pork seems to have been the favourite dish, especially sucking -pig. Boar’s flesh and venison were also in high repute: the former is -described by Juvenal as _animal propter convivia natum_. Condiments -were added to most of these dishes: such were the _muria_, a kind of -pickle made from the tunny fish; the _garum sociorum_, made from the -intestines of the mackerel (_scomber_), so called because brought -from abroad; _alec_, a sort of brine; _faex_, the sediment of wine, -&c. Several kinds of _fungi_ are mentioned, truffles (_boleti_), -mushrooms (_tuberes_), which either made dishes by themselves, or -formed the garniture for larger dishes. It must not be supposed that -the _artistes_ of imperial Rome were at all behind ourselves in the -preparation and arrangements of the table. In a large household, the -functionaries to whom this important duty was entrusted were four, -the butler (_promus_), the cook (_archimagirus_), the arranger of the -dishes (_structor_), and the carver (_carptor_ or _scissor_). Carving -was taught as an art, and performed to the sound of music, with -appropriate gesticulations. - - ----“minimo sane discrimine refert, - Quo vultu lepores, et quo gallina secetur.” - -In the supper of Petronius, a large round tray (_ferculum_, -_repositorium_) is brought in, with the signs of the zodiac figured -all round it, upon each of which the _artiste_ (_structor_) had -placed some appropriate viand, a goose on Aquarius, a pair of scales -with tarts (_scriblitae_) and cheesecakes (_placentae_) in each scale -on Libra, &c. In the middle was placed a hive supported by delicate -herbage. Presently four slaves come forward dancing to the sound of -music, and take away the upper part of the dish; beneath appear all -kinds of dressed meats; a hare with wings to imitate Pegasus, in -the middle; and four figures of Marsyas at the corners, pouring hot -sauce (_garum piperatum_) over the fish, that were swimming in the -Euripus below. So entirely had the Romans lost all shame of luxury, -since the days when Cincius, in supporting the Fannian law, charged -his own age with the enormity of introducing the _porcus Trojanus_, a -sort of pudding stuffed with the flesh of other animals.--The third -course was the _bellaria_ or dessert, to which Horace alludes when -he says of Tigellius _ab ovo usque ad mala citaret_; it consisted -of fruits (which the Romans usually ate uncooked), such as almonds -(_amygdalae_), dried grapes (_uvae passae_), dates (_palmulae_, -_caryotae_, _dactyli_); of sweetmeats and confections, called _edulia -mellita_, _dulciaria_, such as cheesecakes (_cupediae_, _crustula_, -_liba_, _placentae_, _artolagani_), almond cakes (_coptae_), -tarts (_scriblitae_), whence the maker of them was called _pistor -dulciarius_, _placentarius_, _libarius_, &c. We will now suppose -the table spread and the guests assembled, each with his _mappa_ or -napkin, and in his dinner dress, called _coenatoria_ or _cubitoria_, -usually of a bright colour, and variegated with flowers. First they -took off their shoes, for fear of soiling the couch, which was often -inlaid with ivory or tortoise-shell, and covered with cloth of gold. -Next they lay down to eat, the head resting on the left elbow and -supported by cushions. There were usually, but not always, three on -the same couch, the middle place being esteemed the most honourable. -Around the tables stood the servants (_ministri_) clothed in a tunic, -and girt with napkins; some removed the dishes and wiped the tables -with a rough cloth, others gave the guests water for their hands, -or cooled the room with fans. Here stood an eastern youth behind -his master’s couch, ready to answer the noise of the fingers, while -others bore a large platter of different kinds of meat to the guests. -Dinner was set out in a room called _coenatio_ or _diaeta_ (which two -words perhaps conveyed to a Roman ear nearly the same distinction -as our dining-room and parlour). The _coenatio_, in rich men’s -houses, was fitted up with great magnificence. Suetonius mentions a -supper-room in the golden palace of Nero, constructed like a theatre, -with shifting scenes to change with every course. In the midst of -the coenatio were set three couches (_triclinia_), answering in -shape to the square, as the long semicircular couches (_sigmata_) did -to the oval tables. An account of the disposition of the couches, -and of the place which each guest occupied, is given in the article -TRICLINIUM. - -[Illustration: A Feast. (Vatican Virgil MS.)] - - -COENĀCŬLUM. [DOMUS.] - - -COENĀTĬO. [COENA.] - - -COGNĀTI, COGNĀTĬO. The _cognatio_ was the relationship of blood -which existed between those who were sprung from a common pair; -and all persons so related were called _cognati_. The foundation -of _cognatio_ is a legal marriage. The term _cognatus_ (with some -exceptions) comprehends _agnatus_; an _agnatus_ may be a _cognatus_, -but a _cognatus_ is only an _agnatus_ when his relationship by blood -is traced through males. Those who were of the same blood by both -parents were sometimes called _germani_; _consanguinei_ were those -who had a common father only; and _uterini_ those who had a common -mother only. - - -COGNĬTOR. [ACTIO.] - - -COGNŌMEN. [NOMEN.] - - -CŎHORS. [EXERCITUS.] - - -CŌLĂCRĔTAE (κωλακρέται, also called κωλαγρέται), the name of very -ancient magistrates at Athens, who had the management of all -financial matters in the time of the kings. Cleisthenes deprived them -of the charge of the finances, which he transferred to the Apodectae. -[APODECTAE.] From this time the Colacretae had only to provide for -the meals in the Prytaneium, and subsequently to pay the fees to the -dicasts, when the practice of paying the dicasts was introduced by -Pericles. - - -COLLĒGĬUM. The persons who formed a collegium were called _collegae_ -or _sodales_. The word collegium properly expressed the notion -of several persons being united in any office or for any common -purpose; it afterwards came to signify a body of persons, and the -union which bound them together. The collegium was the ἑταιρία of -the Greeks. The legal notion of a collegium was as follows:--A -collegium or corpus, as it was also called, must consist of three -persons at least. Persons who legally formed such an association were -said _corpus habere_, which is equivalent to our phrase of being -incorporated; and in later times they were said to be _corporati_, -and the body was called a _corporatio_. Associations of individuals, -who were entitled to have a corpus, could hold property in common. -Such a body, which was sometimes also called a _universitas_, was -a legal unity. That which was due to the body, was not due to the -individuals of it; and that which the body owed, was not the debt -of the individuals. The common property of the body was liable -to be seized and sold for the debts of the body. It does not -appear how collegia were formed, except that some were specially -established by legal authority. Other collegia were probably formed -by voluntary associations of individuals under the provisions of -some general legal authority, such as those of the publicani. Some -of these corporate bodies resembled our companies or guilds; such -were the _fabrorum_, _pistorum_, &c. _collegia_. Others were of a -religious character; such as the _pontificum_, _augurum_, _fratrum -arvalium collegia_. Others were bodies concerned about government and -administration; as _tribunorum plebis_, _quaestorum_, _decurionum -collegia_. According to the definition of a collegium, the consuls -being only two in number were not a collegium, though each was called -collega with respect to the other, and their union in office was -called collegium. When a new member was taken into a collegium, he -was said _co-optari_, and the old members were said with respect to -him, _recipere in collegium_. The mode of filling up vacancies would -vary in different collegia. The statement of their rules belongs to -the several heads of AUGUR, PONTIFEX, &c. - - -CŎLŌNĬA, a colony, contains the same element as the verb _colere_, -“to cultivate,” and as the word colonus, which probably originally -signified a “tiller of the earth.” (1) GREEK. The usual Greek words -for a colony are ἀποικία and κληρουχία. The latter word, which -signified a division of conquered lands among Athenian citizens, -and which corresponds in some respects to the Roman _colonia_, is -explained in the article CLERUCHI. The earlier Greek colonies, called -ἀποικίαι, were usually composed of mere bands of adventurers, who -left their native country, with their families and property, to -seek a new home for themselves. Some of the colonies, which arose -in consequence of foreign invasion or civil wars, were undertaken -without any formal consent from the rest of the community; but -usually a colony was sent out with the approbation of the mother -country, and under the management of a leader (οἰκιστής) appointed -by it. But whatever may have been the origin of the colony, it was -always considered in a political point of view independent of the -mother country, called by the Greeks _metropolis_ (μητρόπολις), the -“mother-city,” and entirely emancipated from its control. At the -same time, though a colony was in no political subjection to its -parent state, it was united to it by the ties of filial affection; -and, according to the generally received opinions of the Greeks, its -duties to the parent state corresponded to those of a daughter to -her mother. Hence, in all matters of common interest, the colony -gave precedence to the mother state; and the founder of the colony -(οἰκιστής), who might be considered as the representative of the -parent state, was usually worshipped, after his death, as a hero. -Also, when the colony became in its turn a parent, it usually sought -a leader for the colony which it intended to found from the original -mother country; and the same feeling of respect was manifested by -embassies which were sent to honour the principal festivals of the -parent state, and also by bestowing places of honour and other marks -of respect upon the ambassadors and other members of the parent -state, when they visited the colony at festivals and on similar -occasions. The colonists also worshipped in their new settlement -the same deities as they had been accustomed to honour in their -native country: the sacred fire, which was constantly kept burning -on their public hearth, was taken from the Prytaneium of the parent -city; and sometimes the priests also were brought from the mother -state. In the same spirit, it was considered a violation of sacred -ties for a mother country and a colony to make war upon one another. -The preceding account of the relations between the Greek colonies -and the mother country is supported by the history which Thucydides -gives us of the quarrel between Corcyra and Corinth. Corcyra was -a colony of Corinth, and Epidamnus a colony of Corcyra; but the -leader (οἰκιστής) of the colony of Epidamnus was a Corinthian who -was invited from the metropolis Corinth. In course of time, in -consequence of civil dissensions, and attacks from the neighbouring -barbarians, the Epidamnians apply for aid to Corcyra, but their -request is rejected. They next apply to the Corinthians, who took -Epidamnus under their protection, thinking, says Thucydides, that the -colony was no less theirs than the Corinthians’: and also induced to -do so through hatred of the Corcyraeans, because they neglected them -though they were colonists; for they did not give to the Corinthians -the customary honours and deference in the public solemnities and -sacrifices, which the other colonies were wont to pay to the mother -country. The Corcyraeans, who had become very powerful by sea, -took offence at the Corinthians receiving Epidamnus under their -protection, and the result was a war between Corcyra and Corinth. -The Corcyraeans sent ambassadors to Athens to ask assistance; and in -reply to the objection that they were a colony of Corinth, they said, -“that every colony, as long as it is treated kindly, respects the -mother country: but when it is injured, is alienated from it; for -colonists are not sent out as subjects, but that they may have equal -rights with those that remain at home.” It is true that ambitious -states, such as Athens, sometimes claimed dominion over other states -on the ground of relationship; but as a general rule, colonies may be -regarded as independent states, attached to their metropolis by ties -of sympathy and common descent, but no further. The case of Potidaea, -to which the Corinthians sent annually the chief magistrates -(δημιουργοί), appears to have been an exception to the general -rule.--(2) ROMAN. A kind of colonisation seems to have existed among -the oldest Italian nations, who, on certain occasions, sent out their -superfluous male population, with arms in their hands, to seek for a -new home. But these were apparently mere bands of adventurers, and -such colonies rather resembled the old Greek colonies, than those -by which Rome extended her dominion and her name. Colonies were -established by the Romans as far back as the annals or traditions -of the city extend, and the practice was continued, without -intermission, during the republic and under the empire. Colonies -were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to -repress hostile incursions; and their chief object was originally -the extension and preservation of the Roman dominion in Italy. -Cicero calls the old Italian colonies the _propugnacula imperii_. -Another object was to increase the power of Rome by increasing the -population. Sometimes the immediate object of a colony was to carry -off a number of turbulent and discontented persons. Colonies were -also established for the purpose of providing for veteran soldiers, a -practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the emperors; -these coloniae were called militares. The old Roman colonies were in -the nature of garrisons planted in conquered towns, and the colonists -had a portion of the conquered territory (usually a third part) -assigned to them. The inhabitants retained the rest of their lands, -and lived together with the new settlers, who alone composed the -proper colony. The conquered people must at first have been quite -a distinct class from, and inferior to, the colonists. No colonia -was established without a lex, plebiscitum, or senatusconsultum; -a fact which shows that a Roman colony was never a mere body of -adventurers, but had a regular organisation by the parent state. -When a law was passed for founding a colony, persons were appointed -to superintend its formation (_coloniam deducere_). These persons -varied in number, but three was a common number (_triumviri ad -colonos deducendos_). We also read of _duumviri_, _quinqueviri_, -_vigintiviri_ for the same purpose. The law fixed the quantity of -land that was to be distributed, and how much was to be assigned to -each person. No Roman could be sent out as a colonist without his -free consent, and when the colony was not an inviting one, it was -difficult to fill up the number of volunteers. The colonia proceeded -to its place of destination in the form of an army (_sub vexillo_), -which is indicated on the coins of some coloniae. An urbs, if one -did not already exist, was a necessary part of a new colony, and -its limits were marked out by a plough, which is also indicated on -ancient coins. The colonia had also a territory, which, whether -marked out by the plough or not, was at least marked out by metes -and bounds. Thus the urbs and territory of the colonia respectively -corresponded to the urbs Roma and its territory. Religious ceremonies -always accompanied the foundation of the colony, and the anniversary -was afterwards observed. It is stated that a colony could not be -sent out to the same place to which a colony had already been -sent in due form (_auspicato deducta_). This merely means, that -so long as the colony maintained its existence, there could be no -new colony in the same place; a doctrine that would hardly need -proof, for a new colony implied a new assignment of lands; but new -settlers (_novi adscripti_) might be sent to occupy colonial lands -not already assigned. Indeed it was not unusual for a colony to -receive additions, and a colony might be re-established, if it seemed -necessary, from any cause. The commissioners appointed to conduct the -colony had apparently a profitable office, and the establishment of a -new settlement gave employment to numerous functionaries, among whom -Cicero enumerates--_apparitores_, _scribae_, _librarii_, _praecones_, -_architecti_. The foundation of a colony might then, in many cases, -not only be a mere party measure, carried for the purpose of gaining -popularity, but it would give those in power an opportunity of -providing places for many of their friends.--The colonies founded by -the Romans were divided into two great classes of colonies of Roman -citizens and Latin colonies; names which had no reference to the -persons who formed the colonies, but merely indicated their political -rights with respect to Rome as members of the colony. The members of -a Roman colony (_colonia civium Romanorum_) preserved all the rights -of Roman citizens. The members of a Latin colony (_colonia Latina_) -ceased to have the full rights of Roman citizens. Probably some of -the old Latin colonies were established by the Romans in conjunction -with other Latin states. After the conquest of Latium, the Romans -established colonies, called Latin colonies, in various parts of -Italy. Roman citizens, who chose to join such colonies, gave up their -civic rights for the more solid advantage of a grant of land, and -became LATINI. [CIVITAS.] Such colonies were subject to, and part of, -the Roman state; but they did not possess the Roman franchise, and -had no political bond among themselves.--The lex Julia, passed B.C. -90, gave the Roman franchise to the members of the Latin colonies and -the Socii; and such Latin colonies and states of the Socii were then -called _municipia_, and became complete members of the Roman state. -Thus there was then really no difference between these municipia and -the Roman coloniae, except in their historical origin: the members of -both were Roman citizens, and the Roman law prevailed in both.--In -the colonies, as at Rome, the popular assembly had originally the -sovereign power; they chose the magistrates, and could even make -laws. When the popular assemblies became a mere form in Rome, and the -elections were transferred by Tiberius to the senate, the same thing -happened in the colonies, whose senates then possessed whatever power -had once belonged to the community. The common name of this senate -was _ordo decurionum_; in later times, simply _ordo_ and _curia_; the -members of it were _decuriones_ or _curiales_. Thus, in the later -ages, _curia_ is opposed to _senatus_, the former being the senate of -a colony, and the latter the senate of Rome. But the terms senatus -and senator were also applied to the senate and members of the -senate of a colony. After the decline of the popular assemblies, the -senate had the whole internal administration of a city, conjointly -with the magistratus; but only a decurio could be a magistratus, and -the choice was made by the decuriones. The highest magistratus of -a colonia were the _duumviri_ or _quattuorviri_, so called, as the -members might vary, whose functions may be compared with those of the -consulate at Rome before the establishment of the praetorship. The -name _duumviri_ seems to have been the most common. Their principal -duties were the administration of justice, and accordingly we find -on inscriptions “Duumviri J. D.” (_juri dicundo_), “Quattuorviri -J. D.” The name consul also occurs in inscriptions to denote this -chief magistracy; and even dictator and praetor occur under the -empire and under the republic. The office of the duumviri lasted a -year.--In some Italian towns there was a _praefectus juri dicundo_; -he was in the place of, and not co-existent with, the duumviri. The -duumviri were, as we have seen, originally chosen by the people; -but the praefectus was appointed annually in Rome, and sent to the -town called a _praefectura_, which might be either a municipium or a -colonia, for it was only in the matter of the praefectus that a town -called a praefectura differed from other Italian towns. Arpinum is -called both a municipium and a praefectura; and Cicero, a native of -this place, obtained the highest honours that Rome could confer.--The -_censor_, _curator_, or _quinquennalis_, all which names denote the -same functionary, was also a municipal magistrate, and corresponded -to the censor at Rome, and in some cases, perhaps, to the quaestor -also. Censors are mentioned in Livy as magistrates of the twelve -Latin colonies. The quinquennales were sometimes duumviri, sometimes -quattuorviri; but they are always carefully distinguished from the -duumviri and quattuorviri J. D.; and their functions were those of -censors. They held their office for one year, and during the four -intermediate years the functions were not exercised. The office of -censor or quinquennalis was higher in rank than that of the duumviri -J. D., and it could only be filled by those who had discharged the -other offices of the municipality. - - -CŎLOSSUS (κολοσσός) is used both by the Greeks and Romans to signify -a statue larger than life; but as such statues were very common, the -word was more frequently applied to designate figures of gigantic -dimensions. Such figures were first executed in Egypt, and were -afterwards made by the Greeks and Romans. Among the colossal statues -of Greece, the most celebrated was the bronze _colossus_ at Rhodes, -dedicated to the sun, the height of which was about 90 feet. - - -[Illustration: Colum. (Museo Borbonico, vol. viii. pl. 14.)] - -CŌLUM (ἠθμός), a strainer or colander, was used for straining -wine, milk, olive-oil, and other liquids. Those that were used as -articles of luxury for straining wine were frequently made of some -metal, such as bronze or silver. Occasionally a piece of linen cloth -(σάκκος, _saccus_) was placed over the τρύγοιπος or _colum_, and the -wine (σακκίας, _saccatus_) filtered through. The use of the _saccus_ -was considered objectionable for all delicate wines, since it was -believed to injure, if not entirely to destroy their flavour, and -in every instance to diminish the strength of the liquor. For this -reason it was employed by the dissipated in order that they might be -able to swallow a greater quantity without becoming intoxicated. The -double purpose of cooling and weakening was effectually accomplished -by placing ice or snow in the filter, which under such circumstances -became a _colum nivarium_, or _saccus nivarius_. The preceding -woodcut shows the plan and profile of a silver colum. - - -CŎLUMBĀRĬUM, a dovecot or pigeon-house, also signified a sepulchral -chamber formed to receive the ashes of the lower orders, or -dependants of great families; and in the plural, the niches in which -the cinerary urns (_ollae_) were deposited. - - -[Illustration: Ancient Columns.] - -CŎLUMNA (κίων, στύλος), a pillar or column. The use of the trunks -of trees placed upright for supporting buildings, unquestionably -led to the adoption of similar supports wrought in stone. As the -tree required to be based upon a flat square stone, and to have -a stone or tile of similar form fixed on its summit to preserve -it from decay, so the column was made with a square base, and was -covered with an _abacus_. [ABACUS.] Hence the principal parts of -which every column consists are three, the base (_basis_), the shaft -(_scapus_), and the capital (_capitulum_). In the Doric, which -is the oldest style of Greek architecture, we must consider all -the columns in the same row as having one common base (_podium_), -whereas in the Ionic and Corinthian each column has a separate base, -called _spira_. The capitals of these two latter orders show, on -comparison with the Doric, a much richer style of ornament; and -the character of lightness and elegance is further obtained in -them by their more slender shaft, its height being much greater in -proportion to its thickness. Of all these circumstances some idea -may be formed by the inspection of the three accompanying specimens -of pillars. The first on the left hand is Doric, the second Ionic, -and the third Corinthian. In all the orders the shaft tapers from -the bottom towards the top. The shaft was, however, made with a -slight swelling in the middle, which was called the _entasis_. It -was, moreover, almost universally channelled or fluted. Columns -were used in the interior of buildings, to sustain the beams which -supported the ceiling. Rows of columns were often employed within -a building, to enclose a space open to the sky. Beams supporting -ceilings passed from above the columns to the adjoining walls, so -as to form covered passages or ambulatories (στοαί). Such a circuit -of columns was called a _peristyle_ (περίστυλον), and the Roman -_atrium_ was built upon this plan. The largest and most splendid -temples enclosed an open space like an atrium, which was accomplished -by placing one peristyle upon another. In such cases, the lower -rows of columns being Doric, the upper were sometimes Ionic or -Corinthian, the lighter being properly based upon the heavier. A -temple so constructed was called _hypaethral_ (ὕπαιθρος). But it was -on the exterior of public buildings, and especially of temples, that -columns were displayed in the most beautiful combinations, either -surrounding the building entirely, or arranged in porticoes on one -or more of its fronts. [TEMPLUM.] Their original and proper use was, -of course, to support the roof of the building; and, amidst all the -elaborations of architectural design, this object was still kept in -view. On the summit of the row of columns rests the _architrave_, -i.e. _chief beam_ (ἐπιστύλιον, _epistylium_): above this is the -_frieze_ (ζωοφόρος, ζωφόρος, _zophorus_), in which the most ancient -order, namely the Doric, shows, in its triglyphs, what were -originally the ends of the cross-beams: in the other orders these -ends are generally concealed, and the frieze forms a flat surface, -which is frequently ornamented by figures in relief, whence its Greek -name. Above the frieze projects the cornice (κορωνίς, _coronis_ or -_corona_), forming a handsome finish to the entablature (for so these -three members taken together are called), and also, on the sides of -the building, serving to unite the ends of the rafters of the roof. -The triangular gable-end of the roof, above the entablature, is -called the _pediment_. [FASTIGIUM.]--Columns in long rows were used -in aquaeducts, and single pillars were fixed in harbours for mooring -ships.--Single columns were also erected to commemorate persons or -events. Among these, some of the most remarkable were the _columnae -rostratae_, called by that name because three ship-beaks proceeded -from each side of them, designed to record successful engagements at -sea. The most important and celebrated of those which yet remain, -is one erected in honour of the consul C. Duillius, on occasion of -his victory over the Carthaginian fleet, B.C. 261. Columns were also -employed to commemorate the dead. The column on the right hand in the -last woodcut exhibits that which the senate erected to the honour of -the Emperor Trajan. Similar columns were erected to the memory of -many of the Roman emperors. - -[Illustration: Columna Rostrata. Columna Trajana.] - - -CŎLUMNĀRĬUM, a tax imposed in the time of Julius Caesar upon the -pillars that supported a house. The _Ostiarium_ was a similar tax. -[OSTIARIUM.] The _columnarium_, levied by Metellus Scipio in Syria in -B.C. 49-48, was a tax of a similar kind, but was simply an illegal -means of extorting money from the provincials. - - -CŎLUS, a distaff. [FUSUS.] - - -[Illustration: Greek Head-dresses. (From Ancient Vases.) - -The left-hand figure on the top wears a κεκρύφαλος proper -(_reticulum_). Of the two bottom figures, the one on the left-hand -wears a μίτρα, and the one on the right a σάκκος.] - -CŎMA (κόμη, κουρά), the hair. (1) GREEK. In the earliest times the -Greeks wore their hair long, and thus they are constantly called in -Homer καρηκομόωντες Ἀχαιοί. The Spartan boys always had their hair -cut quite short (ἐν χρῷ κείροντες); but as soon as they reached -the age of puberty (ἔφηβοι), they let it grow long. Before going -to battle they combed and dressed it with especial care. It seems -that both Spartan men and women tied their hair in a knot over the -crown of the head. The custom of the Athenians was different. They -wore their hair long in childhood, and cut it off when they reached -the age of puberty. The cutting off of the hair, which was always -done when a boy became an ἔφηβος, was a solemn act, attended with -religious ceremonies. A libation was first offered to Hercules, -which was called οἰνιστήρια or οἰνιαστήρια, and the hair after being -cut off was dedicated to some deity, usually a river-god. But when -the Athenians passed into the age of manhood, they again let their -hair grow. In ancient times at Athens the hair was rolled up into -a kind of knot on the crown of the head, and fastened with golden -clasps in the shape of grasshoppers. This fashion of wearing the -hair was called κρωβύλος, and in the case of females κόρυμβος. The -heads of females were frequently covered with a kind of band or a -coif of net-work. Of these coiffures one was called σφενδόνη, which -was a broad band across the forehead, sometimes made of metal, and -sometimes of leather, adorned with gold. But the most common kind of -head-dress for females was called by the general name of κεκρύφαλος, -and this was divided into the three species of κεκρύφαλος, σάκκος, -and μίτρα. The κεκρύφαλος, in its narrower sense, was a caul or coif -of net-work, corresponding to the Latin _reticulum_. These hair-nets -were frequently made of gold threads, sometimes of silk, or the -Elean byssus, and probably of other materials. The σάκκος and the -μίτρα were, on the contrary, made of close materials. The σάκκος -covered the head entirely like a sack or bag; it was made of various -materials, such as silk, byssus, and wool. The μίτρα was a broad band -of cloth of different colours, which was wound round the hair, and -was worn in various ways. It was originally an Eastern head-dress, -and may, therefore, be compared to the modern turban. The Roman -_calautica_ or _calvatica_ is said by Servius to have been the same -as the _mitra_, but in a passage in the Digest they are mentioned as -if they were distinct.--With respect to the colour of the hair, black -was the most frequent, but _blonde_ (ξανθὴ κόμη) was the most prized. -In Homer, Achilles, Ulysses, and other heroes are represented with -blonde hair. At a later time it seems to have been not unfrequent -to dye hair, so as to make it either black or blonde, and this -was done by men as well as by women, especially when the hair was -growing gray.--(2) ROMAN. Besides the generic _coma_ we also find -the following words signifying the hair: _capillus_, _caesaries_, -_crines_, _cincinnus_, and _cirrus_, the two last words being used to -signify curled hair. In early times the Romans wore their hair long, -and hence the Romans of the Augustan age designated their ancestors -_intonsi_ and _capillati_. But after the introduction of barbers into -Italy about B.C. 300, it became the practice to wear the hair short. -The women, too, originally dressed their hair with great simplicity, -but in the Augustan period a variety of different head-dresses came -into fashion. Sometimes these head-dresses were raised to a great -height by rows of false curls. So much attention did the Roman ladies -devote to the dressing of the hair, that they kept slaves especially -for this purpose, called _ornatrices_, and had them instructed by a -master in the art. Most of the Greek head-dresses mentioned above -were also worn by the Roman ladies; but the _mitrae_ appear to -have been confined to prostitutes. One of the simplest modes of -wearing the hair was allowing it to fall down in tresses behind, and -only confining it by a band encircling the head. [VITTA.] Another -favourite plan was platting the hair, and then fastening it behind -with a large pin. Blonde hair was as much prized by the Romans as by -the Greeks, and hence the Roman ladies used a kind of composition or -wash to make it appear this colour (_spuma caustica_). False hair or -wigs (φενάκη, πηνίκη, _galerus_) were worn both by Greeks and Romans. -Among both people likewise in ancient times the hair was cut close in -mourning [FUNUS]; and among both the slaves had their hair cut close -as a mark of servitude. - - -CŌMISSĀTĬO (derived from κῶμος), the name of a drinking -entertainment, which took place after the coena, from which, however, -it must be distinguished. The comissatio was frequently prolonged to -a late hour at night, whence the verb _comissari_ means “to revel,” -and the substantive _comissator_ a “reveller,” or “debauchee.” - - -CŎMĬTĬA. This word is formed from _co_, _cum_, or _con_, and _ire_, -and therefore _comitium_ is a place of meeting, and _comitia_ the -meeting itself, or the assembled people. In the Roman constitution -the comitia were the ordinary and legal meetings or assemblies of the -people, and distinct from the _contiones_ and _concilia_. All the -powers of government were divided at Rome between the senate, the -magistrates, and the people in their assemblies. Properly speaking, -the people alone (the _populus_) was the real sovereign by whom the -power was delegated to the magistrates and the senate. The sovereign -people or populus, however, was not the same at all times. In the -earliest times of Rome the populus consisted of the patricians (or -patres) only, the plebs and the clients forming no part of the -populus, but being without the pale of the state. The original -populus was divided into thirty _curiae_, and the assembly of these -curiae (the _comitia curiata_) was the only assembly in which the -populus was represented. A kind of amalgamation of the patricians -and the plebs afterwards appeared in the comitia of the centuries, -instituted by king Servius Tullius, and henceforth the term populus -was applied to the united patricians and plebeians assembled in the -_comitia centuriata_. But Servius had also made a local division -of the whole Roman territory into thirty tribes, which held their -meetings in assemblies called _comitia tributa_, which, in the course -of time, acquired the character of national assemblies, so that the -people thus assembled were likewise designated by the term populus. - -We shall examine in order the nature, power, and business of each of -these different comitia. (1) COMITIA CURIATA consisted of the members -of the thirty curiae, that is, the patricians, who formed exclusively -the populus in the early times. They were convened, in the kingly -period, by the king himself, or by his tribunus celerum, and in the -king’s absence by the praefectus urbi. After the death of a king the -comitia were held by the interrex. In the republican period, the -president was always one of the high patrician magistrates, viz. a -consul, praetor, or dictator. They were called together by lictors -or heralds. The votes were given by curiae, each curia having one -collective vote; but within a curia each citizen belonging to it -had an independent vote, and the majority of the members of a curia -determined the vote of the whole curia. The meeting was always held -in the comitium. The comitia curiata did not possess much power in -the kingly period. They could only be called together when the king -(or his representative) chose, and could only determine upon matters -which the king submitted to them. The main points upon which the -populus had to decide were the election of the king, the passing of -laws, declarations of war, the capital punishment of Roman citizens, -and, lastly, certain affairs of the curiae and gentes. The priestly -officers, such as the Curiones, Flamines Curiales, were likewise -either elected by the curiae, or at least inaugurated by them. The -right of finally deciding upon the life of Roman citizens (_judicia -de capite civis Romani_) is said to have been given to the populus -by king Tullus Hostilius. It must further be remarked, that when the -king had been elected, the populus held a second meeting, in which he -was formally inducted into his new office. This formality was called -_lex curiata de imperio_, whereby the king received his _imperium_, -together with the right of holding the comitia. Down to the time of -Servius Tullius, the comitia curiata were the only popular assemblies -of Rome, and remained of course in the undiminished possession of the -rights above described; but the constitution of that king brought -about a great change, by transferring the principal rights which -had hitherto been enjoyed by the curiae to a new national assembly -or the comitia centuriata. But while the patricians were obliged to -share their rights with the plebeians, they reserved for themselves -the very important right of sanctioning or rejecting any measure -which had been passed by the centuries. The sanction of decrees -passed by the centuries is often expressed by _patres auctores -fiunt_, and down to the time of the Publilian law no decree of the -centuries could become law without this sanction. By the Publilian -law (B.C. 339) it was enacted that the curiae should give their -assent before the vote of the comitia centuriata; so that the veto -of the curiae was thus virtually abolished. The comitia curiata thus -became a mere formality, and, instead of the thirty curiae themselves -giving their votes, the ceremony was performed by thirty lictors. -The comitia of the curiae were also called COMITIA CALATA or “the -summoned comitia” (from _calare_, i.e. _vocare_), when summoned for -the purposes mentioned below:--1. On the calends it was proclaimed -to the comitia calata on what day of the new month the nones fell, -and perhaps also the ides as well as the nature of the other days, -namely, whether they were fasti or nefasti, comitiales, feriae, -&c., because all these things were known in the early times to the -pontiffs exclusively. 2. The inauguration of the flamines, and after -the banishment of the kings, also that of the rex sacrorum. 3. The -_testamenti factio_, or the making of a will. 4. The _detestatio -sacrorum_, which was in all probability an act connected with the -testamenti factio, that is, a solemn declaration, by which the heir -was enjoined to undertake the sacra privata of the testator along -with the reception of his property. The comitia calata were summoned -by the college of pontiffs, who also presided in them. - -(2) COMITIA CENTURIATA. The object of the legislation of Servius -Tullius was to unite the different elements of which the Roman -people consisted, into one great political body, in which power and -influence were to be determined by property and age. The whole people -was conceived as an army (_exercitus_), and was therefore divided -into two parts, the cavalry (_equites_), and infantry (_pedites_). -The infantry was divided into five classes, or, as Dionysius has -it, into six classes, for he regards the whole body of people, -whose property did not come up to the census of the fifth class, -as a sixth. The class to which a citizen belonged determined the -_tributum_, or war tax, he had to pay, as well as the kind of service -he had to perform in the army and the armour in which he had to -serve. But for the purpose of voting in the comitia, each class was -subdivided into a number of centuries (_centuriae_, probably because -each was conceived to contain 100 men, though the centuries may have -greatly differed in the number of men they contained). Hence the name -of _Comitia Centuriata_. Each century was divided into the _seniores_ -and the _juniores_. Each century, further, was counted as one vote, -so that a class had as many votes as it contained centuries. In -like manner, the equites were divided into a number of centuries or -votes. The two principal authorities on these subdivisions are Livy -and Dionysius. The annexed table will show the census as well as the -number of centuries or votes assigned to each class. - - _According to Livy._ _According to Dionysius._ - I. Classis. Census: 100,000 asses. I. Classis. Census: 100 minae. - 40 centuriae seniorum. 40 centuriae seniorum. - 40 centuriae juniorum. 40 centuriae juniorum. - 2 centuriae fabrum. - II. Classis. Census: 75,000 asses. II. Classis. Census: 75 minae. - 10 centuriae seniorum. 10 centuriae seniorum. - 10 centuriae juniorum. 10 centuriae juniorum. - 2 centuriae fabrum (one - voting with the seniores - and the other with the - juniores). - III. Classis. Census: 50,000 asses. III. Classis. Census: 50 minae. - 10 centuriae seniorum. 10 centuriae seniorum. - 10 centuriae juniorum. 10 centuriae juniorum. - IV. Classis. Census: 25,000 asses. IV. Classis. Census: 25 minae. - 10 centuriae seniorum. 10 centuriae seniorum. - 10 centuriae juniorum. 10 centuriae juniorum. - 2 centuriae cornicinum and - tubicinum (one voting with - the seniores, and the - other with the juniores). - V. Classis. Census: 11,000 asses. V. Classis. Census: 12½ minae. - 15 centuriae seniorum. 15 centuriae seniorum. - 15 centuriae juniorum. 15 centuriae juniorum. - 3 centuriae accensorum, VI. Classis. Census: below 12½ - cornicinum, tubicinum. minae. - 1 centuria capite censorum. 1 centuria capite censorum. - -According to both Dionysius and Livy, the equites voted in eighteen -centuries before the seniores of the first class; and hence there -were, according to Livy, 194, and, according to Dionysius, 193 -centuries or votes. The latter number is the more probable, since -Livy’s even number of 194 centuries would have rendered it impossible -to obtain an absolute majority. In this manner all Roman citizens, -whether patricians or plebeians, who had property to a certain -amount, were privileged to take part and vote in the centuriata -comitia, and none were excluded except slaves, peregrini, women and -the aerarii. The juniores were all men from the age of seventeen to -that of forty-six, and the seniores all men from the age of forty-six -upwards. The order of voting was arranged in such a manner, that if -the eighteen centuries of the equites and the eighty centuries of -the first class were agreed upon a measure, the question was decided -at once, there being no need for calling upon the other classes to -vote. Hence, although all Roman citizens appeared in these comitia -on a footing of equality, yet by far the greater power was thrown -into the hands of the wealthy.--As regards the functions of the -comitia centuriata, they were--(a.) _The election of magistrates._ -The magistrates that were elected by the centuries are the consuls -(whence the assembly is called _comitia consularia_), the praetors -(hence _comitia praetoria_), the military tribunes with consular -power, the censors, and the decemvirs. (b.) _Legislation._ The -legislative power of the centuries at first consisted in their -passing or rejecting a measure which was brought before them by the -presiding magistrate in the form of a senatus consultum, so that -the assembly had no right of originating any legislative measure, -but voted only upon such as were brought before them as resolutions -of the senate. (c.) _The decision upon war_, on the ground of a -senatus consultum, likewise belonged to the centuries. Peace was -concluded by a mere senatus consultum, and without any co-operation -of the people. (d.) _The highest judicial power._ The comitia -centuriata were in the first place the highest court of appeal, and -in the second, they had to try all offences committed against the -state; hence, all cases of _perduellio_ and _majestas_: and no case -involving the life of a Roman citizen could be decided by any other -court. The sanction of the curiae to the measures of the centuriae -has been already explained.--The comitia centuriata could be held -only on _dies comitiales_ or _fasti_, on which it was lawful to -transact business with the people, and the number of such days in -every year was about 190; but on _dies nefasti_ (that is, _dies -festi_, _feriati_, comp. DIES), and, at first also on the nundinae, -no comitia could be held, until in B.C. 287 the Hortensian law -ordained that the nundinae should be regarded as dies fasti.--The -place where the centuries met was the Campus Martius, which contained -the septa for the voters, a tabernaculum for the president, and the -villa publica for the augurs.--The president at the comitia was the -same magistrate who convoked them, and this right was a privilege of -the consuls, and, in their absence, of the praetors. An interrex and -dictator also, or his representative, the magister equitum, might -likewise convene and preside at the comitia. One of the main duties -devolving upon the president, and which he had to perform before -holding the comitia, was to consult the auspices (_auspicari_). When -the auspices were favourable, the people were called together, which -was done by three successive and distinct acts: the first was quite -a general invitation to come to the assembly (_inlicium_). At the -same time when this invitation was proclaimed _circum moeros_ or -_de moeris_, a horn was blown, which being the more audible signal, -is mentioned by some writers alone, and without the inlicium. When -upon this signal the people assembled in irregular masses, there -followed the second call by the accensus, or the call _ad contionem_ -or _conventionem_; that is, to a regular assembly, and the crowd -then separated, grouping themselves according to their classes and -ages. Hereupon the consul appeared, ordering the people to come _ad -comitia centuriata_; and led the whole _exercitus_--for, in these -comitia, the Roman people are always conceived as an exercitus--out -of the city, to the Campus Martius.--It was customary from the -earliest times for an armed force to occupy the Janiculum, when the -people were assembled in the Campus Martius, for the purpose of -protecting the city against any sudden attack of the neighbouring -people; and on the Janiculum a vexillum was hoisted during the whole -time that the assembly lasted. This custom continued to be observed -even at the time when Rome had no longer anything to fear from the -neighbouring tribes.--When the people were thus regularly assembled, -the business was commenced with a solemn sacrifice, and a prayer of -the president, who then took his seat on his tribunal. The president -then opened the business by explaining to the people the subject -for which they had been convened, and concluded his exposition with -the words, _velitis, jubeatis Quirites_, e.g. _bellum indici_, or -_ut M. Tullio aqua igni interdictum sit_, or whatever the subject -might be. This formula was the standing one in all comitia, and the -whole exposition of the president was called _rogatio_. When the -comitia were assembled for the purpose of an election, the presiding -magistrate had to read out the names of the candidates, and might -exercise his influence by recommending the one whom he thought most -fit for the office in question. If the assembly had been convened -for the purpose of passing a legislative measure, the president -usually recommended the proposal, or he might grant to others, if -they desired it, permission to speak about the measure, either in -its favour or against it (_Contionem dare_). When the comitia acted -as a court of justice, the president stated the crime, proposed the -punishment to be inflicted upon the offender, and then allowed others -to speak either in defence of the accused or against him. When the -subject brought before the assembly was sufficiently discussed, the -president called upon the people to prepare for voting by the words, -_ite in suffragium, bene juvantibus diis_. He then passed the stream -Petronia, and went to the _septa_.--Respecting the mode of voting, -it is commonly supposed that the people were always polled by word -of mouth, till the passing of the leges tabellariae about the middle -of the second century before Christ, when the ballot by means of -tabellae was introduced. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.] It appears, however, -that the popular assemblies voted by ballot, as well as by word of -mouth, long before the passing of the leges tabellariae, but that -instead of using tabellae, they employed stones or pebbles (the Greek -ψῆφοι), and that each voter received two stones, one white and the -other black, the former to be used in the approval and the latter in -the condemnation of a measure. The voting by word of mouth seems to -have been adopted in elections and trials, and the use of pebbles to -have been confined to the enactment and repeal of laws. Previous to -the leges tabellariae, the rogatores, who subsequently collected the -written votes, stood at the entrance of the septa, and asked every -citizen for his vote, which was taken down, and used to determine -the vote of each century. After the introduction of the ballot, if -the business was the passing of a law, each citizen was provided -with two tabellae, one inscribed V. R. _i.e._ _Uti Rogas_, “I vote -for the law,” the other inscribed A. _i.e._ _Antiquo_, “I am for the -old law.” If the business was the election of a magistrate, each -citizen was supplied with only one tablet, on which the names of the -candidates were written, or the initials of their names; the voter -then placed a mark (_punctum_) against the one for whom he voted, -whence _puncta_ are spoken of in the sense of votes. For further -particulars respecting the voting in the comitia, see DIRIBITORES -and SITULA. In judicial assemblies every citizen was provided with -three tabellae, one of which was marked with A. _i.e._ _Absolvo_, -“I acquit;” the second with C. _i.e._ _Condemno_, “I condemn;” and -the third with N. L. _i.e._ _Non Liquet_, “It is not clear to me.” -The first of these was called _Tabella absolutoria_ and the second -_Tabella damnatoria_, and hence Cicero calls the former _litera -salutaris_, and the latter _litera tristis_.--There were in the -Campus Martius septa or inclosures (whether they existed from the -earliest times is unknown), into which one class of citizens was -admitted after another for the purpose of voting. The first that -entered were the eighteen centuries of the equites, then followed -the first class and so on. It very rarely happened that the lowest -class was called upon to vote, as there was no necessity for it, -unless the first class did not agree with the equites. After the time -when the comitia of the centuries became amalgamated with those of -the tribes, a large space near the villa publica was surrounded with -an enclosure, and divided into compartments for the several tribes. -The whole of this enclosure was called _ovile, septa, carceres_, or -_cancelli_; and in later times a stone building, containing the whole -people, was erected; it was divided into compartments for the classes -as well as the tribes and centuries; the access to these compartments -was formed by narrow passages called _pontes_ or _ponticuli_. On -entering, the citizens received their tablets, and when they had -consulted within the enclosures, they passed out of them again by a -_pons_ or _ponticulus_, at which they threw their vote into a chest -(_cista_) which was watched by _rogatores_. Hereupon the _rogatores_ -collected the tablets, and gave them to the _diribitores_, who -classified and counted the votes, and then handed them over to the -_custodes_, who again checked them off by points marked on a tablet. -The order in which the centuries voted was determined in the Servian -constitution, in the manner described above; but after the union of -the centuries and tribes, the order was determined by lot; and this -was a matter of no slight importance, since it frequently happened -that the vote of the first determined the manner in which subsequent -ones voted. In the case of elections, the successful candidate was -proclaimed twice, first by the praeco, and then by the president, and -without this renuntiatio the election was not valid. After all the -business was done, the president pronounced a prayer, and dismissed -the assembly with the word _discedite_.--Cases are frequently -mentioned in which the proceedings of the assembly were disturbed, -so that it was necessary to defer the business till another day. -This occurred--1, when it was discovered that the auspices had been -unfavourable, or when the gods manifested their displeasure by rain, -thunder, or lightning; 2, when a tribune interceded; 3, when the sun -set before the business was over, for it was a principle that the -auspices were valid only for one day from sunrise to sunset; 4, when -a _morbus comitialis_ occurred, _i.e._ when one of the assembled -citizens was seized with an epileptic fit; 5, when the vexillum was -taken away from the Janiculum, this being a signal which all citizens -had to obey; 6, when any tumult or insurrection broke out in the city. - -(3) COMITIA TRIBUTA. These assemblies likewise were called into -existence by the constitution of Servius Tullius, who divided the -Roman territory into thirty local tribes. It is a disputed question -whether the patricians were originally included in these tribes; but, -whether they were or not, it is certain, that by far the majority -of the people in the tribes were plebeians, and that, consequently, -the character of these assemblies was essentially plebeian. After -the decemvirate, the patricians had certainly the right of voting in -the assemblies of the tribes, which were then also convened by the -higher magistrates. The assemblies of the tribes had originally only -a local power; they were intended to collect the tributum, and to -furnish the contingents for the army; they may further have discussed -the internal affairs of each tribe, such as the making or keeping -up of roads, wells, and the like. But their influence gradually -increased, and they at length acquired the following powers:--1. -_The election of the inferior magistrates_, whose office it was to -protect the commonalty or to superintend the affairs of the tribes. -Hence the tribunes of the plebs were elected in the comitia tributa. -In like manner, the aediles were elected by them, though the curule -aediles were elected at a different time from the plebeian aediles -and under the presidency of a consul. At a still later time, the -quaestors and tribunes of the soldiers, who had before been appointed -by the consuls, were appointed in the assemblies of the tribes. The -proconsuls to be sent into the provinces, and the prolongation of -the imperium for a magistrate who was already in a province, were -likewise points which were determined by the tribes in later times. -The inferior magistrates elected by the tribes are:--the triumviri -capitales, triumviri monetales, the curatores viarum, decemviri -litibus judicandis, tribuni aerarii, magistri vicorum et pagorum, -praefecti annonae, duumviri navales, quinqueviri muris turribusque -reficiendis, triumviri coloniae deducendae, triumviri, quatuorviri, -&c., mensarii, and lastly, after the Domitian law, B.C. 104, also the -members of colleges of priests. The pontifex maximus had been elected -by the people from an earlier time. 2. _The legislative power_ of -the comitia tributa was at first very insignificant, for all they -could do was to make regulations concerning the local affairs of -the tribes. But after a time, when the tribes began to be the real -representatives of the people, matters affecting the whole people -also were brought before them by the tribunes, which, framed as -resolutions, were laid before the senate, where they might either -be sanctioned or rejected. This practice of the tributa comitia -gradually acquired for them the right of taking the initiative in -any measure, or the right of originating measures, until, in B.C. -449, this right was recognised and sanctioned by a law of L. Valerius -Publicola and M. Horatius Barbatus. This law gave to the decrees -passed by the tribes the power of a real _lex_, binding upon the -whole people, provided they obtained the sanction of the senate and -the populus, that is, the people assembled in the comitia curiata or -in the comitia centuriata. In B.C. 339, the Publilian law enacted -_ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent_. This law was either a -re-enactment of the one passed in B.C. 449, or contained a more -detailed specification of the cases in which plebiscita should be -binding upon the whole nation, or, lastly, it made their validity -independent of the sanction of other comitia, so that nothing would -be required except the assent of the senate. In B.C. 287, the -Hortensian law was passed, which seems to have been only a revival -and a confirmation of the two preceding laws, for it was framed in -almost the same terms; but it may also be, that the Hortensian law -made the plebiscita independent of the sanction of the senate, so -that henceforth the comitia tributa were quite independent in their -legislative character. 3. _The judicial power_ of the comitia tributa -was much more limited than that of the comitia centuriata, inasmuch -as they could take cognizance only of offences against the majesty of -the people, while all crimes committed against the state were brought -before the centuries. Even patricians, when they had offended against -the commonalty or its members, were tried and fined by the tribes. -This again constitutes a difference between the judicial power of -the centuries and that of the tribes, for the former could inflict -capital punishment, but the latter only fines. The comitia tributa -might assemble either within or without the city, but not farther -from it than 1000 paces, because the power of the tribunes did not -extend farther. For elections the Campus Martius was usually chosen, -but sometimes also the forum, the Capitol, or the Circus Flaminius. -The presidents were commonly the tribunes, who were supported by the -aediles, and no matter could be brought before the tribes without -the knowledge and consent of the tribunes. As the comitia tributa, -however, more and more assumed the character of national assemblies, -the higher magistrates also sometimes acted as presidents, though -perhaps not without previously obtaining the permission of the -tribunes. The preparations for the comitia tributa were less formal -and solemn than for those of the centuries. In the case of elections, -the candidates had to give in their names, and the president -communicated them to the people. When a legislative measure was to -be brought before the assembly, a tribune made the people acquainted -with it in _contiones_, and that on the three preceding nundines. The -same was the case when the people were to meet as a court of justice. -The auspicia were not consulted for the comitia of the tribes, but -the _spectio_ alone was sufficient, and the tribunes had the right -of _obnuntiatio_. In the comitia the tribune who had been chosen to -preside sat on the tribunal supported by his colleagues, and laid -before the people the subject of the meeting, concluding with the -words _velitis, jubeatis Quirites_. The bill was never read by the -tribune himself, but by a praeco, and then began the debates, in -which persons might either oppose or recommend the measure, though -private persons had to ask the tribunes for permission to speak. -When the discussion was over the president called upon the people -_ite in suffragium_, as at the comitia centuriata. They then formed -themselves into their tribes, which, like the centuries, ascertained -their own votes in enclosures (septa). Which of the 35 tribes was -to give its vote first, was determined by lot, and that tribe was -called _praerogativa_ or _principium_ (the others were termed _jure -vocatae_). The vote of the first tribe was given by some person of -distinction whose name was mentioned in the plebiscitum, if it was -of a legislative nature. The manner of collecting the votes was, on -the whole, the same as in the comitia centuriata. The announcing of -the result of the votes was the _renuntiatio_. If it so happened that -two candidates had the same number of votes, the question was decided -by drawing lots. The circumstances which might cause the meeting to -break up and defer its business till another day, are the same as -those which put an end to the comitia centuriata. - -(4) _The comitia centuriata mixed with the comitia tributa._--The -Servian constitution was retained unaltered so long as no great -change took place in the republic; but when the coinage and the -standard of property had become altered, when the constitution of -the army had been placed on a different footing, and, above all, -when the plebeians began to be recognized as a great and essential -element in the Roman state, it must have been found inconvenient to -leave to the equites and the first class so great a preponderance in -the comitia of the centuries, and it became necessary to secure more -power and influence to the democratic element. A change, therefore, -took place, and the comitia centuriata became mixed with the comitia -tributa; but neither the time nor the exact nature of this change -is accurately ascertained. Some refer it to the censorship of C. -Flaminius, B.C. 220, others to that of Q. Fabius and P. Decius, -B.C. 304. But there is evidence that it must be assigned to even an -earlier date than this, for the (tribus) praerogativa is mentioned -as early as B.C. 396 in the election of the consular tribunes, where -the pure comitia tributa cannot be meant, and a centuria praerogativa -is a thing unknown. With regard to the manner of the change, the -most probable opinion is, that the citizens of each tribe were -divided into five property classes, each consisting of seniores and -juniores, so that each of the 35 tribes contained ten centuries, -and all the tribes together 350 centuries. According to this new -arrangement, the five ancient classes, divided into seniores and -juniores, continued to exist as before, but henceforth they were -most closely united with the tribes, whereas before the tribes had -been mere local divisions and entirely independent of property. The -union now effected was that the classes became subdivisions of the -tribes, and that accordingly centuries occur both in the classes -and in the tribes. Each tribe contained ten centuries, two of the -first class (one of the seniores and one of the juniores), two of -the second (likewise seniores and juniores), two of the third, two -of the fourth, and two of the fifth class. The equites were likewise -divided according to tribes and centuries, and they seem to have -voted with the first class, and to have been in fact included in it, -so as to be called centuries of the first class. The centuries of -the cornicines, tubicines and fabri, which are no longer mentioned, -probably ceased to exist as distinct centuries. The voting by tribes -can hardly be conceived, except in those cases in which the ten -centuries of every tribe were unanimous; this may have been the -case very often, and when it was so, the tribus praerogativa was -certainly the tribe chosen by lot to give its unanimous vote first. -But if there was any difference of opinion among the centuries making -up a tribe, the true majority could only be ascertained by choosing -by lot one of the 70 centuriae of the first class to give its vote -first, or rather it was decided by lot from which tribe the two -centuries of the first class were to be taken to give their vote -first. (Hence the plural _praerogativae_.) The tribe, moreover, to -which those centuries belonged which voted first, was itself likewise -called tribus praerogativa. Of the two centuries, again, that of -seniores gave its vote before the juniores, and in the documents -both were called by the name of their tribe, as _Galeria juniorum_, -_i.e._ the juniores of the first class in the tribus Galeria, -_Aniensis juniorum, Veturia juniorum_. As soon as the praerogativa -had voted, the renuntiatio took place, and the remaining centuries -then deliberated whether they should vote the same way or not. When -this was done all the centuries of the first tribe proceeded to vote -at once, for there would not have been time for the 350 centuries -to vote one after another, as was done by the 193 centuries in -the comitia centuriata.--These comitia of the centuries combined -with the tribes were far more democratical than the comitia of the -centuries; they continued to be held, and preserved their power along -with the comitia tributa, even after the latter had acquired their -supreme importance in the republic. During the time of the moral and -political corruption of the Romans, the latter appear to have been -chiefly attended by the populace, which was guided by the tribunes, -and the wealthier and more respectable citizens had little influence -in them. When the libertini and all the Italians were incorporated -in the old thirty-five tribes, and when the political corruption had -reached its height, no trace of the sedate and moderate character was -left by which the comitia tributa had been distinguished in former -times. Under Augustus the comitia still sanctioned new laws and -elected magistrates, but their whole proceedings were a mere farce, -for they could not venture to elect any other persons than those -recommended by the emperor. Tiberius deprived the people even of this -shadow of their former power, and conferred the power of election -upon the senate. When the elections were made by the senate the -result was announced to the people assembled as comitia centuriata -or tributa. Legislation was taken away from the comitia entirely, -and was completely in the hands of the senate and the emperor. From -this time the comitia may be said to have ceased to exist, as all the -sovereign power formerly possessed by the people was conferred upon -the emperor by the lex regia. [LEX REGIA.] - - -COMMĔĀTUS, a furlough, or leave of absence from the army for a -certain time. - - -COMMENTĀRĬUS or COMMENTĀRĬUM, a book of memoirs or memorandum-book, -whence the expression _Caesaris Commentarii_. It is also used for a -lawyer’s brief, the notes of a speech, &c. - - -COMMERCĬUM. [CIVITAS (ROMAN).] - - -CŌMOEDĬA (κωμῳδία), comedy. (1) GREEK. Comedy took its rise at the -vintage festivals of Dionysus. It originated with those who led -off the phallic songs of the band of revellers (κῶμος), who at the -vintage festivals of Dionysus gave expression to the feelings of -exuberant joy and merriment which were regarded as appropriate to -the occasion, by parading about, partly on foot, partly in waggons, -with the symbol of the productive powers of nature, singing a wild, -jovial song in honour of Dionysus and his companions. These songs -were commonly interspersed with, or followed by petulant, extemporal -witticisms with which the revellers assailed the bystanders. This -origin of comedy is indicated by the name κωμῳδία, which undoubtedly -means “the song of the κῶμος,” though it has sometimes been derived -from κώμη, as if the meaning were “a village song.” It was among the -Dorians that comedy first assumed any thing of a regular shape. The -Megarians, both in the mother country and in Sicily, claimed to be -considered as its originators, and so far as the comedy of Athens -is concerned, the claim of the former appears well founded. Among -the Athenians the first attempts at comedy were made at Icaria by -Susarion, a native of Megara, about B.C. 578. Susarion no doubt -substituted for the more ancient improvisations of the chorus and -its leader premeditated compositions. There would seem also to have -been some kind of poetical contest, for we learn that the prize for -the successful poet was a basket of figs and a jar of wine. It was -also the practice of those who took part in the comus to smear their -faces with wine-lees, either to prevent their features from being -recognised, or to give themselves a more grotesque appearance. Hence -comedy came to be called τρυγῳδία, or lee-song. Others connected -the name with the circumstance of a jar of new wine (τρύξ) being -the prize for the successful poet. It was, however, in Sicily, that -comedy was earliest brought to something like perfection. Epicharmus -was the first writer who gave it a new form, and introduced a -regular plot. In his efforts he appears to have been associated -with Phormis, a somewhat older contemporary. The Megarians in -Sicily claimed the honour of the invention of comedy, on account of -Epicharmus having lived in Megara before he went to Syracuse. In -Attica, the first comic poet of any importance whom we hear of after -Susarion is Chionides, who is said to have brought out plays in B.C. -488. Euetes, Euxenides, and Myllus were probably contemporaries -of Chionides; he was followed by Magnes and Ecphantides. Their -compositions, however, seem to have been little but the reproduction -of the old Megaric farce of Susarion, differing, no doubt, in -form, by the introduction of an actor or actors, separate from the -chorus, in imitation of the improvements that had been made in -tragedy.--That branch of the Attic drama which was called the _Old -Comedy_, begins properly with Cratinus, who was to comedy very much -what Aeschylus was to tragedy. The old comedy has been described as -the comedy of caricature, and such indeed it was, but it was also a -great deal more. As it appeared in the hands of its great masters -Cratinus, Hermippus, Eupolis, and especially Aristophanes, its main -characteristic was that it was throughout _political_. Everything -that bore upon the political or social interests of the Athenians -furnished materials for it. The old Attic comedy lasted from Ol. 80 -to Ol. 94 (B.C. 458-404). From Cratinus to Theopompus there were -forty-one poets, fourteen of whom preceded Aristophanes. The later -pieces of Aristophanes belong to the Middle rather than to the Old -Comedy. The chorus in a comedy consisted of twenty-four. [CHORUS.] -The dance of the chorus was the κόρδαξ, the movements of which were -capricious and licentious, consisting partly in a reeling to and -fro, in imitation of a drunken man, and in various unseemly and -immodest gestures. Comedies have choric songs, but no στάσιμα, or -songs between acts. The most important of the choral parts was the -Parabasis, when the actors having left the stage, the chorus, which -was ordinarily divided into four rows, containing six each, and was -turned towards the stage, turned round, and advancing towards the -spectators delivered an address to them in the name of the poet, -either on public topics of general interest, or on matters which -concerned the poet personally, criticising his rivals and calling -attention to his merits; the address having nothing whatever to -do with the action of the play. The parabasis was not universally -introduced: three plays of Aristophanes, the Ecclesiazusae, -Lysistrata, and Plutus, have none. As the old Attic comedy was the -offspring of the political and social vigour and freedom of the age -during which it flourished, it naturally declined and ceased with the -decline and overthrow of the freedom and vigour which were necessary -for its development.--It was replaced by a comedy of a somewhat -different style, which was known as the _Middle Comedy_, the age of -which lasted from the end of the Peloponnesian war to the overthrow -of liberty by Philip of Macedon. (Ol. 94-110.) The comedy of this -period found its materials in satirizing classes of people instead of -individuals, in criticising the systems and merits of philosophers -and literary men, and in parodies of the compositions of living and -earlier poets, and travesties of mythological subjects. It formed -a transition from the old to the new comedy, and approximated to -the latter in the greater attention to the construction of plots -which seem frequently to have been founded on amorous intrigues, -and in the absence of that wild grotesqueness which marked the -old comedy. As regards its external form, the plays of the middle -comedy, generally speaking, had neither parabasis nor chorus. The -most celebrated authors of the middle comedy were Antiphanes and -Alexis.--The _New Comedy_ was a further development of the last -mentioned kind. It answered as nearly as may be to the modern -comedy of manners or character. Dropping for the most part personal -allusions, caricature, ridicule, and parody, which, in a more general -form than in the old comedy, had maintained their ground in the -middle comedy, the poets of the new comedy made it their business -to reproduce in a generalized form a picture of the every-day life -of those by whom they were surrounded. There were various standing -characters which found a place in most plays, such as we find in the -plays of Plautus and Terence, the _leno perjurus_, _amator fervidus_, -_servulus callidus_, _amica illudens_, _sodalis opitulator_, _miles -proeliator_, _parasitus edax_, _parentes tenaces_, _meretrices -procaces_. In the new comedy there was no chorus. It flourished from -about B.C. 340 to B.C. 260. The poets of the new comedy amounted to -64 in number. The most distinguished was Menander.--(2) ROMAN.--The -accounts of the early stages of comic poetry among the Romans are -scanty. Scenic entertainments were introduced at Rome in B.C. 363 -from Etruria, where it would seem they were a familiar amusement. -Tuscan players (_ludiones_), who were fetched from Etruria, exhibited -a sort of pantomimic dance to the music of a flute, without any -song accompanying their dance, and without regular dramatic -gesticulation. The amusement became popular, and was imitated by the -young Romans, who improved upon the original entertainment by uniting -with it extemporaneous mutual raillery, composed in a rude irregular -measure, a species of diversion which had been long known among the -Romans at their agrarian festivals under the name of _Fescennina_ -[FESCENNINA]. It was 123 years after the first introduction of -these scenic performances before the improvement was introduced of -having a regular plot. This advance was made by Livius Andronicus, -a native of Magna Graecia, in B.C. 240. His pieces, which were both -tragedies and comedies, were merely adaptations of Greek dramas. -The representation of regular plays of this sort was now left to -those who were histriones by profession, and who were very commonly -either foreigners or slaves; the free-born youth of Rome confined -their own scenic performances to the older, irregular farces, which -long maintained their ground, and were subsequently called _exodia_. -[EXODIA; SATURA.] Livius, as was common at that time, was himself an -actor in his own pieces. The first imitator of the dramatic works -of Livius Andronicus was Cn. Naevius, a native of Campania. He -composed both tragedies and comedies, which were either translations -or imitations of those of Greek writers. The most distinguished -successors of Naevius were Plautus, who chiefly imitated Epicharmus, -and Terence, whose materials were drawn mostly from Menander, -Diphilus, Philemon, and Apollodorus. The comedy of the Romans was -throughout but an imitation of that of the Greeks, and chiefly of -the new comedy. Where the characters were ostensibly Greek, and the -scene laid in Athens or some other Greek town, the comedies were -termed _palliatae_. All the comedies of Terence and Plautus belong to -this class. When the story and characters were Roman, the plays were -called _togatae_. But the fabulae togatae were in fact little else -than Greek comedies clothed in a Latin dress. - -The togatae were divided into two classes, the _trabeatae_ and -_tabernariae_, according as the subject was taken from high or from -low life. In the comediae palliatae, the costume of the ordinary -actors was the Greek pallium. The plays which bore the name of -_praetextatae_, were not so much tragedies as historical plays. It -is a mistake to represent them as comedies. There was a species -of tragi-comedy, named from the poet who introduced that style -_Rhinthonica_. A tragedy the argument of which was Greek was termed -_crepidata_. The mimes are sometimes classed with the Latin comedies. -[MIMUS.] The mimes differed from the comedies in little more than -the predominance of the mimic representation over the dialogue. Latin -comedies had no chorus, any more than the dramas of the new comedy, -of which they were for the most part imitations. Like them, too, they -were introduced by a prologue, which answered some of the purposes -of the parabasis of the old comedy, so far as bespeaking the good -will of the spectators, and defending the poet against his rivals and -enemies. It also communicated so much information as was necessary to -understand the story of the play. The prologue was commonly spoken -by one of the players, or, perhaps, by the manager of the troop. -Respecting the _Atellanae fabulae_ see that article. - - -COMPĬTĀLĬA, also called LŪDI COMPĬTĀLĬCĬI, a festival celebrated -once a year in honour of the lares compitales, to whom sacrifices -were offered at the places where two or more ways met. In the time -of Augustus, the ludi compitalicii had gone out of fashion, but were -restored by him. The compitalia belonged to the _feriae conceptivae_, -that is, festivals which were celebrated on days appointed annually -by the magistrates or priests. The exact day on which this festival -was celebrated appears to have varied, though it was always in the -winter, generally at the beginning of January. - - -COMPLŪVĬUM. [DOMUS.] - - -CONCĬLĬUM generally has the same meaning as _conventus_ or -_conventio_, but the technical import of concilium in the Roman -constitution was an assembly of a _portion_ of the people as -distinct from the general assemblies or comitia. Accordingly, as -the comitia tributa embraced only a portion of the Roman people, -viz. the plebeians, these comitia are often designated by the term -_concilia plebis_. Concilium is also used by Latin writers to denote -the assemblies or meetings of confederate towns or nations, at which -either their deputies alone or any of the citizens met who had time -and inclination, and thus formed a representative assembly. Such an -assembly or diet is commonly designated as _commune concilium_, or τὸ -κοινόν, e.g. _Achaeorum_, _Aetolorum_, _Boeotorum_, _Macedoniae_, and -the like. - - -CONFARRĔĀTĬO. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - -CONGĬĀRĬUM (_scil. vas_, from _congius_), a vessel containing a -_congius_. [CONGIUS.] In the early times of the Roman republic the -_congius_ was the usual measure of oil or wine which was, on certain -occasions, distributed among the people; and thus _congiarium_ -became a name for liberal donations to the people, in general, -whether consisting of oil, wine, corn, money, or other things, while -donations made to the soldiers were called _donativa_, though they -were sometimes also termed _congiaria_. Many coins of the Roman -emperors were struck in commemoration of such congiaria. _Congiarium_ -was, moreover, occasionally used simply to designate a present or a -pension given by a person of high rank, or a prince, to his friends. - -[Illustration: Congiarium. (Coin of Trajan.)] - - -CONGĬUS, a Roman liquid measure, which contained six sextarii, or the -eighth part of the amphora (nearly six pints Eng.) It was equal to -the larger _chous_ of the Greeks. - - -CONNUBĬUM. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - -CŌNŌPĒUM (κωνωπεῖον), a gnat or musquito-curtain, _i.e._ a covering -made to be expanded over beds and couches to keep away gnats and -other flying insects, so called from κώνωψ, a gnat. _Conopeum_ is the -origin of the English word _canopy_. - - -CONQUĪSĪTŌRES, persons employed to go about the country and impress -soldiers, when there was a difficulty in completing a levy. Sometimes -commissioners were appointed by a decree of the senate for the -purpose of making a conquisitio. - - -CONSANGUĬNĔI. [COGNATI.] - - -CONSĔCRĀTĬO. [APOTHEOSIS.] - - -CONSĬLĬUM. [CONVENTUS.] - - -CONSUĀLĬA, a festival, with games, celebrated by the Romans, -according to Ovid and others, in honour of Consus, the god of secret -deliberations, or, according to Livy, of Neptunus Equestris. Some -writers, however, say that Neptunus Equestris and Consus were only -different names for one and the same deity. It was solemnised every -year in the circus, by the symbolical ceremony of uncovering an altar -dedicated to the god, which was buried in the earth. For Romulus, -who was considered as the founder of the festival, was said to -have discovered an altar in the earth on that spot. The solemnity -took place on the 21st of August with horse and chariot races, and -libations were poured into the flames which consumed the sacrifices. -During these festive games horses and mules were not allowed to do -any work, and were adorned with garlands of flowers. It was at their -first celebration that, according to the ancient legend, the Sabine -maidens were carried off. - - -CONSUL (ὕπατος), the title of the two chief officers or magistrates -of the Roman republic. The word is probably composed of _con_ and -_sul_, which contains the same root as the verb _salio_, so that -consules signifies “those who come together,” just as _praesul_ -means “one who goes before,” and _exsul_, “one who goes out.” The -consulship is said to have been instituted upon the expulsion of -the kings in B.C. 509, when the kingly power was transferred to -two magistrates, whose office lasted only for one year, that it -might not degenerate into tyranny by being vested longer in the -same persons; and for the same reason two were appointed instead -of one king, as neither could undertake anything unless it was -sanctioned and approved by his colleague. Their original title was -_praetores_, or commanders of the armies, but this was changed into -that of _consules_ in B.C. 449, and the latter title remained in -use until the latest periods of the Roman empire.--The consuls were -at first elected from the patricians exclusively. Their office was -suspended in B.C. 451, and its functions were performed by ten high -commissioners (_decemviri_), appointed to frame a code of laws. On -the re-establishment of the consulship in B.C. 449, the tribunes -proposed that one of the consuls should be chosen from the plebeians, -but this was strenuously resisted by the patricians, and a compromise -effected by suspending the consular office, and creating in its stead -military tribunes (_tribuni militum_) with consular power, who might -be elected indifferently both from the patricians and plebeians. -They were first appointed in B.C. 444. The plebeians, however, were -not satisfied with this concession, and still endeavoured to attain -the higher dignity of the consulship. At length, after a serious and -long-protracted struggle between the two orders, it was enacted by -the Licinian law, in B.C. 367, that henceforth the consulship should -be divided between the patricians and plebeians, and that one of the -consuls should always be a plebeian. Accordingly, in B.C. 366 L. -Sextius was elected the first plebeian consul. This law, however, -was not always observed, and it still frequently happened that both -consuls were patricians, until, in later times, when the difference -between the two orders had entirely ceased, and the plebeians were -on a footing of perfect equality with the patricians, the consuls -were elected from both orders indiscriminately.--During the later -periods of the republic it was customary for persons to pass through -several subordinate magistracies before they were elected consuls, -though this rule was departed from in many particular cases. The age -at which a person was eligible to the consulship was fixed in B.C. -180, by the lex annalis [LEX ANNALIS], at 43.--The election of the -consuls always took place in the comitia of the centuries, some time -before the expiration of the official year of the actual consuls, and -the election was conducted either by the actual consuls themselves, -or by an interrex or a dictator, and the persons elected, until they -entered upon their office, were called _consules designati_. While -they were _designati_, they were in reality no more than private -persons, but still they might exercise considerable influence upon -public affairs, for in the senate they were asked for their opinion -first. If they had been guilty of any illegal act, either before or -during their election, such as bribery (_ambitus_), they were liable -to prosecution, and the election might be declared void.--The time -at which the old consuls laid down their office and the consules -designati entered upon theirs, differed at different times. The -first consuls are said to have entered upon their office in October, -then we find mention of the 1st of August, of the ides of December, -the 1st of July, and very frequently of the ides of March, until, -in B.C. 153, it became an established rule for the consuls to enter -upon their duties on the 1st of January; and this custom remained -down to the end of the republic. On that day the senators, equites, -and citizens of all classes conducted in a procession (_deductio_ -or _processus consularis_) the new magistrates from their residence -to the capitol, where, if the auspices were favourable, the consuls -offered up sacrifices, and were inaugurated. From thence the -procession went to the curia, where the senate assembled, and where -the consuls returned thanks for their election. There they might -also speak on any subject that was of importance to the republic, -such as peace and war, the distribution of provinces, the general -condition of the state, the _feriae Latinae_, and the like. During -the first five days of their office they had to convoke a _contio_, -and publicly to take a solemn oath, by which, in the earliest times, -they pledged themselves not to allow any one to assume regal power -at Rome, but afterwards only to maintain the laws of the republic -(_in leges jurare_). On the expiration of their office they had to -take another oath, stating that they had faithfully obeyed the laws, -and not done anything against the constitution. The new consuls -on entering upon their office usually invited their friends to a -banquet. When a consul died during his year of office, his colleague -immediately convoked the comitia to elect a new one. A consul thus -elected to fill a vacancy was called _consul suffectus_, but his -powers were not equal to those of an ordinary consul, for he could -not preside at the elections of other magistrates, not even in the -case of the death of his colleague. In the latter case, as well as -when the consuls were prevented by illness or other circumstances, -the comitia were held by an interrex or a dictator.--The outward -distinctions of the consuls were, with few exceptions, the same -as those which had formerly belonged to the kings. The principal -distinction was the twelve lictors with the _fasces_, who preceded -the consuls; but the axes did not appear in the fasces within the -city. This outward sign of their power was taken by the consuls in -turn every month, and while one consul was preceded by the twelve -lictors with their fasces, the other was during the same month -preceded by an _accensus_, and followed by the lictors; and the -one was called during that month _consul major_, and the other -_consul minor_. Other distinctions of the consuls were the curule -chair (_sella curulis_), and the toga with the purple hem (_toga -praetexta_). The ivory sceptre (_scipio_ or _sceptrum_) and purple -toga were not distinctions of the consuls in general, but only when -they celebrated a triumph. Under the empire a consul was sometimes -distinguished by the senate with a sceptre bearing an eagle on the -top, but his regular ensigns consisted of the _toga picta_, the -_trabea_, and the fasces, both within and without the city.--The -consuls were the highest ordinary magistrates at Rome. Their power -was at first quite equal to that of the kings, except that it was -limited to one year, and that the office of high priest, which had -been vested in the king, was at the very beginning detached from the -consulship, and given to the _rex sacrorum_ or _rex sacrificulus_. -Yet the _auspicia majora_ continued to belong to the consuls. This -regal power of the consuls, however, was gradually curtailed by -various laws, especially by the institution of the tribunes of the -plebs, whose province it was to protect the plebeians against the -unjust or oppressive commands of the patrician magistrates. Nay, -in the course of time, whole branches of the consular power were -detached from it; the reason for which was, that, as the patricians -were compelled to allow the plebeians a share in the highest -magistracy, they stripped it of as much of its original power as -they could, and reserved these detached portions for themselves. -In this manner the censorship was detached from the consulship in -B.C. 443, and the praetorship in B.C. 367. But notwithstanding -all this, the consuls remained the highest magistrates, and all -other magistrates, except the tribunes of the plebs, were obliged -to obey their commands, and show them great outward respect. The -functions of the consuls during the time of the republic may be -conveniently described under the following heads:--1. They were in -all civil matters the heads of the state, being invested with the -imperium, which emanated from the sovereign people, and which they -held during the time of their office. In this capacity they had the -right of convoking both the senate and the assembly of the people; -they presided in each (in the comitia of the curies as well as in -those of the centuries), and they took care that the resolutions -of the senate and people were carried into effect. They might also -convoke _contiones_, whenever they thought it necessary. In the -senate they conducted the discussions, and put the questions to the -vote, thus exercising the greatest influence upon all matters which -were brought before the senate either by themselves or by others. -When a decree was passed by the senate, the consuls were usually -commissioned to see that it was carried into effect; though there are -also instances of the consuls opposing a decree of the senate. 2. -The supreme command of the armies belonged to the consuls alone by -virtue of their imperium. Accordingly, when a war was decreed, they -were ordered by a senatus consultum to levy the troops, whose number -was determined by the senate, and they appointed most of the other -military officers. While at the head of their armies they had full -power of life and death over their soldiers, who, on their enrolment, -had to take an oath (_sacramentum_) to be faithful and obedient to -the commands of the consuls. When the consuls had entered upon their -office, the senate assigned them their provinces, that is, their -spheres of action, and the consuls either settled between themselves -which province each was to have, or, which was more common, they drew -lots. Usually one consul remained at Rome, while the other went out -at the head of the army: sometimes both left the city, and carried -on war in different quarters; and sometimes, when the danger was -very pressing, both consuls commanded the armies against one and -the same enemy. If it was deemed advisable, the imperium of one or -of both consuls was prolonged for the particular province in which -they were engaged, in which case they had the title of proconsuls -[PROCONSUL], and their successors either remained at Rome, or were -engaged in other quarters. During the latter period of the republic -the consuls remained at Rome during the time of their office, and -on its expiration they had a foreign province (in the real sense -of the word) assigned to them, where they undertook either the -peaceful administration, or carried on war against internal or -external enemies. While in their provinces, both the consuls and -proconsuls had the power of life and death over the provincials, for -they were looked upon there as the chief military commanders; and -the provincials, being _peregrini_, did not enjoy the privileges -of Roman citizens. 3. The supreme jurisdiction was part of the -consular imperium, and as such vested in the consuls so long as -there were no praetors. In civil cases they administered justice -to the patricians as well as plebeians, either acting themselves -as _judices_, or appointing others as _judices_ and _arbitri_. In -criminal cases there appears from early times to have been this -difference: that patricians charged with capital offences were tried -by the curies, while the plebeians came under the jurisdiction of -the consuls, whose power, however, was in this case rather limited, -partly by the intercession of the tribunes of the people, and partly -by the right of appeal (_provocatio_) from the sentence of the -consuls. The consuls might, further, summon any citizen before their -tribunal, and, in case of disobedience, seize him (_prendere_), -and fine him up to a certain amount. After the institution of the -praetorship, the consuls no longer possessed any regular ordinary -jurisdiction; and whenever they exercised it, it was an exception -to the general custom, and only by a special command of the senate. -4. Previous to the institution of the censorship the consuls had to -perform all the functions which afterwards belonged to the censors: -they were accordingly the highest officers of finance, held the -census, drew up the lists of the senators, equites, &c. After the -establishment of the censorship they still retained the general -superintendence of the public economy, inasmuch as they had the -keys of the _aerarium_, and as the quaestors or paymasters were -dependent on them. But still in the management of the finances the -consuls were at all times under the control of the senate. 5. In all -relations with foreign states the consuls were the representatives -of the Roman republic. Hence they might conclude peace or treaties -with foreign nations, which had, however, to be sanctioned by the -senate and people at Rome; and unless this sanction was obtained a -treaty was void. They received foreign ambassadors, and introduced -them into the senate, and in short all negotiations with foreign -princes or nations passed through their hands. 6. In matters -connected with their own official functions, the consuls, like all -other magistrates, had the power of issuing proclamations or orders -(_edicta_), which might be binding either for the occasion only, or -remain in force permanently.--Although the consular power had been -gradually diminished, it was in cases of imminent danger restored to -its original and full extent, by a decree of the senate calling upon -the consuls _videant ne quid res publica detrimenti capiat_. In such -cases the consuls received sovereign power, but they were responsible -for the manner in which they had exercised it.--It has already been -observed, that to avoid collision and confusion, the two consuls did -not possess the same power at the same time, but that each had the -imperium every other month. The one who possessed it, as the _consul -major_, exercised all the rights of the office, though he always -consulted his colleague. In the earliest times it was customary for -the elder of the two consuls to take the imperium first, afterwards -the one who had had the greater number of votes at the election, and -had therefore been proclaimed (_renuntiare_) first. In the time of -Augustus it was enacted that the consul who had most children should -take precedence of the other; and some distinction of rank continued -to be observed down to the latest times of the empire.--Towards the -end of the republic the consulship lost its power and importance. The -first severe blow it received was from Julius Caesar, the dictator, -for he received the consulship in addition to his dictatorship, or -he arbitrarily ordered others to be elected, who were mere nominal -officers, and were allowed to do nothing without his sanction. He -himself was elected consul at first for five, then for ten years, and -at last for life. Under Augustus the consulship was a mere shadow -of what it had been: the consuls no longer held their office for a -whole year, but usually for a few months only; and hence it happened -that sometimes one year saw six, twelve, or even twenty-five consuls. -Those who were elected the first in the year ranked higher than the -rest, and their names alone were used to mark the year, according to -the ancient custom of the Romans of marking the date of an event by -the names of the consuls of the year in which the event occurred. -During the last period of the empire it became the practice to have -titular or honorary consuls, who were elected by the senate and -confirmed by the emperor. Constantine appointed two consuls, one -for Rome and another for Constantinople, who held their office for a -whole year, and whose functions were only those of chief justices. -All the other consuls were designated as _honorarii_ or _consulares_. -But though the consulship had thus become almost an empty title, it -was still regarded as the highest dignity in the empire, and as the -object of the greatest ambition. It was connected with very great -expenses, partly on account of the public games which a consul had -to provide, and partly on account of the large donations he had to -make to the people. The last consul at Rome was Decimus Theodorus -Paulinus, A.D. 536, and at Constantinople, Flavius Basilius junior, -A.D. 541. - - -CONSŬLARIS, signified, under the republic, a person who had held the -office of consul; but under the empire, it was the title of many -magistrates and public officers, who enjoyed the insignia of consular -dignity, without having filled the office of consul. Thus we find -commanders of armies and governors of provinces called _Consulares_ -under the empire. - - -CONTĬO, a contraction for _conventio_, that is, a meeting, or a -_conventus_. In the technical sense, however, a contio was an -assembly of the people at Rome convened by a magistrate for the -purpose of making the people acquainted with measures which were -to be brought before the next comitia, and of working upon them -either to support or oppose the measure. But no question of any kind -could be decided by a contio, and this constitutes the difference -between contiones and comitia. Still contiones were also convened -for other purposes, _e.g._ of persuading the people to take part in -a war, or of bringing complaints against a party in the republic. -Every magistrate had the right to convene contiones, but it was most -frequently exercised by the consuls and tribunes, and the latter more -especially exercised a great influence over the people in and through -these contiones. A magistrate who was higher in rank than the one who -had convened a contio, had the right to order the people to disperse, -if he disapproved of the object. It should be remarked, that the term -contio is also used to designate the speeches and harangues addressed -to the people in an assembly, and that in a loose mode of speaking, -contio denotes any assembly of the people. - - -CONTŬBERNĀLES (σύσκηνοι), signified originally men who served in -the same army and lived in the same tent. The word is derived from -_taberna_ (afterwards _tabernaculum_), which was the original name -for a military tent, as it was made of boards (_tabulae_). Each tent -was occupied by ten soldiers (_contubernales_), with a subordinate -officer at their head, who was called _decanus_, and in later times -_caput contubernii_. Young Romans of illustrious families used to -accompany a distinguished general on his expeditions, or to his -province, for the purpose of gaining under his superintendence a -practical training in the art of war, or in the administration of -public affairs, and were, like soldiers living in the same tent, -called his _contubernales_. In a still wider sense, the name -_contubernales_ was applied to persons connected by ties of intimate -friendship, and living under the same roof; and hence, when a freeman -and a slave, or two slaves, who were not allowed to contract a legal -marriage, lived together as husband and wife, they were called -_contubernales_; and their connection, as well as their place of -residence, _contubernium_. - - -CONTŬBERNĬUM. [CONTUBERNALES.] - - -CONVĔNĪRE IN MĂNUM. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - -CONVENTUS, was the name applied to the whole body of Roman citizens -who were either permanently or for a time settled in a province. In -order to facilitate the administration of justice, a province was -divided into a number of districts or circuits, each of which was -called _conventus_, _forum_, or _jurisdictio_. Roman citizens living -in a province were entirely under the jurisdiction of the proconsul; -and at certain times of the year, fixed by the proconsul, they -assembled in the chief town of the district, and this meeting bore -the name of _conventus_ (σύνοδος). Hence the expressions--_conventus -agere_, _peragere_, _convocare_, _dimittere_. At this conventus -litigant parties applied to the proconsul, who selected a number of -judges from the conventus to try their causes. The proconsul himself -presided at the trials, and pronounced the sentence according to -the views of the judges, who were his assessors (_consilium_ or -_consiliarii_). These conventus appear to have been generally held -after the proconsul had settled the military affairs of the province; -at least, when Caesar was proconsul of Gaul, he made it a regular -practice to hold the conventus after his armies had retired to their -winter quarters. - - -CONVĪVĬUM. [SYMPOSIUM.] - - -CŎPHĬNUS (κόφινος, Engl. _coffin_), a large kind of wicker basket, -made of willow branches. It would seem that it was used by the Greeks -as a basket or cage for birds. The Romans used it for agricultural -purposes, and it sometimes formed a kind of portable hot-bed. -Juvenal, when speaking of the Jews, uses the expression _cophinus et -foenum_ (a truss of hay), figuratively to designate their poverty. - - -CORBIS, _dim_. CORBŬLA, CORBĬCŬLA, a basket of very peculiar form -and common use among the Romans, both for agricultural and other -purposes. It was made of osiers twisted together, and was of a -conical or pyramidal shape. A basket answering precisely to this -description, both in form and material, is still to be seen in -every-day use among the Campanian peasantry, which is called in the -language of the country “la corbella.” - - -CORBĪTAE, merchantmen of the larger class, so called because they -hung out a _corbis_ at the mast-head for a sign. They were also -termed _onerariae_; and hence Plautus, in order to designate the -voracious appetites of some women, says, “Corbitam cibi comesse -possunt.” - - -[Illustration: Cornu. (Bartholini de Tibiis.)] - -[Illustration: Altar of Julius Victor. (Bartoli, Pict. Ant., p. 76.)] - -CORNU, a wind instrument, anciently made of horn, but afterwards -of brass. Like the _tuba_, it differed from the _tibia_ in being a -larger and more powerful instrument, and from the _tuba_ itself, in -being curved nearly in the shape of a C, with a cross-piece to steady -the instrument for the convenience of the performer. Hence Ovid says -(_Met._ i. 98): - - “Non tuba _directi_, non aeris cornua _flexi_.” - -The _classicum_, which originally meant a signal, rather than the -musical instrument which gave the signal, was usually sounded with -the _cornu_. - - “Sonuit reflexo classicum cornu, - Lituusque _adunco_ stridulos cantus - Elisit aere.” - (Sen. _Oed._ 734.) - -The _Cornicines_ and _Liticines_, the persons who blew the _Cornu_ -and _Lituus_, formed a collegium. In the preceding cut, M. Julius -Victor, a member of the Collegium, holds a lituus in his right hand, -and touches with his left a cornu on the ground. See engraving under -TUBA. - - -[Illustration: Corona Civica, on a Coin of the Emperor Galba. - -SPQR OB CS = Senatus Populusque Romanus ob civem servatum.] - -CŎRŌNA (στέφανος), a crown, that is, a circular ornament of metal, -leaves, or flowers, worn by the ancients round the head or neck, -and used as a festive as well as funereal decoration, and as a -reward of talent, military or naval prowess, and civil worth. Its -first introduction as an honorary reward is attributable to the -athletic games, in some of which it was bestowed as a prize upon -the victor. It was the only reward contended for by the Spartans in -their gymnic contests, and was worn by them when going to battle. -The Romans refined upon the practice of the Greeks, and invented a -great variety of crowns formed of different materials, each with a -separate appellation, and appropriated to a particular purpose.--I. -CORONA OBSIDIONALIS. Amongst the honorary crowns bestowed by the -Romans for military achievements, the most difficult of attainment, -and the one which conferred the highest honour, was the _corona -obsidionalis_, presented by a beleaguered army after its liberation -to the general who broke up the siege. It was made of grass, or weeds -and wild flowers, thence called _corona graminea_, and _graminea -obsidionalis_, gathered from the spot on which the beleaguered -army had been enclosed.--II. CORONA CIVICA, the second in honour -and importance, was presented to the soldier who had preserved the -life of a Roman citizen in battle. It was made of the leaves of the -oak. The soldier who had acquired this crown had a place reserved -next to the senate at all the public spectacles; and they, as well -as the rest of the company, rose up upon his entrance. He was freed -from all public burthens, as were also his father, and his paternal -grandfather; and the person who owed his life to him was bound, ever -after, to cherish his preserver as a parent, and afford him all such -offices as were due from a son to his father.--III. CORONA NAVALIS or -ROSTRATA, called also CLASSICA. It is difficult to determine whether -these were two distinct crowns, or only two denominations for the -same one. It seems probable that the _navalis corona_, besides being -a generic term, was inferior in dignity to the latter, and given to -the sailor who first boarded an enemy’s ship; whereas the _rostrata_ -was given to a commander who destroyed the whole fleet, or gained -any very signal victory. At all events, they were both made of gold; -and one at least (_rostrata_) decorated with the beaks of ships like -the _rostra_ in the forum. The Athenians likewise bestowed golden -crowns for naval services; sometimes upon the person who got his -trireme first equipped, and at others upon the captain who had his -vessel in the best order.--IV. CORONA MURALIS, was presented by the -general to the first man who scaled the wall of a besieged city. It -was made of gold, and decorated with turrets.--V. CORONA CASTRENSIS -or VALLARIS, was presented to the first soldier who surmounted the -_vallum_, and forced an entrance into the enemy’s camp. This crown -was made of gold, and ornamented with the palisades (_valli_) used -in forming an entrenchment.--VI. CORONA TRIUMPHALIS. There were -three sorts of triumphal crowns: the first was made of laurel or -bay leaves, and was worn round the head of the commander during his -triumph; the second was of gold, which, being too large and massive -to be worn, was held over the head of the general during his triumph, -by a public officer. This crown, as well as the former one, was -presented to the victorious general by his army. The third kind, -likewise of gold and of great value, was sent as a present from the -provinces to the commander. [AURUM CORONARIUM.]--VII. CORONA OVALIS, -was given to a commander who obtained only an ovation. It was made -of myrtle.--VIII. CORONA OLEAGINA, was made of the olive leaf, -and conferred upon the soldiers as well as their commanders.--The -Greeks in general made but little use of crowns as rewards of valour -in the earlier periods of their history, except as prizes in the -athletic contests; but previous to the time of Alexander, crowns of -gold were profusely distributed, amongst the Athenians at least, -for every trifling feat, whether civil, naval, or military, which, -though lavished without much discrimination as far as regards the -character of the receiving parties, were still subjected to certain -legal restrictions in respect of the time, place, and mode in which -they were conferred. They could not be presented but in the public -assemblies, and with the consent, that is by suffrage, of the people, -or by the senators in their council, or by the tribes to their own -members, or by the δημόται to members of their own δῆμος. According -to the statement of Aeschines, the people could not lawfully present -crowns in any place except in their assembly, nor the senators -except in the senate-house; nor, according to the same authority, -in the theatre, which is, however, denied by Demosthenes; nor at -the public games, and if any crier there proclaimed the crowns he -was subject to _atimia_. Neither could any person holding an office -receive a crown whilst he was ὑπεύθυνος, that is, before he had -passed his accounts.--The second class of crowns were emblematical -and not honorary, and the adoption of them was not regulated by -law, but custom. Of these there were also several kinds.--I. CORONA -SACERDOTALIS, was worn by the priests (_sacerdotes_), with the -exception of the pontifex maximus and his minister (_camillus_), -as well as the bystanders, when officiating at the sacrifice. It -does not appear to have been confined to any one material.--II. -CORONA FUNEBRIS and SEPULCHRALIS. The Greeks first set the example -of crowning the dead with chaplets of leaves and flowers, which was -imitated by the Romans. Garlands of flowers were also placed upon -the bier, or scattered from the windows under which the procession -passed, or entwined about the cinerary urn, or as a decoration to -the tomb. In Greece these crowns were commonly made of parsley.--III. -CORONA CONVIVIALIS. The use of chaplets at festive entertainments -sprung likewise from Greece. They were of various shrubs and flowers, -such as roses (which were the choicest), violets, myrtle, ivy, -_philyra_, and even parsley.--IV. CORONA NUPTIALIS. The bridal wreath -was also of Greek origin, among whom it was made of flowers plucked -by the bride herself, and not bought, which was of ill omen. Amongst -the Romans it was made of _verbena_, also gathered by the bride -herself, and worn under the _flammeum_, with which the bride was -always enveloped. The bridegroom also wore a chaplet. The doors of -his house were likewise decorated with garlands, and also the bridal -couch.--V. CORONA NATALITIA, the chaplet suspended over the door of -the vestibule, both in the houses of Athens and Rome, in which a -child was born. At Athens, when the infant was male, the crown was -made of olive; when female, of wool. At Rome it was of laurel, ivy, -or parsley. - -[Illustration: Females with Crowns. (From an ancient Painting.)] - - -CŎRŌNIS (κορωνίς), the cornice of an entablature, is properly a Greek -word signifying anything curved. It is also used by Latin writers, -but the genuine Latin word for a _cornice_ is _corona_ or _coronix_. - - -CORTĪNA, the name of the table or hollow slab, supported by a tripod, -upon which the priestess at Delphi sat to deliver her responses; and -hence the word is used for the oracle itself. The Romans made tables -of marble or bronze after the pattern of the Delphian tripod, which -they used as we do our sideboards, for the purpose of displaying -their plate at an entertainment. These were termed _cortinae -Delphicae_, or _Delphicae_ simply. - - -CŎRỸBANTĬCA (κορυβαντικά), a festival and mysteries celebrated at -Cnossus in Crete, by the Corybantes. (See _Class. Dict._, CORYBANTES.) - - -CŎRYMBUS (κόρυμβος). [COMA.] - - -CORVUS, a sort of crane, used by C. Duilius against the Carthaginian -fleet in the battle fought off Mylae, in Sicily (B.C. 260). The -Romans, we are told, being unused to the sea, saw that their only -chance of victory was by bringing a sea-fight to resemble one on -land. For this purpose they invented a machine, of which Polybius -has left a minute description. In the fore part of the ship a round -pole was fixed perpendicularly, twenty-four feet in height and about -nine inches in diameter; at the top of this was a pivot, upon which -a ladder was set, thirty-six feet in length and four in breadth. -The ladder was guarded by cross-beams, fastened to the upright pole -by a ring of wood, which turned with the pivot above. Along the -ladder a rope was passed, one end of which took hold of the _corvus_ -by means of a ring. The _corvus_ itself was a strong piece of iron, -with a spike at the end, which was raised or lowered by drawing in -or letting out the rope. When an enemy’s ship drew near, the machine -was turned outwards, by means of the pivot, in the direction of the -assailant. Another part of the machine was a breast-work, let down -from the ladder, and serving as a bridge, on which to board the -enemy’s vessel. By means of these cranes the Carthaginian ships were -either broken or closely locked with the Roman, and Duilius gained a -complete victory. - - -CŌRȲTOS or CŌRȲTUS (γωρυτός, κωρυτός), [ARCUS.] - - -COSMĒTAE, a class of slaves among the Romans, whose duty it was to -dress and adorn ladies. - - -COSMI (κοσμοί), the supreme magistrates in Crete, were ten in number, -and were chosen, not from the body of the people, but from certain -γένη or houses, which were probably of more pure Doric or Achaean -descent than their neighbours. The first of them in rank was called -_protocosmus_, and gave his name to the year. They commanded in war, -and also conducted the business of the state with the representatives -and ambassadors of other cities. Their period of office was a year; -but any of them during that time might resign, and was also liable -to deposition by his colleagues. In some cases, too, they might be -indicted for neglect of their duties. On the whole, we may conclude -that they formed the executive and chief power in most of the cities -of Crete. - - -[Illustration: Cothurnus. (From Statues of Artemis--Diana.)] - -CŎTHURNUS (κόθορνος), a boot. Its essential distinction was its -height; it rose above the middle of the leg, so as to surround -the calf, and sometimes it reached as high as the knees. It was -worn principally by horsemen, by hunters, and by men of rank and -authority. The sole of the cothurnus was commonly of the ordinary -thickness; but it was sometimes made much thicker than usual, -probably by the insertion of slices of cork. The object was, to add -to the apparent stature of the wearer; and this was done in the case -of the actors in Athenian tragedy, who had the soles made unusually -thick as one of the methods adopted in order to magnify their whole -appearance. Hence tragedy in general was called _cothurnus_. As the -cothurnus was commonly worn in hunting, it is represented as part of -the costume of Artemis (Diana). - - -COTTĂBUS (κότταβος), a social game which was introduced from Sicily -into Greece, where it became one of the favourite amusements of young -people after their repasts. The simplest way in which it originally -was played was this:--One of the company threw out of a goblet a -certain quantity of wine, at a certain distance, into a metal basin. -While he was doing this, he either thought of or pronounced the name -of his mistress; and if all the wine fell in the basin, and with a -full sound, it was a good sign for the lover. This simple amusement -soon assumed a variety of different characters, and became, in -some instances, a regular contest, with prizes for the victor. One -of the most celebrated modes in which it was carried on is called -δι’ ὀξυβάφων. A basin was filled with water, with small empty cups -(ὀξύβαφα) swimming upon it. Into these the young men, one after -another, threw the remnant of the wine from their goblets, and he who -had the good fortune to drown most of the bowls obtained the prize, -consisting either of simple cakes, sweetmeats, or sesame-cakes. - - -CŎTYTTĬA (κοττύτια), a festival which was originally celebrated by -the Edonians of Thrace, in honour of a goddess called Cotys, or -Cotytto. It was held at night. The worship of Cotys, together with -the festival of the Cotyttia, was adopted by several Greek states, -chiefly those which were induced by their commercial interest to -maintain friendly relations with Thrace. The festivals of this -goddess were notorious among the ancients for the dissolute manner -and the debaucheries with which they were celebrated. - - -CŎTỸLA (κοτύλη), a measure of capacity among the Romans and Greeks: -by the former it was also called _hemina_; by the latter, τρυβλίον -and ἡμίνα or ἡμίμνα. It was the half of the sextarius or ξέστης, and -contained 6 cyathi, or nearly half a pint English. - - -CŎVĪNUS (Celtic, _kowain_), a kind of car, the spokes of which were -armed with long sickles, and which was used as a scythe-chariot -chiefly by the ancient Belgians and Britons. The Romans designated, -by the name of covinus, a kind of travelling carriage, which seems -to have been covered on all sides with the exception of the front. -It had no seat for a driver, but was conducted by the traveller -himself, who sat inside. The _covinarii_ (this word occurs only in -Tacitus) seem to have constituted a regular and distinct part of a -British army. Compare ESSEDUM. - - -CRĀTER (κρατήρ, Ionic κρητήρ, from κεράννυμι, I mix), a vessel in -which the wine, according to the custom of the ancients, who very -seldom drank it pure, was mixed with water, and from which the cups -were filled. Craters were among the first things on the embellishment -of which the ancient artists exercised their skill; and the number of -craters dedicated in temples seems everywhere to have been very great. - - -CRĔPĬDA (κρηπίς), a slipper. Slippers were worn with the pallium, not -with the toga, and were properly characteristic of the Greeks, though -adopted from them by the Romans. - - -CRĪMEN. Though this word occurs so frequently, it is not easy to fix -its meaning. _Crimen_ is often equivalent to _accusatio_ (κατηγορία); -but it frequently means an act which is legally punishable. Those -delicta which were punishable according to special leges, senatus -consulta, and constitutiones, and were prosecuted in judicia publica -by an accusatio publica, were more especially called crimina; and -the penalties in case of conviction were loss of life, of freedom, -of civitas, and the consequent infamia, and sometimes pecuniary -penalties also. - - -CRISTA. [GALEA.] - - -CRĬTES (κριτής), a judge, was the name applied by the Greeks to any -person who did not judge of a thing like a δικαστής, according to -positive laws, but according to his own sense of justice and equity. -But at Athens a number of κριταί was chosen by ballot from a number -of selected candidates at every celebration of the Dionysia: they -were called οἱ κριταί, κατ’ ἐξοχήν. Their office was to judge of the -merit of the different choruses and dramatic poems, and to award the -prizes to the victors. Their number was five for comedy and the same -number for tragedy, one being taken from every tribe. - - -CRŌBỸLUS. [COMA.] - - -CRŎCŌTA (sc. _vestis_, κροκωτὸν sc. ἱμάτιον, or κροκωτὸς sc. χιτών), -was a kind of gala-dress, chiefly worn by women on solemn occasions, -and in Greece especially, at the festival of the Dionysia. Its name -was derived from _crocus_, one of the favourite colours of the Greek -ladies. - - -CRŎTĂLUM. [CYMBALUM.] - - -CRUSTA. [CAELATURA.] - - -CRUX (σταυρός, σκόλοψ), an instrument of capital punishment, used by -several ancient nations, especially the Romans and Carthaginians. -Crucifixion was of two kinds, the less usual sort being rather -impalement than what we should describe by the word crucifixion, as -the criminal was transfixed by a pole, which passed through the back -and spine and came out at the mouth. The cross was of several kinds; -one in the shape of an X, called _crux Andreana_, because tradition -reports St. Andrew to have suffered upon it; another was formed like -a T. The third, and most common sort, was made of two pieces of wood -crossed, so as to make four right angles. It was on this, according -to the unanimous testimony of the fathers, that our Saviour suffered. -The punishment, as is well known, was chiefly inflicted on slaves, -and the worst kind of malefactors. The criminal, after sentence -pronounced, carried his cross to the place of execution; a custom -mentioned in the Gospels. Scourging appears to have formed a part -of this, as of other capital punishments among the Romans; but the -scourging of our Saviour is not to be regarded in this light, for -it was inflicted before sentence was pronounced. The criminal was -next stripped of his clothes and nailed or bound to the cross. The -latter was the more painful method, as the sufferer was left to die -of hunger. Instances are recorded of persons who survived nine days. -It was usual to leave the body on the cross after death. The breaking -of the legs of the thieves, mentioned in the Gospels, was accidental; -because, by the Jewish law, it is expressly remarked, the bodies -could not remain on the cross during the Sabbath-day. - - -CRYPTA (from κρύπτειν, to conceal), a crypt. Amongst the Romans, -any long narrow vault, whether wholly or partially below the level -of the earth, is expressed by this term. The specific senses of the -word are:--(1) A covered portico or arcade; called more definitely -_crypto-porticus_, because it was not supported by open columns like -the ordinary portico, but closed at the sides, with windows only for -the admission of light and air.--(2) A grotto, particularly one open -at both extremities, forming what in modern language is denominated a -“tunnel.” A subterranean vault used for any secret worship was also -called _crypta_.--(3) When the practice of consuming the body by fire -was relinquished [FUNUS], and a number of bodies was consigned to one -place of burial, as the catacombs for instance, this common tomb was -called _crypta_. - - -CRYPTEIA (κρυπτεία), the name of an atrocious practice at Sparta, -said to have been introduced by Lycurgus. The following is the -description given of the crypteia. The ephors, at intervals, selected -from among the young Spartans, those who appeared to be best -qualified for the task, and sent them in various directions all over -the country, provided with daggers and their necessary food. During -the day-time, these young men concealed themselves; but at night they -broke forth into the high-roads, and massacred those of the helots -whom they met, or whom they thought proper. - - -CŬBĬCŬLĀRĬI, slaves who had the care of the sleeping and dwelling -rooms. Faithful slaves were always selected for this office, as they -had, to a certain extent, the care of their master’s person. It was -the duty of the cubicularii to introduce visitors to their master. - - -CŬBĬCŬLUM usually means a sleeping and dwelling room in a Roman house -[DOMUS], but it is also applied to the pavilion or tent in which -the Roman emperors were accustomed to witness the public games. It -appears to have been so called, because the emperors were accustomed -to recline in the cubicula, instead of sitting, as was anciently the -practice, in a sella curulis. - - -CŬBĬTUS (πῆχυς), a Greek and Roman measure of length, originally -the length of the human arm from the elbow to the wrist, or to the -knuckle of the middle finger. It was equal to a foot and a half, -which gives 1 foot 5·4744 inches Eng. for the Roman, and 1 foot -6·2016 inches for the Greek cubit. - - -CŬCULLUS, a cowl. As the cowl was intended to be used in the open -air, and to be drawn over the head to protect it from the injuries -of the weather, instead of a hat or cap, it was attached only to -garments of the coarsest kind. The cucullus was also used by persons -in the higher circles of society, when they wished to go abroad -without being known. - - -CŪDO or CŪDON, a skull-cap made of leather or of the rough shaggy fur -of any wild animal, such as were worn by the _velites_ of the Roman -armies, and apparently synonymous with _galerus_ or _galericulus_. - - -CŪLĔUS, or CULLĔUS, a Roman measure, which was used for estimating -the produce of vineyards. It was the largest liquid measure used by -the Romans, containing 20 amphorae, or 118 gallons, 7·546 pints. - - -CŬLĪNA. [DOMUS, p. 143.] - - -[Illustration: Cultri (From Tombstone of a Cultrarius.)] - -CULTER (μάχαιρα, κοπίς, or σφαγίς), a knife with only one edge, which -formed a straight line. The blade was pointed, and its back curved. -It was used for a variety of purposes, but chiefly for killing -animals either in the slaughter-house, or in hunting, or at the -altars of the gods. The priest who conducted a sacrifice never killed -the victim himself; but one of his ministri, appointed for that -purpose, who was called either by the general name _minister_, or the -more specific _popa_ or _cultrarius_. - - -CULTRĀRĬUS. [CULTER.] - - -CŬNĔUS was the name applied to a body of foot soldiers, drawn up in -the form of a wedge, for the purpose of breaking through an enemy’s -line. The common soldiers called it a _caput porcinum_, or pig’s -head. The name _cuneus_ was also applied to the compartments of -seats in circular or semi-circular theatres, which were so arranged -as to converge to the centre of the theatre, and diverge towards -the external walls of the building, with passages between each -compartment. - - -CŬNĪCŬLUS (ὑπόνομος), a mine or passage underground, was so called -from its resemblance to the burrowing of a rabbit. Fidenae and Veii -are said to have been taken by mines, which opened, one of them into -the citadel, the other into the temple of Juno. - - -CŪPA, a wine-vat, a vessel very much like the _dolium_, and used for -the same purpose, namely, to receive the fresh must, and to contain -it during the process of fermentation. The inferior wines were drawn -for drinking from the _cupa_, without being bottled in _amphorae_, -and hence the term _vinum de cupa_. The _cupa_ was either made of -earthenware, like the _dolium_, or of wood, and covered with pitch. -It was also used for fruits and corn, forming rafts, and containing -combustibles in war, and even for a sarcophagus. - - -CŪRĀTOR. Till a Roman youth attained the age of puberty, which was -generally fixed at fourteen years of age, he was incapable of any -legal act, and was under the authority of a _tutor_ or guardian; -but with the attainment of the age of puberty, he became capable of -performing every legal act, and was freed from the control of his -_tutor_. As, however, a person of that tender age was liable to be -imposed upon, the lex Plaetoria enacted that every person between -the time of puberty and twenty-five years of age should be under -the protection of a _curator_. The date of this lex is not known, -though it is certain that the law existed when Plautus wrote (about -B.C. 200), who speaks of it as the _lex quina vicemaria_. This law -established a distinction of age, which was of great practical -importance, by forming the citizens into two classes, those above -and those below twenty-five years of age (_minores viginti quinque -annis_). A person under the last-mentioned age was sometimes simply -called _minor_. The object of the lex was to protect persons under -twenty-five years of age against all fraud (_dolus_). A person who -wasted his property (_prodigus_), and a person of unsound mind -(_furiosus, demens_), were also placed under the care of a _curator_. - - -CŪRĀTŌRES were public officers of various kinds under the Roman -empire, such as the _curatores annonae_, the _curatores ludorum_, the -_curatores regionum_, &c. - - -CŪRĬA, signifies both a division of the Roman people and the place -of assembly for such a division. Each of the three ancient Romulian -tribes, the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, was subdivided into 10 -curiae, so that the whole body of the populus or the patricians was -divided into 30 curiae. The plebeians had no connection whatever -with the curiae. All the members of the different gentes belonging -to one curia were called, in respect of one another, _curiales_. -The division into curiae was of great political importance in the -earliest times of Rome, for the curiae alone contained the citizens, -and their assembly alone was the legitimate representative of the -whole people. [COMITIA CURIATA.] Each curia as a corporation had its -peculiar sacra, and besides the gods of the state, they worshipped -other divinities and with peculiar rites and ceremonies. For such -religious purposes each curia had its own place of worship, called -curia, in which the curiales assembled for the purpose of discussing -political, financial, religious and other matters. The religious -affairs of each curia were taken care of by a priest, _Curio_, who -was assisted by another called curialis Flamen. As there were 30 -curiae, there were likewise 30 curiones, who formed a college of -priests, presided over by one of them, called _Curio Maximus_. The -30 curiae had each its distinct name, which are said to have been -derived from the names of the Sabine women who had been carried off -by the Romans, though it is evident that some derived their names -from certain districts or from ancient eponymous heroes. Curia -is also used to designate the place in which the senate held its -meetings, such as curia Hostilia, curia Julia, curia Pompeii, and -from this there gradually arose the custom of calling the senate -itself in the Italian towns curia, but never the senate of Rome. The -official residence of the Salii, which was dedicated to Mars, was -likewise styled curia. - - -CŪRIĀTA CŎMĬTĬA. [COMITIA.] - - -CŪRĬO. [CURIA.] - - -CŪRĬUS (κύριος), signified generally at Athens the person responsible -for the welfare of such members of a family as the law presumed to -be incapable of protecting themselves; as, for instance, minors and -slaves, and women of all ages. - - -[Illustration: Currus. (Ancient Chariot preserved in the Vatican.)] - -CURRUS (ἅρμα), a chariot, a car. These terms appear to have denoted -those two-wheeled vehicles for the carriage of persons, which were -open overhead, thus differing from the _carpentum_, and closed in -front, in which they differed from the _cisium_. The most essential -articles in the construction of the currus were, 1. The rim (ἄντυξ) -[ANTYX]. 2. The axle (ἄξων, _axis_). 3. The wheels (κύκλα, τροχοί, -_rotae_), which revolved upon the axle, and were prevented from -coming off by the insertion of pins (ἔμβολοι) into the extremities -of the axles. The parts of the wheel were:--(_a_) The nave (πλήμνη, -_modiolus_). (_b_) The spokes (κνῆμαι, literally, the _legs, radii_.) -(_c_) The felly (ἴτυς). (_d_) The tire (ἐπίσωτρον, _canthus_). 4. -The pole (ῥυμός, _temo_). All the parts above mentioned are seen -in the preceding cut of an ancient chariot. The Greeks and Romans -appear never to have used more than one pole and one yoke, and the -currus thus constructed was commonly drawn by two horses, which were -attached to it by their necks, and therefore called δίζυγες ἵπποι, -συνωρίς, _gemini jugales_, _equi bijuges_, &c. If a third horse was -added, as was not unfrequently the case, it was fastened by traces. -The horse so attached was called παρήορος, παράσειρος, σειραφόρος, -in Latin, _funalis_, and is opposed to the ζυγῖται or ζύγιοι, the -yoke-horses. The ἵππος παρήορος is placed on the right of the two -yoke-horses. (See woodcut.) The Latin name for a chariot and pair -was _biga_, generally _bigae_. When a third horse was added, it was -called _triga_. - - -[Illustration: Triga. (From a Painting on a Vase.)] - - -[Illustration: Quadrigae. (From Paintings on a Vase and a -Terra-cotta.)] - -A chariot and four was called _quadriga_, generally _quadrigae_; in -Greek, τετραορία or τέθριππος. The horses were commonly harnessed in -a quadriga after the manner already represented, the two strongest -horses being placed under the yoke, and the two others fastened -on each side by means of ropes. This is clearly seen in the two -quadrigae figured below, especially in the one on the right hand. It -represents a chariot overthrown in passing the goal at the circus. -The charioteer having fallen backwards, the pole and yoke are thrown -upwards into the air; the two trace-horses have fallen on their -knees, and the two yoke-horses are prancing on their hind legs.--The -currus was adapted to carry two persons, and on this account was -called in Greek δίφρος. One of the two was of course the driver. He -was called ἡνίοχος, because he held the reins, and his companion -παραβάτης, from going by his side or near him. In the Homeric ages, -chariots were commonly employed on the field of battle. The men of -rank all took their chariots with them, and in an engagement placed -themselves in front. Chariots were not much used by the Romans. The -most splendid kind were the quadrigae, in which the Roman generals -and emperors rode when they triumphed. The body of the triumphal car -was cylindrical, as we often see it represented on medals. It was -enriched with gold and ivory. The utmost skill of the painter and -the sculptor was employed to enhance its beauty and splendour. The -triumphal car had in general no pole, the horses being led by men who -were stationed at their heads. - -[Illustration: Marble Chariot in the Vatican.] - - -CURSŌRES, slaves whose duty it was to run before the carriage of -their masters. They first came into fashion in the first century -of the Christian aera. The word _cursores_ was also applied to all -slaves whom their masters employed in carrying letters, messages, &c. - - -CURSUS. [CIRCUS.] - - -CŬRŪLIS SELLA. [SELLA CURULIS.] - - -CUSTŌDES. [COMITIA.] - - -CUSTŌDES, CUSTŌDĬAE. [CASTRA.] - - -CUSTOS URBIS. [PRAEFECTUS URBI.] - - -[Illustration: Cyathi. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iv. pl. 12.)] - -CỸĂTHUS (κύαθος), a Greek and Roman liquid measure, containing -one-twelfth of the sextarius, or ·0825 of a pint English. The form -of the cyathus used at banquets was that of a small ladle, by means -of which the wine was conveyed into the drinking-cups from the large -vessel (_crater_) in which it was mixed. Two of these cyathi are -represented in the preceding woodcut. The cyathus was also the name -given to a cup holding the same quantity as the measure. Hence Horace -says (_Carm._ iii. 8. 13): - - “Sume, Maecenas, cyathos amici - Sospitis centum.” - - -CYCLAS (κυκλάς), a circular robe worn by women, to the bottom of -which a border was affixed, inlaid with gold. It appears to have been -usually made of some thin material. - - -CȲMA (κῦμα), in architecture, an _ogee_, a wave-shaped moulding, -consisting of two curves, the one concave and the other convex. -There were two forms, the _cyma recta_, which was concave above, and -convex below, thus, [Illustration], and the _cyma reversa_, which was -convex above and concave below, thus [Illustration]. The diminutive -_cymatium_ or _cumatium_ (κυμάτιον) is also used, and is indeed the -more common name. - - -CYMBA (κύμβη) is derived from κύμβος, a hollow, and is employed to -signify any small kind of boat used on lakes, rivers, &c. It appears -to have been much the same as the _acatium_ and _scapha_. - - -[Illustration: Cymbala. (From a Bas-relief in the Vatican.)] - -CYMBĂLUM (κύμβαλον), a musical instrument, in the shape of two half -globes, which were held one in each hand by the performer, and -played by being struck against each other. The word is derived from -κύμβος, a hollow. The cymbal was a very ancient instrument, being -used in the worship of Cybelé, Bacchus, Juno, and all the earlier -deities of the Grecian and Roman mythology. It probably came from the -East. The crotalum (κρόταλον) was a kind of cymbal. It appears to -have been a split reed or cane, which clattered when shaken with the -hand. Women who played on the crotalum were termed _crotalistriae_. -Such was Virgil’s Copa: - - “Crispum sub crotalo docta movere latus.” - -The line alludes to the dance with crotala (similar to -castanets).--For _sistrum_, which some have referred to the class of -_cymbala_, see SISTRUM. - -[Illustration: Crotala. (Borghese Vase now in the Louvre.)] - - - - -DACTỸLUS (δάκτυλος), a Greek measure, answering to the Roman -_digitus_, each signifying a _finger-breadth_, and being the -sixteenth part of a foot. [PES.] - - -DAEDALA or DAEDĂLEIA (δαίδαλα, δαιδάλεια), names used by the Greeks -to signify those early works of art which were ascribed to the age of -Daedalus, and especially the ancient wooden statues, ornamented with -gilding and bright colours and real drapery, which were the earliest -known forms of the images of the gods, after the mere blocks of wood -or stone, which were at first used for symbols of them. - - -DAEDĂLA (δαίδαλα), the name of two festivals, celebrated in Boeotia -in honour of Hera, and called respectively the _Great_ and the -_Lesser Daedala_. The latter were celebrated by the Plataeans alone; -in the celebration of the former, which took place only every -sixtieth year, the Plataeans were joined by the other Boeotians. - - -DAMARĔTĪON (δαμαρέτειον χρύσιον), a Sicilian coin, respecting which -there is much dispute; but it was probably a gold coin, equal in -value to fifty litrae or ten Attic drachmae of silver; that is, a -half stater. - - -DAMIURGI. [DEMIURGI.] - - -DAMŎSĬA. [EXERCITUS.] - - -DANĂCE (δανάκη), properly the name of a foreign coin, was also the -name given to the obolos, which was placed in the mouth of the dead -to pay the ferryman in Hades. - - -DAPHNĒPHŎRĬA (δαφνηφόρια), a festival celebrated every ninth year at -Thebes in honour of Apollo, surnamed Ismenius or Galaxius. Its name -was derived from the laurel branches (δάφναι) which were carried by -those who took part in its celebration. - - -DĀREICUS (δαρεικός), or to give the name in full, the Stater of -Dareius, a gold coin of Persia, stamped on one side with the figure -of an archer crowned and kneeling upon one knee, and on the other -with a sort of quadrata incusa or deep cleft. It is supposed to have -derived its name from the first Dareius, king of Persia. It is equal -to about 1_l._ 1_s._ 10_d._ 1·76 farthings. - -[Illustration: Dareicus. (British Museum.)] - - -DĔCĂDŪCHI (δεκαδοῦχοι), the members of a council of Ten, who -succeeded the Thirty in the supreme power at Athens, B.C. 403. They -were chosen from the ten tribes, one from each; but, though opposed -to the Thirty, they sent ambassadors to Sparta to ask for assistance -against Thrasybulus and the exiles. They remained masters of Athens -till the party of Thrasybulus obtained possession of the city and the -democracy was restored. - - -DĔCARCHĬA or DĔCĂDARCHĬA (δεκαρχία, δεκαδαρχία), a supreme council -established in many of the Grecian cities by the Lacedaemonians, who -entrusted to it the whole government of the state under the direction -of a Spartan harmost. It always consisted of the leading members of -the aristocratical party. - - -DĔCASMUS (δεκασμός), bribery. There were two actions for bribery at -Athens: one, called δεκασμοῦ γραφή, lay against the person who gave -the bribe; and the other, called δώρων or δωροδοκίας γραφή, against -the person who received it. These actions applied to the bribery of -citizens in the public assemblies of the people (συνδεκάζειν τὴν -ἐκκλησίαν), of the Heliaea or any of the courts of justice, of the -βουλή, and of the public advocates. Actions for bribery were under -the jurisdiction of the thesmothetae. The punishment on conviction -of the defendant was death, or payment of ten times the value of the -gift received, to which the court might add a further punishment -(προστίμημα). - - -DĔCĂTE (δεκάτη). [DECUMAE.] - - -DĔCEMPĔDA, a pole ten feet long, used by the agrimensores -[AGRIMENSORES] in measuring land. Thus we find that the agrimensores -were sometimes called _decempedatores_. - - -DĔCEMPRĪMI. [SENATUS.] - - -DĔCEMVĬRI, or the “ten-men,” the name of various magistrates and -functionaries at Rome, of whom the most important were:--(1) -DECEMVIRI LEGIBUS SCRIBENDIS, ten commissioners, who were appointed -to draw up a code of laws. They were entrusted with supreme power -in the state, and all the other magistracies were suspended. They -entered upon their office at the beginning of the year B.C. 451; and -they discharged their duties with diligence, and dispensed justice -with impartiality. Each administered the government day by day in -succession as during an interregnum; and the fasces were only carried -before the one who presided for the day. They drew up a body of laws, -distributed into ten sections; which, after being approved of by -the senate and the comitia, were engraven on tables of metal, and -set up in the comitium. On the expiration of their year of office, -all parties were so well satisfied with the manner in which they -had discharged their duties, that it was resolved to continue the -same form of government for another year; more especially as some -of the decemvirs said that their work was not finished. Ten new -decemvirs were accordingly elected, of whom App. Claudius alone -belonged to the former body. These magistrates framed several new -laws, which were approved of by the centuries, and engraven on two -additional tables. They acted, however, in a most tyrannical manner. -Each was attended by twelve lictors, who carried not the rods only, -but the axes, the emblem of sovereignty. They made common cause -with the patrician party, and committed all kinds of outrages upon -the persons and property of the plebeians and their families. When -their year of office expired they refused to resign or to appoint -successors. At length, the unjust decision of App. Claudius, in the -case of Virginia, which led her father to kill her with his own -hands to save her from prostitution, occasioned an insurrection of -the people. The decemvirs were in consequence obliged to resign -their office, B.C. 449; after which the usual magistracies were -re-established. The ten tables of the former, and the two tables of -the latter decemvirs, form together the laws of the Twelve Tables, -which were the groundwork of the Roman laws. This, the first attempt -to make a code, remained also the only attempt for near one thousand -years, until the legislation of Justinian.--(2) DECEMVIRI LITIBUS or -STLITIBUS JUDICANDIS, were magistrates forming a court of justice, -which took cognizance of civil cases. The history as well as the -peculiar jurisdiction of this court during the time of the republic -is involved in inextricable obscurity. In the time of Cicero it -still existed, and the proceedings in it took place in the ancient -form of the sacramentum. Augustus transferred to these decemvirs -the presidency in the courts of the centumviri. During the empire, -this court had jurisdiction in capital matters, which is expressly -stated in regard to the decemvirs.--(3) DECEMVIRI SACRIS FACIUNDIS, -sometimes called simply DECEMVIRI SACRORUM, were the members of an -ecclesiastical collegium, and were elected for life. Their chief duty -was to take care of the Sibylline books, and to inspect them on all -important occasions by command of the senate. Under the kings the -care of the Sibylline books was committed to two men (_duumviri_) of -high rank. On the expulsion of the kings, the care of these books was -entrusted to the noblest of the patricians, who were exempted from -all military and civil duties. Their number was increased about the -year 367 B.C. to ten, of whom five were chosen from the patricians -and five from the plebeians. Subsequently their number was still -further increased to fifteen (_quindecemviri_), probably by Sulla. It -was also the duty of the decemviri to celebrate the games of Apollo, -and the secular games. - - -DĔCENNĀLĬA or DĔCENNĬA, a festival celebrated with games every ten -years by the Roman emperors. This festival owed its origin to the -fact that Augustus refused the supreme power when offered to him for -his life, and would only consent to accept it for ten years, and when -these expired, for another period of ten years, and so on to the end -of his life. - - -DĔCĬMĀTĬO, the selection, by lot, of every tenth man for punishment, -when any number of soldiers in the Roman army had been guilty of -any crime. The remainder usually had barley allowed to them instead -of wheat. This punishment appears not to have been inflicted in the -early times of the republic. - - -DĒCRĒTUM seems to mean that which is determined in a particular case -after examination or consideration. It is sometimes applied to a -determination of the consuls, and sometimes to a determination of -the senate. A _decretum_ of the senate would seem to differ from -a _senatus-consultum_, in the way above indicated: it was limited -to the special occasion and circumstances, and this would be true -whether the decretum was of a judicial or a legislative character. -But this distinction in the use of the two words, as applied to an -act of the senate, was, perhaps, not always observed. - - -DĔCŬMAE (sc. _partes_) formed a portion of the _vectigalia_ of the -Romans, and were paid by subjects whose territory, either by conquest -or _deditio_, had become the property of the state (_ager publicus_). -They consisted, as the name denotes, of a tithe or tenth of the -produce of the soil, levied upon the cultivators (_aratores_) or -occupiers (_possessores_) of the lands, which, from being subject to -this payment, were called _agri decumani_. The tax of a tenth was, -however, generally paid by corn lands: plantations and vineyards, as -requiring no seed and less labour, paid a fifth of the produce. A -similar system existed in Greece also. Peisistratus, for instance, -imposed a tax of a tenth on the lands of the Athenians, which the -Peisistratidae lowered to a twentieth. At the time of the Persian -war the confederate Greeks made a vow, by which all the states -who had surrendered themselves to the enemy were subjected to the -payment of tithes for the use of the god at Delphi. The tithes of -the public lands belonging to Athens were farmed out as at Rome to -contractors, called δεκατώναι: the term δεκατηλόγοι was applied to -the collectors; but the callings were, as we might suppose, often -united in the same person. The title δεκατευταί is applied to both. -A δεκάτη, or tenth of a different kind, was the arbitrary exaction -imposed by the Athenians (B.C. 410) on the cargoes of all ships -sailing into or out of the Pontus. They lost it by the battle of -Aegospotami (B.C. 405); but it was re-established by Thrasybulus -about B.C. 391. The tithe was let out to farm. - - -DĔCUNCIS, another name for the Dextans. [AS.] - - -DĔCŬRĬA. [EXERCITUS.] - - -DĔCŬRĬŌNES. [COLONIA: EXERCITUS.] - - -DĔCUSSIS. [AS.] - - -DĒDĬCĀTĬO. [INAUGURATIO.] - - -DĒDĬTĬCĬI, were those who had taken up arms against the Roman people, -and being conquered, had surrendered themselves. Such people did not -individually lose their freedom, but as a community all political -existence, and of course had no other relation to Rome than that of -subjects. - - -DĒDUCTŌRES. [AMBITUS.] - - -DEIGMA (δεῖγμα), a particular place in the Peiraeeus, as well as -in the harbours of other states, where merchants exposed samples -of their goods for sale. The samples themselves were also called -_deigmata_. - - -DEIPNON. [COENA.] - - -DĒLĀTOR, an informer. The delatores, under the emperors, were a -class of men who gained their livelihood by informing against their -fellow-citizens. They constantly brought forward false charges to -gratify the avarice or jealousy of the different emperors, and were -consequently paid according to the importance of the information -which they gave. - - -DĒLECTUS. [EXERCITUS.] - - -DĒLĬA (δήλια), the name of festivals and games celebrated in the -island of Delos, to which the Cyclades and the neighbouring Ionians -on the coasts belonged. The Delia had existed from very early times, -and were celebrated every fifth year. That the Athenians took part -in these solemnities at a very early period, is evident from the -_Deliastae_ (afterwards called θεωροί) mentioned in the laws of -Solon; the sacred vessel (θεωρίς), moreover, which they sent to Delos -every year, was said to be the same which Theseus had sent after -his return from Crete. In the course of time the celebration of -this ancient panegyris in Delos had ceased, and it was not revived -until B.C. 426, when the Athenians, after having purified the island -in the winter of that year, restored the ancient solemnities, and -added horse-races, which had never before taken place at the Delia. -After this restoration, Athens, being at the head of the Ionian -confederacy, took the most prominent part in the celebration of the -Delia; and though the islanders, in common with Athens, provided -the choruses and victims, the leader (ἀρχιθέωρος), who conducted -the whole solemnity, was an Athenian, and the Athenians had the -superintendence of the common sanctuary. From these solemnities, -belonging to the great Delian panegyris, we must distinguish the -_lesser Delia_, which were mentioned above, and which were celebrated -every year, probably on the 6th of Thargelion. The Athenians on -this occasion sent the sacred vessel (θεωρίς), which the priest of -Apollo adorned with laurel branches, to Delos. The embassy was called -θεωρία; and those who sailed to the island, θεωροί; and before they -set sail a solemn sacrifice was offered in the Delion, at Marathon, -in order to obtain a happy voyage. During the absence of the vessel -the city of Athens was purified, and no criminal was allowed to be -executed. - - -DELPHĪNĬA (δελφίνια), a festival of the same expiatory character as -the Apollonia, which was celebrated in various towns of Greece, in -honour of Apollo, surnamed Delphinius. - - -DELPHIS (δελφίς), an instrument of naval warfare. It consisted of a -large mass of iron or lead suspended on a beam, which projected from -the mast of the ship like a yard-arm. It was used to sink, or make a -hole in, an enemy’s vessel, by being dropped upon it when alongside. - - -DĒLŪBRUM. [TEMPLUM.] - - -DĒMARCHI (δήμαρχοι), officers, who were the head-boroughs or chief -magistrates of the demi in Attica, and are said to have been first -appointed by Cleisthenes. Their duties were various and important. -Thus, they convened meetings of the demus, and took the votes upon -all questions under consideration; they made and kept a register of -the landed estates in their districts, levied the monies due to the -demus for rent, &c. They succeeded to the functions which had been -discharged by the _naucrari_ of the old constitution. - - -DĒMENSUM, an allowance of corn, given to Roman slaves monthly or -daily. It usually consisted of four or five modii of corn a month. - - -DĒMĬNŪTIO CĂPĬTIS. [CAPUT.] - - -DĒMĬURGI (δημιουργοί), magistrates, whose title is expressive of -their doing the service of the people, existed in several of the -Peloponnesian states. Among the Eleans and Mantineans they seem to -have been the chief executive magistracy. We also read of _demiurgi_ -in the Achaean league, who probably ranked next to the _strategi_, -and put questions to the vote in the general assembly of the -confederates. Officers named _epidemiurgi_, or upper demiurgi, were -sent by the Corinthians to manage the government of their colony at -Potidaea. - - -DĒMŎCRĂTĬA (δημοκρατία), that form of constitution in which the -sovereign political power is in the hands of the demus (δῆμος) or -commonalty. In a passage of Herodotus (iii. 80), the characteristics -of a democracy are specified to be--1. Equality of legal rights -(ἰσονομίη). 2. The appointment of magistrates by lot. 3. The -accountability of all magistrates and officers. 4. The reference -of all public matters to the decision of the community at large. -Aristotle remarks--“The following points are characteristic of a -democracy; that all magistrates should be chosen out of the whole -body of citizens; that all should rule each, and each in turn rule -all; that either all magistracies, or those not requiring experience -and professional knowledge, should be assigned by lot; that there -should be no property qualification, or but a very small one, for -filling any magistracy; that the same man should not fill the same -office twice, or should fill offices but few times, and but few -offices, except in the case of military commands; that all, or as -many as possible of the magistracies, should be of brief duration; -that all citizens should be qualified to serve as dicasts; that the -supreme power in everything should reside in the public assembly, -and that no magistrate should be entrusted with irresponsible power -except in very small matters.” It is somewhat curious that neither -in practice nor in theory did the representative system attract any -attention among the Greeks. That diseased form of a democracy, in -which from the practice of giving pay to the poorer citizens for -their attendance in the public assembly, and from other causes, -the predominant party in the state came to be in fact the lowest -class of the citizens, was by later writers termed an _Ochlocracy_ -(ὀχλοκρατία--the dominion of the mob). - - -DĒMŎSĬI (δημόσιοι), public slaves at Athens, who were purchased by -the state. The public slaves, most frequently mentioned, formed -the city guard; it was their duty to preserve order in the public -assembly, and to remove any person whom the prytaneis might order. -They are generally called bowmen (τοξόται); or from the native -country of the majority, Scythians (Σκύθαι); and also Speusinians, -from the name of the person who first established the force. They -originally lived in tents in the market-place, and afterwards upon -the Areiopagus. Their officers had the name of toxarchs (τόξαρχοι). -Their number was at first 300, purchased soon after the battle of -Salamis, but was afterwards increased to 1200. - - -DĒMUS (δῆμος), originally indicated a district or tract of land; -and in this meaning of a country district, inhabited and under -cultivation, it is contrasted with πόλις. When Cleisthenes, at -Athens, broke up the four tribes of the old constitution, he -substituted in their place ten local tribes (φυλαὶ τοπικαί), -each of which he subdivided into ten _demi_ or country parishes, -possessing each its principal town; and in some one of these demi -were enrolled all the Athenian citizens resident in Attica, with -the exception, perhaps, of those who were natives of Athens itself. -These subdivisions corresponded in some degree to the _naucrariae_ -(ναυκραρίαι) of the old tribes, and were originally one hundred in -number. These demi formed independent corporations, and had each -their several magistrates, landed and other property, with a common -treasury. They had likewise their respective convocations or “parish -meetings,” convened by the _demarchi_, in which was transacted the -public business of the demus, such as the leasing of its estates, -the elections of officers, the revision of the registers or lists -of δημόται, and the admission of new members. Independent of these -bonds of union, each demus seems to have had its peculiar temples and -religious worship. There were likewise judges, called δικασταὶ κατα -δημους, who decided cases where the matter in dispute was of less -value than ten drachmae. Admission into a demus was necessary before -any individual could enter upon his full rights and privileges as -an Attic citizen. The register of enrolment was called ληξιαρχικὸν -γραμματεῖον. - - -DĒNĀRĬUS, the principal silver coin among the Romans, was so called -because it was originally equal to ten asses; but on the reduction -of the weight of the as [AS], it was made equal to sixteen asses, -except in military pay, in which it was still reckoned as equal to -ten asses. The denarius was first coined five years before the first -Punic war, B.C. 269. [ARGENTUM.] The average value of the denarii -coined at the end of the commonwealth is about 8½_d._, and those -under the empire about 7½_d._ If the denarius be reckoned in value -8½_d._, the other Roman coins of silver will be of the following -value: - - | Pence. | Farth. - | | - Teruncius | -- | ·53125 - Sembella | -- | 1·0625 - Libella | -- | 2·125 - Sestertius | 2 | ·5 - Quinarius or Victoriatus | 4 | 1 - Denarius | 8 | 2 - -[Illustration: Denarius. (British Museum.)] - -Some denarii were called _serrati_, because their edges were notched -like a saw, which appears to have been done to prove that they were -solid silver, and not plated; and others _bigati_ and _quadrigati_, -because on their reverse were represented chariots drawn by two and -four horses respectively. - -DĒSIGNĀTOR. [FUNUS.] - - -DĒSULTOR, a rider in the Roman games, who generally rode two horses -at the same time, sitting on them without a saddle, and vaulting upon -either of them at his pleasure. - - -DĔUNX. [As, LIBRA.] - - -DEXTANS. [As, LIBRA.] - - -DĬĂDĒMA, originally a white fillet, used to encircle the head. It is -represented on the head of Dionysus, and was, in an ornamented form, -assumed by kings as an emblem of sovereignty. - - -DĬAETĒTAE (διαιτηταί), or arbitrators, at Athens, were of two kinds; -the one public and appointed by lot (κληρωτοί), the other private, -and chosen (αἱρετοί) by the parties who referred to them the decision -of a disputed point, instead of trying it before a court of justice; -the judgments of both, according to Aristotle, being founded on -equity rather than law. The number of public arbitrators seems to -have been 40, four for each tribe. Their jurisdiction was confined to -civil cases. - - -DĬĀLIS FLĀMEN. [FLAMEN.] - - -DĬĂMASTĪGŌSIS (διαμαστίγωσις), a solemnity performed at Sparta at -the festival of Artemis Orthia. Spartan youths were scourged on -the occasion at the altar of Artemis, by persons appointed for the -purpose, until their blood gushed forth and covered the altar. Many -anecdotes are related of the courage and intrepidity with which young -Spartans bore the lashes of the scourge; some even died without -uttering a murmur at their sufferings, for to die under the strokes -was considered as honourable a death as that on the field of battle. - - -DĬĂPSĔPHĬSIS (διαψήφισις), a political institution at Athens, the -object of which was to prevent aliens, or such as were the offspring -of an unlawful marriage, from assuming the rights of citizens. By -this method a trial of spurious citizens was to be held by the -demotae, within whose deme intruders were suspected to exist. - - -DĪĂSĬA (διάσια), a great festival celebrated at Athens, without -the walls of the city, in honour of Zeus, surnamed Μειλίχιος. The -whole people took part in it, and the wealthier citizens offered -victims, while the poorer classes burnt such incense as their country -furnished. The diasia took place in the latter half of the month of -Anthesterion with feasting and rejoicings, and was, like most other -festivals, accompanied by a fair. - - -DĬCASTĒS (δικαστής), the name of a judge, or rather juryman, at -Athens. The conditions of his eligibility were, that he should be a -free citizen, in the enjoyment of his full franchise (ἐπιτιμία), and -not less than thirty years of age, and of persons so qualified 6,000 -were selected by lot for the service of every year. Their appointment -took place annually under the conduct of the nine archons and their -official scribe; each of these ten personages drew by lot the names -of 600 persons of the tribe assigned to him; the whole number so -selected was again divided by lot into ten sections of 500 each, -together with a supernumerary one, consisting of 1000 persons, from -among whom the occasional deficiencies in the sections of 500 might -be supplied. To each of the ten sections one of the ten first letters -of the alphabet was appropriated as a distinguishing mark, and a -small tablet (πινάκιον), inscribed with the letter of the section -and the name of the individual, was delivered as a certificate of -his appointment to each dicast. Before proceeding to the exercise of -his functions, the dicast was obliged to swear the official oath. -This oath being taken, and the divisions made as above mentioned, it -remained to assign the courts to the several sections of dicasts in -which they were to sit. This was not, like the first, an appointment -intended to last during the year, but took place under the conduct -of the thesmothetae, _de novo_, every time that it was necessary -to impanel a number of dicasts. As soon as the allotment had taken -place, each dicast received a staff, on which was painted the letter -and the colour of the court awarded him, which might serve both as a -ticket to procure admittance, and also to distinguish him from any -loiterer that might endeavour clandestinely to obtain a sitting after -business had begun. While in court, and probably from the hand of -the presiding magistrate (ἡγέμων δικαστηρίου), he received the token -or ticket that entitled him to receive his fee (δικαστικόν). This -payment is said to have been first instituted by Pericles, and was -originally a single obolus; it was increased by Cleon to thrice that -amount about the 88th Olympiad. - - -DĬCĒ (δίκη), signifies generally any proceedings at law by one -party directly or mediately against others. The object of all -such actions is to protect the body politic, or one or more of -its individual members, from injury and aggression; a distinction -which has in most countries suggested the division of all causes -into two great classes, the public and the private, and assigned to -each its peculiar form and treatment. At Athens the first of these -was implied by the terms public δίκαι, or ἀγῶνες, or still more -peculiarly by γραφαί; causes of the other class were termed private -δίκαι, or ἀγῶνες, or simply δίκαι in its limited sense. In a δίκη, -only the person whose rights were alleged to be affected, or the -legal protector (κύριος) of such person, if a minor or otherwise -incapable of appearing _suo jure_, was permitted to institute an -action as plaintiff; in public causes, with the exception of some few -in which the person injured or his family were peculiarly bound and -interested to act, any free citizen, and sometimes, when the state -was directly attacked, almost any alien, was empowered to do so. -The court fees, called _prytaneia_, were paid in private but not in -public causes, and a public prosecutor that compromised the action -with the defendant was in most cases punished by a fine of a thousand -drachmae and a modified disfranchisement, while there was no legal -impediment at any period of a private lawsuit to the reconciliation -of the litigant parties.--The proceedings in the δίκη were commenced -by a summons (πρόσκλησις) to the defendant to appear on a certain -day before the proper magistrate (εἰσαγωγεύς), and there answer -the charges preferred against him. This summons was often served -by the plaintiff in person, accompanied by one or two witnesses -(κλητῆρες), whose names were endorsed upon the declaration (λῆξις -or ἔγκλημα). Between the service of the summons and appearance of -the parties before the magistrate, it is very probable that the law -prescribed the intervention of a period of five days. If both parties -appeared, the proceedings commenced by the plaintiff putting in his -declaration, and at the same time depositing his share of the court -fees (πρυτανεῖα), which were trifling in amount, but the non-payment -of which was a fatal objection to the further progress of a cause. -When these were paid, it became the duty of the magistrate, if no -manifest objection appeared on the face of the declaration, to cause -it to be written out on a tablet, and exposed for the inspection -of the public on the wall or other place that served as the cause -list of his court. The magistrate then appointed a day for the -further proceedings of the _anacrisis_ [ANACRISIS]. If the plaintiff -failed to appear at the anacrisis, the suit, of course, fell to -the ground; if the defendant made default, judgment passed against -him. An affidavit might at this, as well as at other periods of the -action, be made in behalf of a person unable to attend upon the -given day, and this would, if allowed, have the effect of postponing -further proceedings (ὑπωμοσία); it might, however, be combated by -a counter-affidavit, to the effect that the alleged reason was -unfounded or otherwise insufficient (ἀνθυπωμοσία); and a question -would arise upon this point, the decision of which, when adverse to -the defendant, would render him liable to the penalty of contumacy. -The plaintiff was in this case said ἐρήμην ἑλεῖν; the defendant, -ἐρήμην ὀφλεῖν, δίκην being the word omitted in both phrases. The -anacrisis began with the affidavit of the plaintiff (προωμοσία), -then followed the answer of the defendant (ἀντωμοσία or ἀντιγραφή), -then the parties produced their respective witnesses, and reduced -their evidence to writing, and put in originals, or authenticated -copies, of all the records, deeds, and contracts that might be -useful in establishing their case, as well as memoranda of offers -and requisitions then made by either side (προκλήσεις). The whole of -the documents were then, if the cause took a straightforward course -(εὐθυδικία), enclosed on the last day of the anacrisis in a casket -(ἐχῖνος), which was sealed, and entrusted to the custody of the -presiding magistrate, till it was produced and opened at the trial. -During the interval no alteration in its contents was permitted, and -accordingly evidence that had been discovered after the anacrisis -was not producible at the trial.--In some causes, the trial before -the dicasts was by law appointed to come on within a given time; in -such as were not provided for by such regulations, we may suppose -that it would principally depend upon the leisure of the magistrate. -Upon the court being assembled, the magistrate called on the cause, -and the plaintiff opened his case. At the commencement of the speech, -the proper officer (ὁ ἐφ’ ὕδωρ) filled the clepsydra with water. As -long as the water flowed from this vessel the orator was permitted -to speak; if, however, evidence was to be read by the officer of -the court, or a law recited, the water was stopped till the speaker -recommenced. The quantity of water, or, in other words, the length -of the speeches, was different in different causes. After the -speeches of the advocates, which were in general two on each side, -and the incidental reading of the documentary and other evidence, -the dicasts proceeded to give their judgment by ballot.--When the -principal point at issue was decided in favour of the plaintiff, -there followed in many cases a further discussion as to the fine or -punishment to be inflicted on the defendant (παθεῖν ἢ ἀποτῖσαι). All -actions were divided into two classes,--ἀγῶνες ἀτίμητοι, _suits not -to be assessed_, in which the fine, or other penalty, was determined -by the laws; and ἀγῶνες τιμητοί, _suits to be assessed_, in which -the penalty had to be fixed by the judges. If the suit was an ἀγῶν -τιμητος, the plaintiff generally mentioned in the pleadings the -punishment which he considered the defendant deserved (τίμημα); and -the defendant was allowed to make a counter-assessment (ἀντιτιμᾶσθαι -or ὑποτιμᾶσθαι), and to argue before the judges why the assessment of -the plaintiff ought to be changed or mitigated. In certain causes, -which were determined by the laws, any of the judges was allowed -to propose an additional assessment (προστίμημα); the amount of -which, however, appears to have been usually fixed by the laws. -Thus, in certain cases of theft, the additional penalty was fixed -at five days’ and nights’ imprisonment. Upon judgment being given -in a private suit, the Athenian law left its execution very much in -the hands of the successful party, who was empowered to seize the -moveables of his antagonist as a pledge for the payment of the money, -or institute an action of ejectment (ἐξούλης) against the refractory -debtor. The judgment of a court of dicasts was in general decisive -(δίκη αὐτοτελής); but upon certain occasions, as, for instance, -when a gross case of perjury or conspiracy could be proved by the -unsuccessful party to have operated to his disadvantage, the cause, -upon the conviction of such conspirators or witnesses, might be -commenced _de novo_. - - -DICTĀTOR, an extraordinary magistrate at Rome. The name is of -Latin origin, and the office probably existed in many Latin towns -before it was introduced into Rome. We find it in Lanuvium even -in very late times. At Rome this magistrate was originally called -_magister populi_ and not _dictator_, and in the sacred books he -was always designated by the former name down to the latest times. -On the establishment of the Roman republic the government of the -state was entrusted to two consuls, that the citizens might be the -better protected against the tyrannical exercise of the supreme -power. But it was soon felt that circumstances might arise in -which it was of importance for the safety of the state that the -government should be vested in the hands of a single person, who -should possess for a season absolute power, and from whose decision -there should be no appeal to any other body. Thus it came to pass -that in B.C. 501, nine years after the expulsion of the Tarquins, -the dictatorship (_dictatura_) was instituted. By the original law -respecting the appointment of a dictator (_lex de dictatore creando_) -no one was eligible for this office unless he had previously been -consul. We find, however, a few instances in which this law was not -observed.--When a dictator was considered necessary, the senate -passed a senatus consultum, that one of the consuls should nominate -(_dicere_) a dictator; and without a previous decree of the senate -the consuls had not the power of naming a dictator. The nomination or -proclamation of the dictator was always made by the consul, probably -without any witnesses, between midnight and morning, and with the -observance of the auspices (_surgens_ or _oriens nocte silentio -dictatorem dicebat_). The technical word for this nomination or -proclamation was _dicere_ (seldom _creare_ or _facere_). Originally -the dictator was of course a patrician. The first plebeian dictator -was C. Marcius Rutilus, nominated in B.C. 356 by the plebeian consul -M. Popillius Laenas. The reasons which led to the appointment of -a dictator, required that there should be only one at a time. The -dictators that were appointed for carrying on the business of the -state were said to be nominated _rei gerundae causa_, or sometimes -_seditionis sedandae causa_; and upon them, as well as upon the -other magistrates, the imperium was conferred by a _Lex Curiata_. -The dictatorship was limited to six months, and no instances occur -in which a person held this office for a longer time, for the -dictatorships of Sulla and Caesar are of course not to be taken into -account. On the contrary, though a dictator was appointed for six -months, he often resigned his office long previously, immediately -after he had dispatched the business for which he had been appointed. -As soon as the dictator was nominated, a kind of suspension took -place with respect to the consuls and all the other magistrates, -with the exception of the tribuni plebis. The regular magistrates -continued, indeed, to discharge the duties of their various offices -under the dictator, but they were no longer independent officers, -but were subject to the higher imperium of the dictator, and obliged -to obey his orders in every thing. The superiority of the dictator’s -power to that of the consuls consisted chiefly in the three following -points--greater independence of the senate, more extensive power of -punishment without any appeal (_provocatio_) from their sentence -to the people, and irresponsibility. To these three points, must -of course be added that he was not fettered by a colleague. We may -naturally suppose that the dictator would usually act in unison with -the senate; but it is expressly stated that in many cases where the -consuls required the co-operation of the senate, the dictator could -act on his own responsibility. That there was originally no appeal -from the sentence of the dictator is certain, and accordingly the -lictors bore the axes in the fasces before them even in the city, -as a symbol of their absolute power over the lives of the citizens, -although by the Valerian law the axes had disappeared from the fasces -of the consuls. Whether, however, the right of _provocatio_ was -afterwards given cannot be determined. It was in consequence of the -great and irresponsible power possessed by the dictatorship, that we -find it frequently compared with the regal dignity, from which it -only differed in being held for a limited time.--There were however -a few limits to the power of the dictator. 1. The most important was -that which we have mentioned above, that the period of his office was -only six months. 2. He had not power over the treasury, but could -only make use of the money which was granted him by the senate. 3. -He was not allowed to leave Italy, since he might thus easily become -dangerous to the republic; though the case of Atilius Calatinus in -the first Punic war forms an exception to this rule. 4. He was not -allowed to ride on horseback at Rome, without previously obtaining -the permission of the people; a regulation apparently capricious, -but perhaps adopted that he might not bear too great a resemblance -to the kings, who were accustomed to ride.--The insignia of the -dictator were nearly the same as those of the kings in earlier times; -and of the consuls subsequently. Instead however of having only -twelve lictors, as was the case with the consuls, he was preceded by -twenty-four bearing the secures as well as the fasces. The _sella -curulis_ and _toga praetexta_ also belonged to the dictator.--The -preceding account of the dictatorship applies more particularly to -the dictator rei gerundae causa; but dictators were also frequently -appointed, especially when the consuls were absent from the city, -to perform certain acts, which could not be done by any inferior -magistrate. These dictators had little more than the name; and as -they were only appointed to discharge a particular duty, they had to -resign immediately that duty was performed. The occasions on which -such dictators were appointed, were principally:--1. For the purpose -of holding the comitia for the elections (_comitiorum habendorum -causa_). 2. For fixing the _clavus annalis_ in the temple of Jupiter -(_clavi figendi causa_) in times of pestilence or civil discord, -because the law said that this ceremony was to be performed by the -_praetor maximus_, and after the institution of the dictatorship -the latter was regarded as the highest magistracy in the state. 3. -For appointing holidays (_feriarum constituendarum causa_) on the -appearance of prodigies, and for officiating at the public games -(_ludorum faciendorum causa_), the presidency of which belonged -to the consuls or praetors. 4. For holding trials (_quaestionibus -exercendis_.) 5. And on one occasion, for filling up vacancies in -the senate (_legendo senatui_).--Along with the dictator there was -always a _magister equitum_, the nomination of whom was left to the -choice of the dictator, unless the senatus consultum specified, -as was sometimes the case, the name of the person who was to be -appointed. The magister equitum had, like the dictator, to receive -the imperium by a lex curiata. The dictator could not be without -a magister equitum, and, consequently, if the latter died during -the six months of the dictatorship, another had to be nominated -in his stead. The magister equitum was subject to the imperium of -the dictator, but in the absence of his superior he became his -representative, and exercised the same powers as the dictator. The -magister equitum was originally, as his name imports, the commander -of the cavalry, while the dictator was at the head of the legions, -the infantry; and the relation between them was in this respect -similar to that which subsisted between the king and the tribunus -celerum. Dictators were only appointed so long as the Romans had -to carry on wars in Italy. A solitary instance of the nomination -of a dictator for the purpose of carrying on war out of Italy has -been already mentioned. The last dictator rei gerundae causa was M. -Junius Pera, in B.C. 216. From that time dictators were frequently -appointed for holding the elections down to B.C. 202, but after -that year the dictatorship disappears altogether.--After a lapse of -120 years, Sulla caused himself to be appointed dictator in B.C. -82, _reipublicae constituendae causa_, but neither his dictatorship -nor that of Caesar is to be compared with the genuine office. Soon -after Caesar’s death the dictatorship was abolished for ever by a -lex proposed by the consul Antonius. During the time, however, that -the dictatorship was in abeyance, a substitute was invented for it, -whenever the circumstances of the republic required the adoption of -extraordinary measures, by the senate investing the consuls with -dictatorial power. This was done by the well-known formula, _Videant_ -or _dent operam consules, ne quid respublica detrimenti capiat_. - - -DICTYNNĬA (δικτύννια), a festival with sacrifices, celebrated -at Cydonia in Crete, in honour of Artemis, surnamed Δίκτυννα or -Δικτύνναια, from δίκτυον, a hunter’s net. - - -DĬES (ἡμέρα), a day. The name _dies_ was applied, like our word day, -to the time during which, according to the notions of the ancients, -the sun performed his course around the earth, and this time they -called the civil day (_dies civilis_, in Greek νυχθήμερον, because -it included both night and day). The natural day (_dies naturalis_), -or the time from the rising to the setting of the sun, was likewise -designated by the name dies. The civil day began with the Greeks -at the setting of the sun, and with the Romans at midnight. At the -time of the Homeric poems the natural day was divided into three -parts. The first, called ἠώς, began with sunrise, and comprehended -the whole space of time during which light seemed to be increasing, -_i.e._ till mid-day. The second part was called μέσον ἦμαρ or mid-day, -during which the sun was thought to stand still. The third part bore -the name of δείλη or δείελον ἦμαρ, which derived its name from the -increased warmth of the atmosphere. Among the Athenians the first -and last of the divisions made at the time of Homer were afterwards -subdivided into two parts. The earlier part of the morning was termed -πρωΐ or πρῲ τῆς ἡμέρας: the latter, πληθούσης τῆς ἀγορᾶς, or περὶ -πλήθουσαν ἀγοράν. The μέσον ἦμαρ of Homer was afterwards expressed -by μεσημβρία, μέσον ἡμέρας, or μέση ἡμέρα, and comprehended, as -before, the middle of the day, when the sun seemed neither to rise -nor to decline. The two parts of the afternoon were called δείλη -πρωΐη or πρωΐα, and δείλη ὀψίη or ὀψία. This division continued to -be observed down to the latest period of Grecian history, though -another more accurate division was introduced at an early period; -for Anaximander, or, according to others, his disciple Anaximenes, -is said to have made the Greeks acquainted with the use of the -Babylonian chronometer or sun-dial (called πόλος, or ὡρολόγιον), by -means of which the natural day was divided into twelve equal spaces -of time. The division of the day most generally observed by the -Romans, was that into _tempus antemeridianum_ and _pomeridianum_, -the _meridies_ itself being only considered as a point at which the -one ended and the other commenced. But as it was of importance that -this moment should be known, an especial officer [ACCENSUS] was -appointed, who proclaimed the time of mid-day. The division of the -day into twelve equal spaces, which were shorter in winter than in -summer, was first adopted when artificial means of measuring time -were introduced among the Romans from Greece. This was about the -year B.C. 291, when L. Papirius Cursor, after the war with Pyrrhus -in southern Italy, brought to Rome an instrument called _solarium -horologium_, or simply _solarium_. But as the solarium had been -made for a different latitude, it showed the time at Rome very -incorrectly. Scipio Nasica, therefore, erected in B.C. 159 a public -clepsydra, which indicated the hours of the night as well as of the -day. Even after the erection of this clepsydra it was customary -for one of the subordinate officers of the praetor to proclaim the -third, sixth, and ninth hours; which shows that the day was, like the -night, divided into four parts, each consisting of three hours.--All -the days of the year were, according to different points of view, -divided by the Romans into different classes. For the purpose of the -administration of justice all days were divided into _dies fasti_ -and _dies nefasti_. DIES FASTI were the days on which the praetor -was allowed to administer justice in the public courts; they derived -their name from _fari_ (_fari tria verba_; _do_, _dico_, _addico_). -On some of the dies fasti comitia could be held, but not on all. The -regular _dies fasti_ were marked in the Roman calendar by the letter -F, and their number in the course of the year was 38.--Besides these -there were certain days called _dies intercisi_, on which the praetor -might hold his courts, but not at all hours, so that sometimes one -half of such a day was _fastus_, while the other half was _nefastus_. -Their number was 65 in the year.--DIES NEFASTI were days on which -neither courts of justice nor comitia were allowed to be held, and -which were dedicated to other purposes. The term _dies nefasti_, -which originally had nothing to do with religion, but simply -indicated days on which no courts were to be held, was in subsequent -times applied to religious days in general, as _dies nefasti_ were -mostly dedicated to the worship of the gods.--In a religious point -of view all days of the year were either _dies festi_, or _dies -profesti_, or _dies intercisi_. According to the definition given by -Macrobius, _dies festi_ were dedicated to the gods, and spent with -sacrifices, repasts, games, and other solemnities; _dies profesti_ -belonged to men for the administration of their private and public -affairs. _Dies intercisi_ were common between gods and men, that is, -partly devoted to the worship of the gods, partly to the transaction -of ordinary business. _Dies profesti_ were either _dies fasti_, or -_dies comitiales_, that is, days on which comitia were held, or _dies -comperendini_, that is, days to which any action was allowed to be -transferred; or _dies stati_, that is, days set apart for causes -between Roman citizens and foreigners; or _dies proeliales_, that is, -all days on which religion did not forbid the commencement of a war. - - -DIFFARRĔĀTĬO. [DIVORTIUM.] - - -DĬĬPŎLEIA (διιπόλεια), also called Διπόλεια or Διπόλια, a very ancient -festival celebrated every year on the acropolis of Athens in honour -of Zeus, surnamed Πολιεύς. - - -DĬMĂCHAE (διμάχαι), Macedonian horse-soldiers, who also fought on -foot when occasion required, like our dragoons. - - -DĪMĬNŪTĬO CĂPĬTIS. [CAPUT.] - - -DĬŎCLEIA (διόκλεια), a festival celebrated by the Megarians in honour -of an ancient Athenian hero, Diocles, around whose grave young men -assembled on the occasion, and amused themselves with gymnastic and -other contests. We read that he who gave the sweetest kiss obtained -the prize, consisting of a garland of flowers. - - -DĬŎNȲSĬA (διονύσια), festivals celebrated in various parts of Greece -in honour of Dionysus, and characterised by extravagant merriment -and enthusiastic joy. Drunkenness, and the boisterous music of -flutes, cymbals, and drums, were likewise common to all Dionysiac -festivals. In the processions called θίασοι (from θείαζω), with -which they were celebrated, women also took part in the disguise -of Bacchae, Lenae, Thyades, Naiades, Nymphs, &c., adorned with -garlands of ivy, and bearing the thyrsus in their hands, so that -the whole train represented a population inspired, and actuated by -the powerful presence of the god. The choruses sung on the occasion -were called dithyrambs, and were hymns addressed to the god in the -freest metres and with the boldest imagery, in which his exploits -and achievements were extolled. [CHORUS.] The phallus, the symbol -of the fertility of nature, was also carried in these processions. -The indulgence in drinking was considered by the Greeks as a duty -of gratitude which they owed to the giver of the vine; hence in -some places it was thought a crime to remain sober at the Dionysia. -The Attic festivals of Dionysus were four in number: the _Rural_ or -_Lesser Dionysia_ (Διονύσια κατ’ ἀγρούς, or μικρά), the _Lenaea_ -(Λήναια), the _Anthesteria_ (Ἀνθεστήρια), and the _City_ or _Great -Dionysia_ (Διονύσια ἐν ἄστει, ἀστικά, or μεγάλα). The season of -the year sacred to Dionysus was during the months nearest to the -shortest day; and the Attic festivals were accordingly celebrated -in Poseideon, Gamelion, Anthesterion, and Elaphebolion.--The _Rural_ -or _Lesser Dionysia_, a vintage festival, were celebrated in the -various demes of Attica in the month of Poseideon, and were under -the superintendence of the several local magistrates, the demarchs. -This was doubtless the most ancient of all, and was held with the -highest degree of merriment and freedom; even slaves enjoyed full -freedom during its celebration, and their boisterous shouts on the -occasion were almost intolerable. It is here that we have to seek -for the origin of comedy, in the jests and the scurrilous abuse with -which the peasants assailed the bystanders from a waggon in which -they rode about. The Dionysia in the Peiraeeus, as well as those of -the other demes of Attica, belonged to the lesser Dionysia.--The -second festival, the _Lenaea_ (from ληνός, the wine-press, from which -also the month of Gamelion was called by the Ionians Lenaeon), was -celebrated in the month of Gamelion; the place of its celebration -was the ancient temple of Dionysus Limnaeus (from λίμνη, as the -district was originally a swamp). This temple was called the Lenaeon. -The Lenaea were celebrated with a procession and scenic contests in -tragedy and comedy. The procession probably went to the Lenaeon, -where a goat (τράγος, whence the chorus and tragedy which arose out -of it were called τραγικὸς χορός, and τραγῳδία) was sacrificed, and a -chorus standing around the altar sang the dithyrambic ode to the god. -As the dithyramb was the element out of which, by the introduction of -an actor, tragedy arose [CHORUS], it is natural that, in the scenic -contests of this festival, tragedy should have preceded comedy. The -poet who wished his play to be brought out at the Lenaea applied to -the second archon, who had the superintendence of this festival, and -who gave him a chorus if the piece was thought to deserve it.--The -third festival, the _Anthesteria_, was celebrated on the 11th, -12th, and 13th days of the month of Anthesterion. The second archon -likewise superintended the celebration of the Anthesteria, and -distributed the prizes among the victors in the various games which -were carried on during the season. The first day was called πιθοιγία: -the second, χόες: and the third, χύτροι. The first day derived its -name from the opening of the casks to taste the wine of the preceding -year; the second from χοῦς, the cup, and seems to have been the day -devoted to drinking. The third day had its name from χύτρος, a pot, -as on this day persons offered pots with flowers, seeds, or cooked -vegetables, as a sacrifice to Dionysus and Hermes Chthonius. It is -uncertain whether dramas were performed at the Anthesteria; but it -is supposed that comedies were represented, and that tragedies which -were to be brought out at the great Dionysia were perhaps rehearsed -at the Anthesteria. The mysteries connected with the celebration -of the Anthesteria were held at night.--The fourth festival, the -_City_ or _Great Dionysia_, was celebrated about the 12th of the -month of Elaphebolion; but we do not know whether they lasted more -than one day or not. The order in which the solemnities took place -was as follows:--the great public procession, the chorus of boys, -the _comus_ [CHORUS], comedy, and, lastly, tragedy. Of the dramas -which were performed at the great Dionysia, the tragedies at least -were generally new pieces; repetitions do not, however, seem to have -been excluded from any Dionysiac festival. The first archon had -the superintendence, and gave the chorus to the dramatic poet who -wished to bring out his piece at this festival. The prize awarded to -the dramatist for the best play consisted of a crown, and his name -was proclaimed in the theatre of Dionysus. As the great Dionysia -were celebrated at the beginning of spring, when the navigation was -re-opened, Athens was not only visited by numbers of country people, -but also by strangers from other parts of Greece, and the various -amusements and exhibitions on this occasion were not unlike those -of a modern fair.--The worship of Dionysus, whom the Romans called -Bacchus, or rather the Bacchic mysteries and orgies (_Bacchanalia_), -are said to have been introduced from southern Italy into Etruria, -and from thence to Rome, where for a time they were carried on in -secret, and, during the latter period of their existence, at night. -The initiated, according to Livy, not only indulged in feasting and -drinking at their meetings, but when their minds were heated with -wine they indulged in the coarsest excesses and the most unnatural -vices. The time of initiation lasted ten days; on the tenth, the -person who was to be initiated took a solemn meal, underwent a -purification by water, and was led into the sanctuary (_Bacchanal_). -At first only women were initiated, and the orgies were celebrated -every year during three days. But Pacula Annia, a Campanian matron, -pretending to act under the direct influence of Bacchus, changed the -whole method of celebration: she admitted men to the initiation, -and transferred the solemnisation, which had hitherto taken place -during the daytime, to the night. Instead of three days in the year, -she ordered that the Bacchanalia should be held during five days in -every month. It was from that time that these orgies were carried -on with frightful licentiousness and excesses of every kind. The -evil at length became so alarming, that, in B.C. 186, the consuls, -by the command of the senate, instituted an investigation into the -nature and object of these new rites. The result was that numerous -persons were arrested, and some put to death; and that a decree of -the senate was issued, commanding that no Bacchanalia should be held -either in Rome or Italy; that if any one should think such ceremonies -necessary, or if he could not neglect them without scruples or making -atonements, he should apply to the praetor urbanus, who might then -consult the senate. If the permission should be granted to him in -an assembly of the senate, consisting of not less than one hundred -members, he might solemnise the Bacchic sacra; but no more than five -persons were to be present at the celebration; there should be no -common fund, and no master of the sacra or priest. A brazen table -containing this important document was discovered near Bari, in -southern Italy, in the year 1640, and is at present in the imperial -Museum of Vienna. While the _Bacchanalia_ were thus suppressed, -another more simple and innocent festival of Bacchus, the _Liberalia_ -(from _Liber_, or _Liber Pater_, a name of Bacchus), continued to -be celebrated at Rome every year on the 16th of March. Priests and -aged priestesses, adorned with garlands of ivy, carried through the -city wine, honey, cakes, and sweetmeats, together with an altar with -a handle (_ansata ara_), in the middle of which there was a small -fire-pan (_foculus_), in which from time to time sacrifices were -burnt. On this day Roman youths who had attained their sixteenth year -received the _toga virilis_. - - -DĬŎSCŪRĬA (διοσκούρια), festivals celebrated in various parts of -Greece in honour of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux). Their worship -was very generally adopted in Greece, especially in the Doric and -Achaean states; but little is known of the manner in which their -festivals were celebrated. At Athens the festival was called Anaceia. - - -DĬŌTA, a vessel having two ears (ὦτα) or handles, used for holding -wine. It appears to have been much the same as the amphora. [AMPHORA.] - - -DIPHTHĔRA (διφθέρα), a kind of cloak made of the skins of animals, -and worn by herdsmen and country people. It had a covering for the -head (ἐπικράνον), in which respect it would correspond to the Roman -_cucullus_. - - -DIPLŌMA, a writ or public document, which conferred upon a person -any right or privilege. During the republic, it was granted by the -consuls and senate; and under the empire, by the emperor and the -magistrates whom he authorised to do so. It consisted of two leaves, -whence it derived its name. - - -DIPTỸCHA (δίπτυχα), two writing tablets, which could be folded -together. They were commonly made of wood and covered over with wax. - - -DĬRĬBĬTŌRES. [COMITIA.] - - -DISCUS (δίσκος), a circular plate of stone, or metal, made for -throwing to a distance as an exercise of strength and dexterity. It -was one of the principal gymnastic exercises of the ancients, being -included in the _Pentathlum_. - -[Illustration: Discobolus. (Osterley, Denk. der alt Kunst, vol. 1. -No. 139)] - - -DISPENSĀTOR. [CALCULATOR.] - - -DITHỸRAMBUS. [CHORUS.] - - -DĪVERSŌRĬUM. [CAUPONA.] - - -DĪVĪNĀTĬO (μαντική), a power in man which foresees future things -by means of those signs which the gods throw in his way. Among the -Greeks the _manteis_ (μάντεις), or seers, who announced the future, -were supposed to be under the direct influence of the gods, chiefly -that of Apollo. In many families of seers the inspired knowledge of -the future was considered to be hereditary, and to be transmitted -from father to son. To these families belonged the Iamids, who from -Olympia spread over a considerable part of Greece; the Branchidae, -near Miletus; the Eumolpids, at Athens and Eleusis; the Telliads, -the Acarnanian seers, and others. Along with the seers we may also -mention the Bacides and the Sibyllae. Both existed from a very remote -time, and were distinct from the manteis so far as they pretended -to derive their knowledge of the future from sacred books (χρησμοί) -which they consulted, and which were in some places, as at Athens -and Rome, kept by the government or some especial officers, in the -acropolis and in the most revered sanctuary. The Bacides are said to -have been descended from one or more prophetic nymphs of the name of -Bacis. The Sibyllae were prophetic women, probably of Asiatic origin, -whose peculiar custom seems to have been to wander with their sacred -books from place to place. The Sibylla, whose books gained so great -an importance at Rome, is reported to have been the Erythraean: the -books which she was said to have sold to one of the Tarquins were -carefully concealed from the public, and only accessible to the -duumvirs. Besides these more respectable prophets and prophetesses, -there were numbers of diviners of an inferior order (χρησμολόγοι), -who made it their business to explain all sorts of signs, and to -tell fortunes. They were, however, more particularly popular with -the lower orders, who are everywhere most ready to believe what is -most marvellous and least entitled to credit. No public undertaking -of any consequence was ever entered upon by the Greeks and Romans -without consulting the will of the gods, by observing the signs -which they sent, especially those in the sacrifices offered for the -purpose, and by which they were thought to indicate the success -or the failure of the undertaking. For this kind of divination no -divine inspiration was thought necessary, but merely experience and -a certain knowledge acquired by routine; and although in some cases -priests were appointed for the purpose of observing and explaining -signs [AUGUR; HARUSPEX], yet on any sudden emergency, especially -in private affairs, any one who met with something extraordinary, -might act as his own interpreter. The principal signs by which the -gods were thought to declare their will, were things connected with -the offering of sacrifices, the flight and voice of birds, all -kinds of natural phenomena, ordinary as well as extraordinary, and -dreams.--The interpretation of signs of the first class (ἱερομαντεία -or ἱεροσκοπία, _haruspicium_ or _ars haruspicina_) was, according -to Aeschylus, the invention of Prometheus. It seems to have been -most cultivated by the Etruscans, among whom it was raised into a -complete science, and from whom it passed to the Romans. Sacrifices -were either offered for the special purpose of consulting the gods, -or in the ordinary way; but in both cases the signs were observed, -and when they were propitious, the sacrifice was said καλλιερεῖν. The -principal points that were generally observed were, 1. The manner -in which the victim approached the altar. 2. The nature of the -intestines with respect to their colour and smoothness; the liver -and bile were of particular importance. 3. The nature of the flame -which consumed the sacrifice. Especial care was also taken during -a sacrifice, that no inauspicious or frivolous words were uttered -by any of the bystanders: hence the admonitions of the priests, -εὐφημεῖτε and εὐφημία, or σιγᾶτε, σιωπᾶτε, _favete linguis_, and -others; for improper expressions were not only thought to pollute -and profane the sacred act, but to be unlucky omens.--The art of -interpreting signs of the second class was called οἰωνιστική, -_augurium_, or _auspicium_. It was, like the former, common to Greeks -and Romans, but never attained the same degree of importance in -Greece as it did in Rome. [AUSPICIUM.] The Greeks, when observing -the flight of birds, turned their face toward the north, and then a -bird appearing to the right (east), especially an eagle, a heron, or -a falcon, was a favourable sign; while birds appearing to the left -(west) were considered as unlucky signs. Of greater importance than -the appearance of animals, at least to the Greeks, were the phenomena -in the heavens, particularly during any public transaction. Among the -unlucky phenomena in the heavens (διοσημεῖα, _signa_, or _portenta_) -were thunder and lightning, an eclipse of the sun or moon, -earthquakes, rain of blood, stones, milk, &c. Any one of these signs -was sufficient at Athens to break up the assembly of the people.--In -common life, things apparently of no importance, when occurring at a -critical moment, were thought by the ancients to be signs sent by the -gods, from which conclusions might be drawn respecting the future. -Among these common occurrences we may mention sneezing, twinkling -of the eyes, tinkling of the ears, &c.--The art of interpreting -dreams (ὀνειροπολία), which had probably been introduced into Europe -from Asia, where it is still a universal practice, seems in the -Homeric age to have been held in high esteem, for dreams were said -to be sent by Zeus. In subsequent times, that class of diviners -who occupied themselves with the interpretation of dreams, seems -to have been very numerous and popular; but they never enjoyed any -protection from the state, and were chiefly resorted to by private -individuals.--The subject of oracles is treated in a separate -article. [ORACULUM.]--The word _divinatio_ was used in a particular -manner by the Romans as a law term. If in any case two or more -accusers came forward against one and the same individual, it was, as -the phrase ran, _decided by divination_, who should be the chief or -real accuser, whom the others then joined as _subscriptores;_ _i.e._ by -putting their names to the charge brought against the offender. This -transaction, by which one of several accusers was selected to conduct -the accusation, was called _divinatio_, as the question here was not -about facts, but about something which was to be done, and which -could not be found out by witnesses or written documents; so that -the judices had, as it were, to divine the course which they had to -take. Hence the oration of Cicero, in which he tries to show that he, -and not Q. Caecilius Niger, ought to conduct the accusation against -Verres, is called _Divinatio in Caecilium_. - - -DĪVĪSOR. [AMBITUS.] - - -DĪVORTĬUM (ἀπόλειψις, ἀπόπεμψις), divorce. (1) GREEK. The laws of -Athens permitted either the husband or the wife to call for and -effect a divorce. If it originated with the wife, she was said -to leave her husband’s house (ἀπολείπειν); if otherwise, to be -dismissed from it (ἀποπεμπέσθαι). After divorce, the wife resorted -to her male relations, with whom she would have remained if she -had never quitted her maiden state; and it then became their duty -to receive or recover from her late husband all the property that -she had brought to him in acknowledged dowry upon their marriage. -If, upon this, both parties were satisfied, the divorce was final -and complete: if otherwise, an action ἀπολείψεως, or ἀποπέμψεως, -would be instituted, as the case might be, by the party opposed to -the separation. A separation, however, whether it originated from -the husband or the wife, was considered to reflect discredit on the -latter.--(2) ROMAN. Divorce always existed in the Roman polity. -As one essential part of a marriage was the consent and conjugal -affection of the parties, it was considered that this affection was -necessary to its continuance, and accordingly either party might -declare his or her intention to dissolve the connection. No judicial -decree, and no interference of any public authority, was requisite to -dissolve a marriage. The first instance of divorce at Rome is said -to have occurred about B.C. 234, when Sp. Carvilius Ruga put away -his wife, on the ground of barrenness: it is added, that his conduct -was generally condemned. Towards the latter part of the republic, -and under the empire, divorces became very common. Pompey divorced -his wife Mucia for alleged adultery; and Cicero divorced his wife -Terentia, after living with her thirty years, and married a young -woman. Cato the younger divorced his wife Marcia, that his friend -Hortensius might marry her, and have children by her; for this is -the true meaning of the story that he lent his wife to Hortensius. -If a husband divorced his wife, the wife’s dowry, as a general -rule, was restored; and the same was the case when the divorce took -place by mutual consent. Corresponding to the forms of marriage by -_confarreatio_ and _coemtio_, there were the forms of divorce by -_diffarreatio_ and _remancipatio_. In course of time, less ceremony -was used; but still some distinct notice or declaration of intention -was necessary to constitute a divorce. The term _repudium_, it is -said, properly applies to a marriage only contracted, and _divortium_ -to an actual marriage; but sometimes divortium and repudium appear -to be used indifferently. The phrases to express a divorce are, -_nuntium remittere_, _divortium facere_; and the form of words -might be as follows--_Tuas res tibi habeto, tuas res tibi agito_. -The phrases used to express the renunciation of a marriage contract -were, _renuntiare repudium_, _repudium remittere_, _dicere_, and -_repudiare_; and the form of words might be, _Conditione tua non -utor_. - - -DŎCĂNA (τὰ δόκανα, from δοκός, a beam) was an ancient symbolical -representation of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), at Sparta. -It consisted of two upright beams with others laid across them -transversely. - - -DŎCĬMĂSĬA (δοκιμασία). When any citizen of Athens was either -appointed by lot, or chosen by suffrage, to hold a public office, -he was obliged, before entering on its duties, to submit to a -_docimasia_, or scrutiny into his previous life and conduct, in which -any person could object to him as unfit. The _docimasia_, however, -was not confined to persons appointed to public offices; for we read -of the denouncement of a scrutiny against orators who spoke in the -assembly while leading profligate lives, or after having committed -flagitious crimes. - - -DODRANS. [AS.] - - -DŎLĀBRA, _dim._ DŎLĀBELLA (σμίλη, _dim_. σμιλίον), a chisel, a celt, -was used for a variety of purposes in ancient as in modern times. -_Celtes_ is an old Latin word for a chisel, probably derived from -_coelo_, to engrave. Celts, or chisels, were frequently employed in -making entrenchments and in destroying fortifications; and hence they -are often found in ancient earth-works and encampments. They are for -the most part of bronze, more rarely of hard stone. The sizes and -forms which they present, are as various as the uses to which they -were applied. The annexed woodcut is designed to show a few of the -most remarkable varieties. - -[Illustration: Dolabrae, Celts. (From different Collections in Great -Britain.)] - - -DŌLĬUM, a cylindrical vessel, somewhat resembling our tubs or casks, -into which new wine was put to let it ferment. - -DŎLO (δόλων). (1) A secret poniard or dagger contained in a case, -used by the Italians. It was inserted in the handles of whips, and -also in walking sticks, thus corresponding to our sword-stick.--(2) A -small top-sail. - - -DŎMĬNĬUM signifies quiritarian ownership, or property in a thing; and -_dominus_, or _dominus legitimus_, is the owner. The dominus has the -power of dealing with a thing as he pleases, and differs from the -bare _possessor_, who has only the right of possession, and has not -the absolute ownership of the thing. - - -DŎMUS (οἶκος), a house.--(1) GREEK. A Greek house was always divided -into two distinct portions, the _Andronitis_, or men’s apartments -(ἀνδρωνῖτις), and the _Gynaeconitis_, or women’s apartments -(γυναικωνῖτις). In the earliest times, as in the houses referred -to by Homer, and in some houses at a later period, the women’s -apartments were in the upper story (ὑπερῷον), but usually at a later -time the gynaeconitis was on the same story with the andronitis, -and behind it. The front of the house towards the street was not -large, as the apartments extended rather in the direction of its -depth than of its width. In towns the houses were often built side -by side, with party-walls between. The exterior wall was plain, -being composed generally of stone, brick, and timber, and often -covered with stucco. There was no open space between the street and -the house-door, like the Roman _vestibulum_. The πρόθυρα, which is -sometimes mentioned, seems to be merely the space in front of the -house, where there was generally an altar of Apollo Agyieus, or a -rude obelisk emblematical of the god. Sometimes there was a laurel -tree in the same position, and sometimes a head of the god Hermes. -A few steps (ἀναβαθμοί) led up to the house-door, which generally -bore some inscription, for the sake of a good omen, or as a charm. -The door sometimes opened outwards; but this seems to have been -an exception to the general rule, as is proved by the expressions -used for opening, ἐνδοῦναι, and shutting it, ἐπισπάσασθαι and -ἐφελκύσασθαι. The handles were called ἐπισπαστῆρες. The house-door -was called αὔλειος or αὔλεια θύρα, because it led to the αὐλή. It -gave admittance to a narrow passage (θυρωρεῖον, πυλών, θυρών), on -one side of which, in a large house, were the stables, on the other -the porter’s lodge. The duty of the porter (θυρωρός) was to admit -visitors and to prevent anything improper from being carried into or -out of the house. The porter was attended by a dog. Hence the phrase -εὐλαβεῖσθαι τὴν κύνα, corresponding to the Latin _Cave canem_. From -the θυρωρεῖον we pass into the peristyle or court (περιστύλιον, αὐλή) -of the andronitis, which was a space open to the sky in the centre -(ὕπαιθρον), and surrounded on all four sides by porticoes (στοαί), of -which one, probably that nearest the entrance, was called προστόον. -These porticoes were used for exercise, and sometimes for dining in. -Here was commonly the altar on which sacrifices were offered to the -household gods. In building the porticoes the object sought was to -obtain as much sun in winter, and as much shade and air in summer as -possible. Round the peristyle were arranged the chambers used by the -men, such as banqueting rooms (οἶκοι, ἀνδρῶνες), which were large -enough to contain several sets of couches (τρίκλινοι, ἑπτάκλινοι, -τριακοντάκλινοι, and at the same time to allow abundant room for -attendants, musicians, and performers of games; parlours or sitting -rooms (ἐξέδραι), and smaller chambers and sleeping rooms (δωμάτια, -κοιτῶνες, οἰκήματα); picture-galleries and libraries, and sometimes -store-rooms; and in the arrangement of these apartments attention was -paid to their aspect. The peristyle of the andronitis was connected -with that of the gynaeconitis by a door called μέταυλος, μέσαυλος, or -μεσαύλιος, which was in the middle of the portico of the peristyle -opposite to the entrance. By means of this door all communication -between the andronitis and gynaeconitis could be shut off. - -[Illustration: Ground-plan of a Greek House. - -α, House-door, αὔλειος θύρα: θυρ’, passage, θυρωρεῖον or θυρών: Α, -peristyle, or αὐλή of the andronitis; ο, the halls and chambers -of the andronitis; μ, μέταυλος or μέσαυλος θύρα: Γ, peristyle of -the gynaeconitis; γ, chambers of the gynaeconitis; π, προστάς or -παραστάς: θ, θάλαμος and ἀμφιθάλαμος: Ι, rooms for working in wool -(ἱστῶνες); Κ, garden-door, κηταία θύρα.] - -Accordingly Xenophon calls it θύρα βαλανωτός. Its name μέσαυλος is -evidently derived from μέσος, and means the door _between_ the two -αὐλαί or peristyles. This door gave admittance to the peristyle -of the gynaeconitis, which differed from that of the andronitis -in having porticoes round only three of its sides. On the fourth -side were placed two antae [ANTAE], at a considerable distance -from each other. A third of the distance between these antae was -set off inwards, thus forming a chamber or vestibule, which was -called προστάς, παραστάς, and πρόδρομος. On the right and left of -this προστάς were two bed-chambers, the θάλαμος and ἀμφιθάλαμος, -of which the former was the principal bed-chamber of the house, -and here also seem to have been kept the vases, and other valuable -articles of ornament. Beyond these rooms were large apartments -(ἱστῶνες) used for working in wool. Round the peristyle were the -eating-rooms, bed-chambers, store-rooms, and other apartments in -common use. Besides the αὔλειος θύρα and the μέσαυλος θύρα, there -was a third door (κηπαία θύρα) leading to the garden. The preceding -is a conjectural plan of the ground-floor of a Greek house of the -larger size. There was usually, though not always, an upper story -(ὑπερῷον διῆρες), which seldom extended over the whole space occupied -by the lower story. The principal use of the upper story was for the -lodging of the slaves. The access to the upper floor seems to have -been sometimes by stairs on the outside of the house, leading up from -the street. Guests were also lodged in the upper story. But in some -large houses there were rooms set apart for their reception (ξενῶνες) -on the ground-floor. The roofs were generally flat, and it was -customary to walk about upon them. In the interior of the house the -place of doors was sometimes supplied by curtains (παραπετάσματα), -which were either plain, or dyed, or embroidered. The principal -openings for the admission of light and air were in the roofs of -the peristyles; but it is incorrect to suppose that the houses had -no windows (θυρίδες), or at least none overlooking the street. They -were not at all uncommon. Artificial warmth was procured partly by -means of fire-places. It is supposed that chimneys were altogether -unknown, and that the smoke escaped through an opening in the roof -(καπνοδόκη), but it is not easy to understand how this could be the -case when there was an upper story. Little portable stoves (ἐσχάραι, -ἐσχαρίδες) or chafing-dishes (ἀνθράκια) were frequently used. The -houses of the wealthy in the country, at least in Attica, were much -larger and more magnificent than those in the towns. The latter seem -to have been generally small and plain, especially in earlier times, -when the Greeks preferred expending the resources of art and wealth -on their temples and public buildings; but the private houses became -more magnificent as the public buildings began to be neglected. The -decorations of the interior were very plain at the period to which -our description refers. The floors were of stone. At a late period -coloured stones were used. Mosaics are first mentioned under the -kings of Pergamus. The walls, up to the 4th century B.C., seem to -have been only whited. The first instance of painting them is that -of Alcibiades. This innovation met with considerable opposition. -We have also mention of painted ceilings at the same period. At a -later period this mode of decoration became general.--(2) ROMAN. The -houses of the Romans were poor and mean for many centuries after the -foundation of the city. Till the war with Pyrrhus the houses were -covered only with thatch or shingles, and were usually built of wood -or unbaked bricks. It was not till the latter times of the republic, -when wealth had been acquired by conquests in the East, that houses -of any splendour began to be built; but it then became the fashion -not only to build houses of an immense size, but also to adorn them -with columns, paintings, statues, and costly works of art. Some idea -may be formed of the size and magnificence of the houses of the Roman -nobles during the later times of the republic by the price which -they fetched. The consul Messalla bought the house of Autronius for -3700 sestertia (nearly 33,000_l._), and Cicero the house of Crassus, -on the Palatine, for 3500 sestertia (nearly 31,000_l._). The house -of Publius Clodius, whom Milo killed, cost 14,800 sestertia (about -131,000_l._); and the Tusculan villa of Scaurus was fitted up with -such magnificence, that when it was burnt by his slaves, he lost -100,000 sestertia, upwards of 885,000_l._--Houses were originally -only one story high; but as the value of ground increased in the -city they were built several stories in height, and the highest -floors were usually inhabited by the poor. Till the time of Nero, -the streets in Rome were narrow and irregular, and bore traces of -the haste and confusion with which the city was built after it had -been burnt by the Gauls; but after the great fire in the time of -that emperor, by which two-thirds of Rome was burnt to the ground, -the city was built with great regularity. The streets were made -straight and broad; the height of the houses was restricted, and a -certain part of each was required to be built of Gabian or Alban -stone, which was proof against fire. The principal parts of a Roman -house were the, 1. _Vestibulum_, 2. _Ostium_, 3. _Atrium_ or _Cavum -Aedium_, 4. _Alae_, 5. _Tablinum_, 6. _Fauces_, 7. _Peristylium_. -The parts of a house which were considered of less importance, -and of which the arrangement differed in different houses, were -the, 1. _Cubicula_, 2. _Triclinia_, 3. _Oeci_, 4. _Exedrae_, 5. -_Pinacotheca_, 6. _Bibliotheca_, 7. _Balineum_, 8. _Culina_, 9. -_Coenacula_, 10. _Diaeta_, 11. _Solaria_. We shall speak of each -in order.--1. VESTIBULUM did not properly form part of the house, -but was a vacant space before the door, forming a court, which was -surrounded on three sides by the house, and was open on the fourth -to the street.--2. OSTIUM, which is also called _janua_ and _fores_, -was the entrance to the house. The street-door admitted into a hall, -to which the name of ostium was also given, and in which there was -frequently a small room (_cella_) for the porter (_janitor_ or -_ostiarius_), and also for a dog, which was usually kept in the hall -to guard the house. Another door (_janua interior_) opposite the -street-door led into the atrium.--3. ATRIUM or CAVUM AEDIUM, also -written _Cavaedium_, are probably only different names of the same -room. - -[Illustration: Atrium of the House of Ceres at Pompeii.] - -The Atrium or Cavum Aedium was a large apartment roofed over with -the exception of an opening in the centre, called _compluvium_, -towards which the roof sloped so as to throw the rain-water into -a cistern in the floor, termed _impluvium_, which was frequently -ornamented with statues, columns, and other works of art. The word -_impluvium_, however, is also employed to denote the aperture in -the roof. The atrium was the most important room in the house, -and among the wealthy was usually fitted up with much splendour -and magnificence. Originally it was the only sitting-room in the -house; but in the houses of the wealthy it was distinct from the -private apartments, and was used as a reception-room, where the -patron received his clients, and the great and noble the numerous -visitors who were accustomed to call every morning to pay their -respects or solicit favours. But though the atrium was not used by -the wealthy as a sitting-room for the family, it still continued to -be employed for many purposes which it had originally served. Thus -the nuptial couch was placed in the atrium opposite the door, and -also the instruments and materials for spinning and weaving, which -were formerly carried on by the women of the family in this room. -Here also the images of their ancestors were placed, and the focus or -fire-place, which possessed a sacred character, being dedicated to -the Lares of each family.--4. ALAE, wings, were small apartments or -recesses on the left and right sides of the atrium.--5. TABLINUM was -in all probability a recess or room at the further end of the atrium -opposite the door leading into the hall, and was regarded as part of -the atrium. It contained the family records and archives. With the -tablinum the Roman house appears to have originally ceased; and the -sleeping-rooms were probably arranged on each side of the atrium. But -when the atrium and its surrounding rooms were used for the reception -of clients and other public visitors, it became necessary to increase -the size of the house; and the following rooms were accordingly -added:--6. FAUCES appear to have been passages, which passed from the -atrium to the peristylium or interior of the house.--7. PERISTYLIUM -was in its general form like the atrium, but it was one-third greater -in breadth, measured transversely, than in length. It was a court -open to the sky in the middle; the open part, which was surrounded -by columns, was larger than the impluvium in the atrium, and was -frequently decorated with flowers and shrubs.--The arrangement of the -rooms, which are next to be noticed, varied according to the taste -and circumstances of the owner. It is therefore impossible to assign -to them any regular place in the house.--1. CUBICULA, bed-chambers, -appear to have been usually small. There were separate cubicula for -the day and night; the latter were also called _dormitoria_.--2. -TRICLINIA are treated of in a separate article. [TRICLINIUM.]--3. -OECI, from the Greek οἶκος, were spacious halls or saloons borrowed -from the Greeks, and were frequently used as triclinia. They were to -have the same proportions as triclinia, but were to be more spacious -on account of having columns, which triclinia had not.--4. EXEDRAE -were rooms for conversation and the other purposes of society.--5. -PINACOTHECA, a picture-gallery.--6, 7. BIBLIOTHECA and BALINEUM are -treated of in separate articles.--8. CULINA, the kitchen. - -[Illustration: Kitchen of the House of Pansa at Pompeii.] - -The food was originally cooked in the atrium: but the progress of -refinement afterwards led to the use of another part of the house for -this purpose. In the kitchen of Pansa’s house at Pompeii, a stove for -stews and similar preparations was found, very much like the charcoal -stoves used in the present day. Before it lie a knife, a strainer, -and a kind of frying-pan with four spherical cavities, as if it were -meant to cook eggs.--9. COENACULA, properly signified rooms to dine -in; but after it became the fashion to dine in the upper part of the -house, the whole of the rooms above the ground-floor were called -_coenacula_.--10. DIAETA, an apartment used for dining in, and for -the other purposes of life. It appears to have been smaller than -the triclinium. _Diaeta_ is also the name given by Pliny to rooms -containing three or four bed-chambers (_cubicula_). Pleasure-houses -or summer-houses are also called _diaetae_.--11. SOLARIA, properly -places for basking in the sun, were terraces on the tops of houses. -The preceding cut represents the atrium of a house at Pompeii. In -the centre is the impluvium, and the passage at the further end is -the ostium or entrance hall.--The preceding account of the different -rooms, and especially of the arrangement of the atrium, tablinum, -peristyle, &c., is best illustrated by the houses which have been -disinterred at Pompeii. The ground-plan of one is accordingly -subjoined. - -[Illustration: Ground-plan of a House at Pompeii.] - -Like most of the other houses at Pompeii, it had no vestibulum -according to the meaning given above. 1. The _ostium_ or -entrance-hall, which is six feet wide and nearly thirty long. Near -the street-door there is a figure of a large fierce dog worked in -mosaic on the pavement, and beneath it is written _Cave Canem_. The -two large rooms on each side of the vestibule appear from the large -openings in front of them to have been shops; they communicate with -the entrance-hall, and were therefore probably occupied by the master -of the house. 2. The _atrium_, which is about twenty-eight feet in -length and twenty in breadth; its _impluvium_ is near the centre -of the room, and its floor is paved with white tesserae, spotted -with black. 3. Chambers for the use of the family, or intended for -the reception of guests, who were entitled to claim hospitality. -4. A small room with a staircase leading up to the upper rooms. -5. _Alae._ 6. The _tablinum_. 7. The _fauces_. 8. Peristyle, with -Doric columns and garden in the centre. The large room on the right -of the peristyle is the triclinium; beside it is the kitchen; and -the smaller apartments are cubicula and other rooms for the use of -the family.--Having given a general description of the rooms of a -Roman house, it remains to speak of the (1) floors, (2) walls, (3) -ceilings, (4) windows, and (5) the mode of warming the rooms. For -the doors, see JANUA.--(1.) The floor (_solum_) of a room was seldom -boarded: it was generally covered with stone or marble, or mosaics. -The common floors were paved with pieces of bricks, tiles, stones, -&c., forming a kind of composition called _ruderatic_. Sometimes -pieces of marble were imbedded in a composition ground, and these -probably gave the idea of mosaics. As these floors were beaten -down (_pavita_) with rammers (_fistucae_), the word _pavimentum_ -became the general name for a floor. Mosaics, called by Pliny -_lithostrota_ (λιθόστρωτα), though this word has a more extensive -meaning, first came into use in Sulla’s time, who made one in the -temple of Fortune at Praeneste. Mosaic work was afterwards called -_Musivum opus_, and was most extensively employed.--(2.) The inner -walls (_parietes_) of private rooms were frequently lined with slabs -of marble, but were more usually covered by paintings, which in the -time of Augustus were made upon the walls themselves. This practice -was so common that we find even the small houses in Pompeii have -paintings upon their walls.--(3.) The ceilings seem originally to -have been left uncovered, the beams which supported the roof or the -upper story being visible. Afterwards planks were placed across -these beams at certain intervals, leaving hollow spaces, called -_lacunaria_ or _laquearia_, which were frequently covered with -gold and ivory, and sometimes with paintings. There was an arched -ceiling in common use, called CAMARA.--(4.) The Roman houses had -few windows (_fenestrae_). The principal apartments, the atrium, -peristyle, &c., were lighted from above, and the cubicula and other -small rooms generally derived their light from them, and not from -windows looking into the street. The rooms only on the upper story -seem to have been usually lighted by windows. The windows appear -originally to have been merely openings in the wall, closed by means -of shutters, which frequently had two leaves (_bifores fenestrae_). -Windows were also sometimes covered by a kind of lattice or trellis -work (_clathri_), and sometimes by net-work, to prevent serpents -and other noxious reptiles from getting in. Afterwards, however, -windows were made of a transparent stone, called _lapis specularis_ -(mica); such windows were called _specularia_. Windows made of glass -(_vitrum_) are first mentioned by Lactantius, who lived in the fourth -century of the Christian era; but the discoveries at Pompeii prove -that glass was used for windows under the early emperors.--(5.) The -rooms were heated in winter in different ways; but the Romans had -no stoves like ours. The cubicula, triclinia, and other rooms, -which were intended for winter use, were built in that part of the -house upon which the sun shone most; and in the mild climate of -Italy this frequently enabled them to dispense with any artificial -mode of warming the rooms. Rooms exposed to the sun in this way were -sometimes called _heliocamini_. The rooms were sometimes heated by -hot air, which was introduced by means of pipes from a furnace below, -but more frequently by portable furnaces or braziers (_foculi_), in -which coal or charcoal was burnt. The _caminus_ was also a kind of -stove, in which wood appears to have been usually burnt, and probably -only differed from the _foculus_ in being larger and fixed to one -place. The rooms usually had no chimneys for carrying off the smoke, -which escaped through the windows, doors, and openings in the roof; -still chimneys do not appear to have been entirely unknown to the -ancients, as some are said to have been found in the ruins of ancient -buildings. - - -DŌNĀRĬA (ἀναθήματα or ἀνακείμενα), presents made to the gods, either -by individuals or communities. Sometimes they are also called -_dona_ or δῶρα. The belief that the gods were pleased with costly -presents was as natural to the ancients as the belief that they -could be influenced in their conduct towards men by the offering of -sacrifices; and, indeed, both sprang from the same feeling. Presents -were mostly given as tokens of gratitude for some favour which a god -had bestowed on man; as, for instance, by persons who had recovered -from illness or escaped from shipwreck; but some are also mentioned, -which were intended to induce the deity to grant some especial -favour. Almost all presents were dedicated in temples, to which in -some places an especial building was added, in which these treasures -were preserved. Such buildings were called θησαυροί(treasuries); -and in the most frequented temples of Greece many states had their -separate treasuries. The act of dedication was called ἀνατιθέναι, -_donare_, _dedicare_, or _sacrare_. - - -DŌNĀTĪVUM. [CONGIARIUM.] - - -DORMĪTŌRĬA. [DOMUS.] - - -DOS (φερνή, προΐξ), dowry. (1) GREEK. In the Homeric times it was -customary for the husband to purchase his wife from her relations, -by gifts called ἕδνα or ἔεδνα. But at Athens, during the historical -period, the contrary was the case; for every woman had to bring her -husband some dowry, and so universal was the practice, that one of -the chief distinctions between a wife and a παλλακή, or concubine, -consisted in the former having a portion, whereas the latter had -not; hence, persons who married wives without portions appear to -have given them or their guardians an acknowledgment in writing by -which the receipt of a portion was admitted. Moreover, poor heiresses -were either married or portioned by their next of kin, according to -a law, which fixed the amount of portion to be given at five minae -by a Pentacosiomedimnus, three by a Horseman, and one and a half by -a Zeugites. The husband had to give to the relatives or guardians -of the wife security (ἀποτίμημα) for the dowry, which was not -considered the property of the husband himself, but rather of his -wife and children. The portion was returned to the wife in case of a -divorce.--(2) ROMAN. The _dos_ among the Romans was every thing which -on the occasion of a woman’s marriage was transferred by her, or by -another person, to the husband. All the property of the wife which -was not made dos continued to be her own, and was comprised under the -name of _parapherna_. The dos upon its delivery became the husband’s -property, and continued to be his so long as the marriage relation -existed. In the case of divorce, the woman, or her relations, could -bring an action for the restitution of the dos; and, accordingly, a -woman whose dos was large (_dotata uxor_) had some influence over her -husband, inasmuch as she had the power of divorcing herself, and thus -of depriving him of the enjoyment of her property. - - -[Illustration: Attic Drachma. (British Museum.)] - -DRACHMA (δραχμή), the principal silver coin among the Greeks. The two -chief standards in the currencies of the Greek states were the Attic -and Aeginetan. The average value of the Attic drachma was 9¾_d._ of -our money. It contained six obols (ὀβολοί); and the Athenians had -separate silver coins, from four drachmae to a quarter of an obol. -There were also silver pieces of two drachmae and four drachmae. -(See tables.) The tetradrachm in later times was called _stater_. -The latter word also signifies a gold coin, equal in value to twenty -drachmae [STATER]. The obolos, in later times, was of bronze: but in -the best times of Athens we only read of silver obols. The χαλκοῦς -was a copper coin, and the eighth part of an obol. The Attic -standard prevailed most in the maritime and commercial states. It -was the standard of Philip’s gold, and was introduced by Alexander -for silver also.--The Aeginetan standard appears to have been the -prevalent one in early times: we are told that money was first coined -at Aegina by order of Pheidon at Argos. In later times the Aeginetan -standard was used in almost all the states of the Peloponnesus, -except Corinth. The average value of the Aeginetan drachma was 1_s._ -1¾_d._ in our money; and the values of the different coins of this -standard are as follows:-- - - | Shill. | Pence. | Farth. - ½ Obol | - | 1 | 0·583 - Obol | - | 2 | 1·166 - Diobolus | - | 4 | 2·33 - Triobolus | - | 6 | 2·5 - Drachma | 1 | 1 | 3 - Didrachm | 2 | 3 | 2 - -[Illustration: Aeginetan Drachma. (British Museum.)] - -As the Romans reckoned in sesterces, so the Greeks generally reckoned -by drachmae; and when a sum is mentioned in the Attic writers, -without any specification of the unit, drachmae are usually meant. - - -DRĂCO. [SIGNA MILITARIA.] - - -DŬCĒNĀRĬI.--(1) The name given to the Roman procuratores, who -received a salary of 200 sestertia. The procuratores first received a -salary in the time of Augustus.--(2) A class or decuria of judices, -first established by Augustus. They were so called because their -property, as valued in the census, amounted only to 200 sestertia. -They appear to have tried cases of small importance. - - -DŬCENTĒSĬMA. [CENTESIMA.] - - -DŬŎDĔCIM SCRIPTA. [LATRUNCULI.] - - -DŬŎDĔCIM TĂBŬLĀRUM LEX. [LEX.] - - -DUPLĀRĬI or DUPLĬCĀRĬI, were soldiers who received on account of -their good conduct double allowance (_duplicia cibaria_), and perhaps -in some cases double pay likewise. - - -DŬPONDĬUS. [AS.] - - -DUSSIS. [AS.] - - -DUUMVĬRI, or the two men, the name of various magistrates and -functionaries at Rome, and in the coloniae and municipia. (1) -DUUMVIRI JURI DICUNDO were the highest magistrates in the municipal -towns. [COLONIA.]--(2) DUUMVIRI NAVALES, extraordinary magistrates, -who were created, whenever occasion required, for the purpose -of equipping and repairing the fleet. They appear to have been -originally appointed by the consuls and dictators, but were first -elected by the people, B.C. 311.--(3) DUUMVIRI PERDUELLIONIS. -[PERDUELLIO.]--(4) DUUMVIRI QUINQUENNALES, were the censors in the -municipal towns, and must not be confounded with the _duumviri juri -dicundo_. [COLONIA.]--(5) DUUMVIRI SACRORUM originally had the charge -of the Sibylline books. Their duties were afterwards discharged by -the _decemviri sacris faciundis_. [DECEMVIRI.]--(6) DUUMVIRI were -also appointed for the purpose of building or dedicating a temple. - - - - -ECCLĒSĬA (ἐκκλησία), the name of the general assembly of the citizens -at Athens, in which they met to discuss and determine upon matters -of public interest, and which was therefore the sovereign power -in the state. These assemblies were either _ordinary_ (νόμιμοι or -κυρίαι), and held four times in each prytany, or _extraordinary_, -that is, specially convened, upon any sudden emergency, and therefore -called σύγκλητοι. The place in which they were anciently held was -the _agora_. Afterwards they were transferred to the Pnyx, and at -last to the great theatre of Dionysus, and other places. The most -usual place, however, was the Pnyx, which was situated to the west -of the Areiopagus, on a slope connected with Mount Lycabettus, and -partly at least within the walls of the city. It was semicircular in -form, with a boundary wall part rock and part masonry, and an area of -about 12,000 square yards. On the north the ground was filled up and -paved with large stones, so as to get a level surface on the slope. -Towards this side, and close to the wall, was the _bema_ (βῆμα), a -stone platform or hustings ten or eleven feet high, with an ascent -of steps. The position of the _bema_ was such as to command a view -of the sea from behind, and of the Propylaea and Parthenon in front, -and we may be sure that the Athenian orators would often rouse the -national feelings of their hearers by pointing to the assemblage of -magnificent edifices, “monuments of Athenian gratitude and glory,” -which they had in view from the Pnyx.--The right of convening -the people was generally vested in the prytanes or presidents of -the council of Five Hundred [see BOULÉ], but in cases of sudden -emergency, and especially during wars, the strategi also had the -power of calling extraordinary meetings, for which, however, the -consent of the senate appears to have been necessary. The prytanes -not only gave a previous notice of the day of assembly, and published -a programme of the subjects to be discussed, but also, it appears, -sent a crier round to collect the citizens. All persons who did not -obey the call were subject to a fine, and six magistrates called -lexiarchs were appointed, whose duty it was to take care that the -people attended the meetings, and to levy fines on those who refused -to do so. With a view to this, whenever an assembly was to be held, -certain public slaves (Σκύθαι or τοξόται) were sent round to sweep -the agora, and other places of public resort, with a rope coloured -with vermilion. The different persons whom these ropemen met, were -driven by them towards the ecclesia, and those who refused to go were -marked by the rope and fined. An additional inducement to attend, -with the poorer classes, was the μισθὸς ἐκκλησιαστικός, or pay which -they received for it. The payment was originally an obolus, but was -afterwards raised to three. The right of attending was enjoyed by all -legitimate citizens who were of the proper age (generally supposed -to be twenty, certainly not less than eighteen), and not labouring -under any _atimia_, or loss of civil rights.--In the article BOULÉ it -is explained who the prytanes and the proedri were; and we may here -remark, that it was the duty of the proedri of the same tribe, under -the presidency of their chairman (ὁ ἐπιστάτης), to lay before the -people the subjects to be discussed; to read, or cause to be read, -the previous bill (τὸ προβούλευμα) of the senate, without which no -measure could be brought before the ecclesia, and to give permission -to the speakers to address the people. The officers who acted under -them, were the crier (ὁ κήρυξ), and the Scythian bowmen.--Previous, -however, to the commencement of any business, the place was purified -by the offering of sacrifices, and then the gods were implored in -a prayer to bless the proceedings of the meeting. The privilege of -addressing the assembly was not confined to any class or age among -those who had the right to be present: all, without any distinction, -were invited to do so by the proclamation, Τίς ἀγορεύειν βούλεται, -which was made by the crier after the proedri had gone through the -necessary preliminaries, and laid the subject of discussion before -the meeting; for though, according to the institutions of Solon, -those persons who were above fifty years of age ought to have been -called upon to speak first, this regulation had in later times -become quite obsolete. The speakers are sometimes simply called οἱ -παρίοντες, and appear to have worn a crown of myrtle on their heads -while addressing the assembly. The most influential and practised -speakers of the assembly were generally distinguished by the name of -ῥήτορες. After the speakers had concluded, any one was at liberty -to propose a decree, whether drawn up beforehand or framed in the -meeting, which, however, it was necessary to present to the proedri, -that they might see, in conjunction with the _nomophylaces_, whether -there was contained in it anything injurious to the state, or -contrary to the existing laws. If not, it was read by the crier; -though, even after the reading, the chairman could prevent it being -put to the vote, unless his opposition was overborne by threats and -clamours. Private individuals also could do the same, by engaging -upon oath (ὑπωμοσία) to bring against the author of any measure -they might object to, an accusation called a γραφὴ παράνομων. If, -however, the chairman refused to submit any question to the decision -of the people, he might be proceeded against by _endeixis_; and if -he allowed the people to vote upon a proposal which was contrary -to existing constitutional laws, he was in some cases liable to -_atimia_. If, on the contrary, no opposition of this sort was offered -to a proposed decree, the votes of the people were taken, by the -permission of the chairman and with the consent of the rest of the -proedri. The decision of the people was given either by show of -hands, or by ballot, _i.e._ by casting pebbles into urns (καδίσκοι); -the former was expressed by the word χειροτονεῖν, the latter by -ψηφίζεσθαι, although the two terms are frequently confounded. The -more usual method of voting was by show of hands, as being more -expeditious and convenient (χειροτονία). Vote by ballot, on the other -hand, was only used in a few special cases determined by law; as, -for instance, when a proposition was made for allowing those who -had suffered _atimia_ to appeal to the people for restitution of -their former rights; or for inflicting extraordinary punishments on -atrocious offenders, and generally, upon any matter which affected -private persons. In cases of this sort it was settled by law, that -a decree should not be valid unless six thousand citizens at least -voted in favour of it. This was by far the majority of those citizens -who were in the habit of attending; for, in time of war, the number -never amounted to five thousand, and in time of peace seldom to ten -thousand.--The determination or decree of the people was called a -ψήφισμα, which properly signifies a law proposed to an assembly, -and approved of by the people. Respecting the form for drawing up a -ψήφισμα, see BOULÉ.--When the business was over, the order for the -dismissal of the assembly was given by the prytanes, through the -proclamation of the crier; and as it was not customary to continue -meetings, which usually began early in the morning, till after -sunset, if one day were not sufficient for the completion of any -business, it was adjourned to the next. But an assembly was sometimes -broken up, if any one, whether a magistrate or private individual, -declared that he saw an unfavourable omen, or perceived thunder and -lightning. The sudden appearance of rain also, or the shock of an -earthquake, or any natural phenomenon of the kind called διοσημίαι, -was a sufficient reason for the hasty adjournment of an assembly. - - -ECCLETI. [HOMOEI.] - - -ECDĬCUS (ἔκδικος), the name of an officer in many of the towns of -Asia Minor during the Roman dominion, whose principal duty was the -care of the public money, and the prosecution of all parties who owed -money to the state. - - -ECMARTȲRĬA (ἐκμαρτυρία), signifies the deposition of a witness at -Athens, who, by reason of absence abroad, or illness, was unable -to attend in court. His statement was taken down in writing, in -the presence of persons expressly appointed to receive it, and -afterwards, upon their swearing to its identity, was read as evidence -in the cause. - - -ĒDICTUM. The _Jus Edicendi_, or power of making edicts, belonged -to the higher _magistratus populi Romani_, but it was principally -exercised by the two praetors, the praetor urbanus, and the praetor -peregrinus, whose jurisdiction was exercised in the provinces by the -praeses. The curule aediles likewise made many edicts; and tribunes, -censors, and pontifices also promulgated edicts relating to the -matters of their respective jurisdictions. The edicta were among -the sources of Roman law. The edictum may be described generally -as a rule promulgated by a magistratus on entering on his office, -which was done by writing it on an album and exhibiting it in a -conspicuous place. As the office of a magistratus was annual, the -rules promulgated by a predecessor were not binding on a successor, -but he might confirm or adopt the rules of his predecessor, and -introduce them into his own edict, and hence such adopted rules were -called _edictum ralatitium_, or _vetus_, as opposed to _edictum -novum_. A _repentinum edictum_ was that rule which was made (_prout -res incidit_) for the occasion. A _perpetuum edictum_ was that rule -which was made by the magistratus on entering upon office, and which -was intended to apply to all cases to which it was applicable during -the year of his office: hence it was sometimes called also _annua -lex_. Until it became the practice for magistratus to adopt the -edicta of their predecessors, the edicta could not form a body of -permanent binding rules; but when this practice became common, the -edicta (_edictum tralatitium_) soon constituted a large body of law, -which was practically of as much importance as any other part of the -law. - - -EICOSTĒ (εἰκοστή), a tax or duty of one-twentieth (five per cent.) -upon all commodities exported or imported by sea in the states of the -allies subject to Athens. This tax was first imposed B.C. 413, in the -place of the direct tribute which had up to this time been paid by -the subject allies; and the change was made with the hope of raising -a greater revenue. This tax, like all others, was farmed, and the -farmers of it were called εἰκοστολόγοι. - - -EIRĒN or ĪRĒN (εἴρην or ἴρην), the name given to the Spartan youth -when he attained the age of twenty. At the age of eighteen he emerged -from childhood, and was called μελλείρην. When he had attained his -twentieth year, he began to exercise a direct influence over his -juniors, and was entrusted with the command of troops in battle. The -word appears to have originally signified a commander. The ἰρένες -mentioned in Herodotus, in connection with the battle of Plataeae, -were certainly not youths, but commanders. - - -EISANGĔLĬA (εἰσαγγελία), signifies, in its primary and most general -sense, a denunciation of any kind, but, much more usually, an -information laid before the council or the assembly of the people, -and the consequent impeachment and trial of state criminals at -Athens under novel or extraordinary circumstances. Among these were -the occasions upon which manifest crimes were alleged to have been -committed, and yet of such a nature as the existing laws had failed -to anticipate, or at least describe specifically (ἄγραφα ἀδικήματα), -the result of which omission would have been, but for the enactment -by which the accusations in question might be preferred (νόμος -εἰσαγγελτικός), that a prosecutor would not have known to what -magistrate to apply; that a magistrate, if applied to, could not with -safety have accepted the indictment or brought it into court; and -that, in short, there would have been a total failure of justice. - - -EISITĒRĬA (εἰσιτήρια, _scil._ ἱερά), sacrifices offered at Athens by -the senate before the session began, in honour of the Θεοὶ Βουλαῖοι, -_i.e._ Zeus and Athena. - - -EISPHŎRA (εἰσφορά), an extraordinary tax on property, raised at -Athens, whenever the means of the state were not sufficient to -carry on a war. It is not quite certain when this property-tax was -introduced; but it seems to have come first into general use about -B.C. 428. It could never be raised without a decree of the people, -who also assigned the amount required; and the _strategi_, or -generals, superintended its collection, and presided in the courts -where disputes connected with, or arising from, the levying of the -tax were settled. The usual expressions for paying this property-tax -are: εἰσφέρειν χρήματα, εἰσφέρειν εἰς τὸν πόλεμον, εἰς τὴν σωτηρίαν -τῆς πόλεως, εἰσφορὰς εἰσφέρειν, and those who paid it were called οἱ -εἰσφέροντες. The census of Solon was at first the standard according -to which the _eisphora_ was raised, until in B.C. 377 a new census -was instituted, in which the people, for the purpose of fixing the -rates of the property-tax, were divided into a number of symmoriae -(συμμορίαι) or classes, similar to those which were afterwards made -for the trierarchy. Each of the ten tribes or phylae, appointed -120 of its wealthier citizens; and the whole number of persons -included in the symmoriae was thus 1200, who were considered as the -representatives of the whole republic. This body of 1200 was divided -into four classes, each consisting of 300. The first class, or the -richest, were the leaders of the symmoriae (ἡγεμόνες συμμοριῶν), -and are often called the three hundred. They probably conducted the -proceedings of the symmoriae, and they, or, which is more likely, -the demarchs, had to value the taxable property. Other officers -were appointed to make out the lists of the rates, and were called -ἐπιγραφεῖς, διαγραφεῖς or ἐκλογεῖς. When the wants of the state were -pressing, the 300 leaders advanced the money to the others, who paid -it back to the 300 at the regular time. The first class probably -consisted of persons who possessed property from 12 talents upwards; -the second class, of persons who possessed property from 6 talents -and upwards, but under 12; the third class, of persons who possessed -property from 2 talents upwards, but under 6; the fourth class, of -persons who possessed property from 25 minae upwards, but under 2 -talents. The rate of taxation was higher or lower according to the -wants of the republic at the time; we have accounts of rates of a -12th, a 50th, a 100th, and a 500th part of the taxable property. -If any one thought that his property was taxed higher than that of -another man on whom juster claims could be made, he had the right to -call upon this person to take the office in his stead, or to submit -to a complete exchange of property. [ANTIDOSIS.] No Athenian, on -the other hand, if belonging to the tax-paying classes, could be -exempt from the _eisphora_, not even the descendants of Harmodius and -Aristogeiton. - - -ĒLECTRUM (ἤλεκτρος and ἤλεκτρον), is used by the ancient writers -in two different senses, either for _amber_ or for a mixture of -metals composed of gold and silver. In Homer and Hesiod, it has, in -all probability, the former meaning. The earliest passage of any -Greek writer, in which the word is _certainly_ used for the metal, -is in the _Antigone_ of Sophocles (1038). This alludes to _native -electrum_; but the compound was also made artificially. Pliny -states that when gold contains a fifth part of silver, it is called -_electrum_; that it is found in veins of gold; and that it is also -made by art: if, he adds, it contains more than a fifth of silver, it -becomes too brittle to be malleable. But Isidorus mentions electrum -composed of _three_ parts gold, and _one_ of silver. Electrum was -used for plate, and the other similar purposes for which gold and -silver were employed. It was also used as a material for money. -Lampridius tells us, that Alexander Severus struck coins of it; -and coins are in existence, of this metal, struck by the kings of -Bosporus, by Syracuse, and by other Greek states. - - -ĔLEUSĪNĬA (ἐλευσίνια), a festival and mysteries, originally -celebrated only at Eleusis in Attica, in honour of Demeter and -Persephone. The Eleusinian mysteries, or _the_ mysteries, as they -were sometimes called, were the holiest and most venerable of all -that were celebrated in Greece. Various traditions were current among -the Greeks respecting the author of these mysteries: for, while some -considered Eumolpus or Musaeus to be their founder, others stated -that they had been introduced from Egypt by Erechtheus, who at a time -of scarcity provided his country with corn from Egypt, and imported -from the same quarter the sacred rites and mysteries of Eleusis. -A third tradition attributed the institution to Demeter herself, -who, when wandering about in search of her daughter, Persephone, -was believed to have come to Attica, in the reign of Erechtheus, -to have supplied its inhabitants with corn, and to have instituted -the mysteries at Eleusis. This last opinion seems to have been the -most common among the ancients, and in subsequent times a stone was -shown near the well Callichoros at Eleusis, on which the goddess, -overwhelmed with grief and fatigue, was believed to have rested on -her arrival in Attica. All the accounts and allusions in ancient -writers seem to warrant the conclusion, that the legends concerning -the introduction of the Eleusinia are descriptions of a period when -the inhabitants of Attica were becoming acquainted with the benefits -of agriculture, and of a regularly constituted form of society.--In -the reign of Erechtheus a war is said to have broken out between -the Athenians and Eleusinians; and when the latter were defeated, -they acknowledged the supremacy of Athens in everything except the -mysteries, which they wished to conduct and regulate for themselves. -Thus the superintendence remained with the descendants of Eumolpus -[EUMOLPIDAE], the daughters of the Eleusinian king Celeus, and a -third class of priests, the Ceryces, who seem likewise to have been -connected with the family of Eumolpus, though they themselves traced -their origin to Hermes and Aglauros.--At the time when the local -governments of the several townships of Attica were concentrated at -Athens, the capital became also the centre of religion, and several -deities who had hitherto only enjoyed a local worship, were now -raised to the rank of national gods. This seems also to have been -the case with the Eleusinian goddess, for in the reign of Theseus we -find mention of a temple at Athens, called Eleusinion, probably the -new and national sanctuary of Demeter. Her priests and priestesses -now became naturally attached to the national temple of the capital, -though her original place of worship at Eleusis, with which so many -sacred associations were connected, still retained its importance and -its special share in the celebration of the national solemnities.--We -must distinguish between the greater Eleusinia, which were celebrated -at Athens and Eleusis, and the lesser, which were held at Agrae -on the Ilissus. The lesser Eleusinia were only a preparation -(προκάθαρσις or προάγνευσις) for the real mysteries. They were held -every year in the month of Anthesterion, and, according to some -accounts, in honour of Persephone alone. Those who were initiated in -them bore the name of _Mystae_ (μύσται), and had to wait at least -another year before they could be admitted to the great mysteries. -The principal rites of this first stage of initiation consisted in -the sacrifice of a sow, which the mystae seem to have first washed -in the Cantharus, and in the purification by a priest, who bore -the name of _Hydranos_ (Ὑδρανός). The mystae had also to take an -oath of secrecy, which was administered to them by the _Mystagogus_ -(μυσταγωγός, also called ἱεροφάντης or προφήτης), and they received -some kind of preparatory instruction, which enabled them afterwards -to understand the mysteries which were revealed to them in the -great Eleusinia.--The great mysteries were celebrated every year in -the month of Boedromion, during nine days, from the 15th to the -23rd, both at Athens and Eleusis. The initiated were called ἐπόπται -or ἔφυροι. On the first day, those who had been initiated in the -lesser Eleusinia, assembled at Athens. On the second day the mystae -went in solemn procession to the sea-coast, where they underwent -a purification. Of the third day scarcely anything is known with -certainty; we are only told that it was a day of fasting, and that in -the evening a frugal meal was taken, which consisted of cakes made -of sesame and honey. On the fourth day the καλάθος κάθοδος seems to -have taken place. This was a procession with a basket containing -pomegranates and poppy-seeds; it was carried on a waggon drawn by -oxen, and women followed with small mystic cases in their hands. -On the fifth day, which appears to have been called the torch day -(ἡ τῶν λαμπάδων ἡμέρα), the mystae, led by the δᾳδοῦχος, went in -the evening with torches to the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, where -they seem to have remained during the following night. This rite was -probably a symbolical representation of Demeter wandering about in -search of Persephone. The sixth day, called _Iacchos_, was the most -solemn of all. The statue of Iacchos, son of Demeter, adorned with a -garland of myrtle and bearing a torch in his hand, was carried along -the sacred road amidst joyous shouts and songs, from the Cerameicus -to Eleusis. This solemn procession was accompanied by great numbers -of followers and spectators. During the night from the sixth to -the seventh day the mystae remained at Eleusis, and were initiated -into the last mysteries (ἐποπτεία). Those who were neither ἐπόπται -nor μύσται were sent away by a herald. The mystae now repeated the -oath of secrecy which had been administered to them at the lesser -Eleusinia, underwent a new purification, and then they were led by -the mystagogus in the darkness of night into the lighted interior -of the sanctuary (φωταγωγία), and were allowed to see (αὐτοψία) -what none except the epoptae ever beheld. The awful and horrible -manner in which the initiation is described by later, especially -Christian writers, seems partly to proceed from their ignorance of -its real character, partly from their horror of and aversion to -these pagan rites. The more ancient writers always abstained from -entering upon any description of the subject. Each individual, after -his initiation, is said to have been dismissed by the words κόγξ, -ὄμπαξ, in order to make room for other mystae. On the seventh day -the initiated returned to Athens amid various kinds of raillery and -jests, especially at the bridge over the Cephisus, where they sat -down to rest, and poured forth their ridicule on those who passed -by. Hence the words γεφυρίζειν and γεφυρισμός. These σκώμματα seem, -like the procession with torches to Eleusis, to have been dramatical -and symbolical representations of the jests by which, according to -the ancient legend, Iambe or Baubo had dispelled the grief of the -goddess and made her smile. We may here observe, that probably the -whole history of Demeter and Persephone was in some way or other -symbolically represented at the Eleusinia. The eighth day, called -_Epidauria_ (Ἐπιδαύρια), was a kind of additional day for those -who by some accident had come too late, or had been prevented from -being initiated on the sixth day. It was said to have been added -to the original number of days, when Asclepius, coming over from -Epidaurus to be initiated, arrived too late, and the Athenians, not -to disappoint the god, added an eighth day. The ninth and last day -bore the name of πλημοχοαί, from a peculiar kind of vessel called -πλημοχοή, which is described as a small kind of κότυλος. Two of these -vessels were on this day filled with water or wine, and the contents -of the one thrown to the east, and those of the other to the west, -while those who performed this rite uttered some mystical words.--The -Eleusinian mysteries long survived the independence of Greece. -Attempts to suppress them were made by the emperor Valentinian, but -he met with strong opposition, and they seem to have continued down -to the time of the elder Theodosius. Respecting the secret doctrines -which were revealed in them to the initiated, nothing certain is -known. The general belief of the ancients was, that they opened to -man a comforting prospect of a future state. But this feature does -not seem to have been originally connected with these mysteries, and -was probably added to them at the period which followed the opening -of a regular intercourse between Greece and Egypt, when some of the -speculative doctrines of the latter country, and of the East, may -have been introduced into the mysteries, and hallowed by the names of -the venerable bards of the mythical age. This supposition would also -account, in some measure, for the legend of their introduction from -Egypt. In modern times many attempts have been made to discover the -nature of the mysteries revealed to the initiated, but the results -have been as various and as fanciful as might be expected. The most -sober and probable view is that, according to which, “they were -the remains of a worship which preceded the rise of the Hellenic -mythology and its attendant rites, grounded on a view of nature, -less fanciful, more earnest, and better fitted to awaken both -philosophical thought and religious feeling.” - - -ĔLEUTHĔRĬA (ἐλευθέρια), the feast of liberty, a festival which the -Greeks, after the battle of Plataeae (479 B.C.), instituted in honour -of Zeus Eleutherios (the deliverer). It was intended not merely -to be a token of their gratitude to the god to whom they believed -themselves to be indebted for their victory over the barbarians, but -also as a bond of union among themselves; for, in an assembly of all -the Greeks, Aristeides carried a decree that delegates (πρόβουλοι -καὶ θεωροί) from all the Greek states should assemble every year -at Plataeae for the celebration of the Eleutheria. The town itself -was at the same time declared sacred and inviolable, as long as its -citizens offered the annual sacrifices which were then instituted on -behalf of Greece. Every fifth year these solemnities were celebrated -with contests, in which the victors were rewarded with chaplets. - - -ELLŌTĬA or HELLŌTĬA (ἐλλώτια or ἑλλώτια), a festival with a torch -race celebrated at Corinth in honour of Athena as a goddess of fire. - - -ĒMANCĬPĀTĬO, was an act by which the _patria potestas_ was dissolved -in the lifetime of the parent, and it was so called because it was in -the form of a sale (_mancipatio_). By the laws of the Twelve Tables -it was necessary that a son should be sold three times in order to -be released from the paternal power, or to be _sui juris_. In the -case of daughters and grandchildren, one sale was sufficient. The -father transferred the son by the form of a sale to another person, -who manumitted him, upon which he returned into the power of the -father. This was repeated, and with the like result. After a third -sale, the paternal power was extinguished, but the son was re-sold to -the parent, who then manumitted him, and so acquired the rights of a -patron over his emancipated son, which would otherwise have belonged -to the purchaser who gave him his final manumission. - - -EMBAS (ἐμβάς), a shoe worn by men, and which appears to have been -the most common kind of shoe worn at Athens. Pollux says that it was -invented by the Thracians, and that it was like the low cothurnus. -The _embas_ was also worn by the Boeotians, and probably in other -parts of Greece. - - -EMBĂTEIA (ἐμβατεία). In Attic law this word (like the corresponding -English one, _entry_), was used to denote a formal taking possession -of real property. Thus, when a son entered upon the land left him -by his father, he was said ἐμβατεύειν or βαδίζειν εἰς τὰ πατρῳα, -and thereupon he became _seised_, or possessed of his inheritance. -If any one disturbed him in the enjoyment of this property, with -an intention to dispute the title, he might maintain an action of -ejectment, ἐξούλης δίκη. Before entry he could not maintain such -action. - - -EMBLĒMA (ἔμβλημα, ἔμπαισμα), an inlaid ornament. The art of inlaying -was employed in producing beautiful works of two descriptions, -viz.;--1st, those which resembled our marquetry, buhl, and Florentine -mosaics; and 2dly, those in which crusts (_crustae_), exquisitely -wrought in bas-relief and of precious materials, were fastened upon -the surface of vessels or other pieces of furniture. To the latter -class of productions belonged the cups and plates which Verres -obtained by violence from the Sicilians, and from which he removed -the emblems for the purpose of having them set in gold instead of -silver. - - -ĒMĔRĬTI, the name given to those Roman soldiers who had served out -their time, and had exemption (_vacatio_) from military service. The -usual time of service was twenty years for the legionary soldiers, -and sixteen for the praetorians. At the end of their period of -service they received a bounty or reward (_emeritum_), either in -lands or money, or in both. - - -ĒMISSĀRĬUM (ὑπόνομος), a channel, natural or artificial, by which -an outlet is formed to carry off any stagnant body of water. Such -channels may be either open or underground; but the most remarkable -works of the kind are of the latter description, as they carry off -the waters of lakes surrounded by hills. In Greece, the most striking -example is presented by the subterraneous channels which carry off -the waters of the lake Copais in Boeotia, which were partly natural -and partly artificial. Some works of this kind are among the most -remarkable efforts of Roman ingenuity. Remains still exist to show -that the lakes Trasimene, Albano, Nemi, and Fucino, were all drained -by means of _emissaria_, the last of which is still nearly perfect, -and open to inspection, having been partially cleared by the present -king of Naples. Julius Caesar is said to have first conceived the -idea of this stupendous undertaking, which was carried into effect by -the Emperor Claudius. - - -EMMĒNI DĬKAE (ἔμμηνοι δίκαι), suits in the Athenian courts, which -were not allowed to be pending above a month. This regulation was -confined to those subjects which required a speedy decision; and of -these the most important were disputes respecting commerce (ἐμπορικαὶ -δίκαι). All causes relating to mines (μεταλλικαὶ δίκαι) were also -ἔμμηνοι δίκαι, as well as those relating to ἔρανοι. [ERANI.] - - -EMPŎRĬUM (τὸ ἐμπόριον), a place for wholesale trade in commodities -carried by sea. The name is sometimes applied to a sea-port town, -but it properly signifies only a particular place in such a town. -The word is derived from ἔμπορος, which signifies in Homer a person -who sails as a passenger in a ship belonging to another person; but -in later writers it signifies the merchant or wholesale dealer, and -differs from κάπηλος, the retail dealer. The emporium at Athens was -under the inspection of certain officers, who were elected annually -(ἐπιμεληταὶ τοῦ ἐμπορίου). - - -ENCAUSTĬCA. [PICTURA.] - - -ENCTĒSIS (ἔγκτησις), the right of possessing landed property and -houses (ἔγκτησις γῆς καὶ οἰκίας) in a foreign country, which was -frequently granted by one Greek state to another, or to separate -individuals of another state. Ἐγκτήματα were such possessions in -a foreign country, or in a different δῆμος from that to which an -Athenian belonged by birth. - - -ENDEIXIS (ἔνδειξις), properly denotes a prosecution instituted -against such persons as were alleged to have exercised rights or -held offices while labouring under a peculiar disqualification. -The same form of action was available against the chairman of the -proedri (ἐπιστάτης), who wrongly refused to take the votes of the -people in the assembly; against malefactors, especially murderers; -traitors, ambassadors accused of malversation, and persons who -furnished supplies to the enemy during war. The first step taken by -the prosecutor was to lay his information in writing, also called -_endeixis_, before the proper magistrate, who then arrested, or -held to bail, the person criminated, and took the usual steps for -bringing him to trial. There is great obscurity with respect to the -punishment which followed condemnation. The accuser, if unsuccessful, -was responsible for bringing a malicious charge (ψευδοῦς ἐνδείξεως -ὑπεύθυνος). - - -ENDRŎMIS (ἐνδρομίς), a thick, coarse blanket, manufactured in Gaul, -and called “endromis” because those who had been exercising in the -stadium (ἐν δρόμῳ) threw it over them to obviate the effects of -sudden exposure when they were heated. Notwithstanding its coarse and -shaggy appearance, it was worn on other occasions as a protection -from the cold by rich and fashionable persons at Rome. - - -ENSIS. [GLADIUS.] - - -ENTĂSIS (ἔντασις). The most ancient columns now existing, diminish -immediately and regularly from the base to the neck, so that the -edge forms a straight line--a mode of construction which is wanting -in grace and apparent solidity. To correct this, a swelling outline, -called _entasis_, was given to the shaft, which seems to have been -the first step towards combining grace and grandeur in the Doric -column. - - -EPANGĔLĬA (ἐπαγγελία). If a citizen of Athens had incurred _atimia_, -the privilege of taking part or speaking in the public assembly was -forfeited. But as it sometimes might happen that a person, though not -formally declared _atimus_, had committed such crimes as would, on -accusation, draw upon him this punishment, it was of course desirable -that such individuals, like real _atimi_, should be excluded from -the exercise of the rights of citizens. Whenever, therefore, such -a person ventured to speak in the assembly, any Athenian citizen -had the right to come forward in the assembly itself and demand of -him to establish his right to speak by a trial or examination of -his conduct (δοκιμασία τοῦ βίου), and this demand, denouncement, or -threat, was called _epangelia_, or _epangelia docimasias_ (ἐπαγγελία -δοκιμασίας). The impeached individual was then compelled to desist -from speaking, and to submit to a scrutiny into his conduct, and, if -he was convicted, a formal declaration of _atimia_ followed. - - -EPARITI (ἐπάριτοι), the name of the standing army in Arcadia, which -was formed to preserve the independence of the Arcadian towns, when -they became united as one state after the defeat of the Spartans at -Leuctra. They were 5000 in number, and were paid by the state. - - -EPHĒBUS (ἔφηβος), the name of Athenian youths after they had -attained the age of 18. The state of _ephebeia_ (ἐφηβεία) lasted for -two years, till the youths had attained the age of 20, when they -became men, and were admitted to share all the rights and duties of -citizens, for which the law did not prescribe a more advanced age. -Before a youth was enrolled among the ephebi, he had to undergo a -_docimasia_ (δοκιμασία), the object of which was partly to ascertain -whether he was the son of Athenian citizens, or adopted by a citizen, -and partly whether his body was sufficiently developed and strong -to undertake the duties which now devolved upon him. After the -_docimasia_ the young men received in the assembly a shield and a -lance; but those whose fathers had fallen in the defence of their -country received a complete suit of armour in the theatre. It seems -to have been on this occasion that the ephebi took an oath in the -temple of Artemis Aglauros, by which they pledged themselves never -to disgrace their arms or to desert their comrades; to fight to -the last in the defence of their country, its altars and hearths; -to leave their country not in a worse but in a better state than -they found it; to obey the magistrates and the laws; to resist -all attempts to subvert the institutions of Attica; and finally, -to respect the religion of their forefathers. This solemnity took -place towards the close of the year, and the festive season bore the -name of _ephebia_ (ἐφήβια). The external distinction of the ephebi -consisted in the chlamys and the petasus. During the two years of -the ephebeia, which may be considered as a kind of apprenticeship in -arms, and in which the young men prepared themselves for the higher -duties of full citizens, they were generally sent into the country, -under the name of _peripoli_ (περίπολοι), to keep watch in the towns -and fortresses, on the coast and frontier, and to perform other -duties which might be necessary for the protection of Attica. - - -ĔPHĒGĒSIS (ἐφήγησις), denotes the method of proceeding against such -criminals as were liable to be summarily arrested by a private -citizen [APAGOGE] when the prosecutor was unwilling to expose -himself to personal risk in apprehending the offender. Under these -circumstances he made an application to the proper magistrate, and -conducted him and his officers to the spot where the capture was to -be effected. - - -ĔPHĔTAE (ἐφέται), the name of certain judges at Athens, who tried -cases of homicide. They were fifty-one in number, selected from noble -families, and more than fifty years of age. They formed a tribunal -of great antiquity, and were in existence before the legislation of -Solon, but, as the state became more and more democratical, their -duties became unimportant and almost antiquated. The Ephetae once sat -in one or other of the five courts, according to the nature of the -causes they had to try. In historical times, however, they sat in -_four_ only, called respectively the court by the Palladium (τὸ ἐπὶ -Παλλαδίῳ), by the Delphinium (τὸ ἐπὶ Δελφινίῳ), by the Prytaneium (τὸ -ἐπὶ Πρυτανείῳ), and the court at Phreatto or Zea (τὸ ἐν Φρεαττοῖ). At -the first of these courts they tried cases of unintentional, at the -second, of intentional but justifiable homicide. At the Prytaneium, -by a strange custom, somewhat analogous to the imposition of a -deodand, they passed sentence upon the instrument of murder when -the perpetrator of the act was not known. In the court at Phreatto, -on the sea shore at the Peiraeeus, they tried such persons as were -charged with wilful murder during a temporary exile for unintentional -homicide. - - -[Illustration: Ephippium, Saddle. (Coin of Labienus.)] - -ĔPHIPPĬUM (ἀστράβη, ἐφίππιον, ἐφίππειον), a saddle. Although the -Greeks occasionally rode without any saddle, yet they commonly used -one, and from them the name, together with the thing, was borrowed by -the Romans. The ancient saddles appear, indeed, to have been thus far -different from ours, that the cover stretched upon the hard frame was -probably of stuffed or padded cloth rather than leather, and that the -saddle was, as it were, a cushion fitted to the horse’s back. Pendent -cloths (στρώματα, _strata_) were always attached to it so as to cover -the sides of the animal; but it was not provided with stirrups. The -saddle with the pendent cloths is exhibited in the annexed coin. The -term “Ephippium” was in later times in part supplanted by the word -“sella,” and the more specific expression “sella equestris.” - - -ĔPHŎRI (ἔφοροι). Magistrates called _Ephori_ or overseers were common -to many Dorian constitutions in times of remote antiquity; but the -Ephori of Sparta are the most celebrated of them all. The origin -of the Spartan ephori is quite uncertain, but their office in the -historical times was a kind of counterpoise to the kings and council, -and in that respect peculiar to Sparta alone of the Dorian states. -Their number, five, appears to have been always the same, and was -probably connected with the five divisions of the town of Sparta, -namely, the four κῶμαι, Limnae, Mesoa, Pitana, Cynosura, and the -Πόλις or city properly so called, around which the κῶμαι lay. They -were elected from and by the people, without any qualification of age -or property, and without undergoing any scrutiny; so that the people -enjoyed through them a participation in the highest magistracy of -the state. They entered upon office at the autumnal solstice, and -the first in rank of the five gave his name to the year, which was -called after him in all civil transactions. They possessed judicial -authority in civil suits, and also a general superintendence over -the morals and domestic economy of the nation, which in the hands -of able men would soon prove an instrument of unlimited power. -Their jurisdiction and power were still further increased by the -privilege of instituting scrutinies (εὔθυναι) into the conduct of all -the magistrates. Even the kings themselves could be brought before -their tribunal (as Cleomenes was for bribery). In extreme cases, the -ephors were also competent to lay an accusation against the kings -as well as the other magistrates, and bring them to a capital trial -before the great court of justice. In later times the power of the -ephors was greatly increased; and this increase appears to have been -principally owing to the fact, that they put themselves in connection -with the assembly of the people, convened its meetings, laid measures -before it, and were constituted its agents and representatives. -When this connection arose is matter of conjecture. The power which -such a connection gave would, more than anything else, enable them -to encroach on the royal authority, and make themselves virtually -supreme in the state. Accordingly, we find that they transacted -business with foreign ambassadors; dismissed them from the state; -decided upon the government of dependent cities; subscribed in the -presence of other persons to treaties of peace; and in time of war -sent out troops when they thought necessary. In all these capacities -the ephors acted as the representatives of the nation, and the agents -of the public assembly, being in fact the executive of the state. In -course of time the kings became completely under their control. For -example, they fined Agesilaus on the vague charge of trying to make -himself popular, and interfered even with the domestic arrangements -of other kings. In the field the kings were followed by two ephors, -who belonged to the council of war; the three who remained at home -received the booty in charge, and paid it into the treasury, which -was under the superintendence of the whole College of Five. But -the ephors had still another prerogative, based on a religious -foundation, which enabled them to effect a temporary deposition of -the kings. Once in eight years, as we are told, they chose a calm -and cloudless night to observe the heavens, and if there was any -appearance of a falling meteor, it was believed to be a sign that the -gods were displeased with the kings, who were accordingly suspended -from their functions until an oracle allowed of their restoration. -The outward symbols of supreme authority also were assumed by the -ephors; and they alone kept their seats while the kings passed; -whereas it was not considered below the dignity of the kings to rise -in honour of the ephors. When Agis and Cleomenes undertook to restore -the old constitution, it was necessary for them to overthrow the -ephoralty, and accordingly Cleomenes murdered the ephors for the time -being, and abolished the office (B.C. 225); it was, however, restored -under the Romans. - - -ĔPĬBĂTAE (ἐπιβάται), were soldiers or marines appointed to defend the -vessels in the Athenian navy, and were entirely distinct from the -rowers, and also from the land soldiers, such as hoplitae, peltasts, -and cavalry. It appears that the ordinary number of epibatae on -board a trireme was ten. The epibatae were usually taken from the -thetes, or fourth class of Athenian citizens. The term is sometimes -also applied by the Roman writers to the marines, but they are more -usually called _classiarii milites_. The latter term, however, is -also applied to the rowers or sailors as well as the marines. - - -ĔPĬBŎLĒ (ἐπιβολή), a fine imposed by a magistrate, or other official -person or body, for a misdemeanour. The various magistrates at Athens -had (each in his own department) a summary penal jurisdiction; -_i.e._ for certain offences they might inflict a pecuniary mulct -or fine, not exceeding a fixed amount; if the offender deserved -further punishment, it was their duty to bring him before a judicial -tribunal. These _epibolae_ are to be distinguished from the -penalties awarded by a jury or court of law (τιμήματα) upon a formal -prosecution. - - -ĔPĬCLĒRUS (ἐπίκληρος, heiress), the name given to the daughter of -an Athenian citizen, who had no son to inherit his estate. It was -deemed an object of importance at Athens to preserve the family -name and property of every citizen. This was effected, where a man -had no child, by adoption (εἰσποίησις); if he had a daughter, the -inheritance was transmitted through her to a grandson, who would take -the name of the maternal ancestor. If the father died intestate, -the heiress had not the choice of a husband, but was bound to marry -her nearest relation, not in the ascending line. When there was but -one daughter, she was called ἐπίκληρος ἐπὶ παντὶ τῷ οἴκῳ. If there -were more, they inherited equally, like our co-parceners; and were -severally married to relatives, the nearest having the first choice. - - -ĔPĬDŎSEIS (ἐπιδόσεις), voluntary contributions, either in money, -arms, or ships, which were made by the Athenian citizens in order -to meet the extraordinary demands of the state. When the expenses -of the state were greater than its revenue, it was usual for the -prytaneis to summon an assembly of the people, and after explaining -the necessities of the state, to call upon the citizens to contribute -according to their means. Those who were willing to contribute then -rose and mentioned what they would give; while those who were -unwilling to give any thing remained silent, or retired privately -from the assembly. - - -ĔPĬMĔLĒTAE (ἐπιμεληταί), the names of various magistrates and -functionaries at Athens.--(1) Ἐπιμελητὴς τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου, more -usually called ταμίας, the treasurer or manager of the public -revenue. [TAMIAS.]--(2) Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν μοριῶν Ἐλαιῶν, were persons -chosen from among the Areopagites to take care of the sacred olive -trees.--(3) Ἐπιμεληταὶ τοῦ Ἐμπορίου, were the overseers of the -emporium. [EMPORIUM.] They were ten in number, and were elected -yearly by lot. They had the entire management of the emporium, -and had jurisdiction in all breaches of the commercial laws.--(4) -Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν Μυστηρίων, were, in connection with the king archon, -the managers of the Eleusinian mysteries. They were elected by open -vote, and were four in number.--(5) Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν νεωρίων, the -inspectors of the dockyards, were ten in number.--(6) Ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν -φυλῶν, the inspectors of the φυλαὶ or tribes. [TRIBUS.] - - -ĔPISCŎPI (ἐπίσκοποι), inspectors, who were sometimes sent by the -Athenians to subject states. They were also called φύλακες. It -appears that these Episcopi received a salary at the cost of the -cities over which they presided. - - -ĔPISTĂTĒS (ἐπιστάτης).--(1) The chairman of the senate and assembly -of the people, respecting whose duties see BOULÉ and ECCLESIA.--(2) -The name of the directors of the public works. (Ἐπισταταὶ τῶν -δημοσίων ἔργων). - - -ĔPISTŎLEUS (ἐπιστολεύς), the officer second in rank in the Spartan -fleet, who succeeded to the command if any thing happened to the -_navarchus_ (ναυάρχος) or admiral. When the Chians and the other -allies of Sparta on the Asiatic coast sent to Sparta to request that -Lysander might be again appointed to the command of the navy, he was -sent with the title of epistoleus, because the laws of Sparta did not -permit the same person to hold the office of navarchus twice. - - -ĔPISTȲLĬUM (ἐπιστύλιον), properly, as the name implies, the -architrave, or lower member of an entablature, which lies immediately -over the columns. The word is sometimes also used for the whole of -the entablature. - - -ĔPĬTRŎPUS (ἐπίτροπος), the name at Athens of a guardian of orphan -children. Of such guardians there were at Athens three kinds: first, -those appointed in the will of the deceased father; secondly, the -next of kin, whom the law designated as tutores legitimi in default -of such appointment, and who required the authorization of the -archon to enable them to act; and lastly, such persons as the archon -selected if there were no next of kin living to undertake the office. -The duties of the guardian comprehended the education, maintenance, -and protection of the ward, the assertion of his rights, and the -safe custody and profitable disposition of his inheritance during -his minority, besides making a proper provision for the widow if she -remained in the house of her late husband. - - -ĔPŌBĔLIA (ἐπωβελία), as its etymology implies, at the rate of one -obolus for a drachma, or one in six, was payable on the assessment -(τίμημα) of several private causes, and sometimes in a case of -phasis, by the litigant that failed to obtain the votes of one-fifth -of the dicasts. - - -ĔPŌNỸMUS. [ARCHON.] - - -ĔPOPTAE (ἐπόπται). [ELEUSINIA.] - - -ĔPŬLŌNES, who were originally three in number (_triumviri epulones_), -were first created in B.C. 196, to attend to the Epulum Jovis, and -the banquets given in honour of the other gods; which duty had -originally belonged to the pontifices. Their number was afterwards -increased to seven, and they were called septemviri epulones or -septemviri epulonum. The epulones formed a collegium, and were one of -the four great religious corporations at Rome; the other three were -those of the Pontifices, Augures, and Quindecemviri. - - -ĔPŬLUM JŎVIS. [EPULONES.] - - -ĔQUĪRĬA, horse-races, which are said to have been instituted by -Romulus in honour of Mars, and were celebrated in the Campus Martius. -There were two festivals of this name; of which one was celebrated -A.D. III. Cal. Mart., and the other prid. Id. Mart. - - -ĔQUĬTES, horsemen. Romulus is said to have formed three centuries -of equites; and these were the same as the 300 Celeres, whom he -kept about his person in peace and war. A century was taken from -each of the three tribes, the _Ramnes_, _Titienses_, and _Luceres_. -Tarquinius Priscus added three more, under the title of Ramnes, -Titienses, and Luceres _posteriores_. These were the six patrician -centuries of equites, often referred to under the name of the _sex -suffragia_. To these Servius Tullius added twelve more centuries, for -admission into which, property and not birth was the qualification. -These twelve centuries might therefore contain plebeians, but they -do not appear to have been restricted to plebeians, since we have -no reason for believing that the six old centuries contained the -_whole_ body of patricians. A property qualification was apparently -also necessary by the Servian constitution for admission into the -six centuries. We may therefore suppose that those patricians who -were included in the six old centuries were allowed by the Servian -constitution to continue in them, if they possessed the requisite -property; and that all other persons in the state, whether patricians -or plebeians, who possessed the requisite property, were admitted -into the twelve new centuries. We are not told the amount of property -necessary to entitle a person to a place among the equites, but it -was probably the same as in the latter times of the republic, that -is, four times that of the first class. [COMITIA, p. 105.] Property, -however, was not the only qualification; for in the ancient times -of the republic no one was admitted among the equestrian centuries -unless his character was unblemished, and his father and grandfather -had been born freemen. Each of the equites received a horse from -the state (_equus publicus_), or money to purchase one, as well as -a sum of money for its annual support; the expense of its support -was defrayed by the orphans and unmarried females; since, in a -military state, it could not be esteemed unjust, that the women and -the children were to contribute largely for those who fought in -behalf of them and of the commonwealth. The purchase-money for a -knight’s horse was called _aes equestre_, and its annual provision -_aes hordearium_. The former amounted, according to Livy, to 10,000 -asses, and the latter to 2000.--All the equites, of whom we have -been speaking, received a horse from the state, and were included -in the 18 equestrian centuries of the Servian constitution; but -in course of time, we read of another class of equites in Roman -history, who did not receive a horse from the state, and who were not -included in the 18 centuries. This latter class is first mentioned -by Livy, in his account of the siege of Veii, B.C. 403. He says that -during the siege, when the Romans had at one time suffered great -disasters, all those citizens who had an equestrian fortune, and no -horse allotted to them, volunteered to serve with their own horses; -and he adds, that from this time equites first began to serve with -their own horses. The state paid them, as a kind of compensation for -serving with their own horses. The foot soldiers had received pay -a few years before; and two years afterwards, B.C. 401, the pay of -the equites was made three-fold that of the infantry. From the year -B.C. 403, there were therefore two classes of Roman knights: one who -received horses from the state, and are therefore frequently called -_equites equo publico_, and sometimes _Flexumines_ or _Trossuli_, -and another class, who served, when they were required, with their -own horses, but were not classed among the 18 centuries. As they -served on horseback they were called _equites_; and when spoken of in -opposition to cavalry, which did not consist of Roman citizens, they -were also called _equites Romani_; but they had no legal claim to -the name of equites, since in ancient times this title was strictly -confined to those who received horses from the state.--The reason of -this distinction of two classes arose from the fact, that the number -of equites in the 18 centuries was fixed from the time of Servius -Tullius. As vacancies occurred in them, the descendants of those -who were originally enrolled succeeded to their places, provided -they had not dissipated their property. But in course of time, as -population and wealth increased, the number of persons who possessed -an equestrian fortune, also increased greatly; and as the ancestors -of these persons had not been enrolled in the 18 centuries, they -could not receive horses from the state, and were therefore allowed -the privilege of serving with their own horses among the cavalry, -instead of the infantry, as they would otherwise have been obliged to -have done.--The inspection of the equites who received horses from -the state belonged to the censors, who had the power of depriving an -eques of his horse, and reducing him to the condition of an aerarian, -and also of giving the vacant horse to the most distinguished of the -equites who had previously served at their own expense. For these -purposes they made during their censorship a public inspection, in -the forum, of all the knights who possessed public horses (_equitatum -recognoscere_). The tribes were taken in order, and each knight was -summoned by name. Every one, as his name was called, walked past -the censors, leading his horse. If the censors had no fault to find -either with the character of the knight or the equipments of his -horse, they ordered him to pass on (_traducere equum_); but if on -the contrary they considered him unworthy of his rank, they struck -him out of the list of knights, and deprived him of his horse, or -ordered him to sell it, with the intention no doubt that the person -thus degraded should refund to the state the money which had been -advanced to him for its purchase.--This review of the equites by -the censors must not be confounded with the _Equitum Transvectio_, -which was a solemn procession of the body every year on the Ides of -Quintilis (July). The procession started from the temple of Mars -outside the city, and passed through the city over the forum, and by -the temple of the Dioscuri. On this occasion the equites were always -crowned with olive chaplets, and wore their state dress, the trabea, -with all the honourable distinctions which they had gained in battle. -According to Livy, this annual procession was first established by -the censors Q. Fabius and P. Decius, B.C. 304; but according to -Dionysius it was instituted after the defeat of the Latins near -the lake Regillus, of which an account was brought to Rome by the -Dioscuri.--It may be asked how long did the knight retain his public -horse, and a vote in the equestrian century to which he belonged? On -this subject we have no positive information; but as those equites, -who served with their own horses, were only obliged to serve for ten -years (_stipendia_) under the age of 46, we may presume that the same -rule extended to those who served with the public horses, provided -they _wished_ to give up the service. For it is certain that in the -ancient times of the republic a knight might retain his horse as -long as he pleased, even after he had entered the senate, provided -he continued able to discharge the duties of a knight. Thus the two -censors, M. Livius Salinator and C. Claudius Nero, in B.C. 204, were -also equites, and L. Scipio Asiaticus, who was deprived of his horse -by the censors in B.C. 185, had himself been censor in B.C. 191. -But during the later times of the republic the knights were obliged -to give up their horses on entering the senate, and consequently -ceased to belong to the equestrian centuries. It thus naturally -came to pass, that the greater number of the equites equo publico, -after the exclusion of senators from the equestrian centuries, were -young men.--The equestrian centuries, of which we have hitherto been -treating, were only regarded as a division of the army: they did not -form a distinct class or ordo in the constitution. The community, -in a political point of view, was divided only into patricians and -plebeians, and the equestrian centuries were composed of both. But -in the year B.C. 123, a new class, called the _Ordo Equestris_, was -formed in the state by the Lex Sempronia, which was introduced by C. -Gracchus. By this law, or one passed a few years afterwards, every -person who was to be chosen judex was required to be above 30 and -under 60 years of age, to have either an equus publicus, or to be -qualified by his fortune to possess one, and _not_ to be a senator. -The number of judices, who were required yearly, was chosen from -this class by the praetor urbanus. As the name of equites had been -originally extended from those who possessed the public horses to -those who served with their own horses, it now came to be applied -to all those persons who were qualified by their fortune to act as -judices, in which sense the word is usually used by Cicero. After -the reform of Sulla, which entirely deprived the equestrian order -of the right of being chosen as judices, and the passing of the Lex -Aurelia (B.C. 70), which ordained that the judices should be chosen -from the senators, equites, and tribuni aerarii, the influence of -the order, says Pliny, was still maintained by the _publicani_, -or farmers of the public taxes. We find that the publicani were -almost always called equites, not because any particular rank was -necessary in order to obtain from the state the farming of the -taxes, but because the state was not accustomed to let them to any -one who did not possess a considerable fortune. Thus the publicani -are frequently spoken of by Cicero as identical with the equestrian -order. The consulship of Cicero, and the active part which the -knights then took in suppressing the conspiracy of Catiline, tended -still further to increase the power and influence of the equestrian -order; and “from that time,” says Pliny, “it became a third body -(_corpus_) in the state, and, to the title of _Senatus Populusque -Romanus_, there began to be added _Et Equestris Ordo_.” In B.C. 63, -a distinction was conferred upon them, which tended to separate them -still further from the plebs. By the Lex Roscia Othonis, passed -in that year, the first fourteen seats in the theatre behind the -orchestra were given to the equites. They also possessed the right -of wearing the Clavus Angustus [CLAVUS], and subsequently obtained -the privilege of wearing a gold ring, which was originally confined -to the equites equo publico. The number of equites increased greatly -under the early emperors, and all persons were admitted into the -order, provided they possessed the requisite property, without any -inquiry into their character, or into the free birth of their father -and grandfather. The order in consequence gradually began to lose all -the consideration which it had acquired during the later times of the -republic.--Augustus formed a select class of equites, consisting of -those equites who possessed the property of a senator, and the old -requirement of free birth up to the grandfather. He permitted this -class to wear the _latus clavus_; and also allowed the tribunes of -the plebs to be chosen from them, as well as the senators, and gave -them the option, at the termination of their office, to remain in the -senate or return to the equestrian order. This class of knights was -distinguished by the special title _illustres_ (sometimes _insignes_ -and _splendidi_) _equites Romani_. The formation of this distinct -class tended to lower the others still more in public estimation. -In the ninth year of the reign of Tiberius, an attempt was made -to improve the order by requiring the old qualifications of free -birth up to the grandfather, and by strictly forbidding any one to -wear the gold ring unless he possessed this qualification. This -regulation, however, was of little avail, as the emperors frequently -admitted freedmen into the equestrian order. When private persons -were no longer appointed judices, the necessity for a distinct class -in the community, like the equestrian order, ceased entirely; and -the gold ring came at length to be worn by all free citizens. Even -slaves, after their manumission, were allowed to wear it by special -permission from the emperor, which appears to have been usually -granted provided the patronus consented.--Having thus traced the -history of the equestrian order to its final extinction as a distinct -class in the community, we must now return to the equites equo -publico, who formed the 18 equestrian centuries. This class still -existed during the latter years of the republic, but had entirely -ceased to serve as horse-soldiers in the army. The cavalry of the -Roman legions no longer consisted, as in the time of Polybius, of -Roman equites, but their place was supplied by the cavalry of the -allied states. It is evident that Caesar in his Gallic wars possessed -no Roman cavalry. When he went to an interview with Ariovistus, -and was obliged to take cavalry with him, we are told that he did -not dare to trust his safety to the Gallic cavalry, and therefore -mounted his legionary soldiers upon their horses. The Roman equites -are, however, frequently mentioned in the Gallic and civil wars, -but never as common soldiers; they were officers attached to the -staff of the general, or commanded the cavalry of the allies, or -sometimes the legions.--After the year B.C. 50, there were no censors -in the state, and it would therefore follow that for some years -no review of the body took place, and that the vacancies were not -filled up. When Augustus, however, took upon himself, in B.C. 29, -the praefectura morum, he frequently reviewed the troops of equites, -and restored the long neglected custom of the solemn procession -(_transvectio_). From this time these equites formed an honourable -corps, from which all the higher officers in the army and the chief -magistrates in the state were chosen. Admission into this body was -equivalent to an introduction into public life, and was therefore -esteemed a great privilege. If a young man was not admitted into -this body, he was excluded from all civil offices of any importance, -except in municipal towns; and also from all rank in the army, -with the exception of centurion. All those equites, who were not -employed in actual service, were obliged to reside at Rome, where -they were allowed to fill the lower magistracies, which entitled -a person to admission into the senate. They were divided into six -turmae, each of which was commanded by an officer, who is frequently -mentioned in inscriptions as _Sevir equitum Rom. turmae_ I. II., &c., -or commonly _Sevir turmae_ or _Sevir turmarum equitum Romanorum_. -From the time that the equites bestowed the title of _principes -juventutis_ upon Caius and Lucius Caesar, the grandsons of Augustus, -it became the custom to confer this title, as well as that of sevir, -upon the probable successor to the throne, when he first entered -into public life, and was presented with an equus publicus. The -practice of filling all the higher offices in the state from these -equites appears to have continued as long as Rome was the centre of -the government and the residence of the emperor. After the time of -Diocletian, the equites became only a city guard, under the command -of the praefectus vigilum; but they still retained, in the time of -Valentinianus and Valens, A.D. 364, the second rank in the city, and -were not subject to corporal punishment. Respecting the _Magister -Equitum_, see DICTATOR. - - -ĔQUŬLĔUS or ĔCŬLĔUS, an instrument of torture, which is supposed to -have been so called because it was in the form of a horse. - - -ĔRĂNI (ἔρανοι), were clubs or societies, established for charitable, -convivial, commercial, or political purposes. Unions of this kind -were called by the general name of ἑταιρίαι, and were often converted -to mischievous ends, such as bribery, overawing the public assembly, -or influencing courts of justice. In the days of the Roman empire -friendly societies, under the name of _erani_, were frequent among -the Greek cities, but were looked on with suspicion by the emperors, -as leading to political combinations. The _gilds_, or fraternities -for mutual aid, among the ancient Saxons, resembled the _erani_ of -the Greeks. - - -ERGASTŬLUM, a private prison attached to most Roman farms, where -the slaves were made to work in chains. The slaves confined in an -ergastulum were also employed to cultivate the fields in chains. -Slaves who had displeased their masters were punished by imprisonment -in the ergastulum; and in the same place all slaves, who could not be -depended upon or were barbarous in their habits, were regularly kept. - - -ĒRĪCĬUS, a military engine full of sharp spikes, which was placed by -the gate of the camp to prevent the approach of the enemy. - - -ĔRŌTĬA or ĔRŌTĬDĬA (ἐρώτια or ἐρωτίδια), the most solemn of all the -festivals celebrated in the Boeotian town of Thespiae. It took place -every fifth year, and in honour of Eros, the principal divinity of -the Thespians. Respecting the particulars nothing is known, except -that it was solemnised with contests in music and gymnastics. - - -ESSĔDĀRĬI. [ESSEDUM.] - - -ESSĔDA, or ESSĔDUM (from the Celtic _Ess_, a carriage), the name of -a chariot used, especially in war, by the Britons, the Gauls, and -the Germans. It was built very strongly, was open before instead of -behind, like the Greek war-chariot, and had a wide pole, so that the -owner was able, whenever he pleased, to run along the pole, and even -to raise himself upon the yoke, and then to retreat with the greatest -speed into the body of the car, which he drove with extraordinary -swiftness and skill. It appears also that these cars were purposely -made as noisy as possible, probably by the creaking and clanging of -the wheels; and that this was done in order to strike dismay into the -enemy. The warriors who drove these chariots were called _essedarii_. -Having been captured, they were sometimes exhibited in the -gladiatorial shows at Rome, and seem to have been great favourites -with the people. The essedum was adopted for purposes of convenience -and luxury among the Romans. As used by the Romans, the essedum may -have differed from the cisium in this; that the cisium was drawn by -one horse (see cut, p. 90), the essedum always by a pair. - - -EUMOLPĬDAE (εὐμολπίδαι), the most distinguished and venerable among -the priestly families in Attica. They were devoted to the service of -Demeter at Athens and Eleusis, and were said to be the descendants -of the Thracian bard Eumolpus, who, according to some legends, had -introduced the Eleusinian mysteries into Attica. The high priest of -the Eleusinian goddess (ἱεροφάντης or μυσταγωγός), who conducted the -celebration of her mysteries and the initiation of the mystae, was -always a member of the family of the Eumolpidae, as Eumolpus himself -was believed to have been the first hierophant. The hierophant was -attended by four _epimeletae_ (ἐπιμεληταί), one of whom likewise -belonged to the family of the Eumolpidae. The Eumolpidae had on -certain occasions to offer up prayers for the welfare of the state. -They had likewise judicial power in cases where religion was -violated. The law according to which they pronounced their sentence, -and of which they had the exclusive possession, was not written, -but handed down by tradition; and the Eumolpidae alone had the -right to interpret it, whence they are sometimes called _Exegetae_ -(ἐξηγηταί). In cases for which the law had made no provisions, they -acted according to their own discretion. In some cases, when a person -was convicted of gross violation of the public institutions of his -country, the people, besides sending the offender into exile, added a -clause in their verdict that a curse should be pronounced upon him by -the Eumolpidae. But the Eumolpidae could pronounce such a curse only -at the command of the people, and might afterwards be compelled by -the people to revoke it, and purify the person whom they had cursed -before. - - -EUPATRĬDAE (εὐπατρίδαι), descended from noble ancestors, is the name -by which in early times the nobility of Attica was designated. In -the division of the inhabitants of Attica into three classes, which -is ascribed to Theseus, the Eupatridae were the first class, and -thus formed a compact order of nobles, united by their interests, -rights, and privileges. They were in the exclusive possession of all -the civil and religious offices in the state, ordered the affairs of -religion, and interpreted the laws human and divine. The king was -thus only the first among his equals, and only distinguished from -them by the duration of his office. By the legislation of Solon, -the political power and influence of the Eupatridae as an order -was broken, and property instead of birth was made the standard -of political rights. But as Solon, like all ancient legislators, -abstained from abolishing any of the religious institutions, those -families of the Eupatridae, in which certain priestly offices and -functions were hereditary, retained these distinctions down to a very -late period of Grecian history. - - -EURĪPUS. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] - - -EUTHȲNĒ (εὐθύνη). All public officers at Athens were accountable for -their conduct and the manner in which they acquitted themselves of -their official duties. The judges in the popular court seem to have -been the only authorities who were not responsible, for they were -themselves the representatives of the people, and would therefore, -in theory, have been responsible to themselves. This account, which -officers had to give after the time of their office was over, was -called εὐθύνη, and the officers subject to it, ὑπεύθυνοι, and after -they had gone through the _euthyne_, they became ἀνεύθυνοι. Every -public officer had to render his account within thirty days after the -expiration of his office, and at the time when he submitted to the -_euthyne_ any citizen had the right to come forward and impeach him. -The officers before whom the accounts were given were at Athens ten -in number, called εὔθυνοι or λογισταί, in other places ἐξετασταί or -συνήγοροι. - - -ĒVŎCĀTI. [EXERCITUS.] - - -EXAUCTŌRĬTAS. [EXERCITUS.] - - -EXAUGŬRĀTĬO, the act of changing a sacred thing into a profane one, -or of taking away from it the sacred character which it had received -by inauguratio, consecratio, or dedicatio. Such an act was performed -by the augurs, and never without consulting the pleasure of the gods, -by augurium. - - -EXCŬBĬAE. [CASTRA.] - - -EXCŬBĬTŌRES, which properly means watchmen or sentinels of any kind, -was the name more particularly given to the soldiers of the cohort -who guarded the palace of the Roman emperor. - - -EXEDRA (ἐξέδρα), which properly signifies a seat out of doors, came -to be used for a chamber furnished with seats, and opening into a -portico, where people met to enjoy conversation; such as the rooms -attached to a gymnasium, which were used for the lectures and -disputations of the rhetoricians and philosophers. In old Greek the -word λέσχη appears to have had a similar meaning; but the ordinary -use of the word is for a larger and more public place of resort than -the ἐξέδρα. [LESCHE.] Among the Romans the word had a wider meaning, -answering to both the Greek terms, ἐξέδρα and λέσχη. - - -EXĒGĒTAE (ἐξηγηταί, interpreters) is the name of the Eumolpidae, by -which they were designated as the interpreters of the laws relating -to religion and of the sacred rites. [EUMOLPIDAE.] The name ἐξηγητής -was also applied to those persons who served as guides (ciceroni) to -the visitors in the most remarkable towns and places of Greece. - - -EXERCĬTŌRĬA ACTĬO, an action granted by the edict against the -exercitor navis. By the term navis was understood any vessel, whether -used for the navigation of rivers, lakes, or the sea. The exercitor -navis is the person to whom all the ship’s gains and earnings -(_obventiones et reditus_) belong, whether he is the owner, or has -hired the ship (_per aversionem_) from the owner for a time definite -or indefinite. - - -EXERCĬTUS (στρατός), army. (1) GREEK. - -1. _Spartan Army._--In all the states of Greece, in the earliest as -in later times, the general type of their military organisation was -the _phalanx_, a body of troops in close array with a long spear as -their principal weapon. It was among the Dorians, and especially -among the Spartans, that this type was most rigidly adhered to. -The strength of their military array consisted in the heavy-armed -infantry (ὁπλίται). They attached comparatively small importance to -their cavalry, which was always inferior. Indeed, the Thessalians and -Boeotians were the only Greek people who distinguished themselves -much for their cavalry; scarcely any other states had territories -adapted for the evolutions of cavalry. The whole life of a Spartan -was little else than either the preparation for or the practice of -war. The result was, that in the strictness of their discipline, -the precision and facility with which they performed their military -evolutions, and the skill and power with which they used their -weapons, the Spartans were unrivalled among the Greeks. The -heavy-armed infantry of the Spartan armies was composed partly of -genuine Spartan citizens, partly of Perioeci. Every Spartan citizen -was liable to military service (ἔμφρουρος) from the age of twenty -to the age of sixty years. They were divided into six divisions -called μόραι, under the command or superintendence of a polemarch, -each mora being subdivided into four λόχοι(commanded by λοχαγοί), -each λόχος into two πεντηκοστύες (headed by πεντηκοστῆρες), each -πεντηκοστύς into two ἐνωμοτίαι (headed by enomotarchs). The ἐνωμοτίαι -were so called from the men composing them being bound together by -a common oath. These were not merely divisions of troops engaged in -actual military expeditions. The whole body of citizens at all times -formed an army, whether they were congregated at head-quarters in -Sparta, or a portion of them were detached on foreign service. The -strength of a mora on actual service, of course, varied, according to -circumstances. To judge by the name pentecostys, the normal number -of a mora would have been 400; but 500, 600, and 900 are mentioned -as the number of men in a mora on different occasions. When in the -field, each mora of infantry was attended by a mora of cavalry, -consisting at the most of 100 men, and commanded by an hipparmost -(ἱππαρμοστής). Plutarch mentions squadrons (οὐλαμοί) of fifty, which -may possibly be the same divisions. The cavalry seems merely to -have been employed to protect the flanks, and but little regard was -paid to it. The corps of 300 ἱππεῖς formed a sort of body-guard for -the king, and consisted of the flower of the young soldiers. Though -called horsemen, they fought on foot. A Spartan army, divided as -above described, was drawn up in the dense array of the phalanx, the -depth of which depended upon circumstances. An ἐνωμοτία sometimes -made but a single file, sometimes was drawn up in three or six files -(ζύγα). The enomotarch stood at the head of his file (πρωτοστάτης), -or at the head of the right-hand file, if the enomotia was broken up -into more than one. The last man was called οὐραγός. It was a matter -of great importance that he, like the enomotarch, should be a man of -strength and skill, as in certain evolutions he would have to lead -the movements. The commander-in-chief, who was usually the king, -had his station sometimes in the centre, more commonly on the right -wing. The commands of the general were issued in the first place -to the polemarchs, by these to the lochagi, by these again to the -pentecosteres, by the latter to the enomotarchs, and by these last to -their respective divisions. From the orderly manner in which this was -done, commands were transmitted with great rapidity: every soldier, -in fact, regulating the movements of the man behind him, every two -being connected together as πρωτοστάτης and ἐπιστάτης. In later times -the king was usually accompanied by two ephors, as controllers and -advisers. These, with the polemarchs, the four Pythii, three peers -(ὅμοιοι), who had to provide for the necessities of the king in war, -the laphyropolae and some other officers, constituted what was called -the _damosia_ of the king. The Spartan hoplites were accompanied in -the field by helots, partly in the capacity of attendants, partly -to serve as light-armed troops. The number attached to an army was -probably not uniform. At Plataeae each Spartan was accompanied by -seven helots; but that was probably an extraordinary case. One helot -in particular of those attached to each Spartan was called his -θεράπων, and performed the functions of an armourer or shieldbearer. -Xenophon calls them ὑπασπισταί. In extraordinary cases, helots -served as hoplites, and in that case it was usual to give them their -liberty. A separate troop in the Lacedaemonian army was formed by -the Sciritae (Σκιρῖται), originally, no doubt, inhabitants of the -district Sciritis. The arms of the phalanx consisted of the long -spear and a short sword (ξυήλη). The chief part of the defensive -armour was the large brazen shield, which covered the body from the -shoulder to the knee, suspended, as in ancient times, by a thong -round the neck, and managed by a simple handle or ring (πόρπαξ). -Besides this, they had the ordinary armour of the hoplite [ARMA]. The -heavy-armed soldiers wore a scarlet uniform. The Spartan encampments -were circular. Only the heavy-armed were stationed within them, the -cavalry being placed to look out, and the helots being kept as much -as possible outside. Preparatory to a battle the Spartan soldier -dressed his hair and crowned himself as others would do for a feast. -The signal for attack was given not by the trumpet, but by the music -of flutes, and sometimes also of the lyre and cithara, to which the -men sang the battle song (παιὰν ἐμβατήριος). The object of the music -was not so much to inspirit the men, as simply to regulate the march -of the phalanx. This rhythmical regularity of movement was a point to -which the Spartans attached great importance. - -2. _Athenian Army._--In Athens, the military system was in its -leading principles the same as among the Spartans, though differing -in detail, and carried out with less exactness; inasmuch as when -Athens became powerful, greater attention was paid to the navy. -Of the four classes into which the citizens were arranged by the -constitution of Solon, the citizens of the first and second served -as cavalry, or as commanders of the infantry (still it need not be -assumed that the ἱππεῖς never served as heavy-armed infantry), those -of the third class (ζευγῖται) formed the heavy-armed infantry. The -Thetes served either as light-armed troops on land, or on board the -ships. The same general principles remained when the constitution -was remodelled by Cleisthenes. The cavalry service continued to -be compulsory on the wealthier class. Every citizen was liable to -service from his eighteenth to his sixtieth year. On reaching their -eighteenth year, the young citizens were formally enrolled εἰς -τὴν ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον, and received a shield and spear in a -public assembly of the people, binding themselves by oath to perform -rightly the duties of a citizen and a soldier. During the first two -years, they were only liable to service in Attica itself, chiefly -as garrison soldiers in the different fortresses in the country. -During this period, they were called περίπολοι. Members of the senate -during the period of their office, farmers of the revenue, choreutae -at the Dionysia during the festival, in later times, traders by sea -also, were exempted from military service. Any one bound to serve who -attempted to avoid doing so, was liable to a sentence of ἀτιμία. The -resident aliens commonly served as heavy-armed soldiers, especially -for the purpose of garrisoning the city. They were prohibited -from serving as cavalry. Slaves were only employed as soldiers in -cases of great necessity. Of the details of the Athenian military -organisation, we have no distinct accounts as we have of those of -Sparta. The heavy-armed troops, as was the universal practice in -Greece, fought in phalanx order. They were arranged in bodies in a -manner dependent on the political divisions of the citizens. The -soldiers of each tribe (φυλή) formed a separate body in the army, -also called a tribe, and these bodies stood in some preconcerted -order. It seems that the name of one division was τάξις, and of -another λόχος, but in what relations these stood to the φυλή, and -to each other, we do not learn. Every hoplite was accompanied by -an attendant (ὑπηρέτης) to take charge of his baggage, and carry -his shield on a march. Each horseman also had a servant, called -ἱπποκόμος, to attend to his horse. For the command of the army, there -were chosen every year ten generals [STRATEGI], and ten taxiarchs -[TAXIARCHI], and for the cavalry, two hipparchs (ἵππαρχοι) and ten -phylarchs (φύλαρχοι). Respecting the military functions of the ἄρχων -πολέμαρχος, see the article Archon. The number of strategi sent with -an army was not uniform. Three was a common number. Sometimes one was -invested with the supreme command; at other times, they either took -the command in turn (as at Marathon), or conducted their operations -by common consent (as in the Sicilian expedition). The practice of -paying the troops when upon service was first introduced by Pericles. -The pay consisted partly of wages (μισθός), partly of provisions, -or, more commonly, provision-money (σιτηρέσιον). The ordinary μισθός -of a hoplite was two obols a day. The σιτηρέσιον amounted to two -obols more. Hence, the life of a soldier was called, proverbially, -τετρωβόλου βίος. Officers received twice as much; horsemen, three -times; generals, four times as much. The horsemen received pay even -in time of peace, that they might always be in readiness, and also a -sum of money for their outfit (κατάστασις). As regards the military -strength of the Athenians, we find 10,000 heavy-armed soldiers at -Marathon, 8,000 heavy-armed, and as many light-armed at Plataeae; -and at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war there were 18,000 -heavy-armed ready for foreign service, and 16,000 consisting of those -beyond the limits of the ordinary military age and of the metoeci, -for garrison service. It was the natural result of the national -character of the Athenians and their democratical constitution, -that military discipline was much less stringent among them than -among the Spartans, and after defeat especially it was often found -extremely difficult to maintain it. The generals had some power of -punishing military offences on the spot, but for the greater number -of such offences a species of court-martial was held, consisting of -persons who had served in the army to which the offender belonged, -and presided over by the strategi. Various rewards also were held -out for those who especially distinguished themselves for their -courage or conduct, in the shape of chaplets, statues, &c. The -Peltastae (πελτασταί), so called from the kind of shield which they -wore [PELTA], were a class of troops of which we hear very little -before the end of the Peloponnesian war. The Athenian general -Iphicrates introduced some important improvements in the mode of -arming them, combining as far as possible the peculiar advantages -of heavy (ὁπλῖται) and light armed (ψιλοί) troops. He substituted a -linen corslet for the coat of mail worn by the hoplites, and lessened -the shield, while he doubled the length of the spear and sword. He -even took the pains to introduce for them an improved sort of shoe, -called after him Ἰφικρατίδες. This equipment proved very effective. -The almost total destruction of a mora of Lacedaemonian heavy-armed -troops by a body of peltastae under the command of Iphicrates was an -exploit that became very famous. When the use of mercenary troops -became general, Athenian citizens seldom served except as volunteers, -and then in but small numbers. The employment of mercenaries led -to considerable alterations in the military system of Greece. War -came to be studied as an art, and Greek generals, rising above the -old simple rules of warfare, became tacticians. Epaminondas was the -first who adopted the method of charging in column, concentrating his -attack upon one point of the hostile line, so as to throw the whole -into confusion by breaking through it. - -3. MACEDONIAN ARMY.--Philip, king of Macedonia, made several -improvements in the arms and arrangement of the phalanx. The spear -(σάρισσα or σάρισα), with which the soldiers of the Macedonian -phalanx were armed, was 24 feet long; but the ordinary length was 21 -feet, and the lines were arranged at such distances that the spears -of the fifth rank projected three feet beyond the first, so that -every man in the front rank was protected by five spears. Besides -the spear they carried a short sword. The shield was very large -and covered nearly the whole body, so that on favourable ground an -impenetrable front was presented to the enemy. The soldiers were -also defended by helmets, coats of mail, and greaves; so that any -thing like rapid movement was impossible. The ordinary depth of the -phalanx was sixteen files, though depths of eight and of thirty-two -are also mentioned. Each file of sixteen was called λόχος. Two lochi -made a _dilochia_; two dilochiae made a τετραρχία, consisting of -sixty-four men; two tetrarchies made a τάξις; two τάξεις a σύνταγμα -or ξεναγία, to which were attached five supernumeraries, a herald, -an ensign, a trumpeter, a servant, and an officer to bring up -the rear (οὐραγός); two syntagmata formed a pentacosiarchia, two -of which made a χιλιαρχία, containing 1024 men; two chiliarchies -made a τέλος, and two τέλη made a phalangarchia or phalanx in -the narrower sense of the word, the normal number of which would -therefore be 4096. It was commanded by a polemarch or strategus; four -such bodies formed the larger phalanx, the normal number of which -would be 16,384. When drawn up, the two middle sections constituted -what was termed the ὀμφαλός, the others being called κέρατα or -wings. The phalanx soldiers in the army of Alexander amounted to -18,000, and were divided not into four, but into six divisions, -each named after a Macedonian province, from which it was to derive -its recruits. These bodies are oftener called τάξεις than φάλαγγες -by the historians, and their leaders taxiarchs or strategi. The -phalanx of Antiochus consisted of 16,000 men, and was formed into -ten divisions (μέρη) of 1600 each, arranged 50 broad and 32 deep. -The phalanx, of course, became all but useless, if its ranks were -broken. It required, therefore, level and open ground, so that its -operations were restricted to very narrow limits; and being incapable -of rapid movement, it became almost helpless in the face of an -active enemy, unless accompanied by a sufficient number of cavalry -and light troops. The light-armed troops were arranged in files -(λόχοι) eight deep. Four lochi formed a σύστασις, and then larger -divisions were successively formed, each being the double of the one -below it; the largest (called ἐπίταγμα), consisting of 8192 men. -The cavalry (according to Aelianus), were arranged in an analogous -manner, the lowest division or squadron (ἴλη), containing 64 men, -and the successive larger divisions being each the double of that -below it; the highest (ἐπίταγμα) containing 4096. Both Philip and -Alexander attached great importance to the cavalry, which, in their -armies, consisted partly of Macedonians, and partly of Thessalians. -The Macedonian horsemen were the flower of the young nobles. They -amounted to about 1200 in number, forming eight squadrons, and, under -the name ἕταιροι, formed a sort of body-guard for the king. The -Thessalian cavalry consisted chiefly of the elite of the wealthier -class of the Thessalians, but included also a number of Grecian -youth from other states. There was also a guard of foot soldiers -(ὑπασπισταί), whom we find greatly distinguishing themselves in -the campaigns of Alexander. They seem to be identical with the -πεζέταιροι, of whom we find mention. They amounted to about 3000 -men, arranged in six battalions (τάξεις). There was also a troop -called Argyraspids, from the silver with which their shields were -ornamented. They seem to have been a species of peltastae. Alexander -also organised a kind of troops called διμάχαι, who were something -intermediate between cavalry and infantry, being designed to fight on -horseback or on foot, as circumstances required. It is in the time of -Alexander the Great, that we first meet with artillery in the train -of a Grecian army. His _balistae_ and _catapeltae_ were frequently -employed with great effect, as, for instance, at the passage of the -Jaxartes. - -(2) ROMAN. _General Remarks on the Legion._--The name _Legio_ is -coeval with the foundation of Rome, and denoted a body of troops, -which, although subdivided into several smaller bodies, was regarded -as forming an organised whole. It was not equivalent to what we -call a _regiment_, inasmuch as it contained troops of all arms, -infantry, cavalry, and, when military engines were extensively -employed, artillery also; it might thus, so far, be regarded as a -complete _army_, but on the other hand the number of soldiers in a -legion was fixed within certain limits, never much exceeding 6000, -and hence when war was carried on upon a large scale, a single army, -under the command of one general, frequently contained two, three, -or more legions, besides a large number of auxiliaries of various -denominations. The legion for many centuries was composed exclusively -of Roman citizens. By the ordinances of Servius Tullius those alone -who were enrolled in the five classes were eligible, and one of the -greatest changes introduced by Marius (B.C. 107) was the admission of -all orders of citizens, including the lowest, into the ranks. Up to -the year B.C. 107, no one was permitted to serve among the regular -troops of the state, except those who were regarded as possessing a -strong personal interest in the stability of the commonwealth; but -the principle having been at this period abandoned, the privilege -was extended after the close of the Social War (B.C. 87) to nearly -the whole of the free population of Italy, and by the famous edict -of Caracalla (or perhaps of M. Aurelius), to the whole Roman world. -Long before this, however, the legions were raised chiefly in the -provinces; but it does not appear that the admission of foreigners -not subjects was ever practised upon a large scale until the reign -of the second Claudius (A.D. 268-270), who incorporated a large body -of vanquished Goths, and of Probus (A.D. 276-282), who distributed -16,000 Germans among legionary and frontier battalions. From this -time forward what had originally been the leading characteristic -of the legion was rapidly obliterated, so that under Diocletian, -Constantine, and their successors, the best soldiers in the Roman -armies were barbarians. The practice of granting pensions for long -service in the shape of donations of land was first introduced upon -a large scale after the Mithridatic wars. Hence, when Augustus, in -compliance with the advice of Maecenas, determined to provide for -the security of the distant provinces, and for tranquil submission -at home by the establishment of a powerful standing army, he found -the public mind in a great degree prepared for such a measure, and -the distinction between soldier and civilian unknown, or at least not -recognised before, became from this time forward as broadly marked -as in the most pure military despotisms of ancient or modern times. -The legions were originally numbered according to the order in which -they were raised. As they became permanent, the same numbers remained -attached to the same corps, which were moreover distinguished by -various epithets of which we have early examples in the _Legio -Martia_, and the _Legio Quinta Alauda_. [ALAUDA.] Several legions -bore the same number: thus there were four _Firsts_, five _Seconds_, -and five _Thirds_. The total number of legions under Augustus was -twenty-five, under Alexander Severus thirty-two, but during the -civil wars the number was far greater.--The number of soldiers who, -at different periods, were contained in a legion, does not appear -to have been absolutely fixed, but to have varied within moderate -limits. Under Romulus the legion contained 3000 foot soldiers. It -is highly probable that some change may have been introduced by -Servius Tullius, but, in so far as numbers are concerned, we have no -evidence. From the expulsion of the Kings until the second year of -the second Punic War, the regular number may be fixed at 4000 or 4200 -infantry. From the latter period until the consulship of Marius the -ordinary number may be fixed at from 5000 to 5200. For some centuries -after Marius the numbers varied from 5000 to 6200, generally -approaching to the higher limit. Amid all the variations with regard -to the infantry, 300 horsemen formed the regular complement (_justus -equitatus_) of the legion. When troops were raised for a service -which required special arrangements, the number of horsemen was -sometimes increased beyond 300. It must be observed, however, that -these remarks with regard to the cavalry apply only to the period -before Marius. We now proceed to consider the organisation of the -legion at five different periods. - -_First Period. Servius Tullius._ The legion of Servius is so closely -connected with the Comitia Centuriata that it has already been -discussed in a former article [COMITIA], and it is only necessary to -repeat here that it was a phalanx equipped in the Greek fashion, the -front ranks being furnished with a complete suit of armour, their -weapons being long spears, and their chief defence the round Argolic -shield (_clipeus_). - -[Illustration: - - 15 Manipuli of Hastati. - 15 Manipuli of Principes. - Triarii proper } 15 triple - Rorarii } Manipuli of - Accensi } Triarii.] - -_Second Period. The Great Latin War_, B.C. 340. Our authority for -this period is Livy (viii. 8). The legion in B.C. 340 had almost -entirely discarded the tactics of the phalanx. It was now drawn up in -three, or perhaps we ought to say, in five lines. The soldiers of the -first line, called _Hastati_, consisted of youths in the first bloom -of manhood distributed into 15 companies or maniples (_manipuli_), -a moderate space being left between each. The maniple contained -60 privates, 2 centurions (_centuriones_), and a standard bearer -(_vexillarius_); two-thirds were heavily armed and bore the _scutum_ -or large oblong shield, the remainder carried only a spear (_hasta_) -and light javelins (_gaesa_), The second line, the _Principes_, -was composed of men in the full vigour of life, divided in like -manner into 15 maniples, all heavily armed (_scutati omnes_). The -two lines of the _Hastati_ and _Principes_ taken together amounted -to 30 maniples, and formed the _Antepilani_. The third line, the -_Triarii_, composed of tried veterans, was also in 15 divisions, but -each of these was triple, containing 3 manipuli, 180 privates, 6 -centurions, and 3 vexillarii. In these triple manipuli the veterans -or _triarii_ proper formed the front ranks; immediately behind them -stood the _Rorarii_, inferior in age and prowess, while the _Accensi_ -or supernumeraries, less trustworthy than either, were posted in the -extreme rear. The battle array may be thus represented. The fight was -commenced by the _Rorarii_, so called because the light missiles -which they sprinkled among the foe were like the drops which are the -forerunners of the thunder shower, who, running forwards between the -ranks of the antepilani, acted as tirailleurs; when they were driven -in they returned to their station behind the triarii, and the battle -began in earnest by the onset of the hastati; if they were unable to -make any impression they retired between the ranks of the principes, -who now advanced and bore the brunt of the combat, supported by the -hastati, who had rallied in their rear. If the principes also failed -to make an impression, they retired through the openings between the -maniples of the triarii, who up to this time had been crouched on -the ground (hence called _subsidiarii_), but now arose to make the -last effort (whence the phrase _rem ad triarios redisse_). No longer -retaining the open order of the two first lines, they closed up their -ranks so as to present an unbroken line of heavy-armed veterans in -front, while the rorarii and accensi, pressing up from behind, gave -weight and consistency to the mass,--an arrangement bearing evidence -to a lingering predilection for the principle of the phalanx, and -exhibiting, just as we might expect at that period, the Roman tactics -in their transition state. It must be observed that the words -_ordo_, _manipulus_, _vexillum_, although generally kept distinct, -are throughout the chapter used as synonymous. Livy concludes by -saying, that four legions were commonly levied, each consisting of -5000 infantry and 300 horse. We must suppose that he speaks in round -numbers in so far as the infantry are concerned, for according to his -own calculations the numbers will stand thus:-- - - Hastati 15 × 60 = 900 - Principes 15 × 60 = 900 - Triarii, &c. 15 × 3 × 60 = 2700 - Centuriones = 150 - Vexillarii = 75 - ---- 4725 - 4725 - -_Third Period. During the wars of the younger Scipio._ Polybius -describes minutely the method pursued in raising the four legions -during this period. Under ordinary circumstances they were levied -yearly, two being assigned to each consul. It must be observed that -a regular consular army (_justus consularis exercitus_) no longer -consisted of Roman legions only, but as Italy became gradually -subjugated, the various states under the dominion of Rome were -bound to furnish a contingent, and the number of allies (_socii_) -usually exceeded that of citizens. They were, however, kept perfectly -distinct, both in the camp and in the battle field. After the -election of consuls was concluded, the first step was to choose -the 24 chief officers of the legions, named _tribuni militum_. The -consuls then summoned to the Capitol all citizens eligible for -military service. They first divided the 24 tribunes into 4 parties -of 6, and the tribes were next summoned in succession by lot. The -tribe whose lot came out first being called up, they picked out from -it four youths, as nearly matched as possible in age and form; out of -these four, the tribunes of the first legion chose one, the tribunes -of the second legion one of the remaining three; the tribunes of the -third legion, one of the remaining two, and the last fell to the -fourth legion. Upon the next tribe being called up, the first choice -was given to the tribunes of the second legion, the second choice to -those of the third, and the last man fell to the first legion. On -the next tribe being called up, the tribunes of the third legion had -the first choice, and so on in succession, the object in view being -that the four legions should be as nearly alike as possible, not in -the number only, but in the quality of the soldiers. This process -was continued until the ranks were complete. In ancient times, the -cavalry were not chosen until after the infantry levy was concluded, -but when Polybius wrote, the cavalry were picked in the first place -from the list on which they were enrolled by the censor according -to their fortune, and 300 were apportioned to each legion. The levy -being completed, the tribunes collected the men belonging to their -respective legions, and making one individual stand out from the rest -administered to him an oath “that he would obey orders and execute to -the best of his ability the command of his officers.” (_Sacramento -milites adigere s. rogare, sacramentum s. sacramento dicere._) The -rest of the soldiers then came forward one by one, and swore to do -what the first had bound himself to perform. At the same time the -consuls gave notice to the magistrates of those towns in Italy in -alliance with Rome, from whom they desired to receive a contingent, -of the number which each would be required to furnish, and of the -day and place of gathering. The allied cities levied their troops -and administered the oath much in the same manner as the Romans, and -then sent them forth after appointing a commander and a paymaster. -The soldiers having again assembled, the men belonging to each legion -were separated into four divisions. 1. 1000 of the youngest and -poorest were set apart to form the _Velites_, the light-armed troops, -or skirmishers of the legion. 2. 1200 who came next in age (or who -were of the same age with the preceding but more wealthy), formed -the _Hastati_. 3. 1200, consisting of those in the full vigour of -manhood, formed the _Principes_. 4. 600, consisting of the oldest and -most experienced, formed the _Triarii_. When the number of soldiers -in the legion exceeded 4000, the first three divisions were increased -proportionally, but the number of the Triarii remained always the -same. The Hastati, Principes, and Triarii were each divided into -ten companies, called _Manipuli_. The Velites were not divided into -companies, but were distributed equally among the Hastati, Principes, -and Triarii. Before the division of the three classes into maniples, -officers were appointed inferior to the tribunes. 30 men were chosen -by merit, 10 from the Hastati, 10 from the Principes, and 10 from -the Triarii; and this first choice being completed, 30 more in like -manner. These 60 officers, of whom 20 were assigned to each of the -three classes, and distributed equally among the maniples, were named -_centuriones_, or _ordinum ductores_, and each of the 60 chose for -himself a Lieutenant (_optio_), who, being posted in the rear of the -company while the centurion was at the head, was named οὐραγός (i.e. -_Tergiductor_) by the Greeks, so that in each maniple there were two -centurions and two optiones. Further, the centurions selected out of -each maniple two of the bravest and most vigorous men as standard -bearers (_vexillarii, signiferi_). The first elected centurion of the -whole had a seat in the military council, and in each maniple the -first chosen commanded the right division of the maniple, and the -other the left. Each of these subdivisions of the maniple was called -_centuria_. The cavalry were divided into 10 troops (_turmae_), and -out of each of these 3 officers were chosen, named _decuriones_, -who named 3 lieutenants (_optiones_). In each troop the decurio -first chosen commanded the whole troop, and failing him, the second. -The infantry furnished by the _socii_ was for the most part equal -in number to the Roman legions, the cavalry twice or thrice as -numerous, and the whole were divided equally between the two consular -armies. Each consul named twelve superior officers, who were termed -_Praefecti Sociorum_, and corresponded to the legionary tribunes. A -selection was then made of the best men, to the extent of one-fifth -of the infantry and one-third of the cavalry; these were formed into -a separate corps under the name of _extraordinarii_, and on the -march and in the camp were always near the person of the consul. -The remainder were divided into two equal portions, and were styled -respectively the _Dextera Ala_ and the _Sinistra Ala_ [ALA].--_Agmen_ -or _Line of March_. The Extraordinarii Pedites led the van followed -by the right wing of the infantry of the allies and the baggage of -these two divisions; next came one of the Roman legions with its -baggage following; next the other Roman legion with its own baggage, -and that of the left wing of the allies, who brought up the rear. The -different corps of cavalry sometimes followed immediately behind the -infantry to which they were attached, sometimes rode on the flanks -of the beasts of burden, at once protecting them and preventing them -from straggling. Generally, when advancing through a country in which -it was necessary to guard against a sudden onset, the troops, instead -of proceeding in a loose straggling column, were kept together in -close compact bodies ready to act in any direction at a moment’s -warning, and hence an army under these circumstances was said _agmine -quadrato incedere_. Some doubt exists with regard to the force of the -term _Agmen Pilatum_ as distinguished from _Agmen Quadratum_. Varro -defines the _agmen pilatum_ as a compact body marching without beasts -of burthen. Where the phrase occurs in poetry, it probably denotes -merely “columns bristling with spears.” To the preceding particulars -from Polybius, the following may be added. - -1. _The levy (delectus.)_ According to the principles of the -constitution, none were enrolled in the legion, except freeborn -citizens (_ingenui_) above the age of 17, and under the age of -60, possessing not less than 4000 asses: but in times of peculiar -difficulty, these conditions were not insisted upon. In such times -all formalities were dispensed with, and every man capable of bearing -arms was summoned to join in warding off the threatened danger, a -force raised under such circumstances being termed _subitarius_ s. -_tumultuarius exercitus_. If citizens between the ages of 17 and 46 -did not appear and answer to their names, they might be punished in -various ways,--by fine, by imprisonment, by stripes, by confiscation -of their property, and even, in extreme cases, by being sold -as slaves. At the same time, causes might be alleged which were -recognised as forming a legitimate ground for exemption (_vacatio -justa militiae_). Thus, all who had served for the full period of 20 -years were relieved from further service, although they might still -be within the regular age; and so, in like manner, when they were -afflicted by any grievous malady, or disabled by any personal defect, -or engaged in any sacred or civil offices which required their -constant attendance; but these and similar pleas, although sustained -under ordinary circumstances, might be rendered void by a decree -of the senate “ne vacationes valerent.” While those who had served -for the stipulated period were entitled to immunity for the future, -even although within the legal age, and were styled _Emeriti_, so on -the other hand, it appears from some passages in the classics, that -persons who had not completed their regular term within the usual -limits, might be forced, if required, to serve between the ages of -45 and 50. Towards the close of the republic, and under the empire, -when the legions became permanent, the soldier who had served his -full time received a regular discharge (_missio_), together with a -bounty (_praemium_) in money or an allotment of land. The jurists -distinguish three kinds of discharge:--1. _Missio honesta_, granted -for length of service. 2. _Missio causaria_, in consequence of bad -health. 3. _Missio ignominiosa_, when a man was drummed out for -bad conduct. It frequently happened that _emeriti_ were induced to -continue in the ranks, either from attachment to the person of the -general, or from hopes of profit or promotion, and were then called -_veterani_, or when they joined an army, in consequence of a special -invitation, _evocati_. - -2. The division of the legion into _Cohortes_, _Manipuli_, -_Centuriae_, _Signa_, _Ordines_, _Contubernia_.--(i.) _Cohortes._ -Polybius takes no notice of the _Cohort_, a division of the legion -often mentioned in the Roman writers. When the soldiers of the -legion were classified as Velites, Hastati, Principes and Triarii, -the cohort contained one maniple of each of the three latter -denominations, together with their complement of Velites, so that -when the legion contained 4000, each cohort would consist of 60 -Triarii, 120 Principes, 120 Hastati, and 100 Velites, in all 400 men. -The number of cohorts in a legion being always 10, and the cohorts, -during the republic, being all equal to each other, the strength of -the cohort varied from time to time with the strength of the legion, -and thus at different periods ranged between the limits of 300 and -600. They were regularly numbered from 1 to 10, the centurion of -the first century of the first maniple of the first cohort was the -guardian of the eagle, and hence the first cohort seems always to -have been regarded as superior in dignity to the rest. Late writers, -instead of _cohortes_, prefer the somewhat vague term _numeri_, -which appears in Tacitus and Suetonius, and perhaps even in Cicero. -_Numeri_ seems to have signified strictly the muster roll, whence -the phrases _referre in numeros_, _distribuere in numeros_, and -thus served to denote any body of legionaries. Whenever _Cohors_ -occurs in the Latin classics in connection with the legion, it -always signifies a specific division of the legion; but it is very -frequently found, in the general sense of _battalion_, to denote -troops altogether distinct from the legion.--(ii.) _Manipulus._ The -original meaning of this word, which is derived from _manus_, was _a -handful or wisp of hay_, _straw_, _fern_, _or the like_, and this, -according to Roman tradition, affixed to the end of a pole, formed -the primitive military standard in the days of Romulus. Hence it was -applied to a body of soldiers serving under the same ensign. When -the phalanx was resolved into small companies marshalled in open -order, these were termed _manipuli_, and down to a very late period -the common soldiers of the legion were designated as _manipulares_ -or _manipularii_, terms equivalent to _gregarii milites_. When the -phalanx was first broken up, it appears that each of the three -classes of Hastati, Principes, and Triarii, contained 15 maniples; -but before the second Punic war the number of maniples in each of -these classes was reduced to 10. Hence it is easy to calculate the -number of soldiers in each maniple, according to the varying numbers -in the legion, it being always borne in mind that the Triarii never -exceeded 600, and that the Velites were not divided into maniples, -but distributed equally among the heavy-armed companies.--(iii.) -_Centuriae._ The distribution of soldiers into _centuriae_ must be -regarded as coeval with the origin of Rome. Plutarch speaks of the -force led by Romulus against Amulius as formed of centuries; and from -the close connections between the centuries of Servius Tullius, and -the organization of the military force, we cannot hesitate to believe -that the term was communicated to the ranks of the phalanx. For a -long period after the establishment of the manipular constitution, -the legion contained 60 centuries.--(iv.) _Signum._ This word is used -to denote a division of the legion, but it is doubtful whether it -signifies a maniple or a century.--(v.) _Ordo_ generally signifies -a century, and _ordinum ductor_ is synonymous with _centurio_, and -_ducere honestum ordinem_ means to be one of the principal centurions -in a legion.--(vi.) _Contubernium._ This was the name given under the -empire to the body of soldiers who were quartered together in the -same tent. - -3. _Hastati_, _Principes_, _Triarii_, _Pilani_, _Antepilani_, -_Antesignani_, _Principia_.--The _Hastati_ were so called, from -having been armed with a _hasta_, the _Principes_ from having -occupied the front line, the _Triarii_, otherwise named _Pilani_, -from having been ranged behind the first two lines as a body of -reserve and armed with the _pilum_, while the first two lines -were termed collectively _Antepilani_, from standing in front of -the _Pilani_. In process of time, it came to pass, that these -designations no longer expressed the actual condition of the -troops to which they were attached. When Polybius wrote, and long -before that period, the _Hastati_ were not armed with _hastae_, -but in common with the _Principes_ bore the heavy _pilum_: on the -other hand, the _pilani_ carried _hastae_ and not _pila_, while -the _Principes_ were not drawn up in the front, but formed the -second line.--_Antesignani_. While the Hastati and Principes, taken -together, were sometimes termed _Antepilani_, in contradistinction -to the Triarii, so the Hastati alone were sometimes termed -_Antesignani_, in contradistinction to the Principes and Triarii -taken together. The term _Antesignani_ having become established -as denoting the front ranks in a line of battle, was retained in -this general sense long after the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii -had disappeared.--Another term employed to denote the front ranks -of an army in battle array is _Principia_, and in this sense must -be carefully distinguished from the _Principia_ or chief street -in the camp, and from _Principia_, which in the later writers, -such as Ammianus and Vegetius, is equivalent to _principales -milites_. _Postsignani_ does not occur in any author earlier than -Ammianus Marcellinus, and therefore need not be illustrated here; -the _Subsignanus miles_ of Tacitus seems to be the same with the -_Vexillarii_. - -4. _Rorarii_, _Accensi_, _Ferentarii_, _Velites_, -_Procubitores_.--When the Hastati had, in a great measure, ceased -to act as tirailleurs, their place was supplied by the _Rorarii_, -whose method of fighting has been described above (p. 165). The -_Accensi_, as described by Livy, were inferior in equipment to the -rorarii, although employed in a similar manner, and seem to have been -camp-followers or servants, and hence the name is given to those -also who attended upon magistrates or other officials. At a later -period the _accensi_ were supernumeraries, who served to fill up any -vacancies which occurred in the course of a campaign. Another ancient -term for light-armed soldiers was _Ferentarii_. The _Velites_, called -also _Procubitores_, because they were employed on outpost duty when -the Romans were encamped before an enemy, were first formed into a -corps at the siege of Capua, B.C. 211. - -5. _Officers of the Legion._--_Tribuni Militum_ were the chief -officers of the legion. Their number (six) did not vary for many -centuries. They were originally chosen by the commanders-in-chief, -that is, by the kings in the first instance, and afterwards by the -consuls, or a dictator, as the case might be. In B.C. 361 the people -assumed to themselves the right of electing either the whole or a -certain number; and in B.C. 311 it was ordained that they should -choose sixteen for the four legions. In subsequent times the choice -of the tribunes was divided between the consuls and the people; but -the proportion chosen by each differed at various periods. No one was -eligible to the office of tribune who had not served for ten years -in the infantry or five in the cavalry; but this rule admitted of -exceptions. Augustus introduced certain regulations altogether new. -He permitted the sons of senators to wear the _tunica laticlavia_ as -soon as they assumed the manly gown, and to commence their military -career as tribunes, or as commanders (_praefecti_) of cavalry. Such -persons were the _Tribuni Laticlavii_.--_Centuriones._ Next in -rank to the Tribunus was the _Centurio_, who, as the name implies, -commanded a century; and the century, being termed also _ordo_, the -centurions were frequently designated _ordinum ductores_ (hence, -_adimere ordines_, _offerre ordines_, _ordines impetrare_, _ducere -honestum ordinem_, to be one of the principal centurions, &c.). The -chief ordinary duties of the centurions were to drill the soldiers, -to inspect their arms, clothing, and food, to watch the execution -of the toils imposed, to visit the centinels, and to regulate the -conduct of their men, both in the camp and in the field. They also -sat as judges in minor offences, and had the power of inflicting -corporal punishment, whence their badge of office was a vine sapling, -and thus _vitis_ is frequently used to denote the office itself. Of -the two centurions in each maniple the one first chosen took the -command of the right division, the other of the left. The century -to the right was considered as the first century of the maniple, -and its commander took precedence probably with the title _Prior_, -his companion to the left being called _Posterior_, the _priores_ -in each of the three divisions of Triarii, Principes, and Hastati -being the ten centurions first chosen. So long as these divisions -were recognised, all the centurions of the Triarii appear to have -ranked before those of the Principes, and all the centurions of the -Principes before those of the Hastati. Moreover, since the maniples -were numbered in each division from 1 to 10, there was probably a -regular progression from the first centurion of the first maniple -down to the second centurion of the tenth maniple. The first -centurion of the first maniple of the Triarii, originally named -_Centurio Primus_, and afterwards _Centurio Primipili_, or simply -_Primipilus_, occupied a very conspicuous position. He stood next in -rank to the Tribuni militum; he had a seat in the military council; -to his charge was committed the eagle of the legion, whence he is -sometimes styled _Aquilifer_, and, under the empire at least, his -office was very lucrative. A series of terms connected with these -arrangements are furnished by the narrative which Sp. Ligustinus -gives of his own career (Liv. xlii. 34). He thus enumerates the -various steps of his promotion:--“Mihi T. Quinctius Flamininus -_decumum ordinem hastatum_ adsignavit ... me imperator dignum -judicavit cui _primum hastatum prioris centuriae_ adsignaret ... a -M’. Acilio mihi _primus princeps prioris centuriae_ est adsignatus -... quater intra paucos annos _primum pilum duxi_.” The gradual -ascent from the ranks being to the post of centurion:--1. In the -tenth maniple of the Hastati. 2. In the first century of the first -maniple of the Hastati. 3. In the first century of the first maniple -of the Principes. 4. In the first century of the first maniple of the -Triarii.--But even after the distinction between Hastati, Principes, -and Triarii was altogether abolished, and they were all blended -together in the cohorts, the same nomenclature with regard to the -centuries and their commanders was retained, although it is by no -means easy to perceive how it was applied. That great differences -of rank existed among the centurions is evident from the phrases -_primores centurionum_, _primi ordines_ (_i.e._ chief centurions), -as opposed to _inferiores ordines_, and _infimi ordines_, and that -promotion from a lower to a higher grade frequently took place, -is evident from many passages in ancient authors. The election of -_optiones_, or lieutenants, by the centurions, has been already -described. - -_Fourth Period. From the times of the Gracchi until the downfall -of the Republic._ After the times of the Gracchi the following -changes in military affairs may be noticed:--In the first consulship -of Marius the legions were thrown open to citizens of all grades, -without distinction of fortune. The whole of the legionaries were -armed and equipped in the same manner, all being now furnished with -the pilum; and hence we see in Tacitus the _pila_ and _gladii_ -of the legionaries, opposed to the _hastae_ and _spathae_ of the -auxiliaries. The legionaries when in battle order were no longer -arranged in three lines, each consisting of ten maniples, with an -open space between each maniple, but in two lines, each consisting -of five cohorts, with a space between each cohort. The younger -soldiers were no longer placed in the front, but in reserve, the van -being composed of veterans, as may be seen from various passages -in Caesar. As a necessary result of the above arrangements, the -distinction between Hastati, Principes, and Triarii ceased to exist. -These names, as applied to particular classes of soldiers, are not -found in Caesar, in Tacitus, nor in any writer upon military affairs -after the time of Marius. The Velites disappeared. The skirmishers, -included under the general term _levis armatura_, consisted for -the most part of foreign mercenaries possessing peculiar skill in -the use of some national weapon, such as the Balearic slingers, -(_funditores_), the Cretan archers (_sagittarii_), and the Moorish -dartmen (_jaculatores_). Troops of this description had, it is true, -been employed by the Romans even before the second Punic war, and -were denominated _levium armatorum_ (s. _armorum_) _auxilia_; but now -the _levis armatura_ consisted exclusively of foreigners, were formed -into a regular corps under their own officers, and no longer entered -into the constitution of the legion. When operations requiring -great activity were undertaken, such as could not be performed by -mere skirmishers, detachments of legionaries were lightly equipped, -and marched without baggage, for these special services; and hence -the frequent occurrence of such phrases as _expediti_, _expediti -milites_, _expeditae cohortes_, and even _expeditae legiones_. The -cavalry of the legion underwent a change in every respect analogous -to that which took place in regard of the light-armed troops. It is -evident, from the history of Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul, that the -number of Roman equites attached to his army was very small, and that -they were chiefly employed as aides-de-camp, and on confidential -missions. The bulk of Caesar’s cavalry consisted of foreigners, a -fact which becomes strikingly apparent when we read that Ariovistus -having stipulated that the Roman general should come to their -conference attended by cavalry alone, Caesar, feeling no confidence -in his Gaulish horse, dismounted them, and supplied their place by -soldiers of the tenth legion. In like manner they ceased to form -part of the legion, and from this time forward we find the legions -and the cavalry spoken of as completely distinct from each other. -After the termination of the Social War, when most of the inhabitants -of Italy became Roman citizens, the ancient distinction between the -_Legiones_ and the _Socii_ disappeared, and all who had served as -_Socii_ became incorporated with the legiones. An army during the -last years of the republic and under the earlier emperors consisted -of _Romanae Legiones et Auxilia s. Auxiliares_, the latter term -comprehending troops of all kinds, except the legions. Whenever the -word _socii_ is applied to troops after the date of the Social War, -it is generally to be regarded as equivalent to _auxiliares_. But the -most important change of all was the establishment of the military -_profession_, and the distinction now first introduced between the -civilian and the soldier. - -_Fifth Period. From the establishment of the empire until the age of -the Antonines_, B.C. 31-A.D. 150. Under the empire a regular army -consisted of a certain number of _Legiones_ and of _Supplementa_, -the Supplementa being again divided into the imperial guards, which -appear under several different forms, distinguished by different -names; and the _Auxilia_, which were subdivided into _Sociae -Cohortes_ and _Nationes_, the latter being for the most part -barbarians. The _Legiones_, as already remarked, although still -composed of persons who enjoyed the privileges of Roman citizens, -were now raised almost exclusively in the provinces. The legion was -divided into 10 cohorts, and each cohort into 6 centuries; the first -cohort, which had the custody of the eagle, was double the size of -the others, and contained 960 men, the remaining cohorts contained -each 480 men; and consequently each ordinary century 80 men, the -total strength of the legion being thus 5280 men.--It is during this -period that we first meet with the term _Vexillarii_ or _Vexilla_, -which occurs repeatedly in Tacitus. The _vexillarii_, or _vexilla -legionum_, were those soldiers who, after having served in the legion -for sixteen years, became _exauctorati_, but continued to serve in -company with that legion, under a vexillum of their own, until they -received their full discharge. The number attached to each legion -was usually about five or six hundred.--The term _exauctorare_ also -meant _to discharge from military service_, but does not appear to -have been in use before the Augustan period. It signified both a -simple discharge, and a cashiering on account of some crime. During -the later period of the empire the latter signification began -almost exclusively to prevail.--As to the Praetorian troops, see -PRAETORIANI.--From the time when the cavalry were separated from -the legion they were formed into bodies called _alae_, which varied -in number according to circumstances. The _Alae_ were raised in -the Roman provinces and consisted, probably, for the most part, of -citizens, or at least subjects. But in addition to these every army -at this period was attended by squadrons of light horse composed -entirely of barbarians; and the chief duty performed by those named -above was guiding the pioneers as they performed their labours in -advance of the army.--_Cohortes peditatae_, were battalions raised -chiefly in the provinces, composed of Roman citizens, of subjects and -allies, or of citizens, allies, and subjects indiscriminately. To -this class of troops belonged the _cohortes auxiliares_, the _auxilia -cohortium_, and the _sociorum cohortes_, of whom we read in Tacitus, -together with a multitude of others recorded in inscriptions and -named for the most part from the nations of which they were composed. -These cohorts were numbered regularly like the legions.--_Cohortes -Equitatae_ differed from the _Peditatae_ in this only, that they -were made up of infantry combined with cavalry.--_Classici_, which -we may fairly render _Marines_, were employed, according to Hyginus, -as pioneers. They corresponded to the _Navales Socii_, under the -republic, who were always regarded as inferior to regular soldiers. -After the establishment by Augustus of regular permanent fleets at -Misenum, Ravenna, and on the coast of Gaul, a large body of men -must have been required to man them, who were sometimes called -upon to serve as ordinary soldiers.--_Nationes_ were battalions -composed entirely of barbarians, or of the most uncivilised among the -subjects of Rome, and were probably chiefly employed upon outpost -duties.--_Urbanae Cohortes._ Augustus, in addition to the praetorian -cohorts, instituted a force of city guards, amounting to 6000 men -divided into four battalions. They are usually distinguished as -_Cohortes Urbanae_ or _Urbana militia_, their quarters, which were -within the city, being the _Urbana Castra_.--_Cohortes Vigilum._ -Augustus also organised a large body of night-watchers, whose -chief duty was to act as firemen. They were divided into seven -cohorts, in the proportion of one cohort to each two _Regiones_, -were stationed in fourteen guardhouses (_excubitoria_), and called -_Cohortes Vigilum_. They were commanded by a _Praefectus_, who was of -equestrian rank. - - -EXĬLĬUM. [EXSILIUM.] - - -EXŎDĬA (ἐξόδια, from ἐξ and ὁδός) were old-fashioned and laughable -interludes in verse, inserted in other plays, but chiefly in the -Atellanae. The exodium seems to have been introduced among the Romans -from Italian Greece; but after its introduction it became very -popular among the Romans, and continued to be played down to a very -late period. - - -EXŌMIS (ἐξωμίς), a dress which had only a sleeve for the left arm, -leaving the right with the shoulder and a part of the breast free, -and was for this reason called _exomis_. The exomis was usually worn -by slaves and working people. - -[Illustration: Exomis (Bronze in British Museum).] - - -EXŌMŎSĬA (ἐξωμοσία). Any Athenian citizen when called upon to appear -as a witness in a court of justice (κλητεύειν or ἐκκλητεύειν), was -obliged by law to obey the summons, unless he could establish by -oath that he was unacquainted with the case in question. This oath -was called ἐξωμοσία, and the act of taking it was expressed by -ἐξόμνυσθαι. A person appointed to a public office was at liberty to -decline it, if he could take an oath that the state of his health -or other circumstances rendered it impossible for him to fulfil the -duties connected with it (ἐξόμνυσθαι τὴν ἀρχὴν, or τὴν χειροτονίαν): -and this oath was likewise called ἐξωμοσία, or sometimes ἀπωμοσία. - - -EXOSTRA (ἐξώστρα, from ἐξωθέω), a theatrical machine, by means of -which things which had been concealed behind the curtain on the stage -were pushed or rolled forward from behind it, and thus became visible -to the spectators. - - -EXPĔDĪTUS is opposed to _impeditus_, and signifies unincumbered with -armour or with baggage (_impedimenta_). Hence the epithet was often -applied to any portion of the Roman army, when the necessity for -haste, or the desire to conduct it with the greatest facility from -place to place, made it desirable to leave behind every weight that -could be spared. - - -EXPLŌRĀTŌRES. [SPECULATORES.] - - -EXSĔQUĬAE. [FUNUS.] - - -EXSĬLĬUM (φυγή), banishment. (1) GREEK. Banishment among the Greek -states seldom, if ever, appears as a punishment appointed by law for -particular offences. We might, indeed, expect this, for the division -of Greece into a number of independent states would neither admit of -the establishment of penal colonies, as among us, nor of the various -kinds of exile which we read of under the Roman emperors. The general -term φυγή (flight) was for the most part applied in the case of those -who, in order to avoid some punishment or danger, removed from their -own country to another. At Athens it took place chiefly in cases of -homicide, or murder. An action for wilful murder was brought before -the Areiopagus, and for manslaughter before the court of the Ephetae. -The accused might, in either case, withdraw himself (φεύγειν) before -sentence was passed; but when a criminal evaded the punishment to -which an act of murder would have exposed him had he remained in his -own land, he was then banished for ever (φεύγει ἀειφυγίαν), and not -allowed to return home even when other exiles were restored upon a -general amnesty. Demosthenes says, that the word φεύγειν was properly -applied to the exile of those who committed murder with malice -aforethought, whereas the term μεθίστασθαι was used where the act was -not intentional. The property also was confiscated in the former -case, but not in the latter. When a verdict of manslaughter was -returned, it was usual for the convicted party to leave his country -by a certain road, and to remain in exile till he induced some one -of the relatives of the slain man to take compassion on him. We are -not informed what were the consequences if the relatives of the slain -man refused to make a reconciliation; supposing that there was no -compulsion, it is reasonable to conclude that the exile was allowed -to return after a fixed time. Plato, who is believed to have copied -many of his laws from the constitution of Athens, fixes the period of -banishment for manslaughter at one year.--Under φυγή, or banishment, -as a general term, is comprehended _Ostracism_, (ὀστρακισμός). Those -that were ostracised did not lose their property, and the time, as -well as place of their banishment, was fixed. This ostracism is -supposed by some to have been instituted by Cleisthenes, after the -expulsion of the Peisistratidae; its nature and object are thus -explained by Aristotle:--“Democratical states (he observes) used to -ostracise, and remove from the city for a definite time, those who -appeared to be preeminent above their fellow-citizens, by reason -of their wealth, the number of their friends, or any other means -of influence.” Ostracism, therefore, was not a punishment for any -crime, but rather a precautionary removal of those who possessed -sufficient power in the state to excite either envy or fear. Thus -Plutarch says, it was a good-natured way of allaying envy by the -humiliation of superior dignity and power. The manner of effecting -it at Athens was as follows:--A space in the _agora_ was enclosed -by barriers, with ten entrances for the ten tribes. By these the -tribesmen entered, each with his _ostracon_ (ὄστρακον), or piece of -tile (whence the name _ostracism_), on which was written the name -of the individual whom he wished to be ostracised. The nine archons -and the senate, _i.e._ the presidents of that body, superintended -the proceedings, and the party who had the greatest number of votes -against him, supposing that this number amounted to 6000, was obliged -to withdraw (μεταστῆναι) from the city within ten days; if the number -of votes did not amount to 6000, nothing was done. Some of the most -distinguished men at Athens were removed by ostracism, but recalled -when the city found their services indispensable. Among these were -Themistocles, Aristeides, and Cimon, son of Miltiades. The last -person against whom it was used at Athens was Hyperbolus, a demagogue -of low birth and character; but the Athenians thought their own -dignity compromised, and ostracism degraded by such an application of -it, and accordingly discontinued the practice.--From the ostracism -of Athens was copied the _Petalism_ (πεταλισμός) of the Syracusans, -so called from the πέταλον, or leaf of the olive, on which was -written the name of the person whom they wished to remove from the -city. The removal, however, was only for five years; a sufficient -time, as they thought, to humble the pride and hopes of the exile. -In connection with petalism it may be remarked, that if any one were -falsely registered in a demus, or ward, at Athens, his expulsion was -called ἐκφυλλοφορία, from the votes being given by leaves. Besides -those exiled by law, or ostracised, there was frequently a great -number of political exiles in Greece; men who, having distinguished -themselves as the leaders of one party, were expelled, or obliged -to remove from their native city, when the opposite faction became -predominant. They are spoken of as οἱ φεύγοντες or οἱ ἐκπεσόντες, and -as οἱ κατελθόντες after their return (ἡ κάθοδος) the word κατάγειν -being applied to those who were instrumental in effecting it.--(2) -ROMAN. Banishment as a punishment did not exist in the old Roman -state. The _aquae et ignis interdictio_, which we so frequently read -of in the republican period, was in reality not banishment, for -it was only a ban, pronounced by the people (by a _lex_), or by a -magistrate in a criminal court, by which a person was deprived of -water and of fire; that is, of the first necessaries of life; and its -effect was to incapacitate a person from exercising the rights of a -citizen; in other words, to deprive him of his citizenship. Such a -person might, if he chose, remain at Rome, and submit to the penalty -of being an outcast, incapacitated from doing any legal act, and -liable to be killed by any one with impunity. To avoid these dangers, -a person suffering under such an interdict would naturally withdraw -from Rome, and in the earlier republican period, if he withdrew to -a state between which and Rome isopolitical relations existed, he -would become a citizen of that state. This right was called _jus -exsulandi_ with reference to the state to which the person came; -with respect to his own state, which he left, he was _exsul_, and -his condition was _exsilium_; and with respect to the state which -he entered, he was _inquilinus_.[2] In the same way a citizen of -such a state had a right of going into exsilium at Rome; and at -Rome he might attach himself (_applicare se_) to a quasi-patronus. -Exsilium, instead of being a punishment, would thus rather be a -mode of evading punishment; but towards the end of the republic the -_aquae et ignis interdictio_ became a regular banishment, since the -sentence usually specified certain limits, within which a person -was interdicted from fire and water. Thus Cicero was interdicted -from fire and water within 400 miles from the city. The punishment -was inflicted for various crimes, as _vis publica_, _peculatus_, -_veneficium_, &c. Under the empire there were two kinds of exsilium; -_exsilium_ properly so called, and _relegatio_; the great distinction -between the two was, that the former deprived a person of his -citizenship, while the latter did not. The distinction between -_exsilium_ and _relegatio_ existed under the republic. Ovid also -describes himself, not as _exsul_, which he considers a term of -reproach, but as _relegatus_. The chief species of exsilium was the -_deportatio in insulam_ or _deportatio_ simply, which was introduced -under the emperors in place of the _aquae et ignis interdictio_. -The _relegatio_ merely confined the person within, or excluded him -from particular places. In the latter case it was called _fuga -lata_, _fuga libera_, or _liberum exsilium_. The _relegatus_ went -into banishment; the _deportatus_ was conducted to his place of -banishment, sometimes in chains. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[2] This word appears, by its termination _inus_, to denote a person -who was one of a class, like the word _libertinus_. The prefix _in_ -appears to be the correlative of _ex_ in _exsul_, and the remaining -part _quil_ is probably related to _col_ in _incola_ and _colonus_. - - -EXTISPEX. [HARUSPEX.] - - -EXTRĂORDĬNĀRĬI. [EXERCITUS, p. 167.] - - - - -FABRI are workmen who make anything out of hard materials, as _fabri -tignarii_, carpenters, _fabri aerarii_, smiths, &c. The different -trades were divided by Numa into nine collegia, which correspond to -our companies or guilds. In the constitution of Servius Tullius, the -_fabri tignarii_ and the _fabri aerarii_ or _ferrarii_ were formed -into two centuries, which were called the centuriae _fabrum_ (not -_fabrorum_). They did not belong to any of the five classes into -which Servius divided the people; but the _fabri tign._ probably -voted with the first class, and the _fabri aer._ with the second. -The fabri in the army were under the command of an officer called -_praefectus fabrûm_. - - -FĂBŬLA. [COMOEDIA.] - - -FĂLĀRĬCA. [HASTA.] - - -FALSUM. The oldest legislative provision at Rome against Falsum -was that of the Twelve Tables against false testimony. The next -legislation on Falsum, so far as we know, was a Lex Cornelia, passed -in the time of the Dictator Sulla against forging, concealing, -destroying, or committing any other fraudulent act respecting a -will or other instrument. The offence was a Crimen Publicum, and, -under the emperors, the punishment was deportatio in insulam for the -“honestiores;” and the mines or crucifixion for the “humiliores.” - - -FALX, _dim._ FALCŬLA (ἅρπη, δρέπανον, _poet._ δρεπάνη, _dim._ -δρεπάνιον), a sickle; a scythe; a pruning-knife; a falchion, &c. As -_Culter_ denoted a knife with one straight edge, _falx_ signified -any similar instrument, the single edge of which was curved. Some of -its forms are given in the annexed cut. One represents Perseus with -the falchion in his right hand, and the head of Medusa in his left. -The two smaller figures are heads of Saturn with the falx in its -original form; and the fourth represents the same divinity at full -length. - -[Illustration: Falx. (From ancient Cameos.)] - - -FĂMĬLĬA. The word _familia_ contains the same element as the word -famulus, a slave, and the verb _famulari_. In its widest sense it -signifies the totality of that which belongs to a Roman citizen -who is sui juris, and therefore a paterfamilias. Thus, in certain -cases of testamentary disposition, the word _familia_ is explained -by the equivalent _patrimonium_; and the person who received the -familia from the testator was called _familiae emptor_. But the -word _familia_ is sometimes limited to signify “persons,” that is, -all those who are in the power of a paterfamilias, such as his sons -(_filii-familias_), daughters, grandchildren, and slaves. Sometimes -_familia_ is used to signify the slaves belonging to a person, or to -a body of persons (_societas_). - - -FĀNUM. [TEMPLUM.] - - -FARTOR, a slave who fattened poultry. - - -FASCES, rods bound in the form of a bundle, and containing an axe -(_securis_) in the middle, the iron of which projected from them. -They were usually made of birch, but sometimes also of the twigs of -the elm. They are said to have been derived from Vetulonia, a city -of Etruria. Twelve were carried before each of the kings by twelve -lictors; and on the expulsion of the Tarquins, one of the consuls was -preceded by twelve lictors with the fasces and secures, and the other -by the same number of lictors with the fasces only, or, according to -some accounts, with crowns around them. But P. Valerius Publicola, -who gave to the people the right of provocatio, ordained that the -secures should be removed from the fasces, and allowed only one of -the consuls to be preceded by the lictors while they were at Rome. -The other consul was attended only by a single accensus [ACCENSUS]. -When they were out of Rome, and at the head of the army, each of -the consuls retained the axe in the fasces, and was preceded by his -own lictors, as before the time of Valerius. The fasces and secures -were, however, carried before the dictator even in the city, and he -was also preceded by twenty-four lictors, and the magister equitum -by six. The praetors were preceded in the city by two lictors with -the fasces; but out of Rome and at the head of an army by six, with -the fasces and secures. The tribunes of the plebs, the aediles and -quaestors, had no lictors in the city, but in the provinces the -quaestors were permitted to have the fasces. The lictors carried the -fasces on their shoulders; and when an inferior magistrate met one -who was higher in rank, the lictors lowered their fasces to him. -This was done by Valerius Publicola, when he addressed the people, -and hence came the expression _submittere fasces_ in the sense of to -yield, to confess one’s self inferior to another. When a general had -gained a victory, and had been saluted as Imperator by his soldiers, -he usually crowned his fasces with laurel. - -[Illustration: Fasces. (From the original in the Capitol at Rome.)] - - -FASCĬA, a band or fillet of cloth, worn, (1) round the head as an -ensign of royalty;--(2) by women over the breast;--(3) round the legs -and feet, especially by women. When the toga had fallen into disuse, -and the shorter pallium was worn in its stead, so that the legs were -naked and exposed, _fasciae crurales_ became common even with the -male sex. - - -FASCĬNUM (βασκανία), fascination, enchantment. The belief that -some persons had the power of injuring others by their looks, was -prevalent among the Greeks and Romans. The evil eye was supposed -to injure children particularly, but sometimes cattle also; whence -Virgil (_Ecl._ iii. 103) says, - - “Nescio quis teneros oculos mihi fascinat agnum.” - -Various amulets were used to avert its influence. - - -FASTI. _Fas_ signifies _divine law_: the epithet _fastus_ is -properly applied to anything in accordance with divine law; and -hence those days upon which legal business might, without impiety -(_sine piaculo_), be transacted before the praetor, were technically -denominated _fasti dies_, i.e. _lawful days_. The sacred books in -which the _fasti dies_ of the year were marked were themselves -denominated _fasti_; the term, however, was employed to denote -registers of various descriptions. Of these the two principal are -the _Fasti Sacri_ or _Fasti Kalendares_, and _Fasti Annales_ or -_Fasti Historici_.--I. FASTI SACRI or KALENDARES. For nearly four -centuries and a half after the foundation of the city a knowledge -of the calendar was possessed exclusively by the priests. One of -the pontifices regularly proclaimed the appearance of the new moon, -and at the same time announced the period which would intervene -between the Kalends and the Nones. On the Nones the country people -assembled for the purpose of learning from the rex sacrorum the -various festivals to be celebrated during the month, and the days -on which they would fall. In like manner all who wished to go to -law were obliged to inquire of the privileged few on what day they -might bring their suit, and received the reply as if from the lips -of an astrologer. The whole of this lore, so long a source of power -and profit, and therefore jealously enveloped in mystery, was at -length made public by a certain Cn. Flavius, scribe to App. Claudius; -who, having gained access to the pontifical books, copied out all -the requisite information, and exhibited it in the forum for the -use of the people at large. From this time forward such tables -became common, and were known by the name of _Fasti_. They usually -contained an enumeration of the months and days of the year; the -Nones, Ides, Nundinae, Dies Fasti, Nefasti, Comitiales, Atri, &c., -together with the different festivals, were marked in their proper -places: astronomical observations on the risings and settings of the -fixed stars, and the commencement of the seasons were frequently -inserted. [CALENDARIUM; DIES.]--II. FASTI ANNALES or HISTORICI. -Chronicles such as the _Annales Maximi_, containing the names of the -chief magistrates for each year, and a short account of the most -remarkable events noted down opposite to the days on which they -occurred, were, from the resemblance which they bore in arrangement -to the sacred calendars, denominated _fasti_; and hence this word is -used, especially by the poets, in the general sense of _historical -records_. In prose writers _fasti_ is commonly employed as the -technical term for the registers of consuls, dictators, censors, and -other magistrates, which formed part of the public archives. Some -most important _fasti_ belonging to this class, executed probably -at the beginning of the reign of Tiberius, have been partially -preserved, and are deposited in the Capitol in Rome, where they are -known by the name of the _Fasti Capitolini_. - - -FASTĬGĬUM. An ancient Greek or Roman temple, of rectangular -construction, is terminated at its upper extremity by a triangular -figure, both in front and rear, which rests upon the cornice of the -entablature as a base, and has its sides formed by the cornices which -terminate the roof. The whole of this triangle above the trabeation -is implied in the term _fastigium_, called ἀέτωμα by the Greeks, -pediment by our architects. The dwelling-houses of the Romans had no -gable ends; consequently when the word is applied to them, it is not -in its strictly technical sense, but designates the roof simply, and -is to be understood of one which rises to an apex, as distinguished -from a flat one. The fastigium, properly so called, was appropriated -to the temples of the gods; therefore, when the Romans began to -bestow divine honours upon Julius Caesar, amongst other privileges -which they decreed to him, was the liberty of erecting a fastigium to -his house, that is, a portico and pediment towards the street, like -that of a temple. - -[Illustration: Fastigium. (From a Coin.)] - - -FAX (φανός), a torch. As the principal use of torches was to -give light to those who went abroad after sunset, the portion of -the Roman day immediately succeeding sun-set was called _fax_ or -_prima fax_. The use of torches after sun-set, and the practice of -celebrating marriages at that time, probably led to the consideration -of the torch as one of the necessary accompaniments and symbols of -marriage. Among the Romans the _fax nuptialis_ having been lighted -at the parental hearth, was carried before the bride by a boy whose -parents were alive. The torch was also carried at funerals (_fax -sepulchralis_), both because these were often nocturnal ceremonies, -and because it was used to set fire to the pile. - - -FĒCIĀLES. [FETIALES.] - - -FĔMĬNĀLĬA, worn in winter by Augustus Caesar, who was very -susceptible of cold. It seems probable that they were breeches -resembling ours. - - -FĔNESTRA. [DOMUS.] - - -FĒNUS or FOENUS (τόκος), interest of money.--(1) GREEK. At Athens -there was no restriction upon the rate of interest. A rate might be -expressed or represented in two different ways: (1.) by the number -of oboli or drachmae paid by the _month_ for every _mina_; (2) by -the part of the principal (τὸ ἀρχαῖον or κεφάλαιον) paid as interest -either annually or for the whole period of the loan. According to the -former method, which was generally used when money was lent upon real -security (τόκοι ἔγγυοι or ἔγγειοι), different rates were expressed as -follows:--10 per cent. by ἐπὶ πέντε ὀβολοῖς, _i.e._ 5 oboli per month -for every mina, or 60 oboli a year = 10 drachmae = 1/10 of a mina. -Similarly, - - 12 per cent. by ἐπὶ δραχμῇ per month. - 16 per cent. ” ἐπ’ ὀκτὼ ὀβολοῖς ” - 18 per cent. ” ἐπ’ ἐννέα ὀβολοῖς ” - 24 per cent. ” ἐπὶ δυσὶ δραχμαῖς ” - 36 per cent. ” ἐπὶ τρισὶ δρακμαῖς ” - 5 per cent. ” ἐπὶ τρίτῳ ἡμιοβολίῳ, probably. - -Another method was generally adopted in cases of bottomry (τὸ -ναυτικόν, τόκοι ναυτικοί, or ἔκδοσις), where money was lent upon -the ship’s cargo or freightage (ἐπὶ τῷ ναύλῳ), or the ship itself, -for a specified time, commonly that of the voyage. By this method -the following rates were thus represented:--10 per cent. by τόκοι -ἐπιδέκατοι, i.e. interest at the rate of a tenth; 12½, 16⅔, 20, 33⅓, -by τόκοι ἐπόγδοοι, ἔφεκτοι, ἐπίπεμπτοι, and ἐπίτριτοι, respectively. -The usual rates of interest at Athens about the time of Demosthenes -varied from 12 to 18 per cent.--(2) ROMAN. Towards the close of -the republic, and also under the emperors, 12 per cent. was the -legal rate of interest. The interest became due on the first of -every month: hence the phrases _tristes_ or _celeres calendae_ and -_calendarium_, the latter meaning a debt-book or book of accounts. -The rate of interest was expressed in the time of Cicero, and -afterwards, by means of the as and its divisions, according to the -following table:-- - - Asses usurae, or one as per - month for the use of one - hundred = 12 per cent. - Deunces usurae 11 ” - Dextantes ” 10 ” - Dodrantes ” 9 ” - Besses ” 8 ” - Septunces ” 7 ” - Semisses ” 6 ” - Quincunces ” 5 ” - Trientes ” 4 ” - Quadrantes ” 3 ” - Sextantes ” 2 ” - Unciae ” 1 ” - -Instead of the phrase _asses usurae_, a synonyme was used, viz. -_centesimae usurae_, inasmuch as at this rate of interest there was -paid in a hundred months a sum equal to the whole principal. Hence -_binae centesimae_ = 24 per cent., and _quaternae centesimae_ = 48 -per cent. The monthly rate of the centesimae was of foreign origin, -and first adopted at Rome in the time of Sulla. The old _yearly_ -rate established by the Twelve Tables (B.C. 450) was the _unciarium -fenus_. The _uncia_ was the twelfth part of the as, and since the -full (12 oz.) copper coinage was still in use at Rome when the Twelve -Tables became law, the phrase _unciarium_ fenus would be a natural -expression for interest of one ounce in the pound; _i.e._ a twelfth -part of the sum borrowed, or 8⅓ per cent., not per month, but per -year. This rate, if calculated for the old Roman year of ten months, -would give 10 per cent. for the civil year of twelve months, which -was in common use in the time of the decemvirs. If a debtor could -not pay the principal and interest at the end of the year, he used -to borrow money from a fresh creditor, to pay off his old debt. This -proceeding was very frequent, and called a _versura_. It amounted -to little short of paying compound interest, or an _anatocismus -anniversarius_, another phrase for which was _usurae renovatae_; -_e.g._ _centesimae renovatae_ is 12 per cent. compound interest, to -which Cicero opposes _centesimae perpetuo fenore_ = 12 per cent. -simple interest. The following phrases are of common occurrence in -connection with borrowing and lending money at interest:--_Pecuniam -apud aliquem collocare_, to lend money at interest; _relegere_, to -call it in again; _cavere_, to give security for it; _opponere_ -or _opponere pignori_, to give as a pledge or mortgage. The word -_nomen_ is also of extensive use in money transactions. Properly it -denoted the name of a debtor, registered in a banker’s or any other -account-book: hence it came to signify the articles of an account, a -debtor, or a debt itself. Thus we have _bonum nomen_, a good debt; -_nomina facere_, to lend monies, and also to borrow money. - - -FĒRĀLIA. [FUNUS, p. 191, a.] - - -FERCŬLUM (from _fer-o_) is applied to any kind of tray or platform -used for carrying anything. Thus it is used to signify the tray or -frame on which several dishes were brought in at once at dinner; and -hence _fercula_ came to mean the number of courses at dinner, and -even the dishes themselves. The ferculum was also used for carrying -the images of the gods in the procession of the circus, the ashes -of the dead in a funeral, and the spoils in a triumph; in all which -cases it appears to have been carried on the shoulders or in the -hands of men. - - -FĔRĔTRUM. [FUNUS.] - - -FĒRĬAE, holidays, were, generally speaking, days or seasons during -which free-born Romans suspended their political transactions and -their law-suits, and during which slaves enjoyed a cessation from -labour. All feriae were thus _dies nefasti_. The feriae included -all days consecrated to any deity; consequently all days on which -public festivals were celebrated were feriae or dies feriati. But -some of them, such as the feria vindemialis, and the feriae aestivae, -seem to have had no direct connection with the worship of the gods. -The nundinae, however, during the time of the kings and the early -period of the republic, were feriae only for the populus, and days -of business for the plebeians, until, by the Hortensian law, they -became fasti or days of business for both orders. All _feriae -publicae_, _i.e._ those which were observed by the whole nation, -were divided into _feriae stativae_, _feriae conceptivae_, and -_feriae imperativae_. _Feriae stativae_ or _statae_ were those which -were held regularly, and on certain days marked in the calendar. To -these belonged some of the great festivals, such as the Agonalia, -Carmentalia, Lupercalia, &c. _Feriae conceptivae_ or _conceptae_ -were held every year, but not on certain or fixed days, the time -being every year appointed by the magistrates or priests. Among these -we may mention the feriae Latinae, feriae Sementivae, Paganalia, -and Compitalia. _Feriae imperativae_ were those which were held on -certain emergencies at the command of the consuls, praetors, or of -a dictator. The manner in which all public feriae were kept bears -great analogy to the observance of our Sunday. The people visited the -temples of the gods, and offered up their prayers and sacrifices. The -most serious and solemn seem to have been the feriae imperativae, but -all the others were generally attended with rejoicings and feasting. -All kinds of business, especially law-suits, were suspended during -the public feriae, as they were considered to pollute the sacred -season. The most important of the holidays designated by the name of -feriae, are the _Feriae Latinae_, or simply _Latinae_ (the original -name was _Latiar_), which were said to have been instituted by the -last Tarquin in commemoration of the alliance between the Romans and -Latins. This festival, however, was of much higher antiquity; it was -a panegyris, or a festival, of the whole Latin nation, celebrated on -the Alban mount; and all that the last Tarquin did was to convert the -original Latin festival into a Roman one, and to make it the means -of hallowing and cementing the alliance between the two nations. -Before the union, the chief magistrate of the Latins had presided -at the festival; but Tarquin now assumed this distinction, which -subsequently, after the destruction of the Latin commonwealth, -remained with the chief magistrates of Rome. The object of this -panegyris on the Alban mount was the worship of Jupiter Latiaris, -and, at least as long as the Latin republic existed, to deliberate -and decide on matters of the confederacy, and to settle any disputes -which might have arisen among its members. As the feriae Latinae -belonged to the conceptivae, the time of their celebration greatly -depended on the state of affairs at Rome, since the consuls were -never allowed to take the field until they had held the Latinae. This -festival was a great engine in the hands of the magistrates, who -had to appoint the time of its celebration (_concipere_, _edicere_, -or _indicere Latinas_); as it might often suit their purpose either -to hold the festival at a particular time or to delay it, in order -to prevent or delay such public proceedings as seemed injurious and -pernicious, and to promote others to which they were favourably -disposed. The festival lasted six days. - - -FESCENNINA, scil. _carmina_, one of the earliest kinds of Italian -poetry, which consisted of rude and jocose verses, or rather -dialogues of extempore verses, in which the merry country folks -assailed and ridiculed one another. This amusement seems originally -to have been peculiar to country people, but it was also introduced -into the towns of Italy and at Rome, where we find it mentioned as -one of those in which young people indulged at weddings. - - -FĒTĬĀLES or FĒCĬĀLES, a college of Roman priests, who acted as -the guardians of the public faith. It was their province, when -any dispute arose with a foreign state, to demand satisfaction, -to determine the circumstances under which hostilities might be -commenced, to perform the various religious rites attendant on the -solemn declaration of war, and to preside at the formal ratification -of peace. When an injury had been received from a foreign state, -four fetiales were deputed to seek redress, who again elected one -of their number to act as their representative. This individual was -styled the _pater patratus populi Romani_. A fillet of white wool was -bound round his head, together with a wreath of sacred herbs gathered -within the inclosure of the Capitoline hill (_Verbenae_; _Sagmina_), -whence he was sometimes named _Verbenarius_. Thus equipped, he -proceeded to the confines of the offending tribe, where he halted, -and addressed a prayer to Jupiter, calling the god to witness, with -heavy imprecations, that his complaints were well founded and his -demands reasonable. He then crossed the border, and the same form was -repeated in nearly the same words to the first native of the soil -whom he might chance to meet; again a third time to the sentinel or -any citizen whom he encountered at the gate of the chief town; and -a fourth time to the magistrates in the forum in presence of the -people. If a satisfactory answer was not returned within thirty days, -after publicly delivering a solemn denunciation of what might be -expected to follow, he returned to Rome, and, accompanied by the rest -of the fetiales, made a report of his mission to the senate. If the -people, as well as the senate, decided for war, the pater patratus -again set forth to the border of the hostile territory, and launched -a spear tipped with iron, or charred at the extremity and smeared -with blood (emblematic doubtless of fire and slaughter), across the -boundary, pronouncing at the same time a solemn declaration of war. -The demand for redress, and the proclamation of hostilities, were -alike termed _clarigatio_. The whole system is said to have been -borrowed from the Aequicolae or the Ardeates, and similar usages -undoubtedly prevailed among the Latin states. The number of the -fetiales cannot be ascertained with certainty, but they were probably -twenty. They were originally selected from the most noble families, -and their office lasted for life. - - -FĪBŬLA (περόνη, πόρπη), a brooch or buckle, consisting of a pin -(_acus_), and of a curved portion furnished with a hook (κλείς). - -[Illustration: Fibulae, brooches or buckles. (British Museum.)] - - -FICTĬLE (κεράμος, κεράμιον, ὄστρακον, ὀστράκινον), earthenware, a -vessel or other article made of baked clay. The instruments used in -pottery (_ars figulina_) were the following:--1. The wheel (τροχός, -_orbis_, _rota_, _rota figularis_). 2. Pieces of wood or bone, which -the potter (κεραμεύς, _figulus_) held in his right hand, and applied -occasionally to the surface of the clay during its revolution. 3. -Moulds (_formae_, τύποι), used either to decorate with figures in -relief vessels which had been thrown on the wheel, or to produce -foliage, animals, or any other appearances, on Antefixa, on cornices -of terra cotta, and imitative or ornamental pottery of all other -kinds, in which the wheel was not adapted to give the first shape. 4. -Gravers or scalpels, used by skilful modellers in giving to figures -of all kinds a more perfect finish and a higher relief than could -be produced by the use of moulds. The earth used for making pottery -(κεράμικη γῆ), was commonly red, and often of so lively a colour -as to resemble coral. Other pottery is brown or cream-coloured, -and sometimes white. Some of the ancient earthenware is throughout -its substance black, an effect produced by mixing the earth with -comminuted asphaltum (_gagates_), or with some other bituminous or -oleaginous substance. It appears also that asphaltum, with pitch and -tar, both mineral and vegetable, was used to cover the surface like a -varnish. The best pottery was manufactured at Athens, in the island -of Samos, and in Etruria. A quarter of Athens was called Cerameicus, -because it was inhabited by potters. Vessels, before being sent for -the last time to the furnace, were sometimes immersed in that finely -prepared mud, now technically called “slip,” by which the surface -is both smoothed and glazed, and at the same time receives a fresh -colour. Ruddle, or red ochre (μίλτος, _rubrica_), was principally -employed for this purpose. To produce a further variety in the -paintings upon vases the artists employed a few brightly coloured -earths and metallic ores. [PICTURA.] - - -FĬDEICOMMISSUM may be defined to be a testamentary disposition, -by which a person who gives a thing to another imposes on him the -obligation of transferring it to a third person. The obligation was -not created by words of legal binding force (_civilia verba_), but -by words of request (_precativè_), such as _fideicommitto_, _peto_, -_volo dari_, and the like; which were the operative words (_verba -utilia_). - - -FĪDŪCĬA. If a man transferred his property to another, on condition -that it should be restored to him, this contract was called Fiducia, -and the person to whom the property was so transferred was said -_fiduciam accipere_. The trustee was bound to discharge his trust -by restoring the thing: if he did not, he was liable to an actio -fiduciae or fiduciaria, which was an actio bonae fidei. If the -trustee was condemned in the action, the consequence was infamia. - - -FISCUS, the imperial treasury. Under the republic the public treasury -was called _Aerarium_. [AERARIUM.] On the establishment of the -imperial power, there was a division of the provinces between the -senate, as the representative of the old republic, and the Caesar or -emperor; and there was consequently a division of the most important -branches of public income and expenditure. The property of the senate -retained the name of _Aerarium_, and that of the Caesar, as such, -received the name of _Fiscus_. The private property of the Caesar -(_res privata principis, ratio Caesaris_) was quite distinct from -that of the fiscus. The word fiscus signified a wicker-basket, or -pannier, in which the Romans were accustomed to keep and carry about -large sums of money; and hence fiscus came to signify any person’s -treasure or money chest. The importance of the imperial fiscus soon -led to the practice of appropriating the name to that property which -the Caesar claimed as Caesar, and the word fiscus, without any -adjunct, was used in this sense. Ultimately the word came to signify -generally the property of the state, the Caesar having concentrated -in himself all the sovereign power, and thus the word fiscus finally -had the same signification as aerarium in the republican period. -Various officers, as Procuratores, Advocati, Patroni, and Praefecti, -were employed in the administration of the fiscus. - - -FLĀBELLUM, _dim._ FLĀBELLŬLUM, (ῥιπίς), a fan. Fans were of elegant -forms, of delicate colours, and sometimes of costly and splendid -materials, such as peacock’s feathers; but they were stiff and of a -fixed shape, and were held by female slaves (_flabelliferae_), by -beautiful boys, or by eunuchs, whose duty it was to wave them so as -to produce a cooling breeze. Besides separate feathers the ancient -fan was sometimes made of linen, extended upon a light frame. - - -[Illustration: Flagellum, Scourge. (From a Bas-relief at Rome, and -from a Coin.)] - -FLAGRUM, _dim._ FLĂGELLUM (μάστιξ), a whip, a scourge, to the -handle of which was fixed a lash made of cords (_funibus_), or -thongs of leather (_loris_), especially thongs made from the ox’s -hide (_bubulis exuviis_). The _flagellum_ properly so called was -a dreadful instrument, and is thus put in opposition to the -_scutica_, which was a simple whip. (Hor. _Sat._ i. 3. 119.) Cicero -in like manner contrasts the severe _flagella_ with the _virgae_. -The flagellum was chiefly used in the punishment of slaves. It was -knotted with bones or heavy indented circles of bronze or terminated -by hooks, in which case it was aptly denominated a _scorpion_. We -likewise find that some gladiators fought with the flagella, as in -the coin here introduced. - - -FLĀMEN, the name for any Roman priest who was devoted to the service -of one particular god, and who received a distinguishing epithet -from the deity to whom he ministered. The most dignified were those -attached to Dijovis, Mars, and Quirinus, the _Flamen Dialis_, -_Flamen Martialis_, and _Flamen Quirinalis_. They are said to have -been established by Numa. The number was eventually increased to -fifteen: the three original flamens were always chosen from among -the patricians, and styled _Majores_; the rest from the plebeians, -with the epithet _Minores_. Among the minores, we read of the _Flamen -Floralis_, the _Flamen Carmentalis_, &c. The flamens were elected -originally at the Comitia Curiata, but it is conjectured that -subsequently to the passing of the _Lex Domitia_ (B.C. 104) they -were chosen in the Comitia Tributa. After being nominated by the -people, they were received (_capti_) and installed (_inaugurabantur_) -by the pontifex maximus, to whose authority they were at all times -subject. The office was understood to last for life; but a flamen -might be compelled to resign (_flaminio abire_) for a breach of -duty, or even on account of the occurrence of an ill-omened accident -while discharging his functions. Their characteristic dress was the -_apex_ [APEX], the _laena_ [LAENA], and a laurel wreath. The most -distinguished of all the flamens was the _Dialis_; the lowest in rank -the _Pomonalis_. The former enjoyed many peculiar honours. When a -vacancy occurred, three persons of patrician descent, whose parents -had been married according to the ceremonies of _confarreatio_, were -nominated by the Comitia, one of whom was selected (_captus_), and -consecrated (_inaugurabatur_) by the pontifex maximus. From that -time forward he was emancipated from the control of his father, and -became sui juris. He alone of all priests wore the _albogalerus_; -he had a right to a _lictor_, to the _toga praetexta_, the _sella -curulis_, and to a seat in the senate in virtue of his office. If -one in bonds took refuge in his house, his chains were immediately -struck off. To counterbalance these high honours, the dialis was -subjected to a multitude of restrictions. It was unlawful for him -to be out of the city for a single night; and he was forbidden to -sleep out of his own bed for three nights consecutively. He might not -mount upon horseback, nor even touch a horse, nor look upon an army -marshalled without the pomoerium, and hence was seldom elected to the -consulship. The object of the above rules was manifestly to make him -literally _Jovi adsiduum sacerdotem_; to compel constant attention -to the duties of the priesthood. _Flaminica_ was the name given to -the wife of the dialis. He was required to wed a virgin according -to the ceremonies of _confarreatio_, which regulation also applied -to the two other flamines majores; and he could not marry a second -time. Hence, since her assistance was essential in the performance -of certain ordinances, a divorce was not permitted, and if she died, -the dialis was obliged to resign. The municipal towns also had their -flamens. Thus the celebrated affray between Milo and Clodius took -place while the former was on his way to Lanuvium, of which he was -then dictator, to declare the election of a flamen (_ad flaminem -prodendum_). - - -FLAMMEUM. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - -FLŌRĀLĬA, or Florales Ludi, a festival which was celebrated at Rome -in honour of Flora or Chloris, during five days, beginning on the -28th of April and ending on the 2nd of May. It was said to have been -instituted at Rome in 238 B.C., at the command of an oracle in the -Sibylline books, for the purpose of obtaining from the goddess the -protection of the blossoms. The celebration was, as usual, conducted -by the aediles, and was carried on with excessive merriment, -drinking, and lascivious games. - - -FŌCĀLĔ, a covering for the ears and neck, made of wool, and worn by -infirm, and delicate persons. - - -FŎCUS, _dim._ FOCŬLUS (ἑστία, ἐσχάρα, ἐσχαρίς), a fire-place; a -hearth; a brazier. The fire-place possessed a sacred character, and -was dedicated among the Romans to the Lares of each family. Moveable -hearths, or braziers, properly called _foculi_, were frequently used. - -[Illustration: Foculus, Moveable Hearth. (British Museum.)] - - -FOEDĔRĀTAE CĪVĬTĀTES, FOEDĔRĀTI, SŎCĬI. In the seventh century of -Rome these names expressed those Italian states which were connected -with Rome by a treaty (_foedus_). These names did not include Roman -colonies or Latin colonies, or any place which had obtained the Roman -civitas or citizenship. Among the _foederati_ were the _Latini_, who -were the most nearly related to the Romans, and were designated by -this distinctive name; the rest of the foederati were comprised under -the collective name of _Socii_ or _Foederati_. They were independent -states, yet under a general liability to furnish a contingent to the -Roman army. Thus they contributed to increase the power of Rome, but -they had not the privileges of Roman citizens. The discontent among -the foederati, and their claims to be admitted to the privileges -of Roman citizens, led to the Social War. The Julia Lex (B.C. 90) -gave the civitas to the Socii and Latini; and a lex of the following -year contained, among other provisions, one for the admission to the -Roman civitas of those peregrini who were entered on the lists of the -citizens of federate states, and who complied with the provisions of -the lex. [CIVITAS.] - - -FOENUS. [FENUS.] - - -[Illustration: Folles, Bellows. (From a Roman Lamp.)] - -FOLLIS--(1) An inflated ball of leather, which boys and old men among -the Romans threw from one to another as a gentle exercise of the -body.--(2) A leather purse or bag.--(3) A pair of bellows, consisting -of two inflated skins, and having valves adjusted to the natural -apertures at one part for admitting the air, and a pipe inserted into -another part for its emission. - - -[Illustration: Fountain of Peirene at Corinth.] - -FONS (κρήνη), a spring of water, and also an artificial fountain, -made either by covering and decorating a spring with buildings and -sculpture, or by making a jet or stream of water, supplied by an -elevated cistern, play into an artificial basin. Such fountains -served the double purpose of use and ornament. They were covered -to keep them pure and cool, and the covering was frequently in the -form of a monopteral temple: there were also statues, the subjects -of which were suggested by the circumstance that every fountain was -sacred to some divinity, or they were taken from the whole range of -mythological legends. A very large proportion of the immense supply -of water brought to Rome by the aqueducts was devoted to the public -fountains, which were divided into two classes; namely, _lacus_, -ponds or reservoirs, and _salientes_, jets of water, besides which -many of the castella were so constructed as to be also fountains. -There were also many small private fountains in the houses and villas -of the wealthy. - -[Illustration: Fountain. (From a Painting at Pompeii.)] - - -FŎRES. [DOMUS.] - - -FORNĀCĀLĬA, a festival in honour of Fornax, the goddess of furnaces, -in order that the corn might be properly baked. This ancient festival -is said to have been instituted by Numa. The time for its celebration -was proclaimed every year by the curio maximus, who announced in -tablets, which were placed in the forum, the different part which -each curia had to take in the celebration of the festival. Those -persons who did not know to what curia they belonged performed the -sacred rites on the _Quirinalia_, called from this circumstance the -_Stultorum feriae_, which fell on the last day of the Fornacalia. - - -FORNIX, in its primary sense, is synonymous with ARCUS, but more -commonly implies an arched vault, constituting both roof and ceiling -to the apartment which it encloses. - - -FŎRUM. [See CLASSICAL DICT.] - - -FRĂMĔA. [HASTA.] - - -FRĀTRES ARVĀLES. [ARVALES FRATRES.] - - -FRĒNUM (χαλινός), a bridle. That Bellerophon might be enabled to -perform the exploits required of him by the king of Lycia, he was -presented by Athena with a bridle as the means of subduing the winged -horse Pegasus, who submitted to receive it whilst he was slaking -his thirst at the fountain Peirene. Such was the Grecian account -of the invention of the bridle, and in reference to it Athena was -worshipped at Corinth, under the titles Ἵππια and Χαλινῖτις. The bit -(_orea_, δῆγμα, στόμιον), was commonly made of several pieces, and -flexible, so as not to hurt the horse’s mouth; although there was -likewise a bit which was armed with protuberances resembling wolves’ -teeth, and therefore called _lupatum_. - -[Illustration: Pegasus receiving the Bridle.] - - -FRĪGĬDĀRĬUM. [BALNEUM.] - - -FRĬTILLUS (φιμός), a dice-box of a cylindrical form, and therefore -called also _turricula_, or _pyrgus_, and formed with parallel -indentations (_gradus_) on the inside, so as to make a rattling noise -when the dice were shaken in it. - - -FRŪMENTĀRĬAE LEGES. The supply of corn at Rome was considered -one of the duties of the government. The superintendence of the -corn-market belonged in ordinary times to the aediles, but when -great scarcity prevailed, an extraordinary officer was appointed -for the purpose under the title of _Praefectus Annonae_. Even in -early times it had been usual for the state on certain occasions, -and for wealthy individuals, to make occasional donations of corn to -the people (_donatio_, _largitio_, _divisio_; subsequently called -_frumentatio_). But such donations were only casual; and it was not -till B.C. 123, that the first legal provision was made for supplying -the poor at Rome with corn at a price much below its market value. -In that year C. Sempronius Gracchus brought forward the first _Lex -Frumentaria_, by which each citizen was entitled to receive every -month a certain quantity of wheat (_triticum_) at the price of 6⅓ -asses for the modius, which was equal to 1 gallon and nearly 8 pints -English. This was only a trifle more than half the market price. Each -person probably received five modii monthly, as in later times. About -B.C. 91, the tribune M. Octavius brought forward the _Lex Octavia_, -which modified the law of Gracchus to some extent, so that the public -treasury did not suffer so much. Sulla went still further, and by his -_Lex Cornelia_, B.C. 82, did away altogether with these distributions -of corn; but in B.C. 73, the Lex Sempronia was renewed by the _Lex -Terentia Cassia_, which enacted that each Roman citizen should -receive 5 modii a month at the price of 6⅓ asses for each modius. The -Leges Frumentariae had _sold_ corn to the people; but by the _Lex -Clodia_ of the tribune Clodius, B.C. 58, the corn was distributed -without any payment; the abolition of the payment cost the state a -fifth part of its revenues. When Caesar became master of the Roman -world, he resolved to remedy the evils attending the system, so -far as he was able. He did not venture to abolish altogether these -distributions of corn, but he did the next best thing in his power, -which was reducing the number of the recipients. During the civil -wars numbers of persons, who had no claim to the Roman franchise, -had settled at Rome in order to obtain a share in the distributions. -Caesar excluded from this privilege every person who could not prove -that he was a Roman citizen; and thus the 320,000 persons, who had -previously received the corn, were at once reduced to 150,000. The -useful regulations of Caesar fell into neglect after his death; and -in B.C. 5, the number of recipients had amounted to 320,000. But -in B.C. 2, Augustus reduced the number of recipients to 200,000, -and renewed many of Caesar’s regulations. The chief of them seem to -have been: 1. That every citizen should receive monthly a certain -quantity of corn (probably 5 modii) on the payment of a certain -small sum. Occasionally, in seasons of scarcity, or in order to -confer a particular favour, Augustus made these distributions quite -gratuitous; they then became _congiaria_. [CONGIARIUM.] 2. That those -who were completely indigent should receive the corn gratuitously, -and should be furnished for the purpose with _tesserae nummariae_ -or _frumentariae_, which entitled them to the corn without payment. -The system which had been established by Augustus, was followed by -his successors; but as it was always one of the first maxims of the -state policy of the Roman emperors to prevent any disturbance in the -capital, they frequently lowered the price of the public corn, and -also distributed it gratuitously as a _congiarium_. Hence, the cry -of the populace _panem et circenses_. In course of time, the sale -of the corn by the state seems to have ceased altogether, and the -distribution became altogether gratuitous. Every corn-receiver was -therefore now provided with a _tessera_, and this tessera, when -once granted to him, became his property. Hence it came to pass, -that he was not only allowed to keep the tessera for life, but even -to dispose of it by sale, and bequeath it by will. Every citizen -was competent to hold a tessera, with the exception of senators. -Further, as the corn had been originally distributed to the people -according to the thirty-five tribes into which they were divided, the -corn-receivers in each tribe formed a kind of corporation, which came -eventually to be looked upon as the tribe, when the tribes had lost -all political significance. Hence, the purchase of a tessera became -equivalent to the purchase of a place in a tribe; and, accordingly, -we find in the Digest the expressions _emere tribum_ and _emere -tesseram_ used as synonymous. Another change was also introduced at a -later period, which rendered the bounty still more acceptable to the -people. Instead of distributing the corn every month, wheaten bread, -called _annona civica_, was given to the people. It is uncertain at -what time this change was introduced, but it seems to have been the -custom before the reign of Aurelian (A.D. 270-275). - - -FRŪMENTĀRĬI, officers under the Roman empire, who acted as spies -in the provinces, and reported to the emperors anything which -they considered of importance. They appear to have been called -_Frumentarii_ because it was their duty to collect information in the -same way as it was the duty of other officers, called by the same -name, to collect corn. - - -FŪCUS (φῦκος), the paint which the Greek and Roman ladies employed -in painting their cheeks, eye-brows, and other parts of their -faces. The practice of painting the face was very general among -the Greek ladies, and probably came into fashion in consequence -of their sedentary mode of life, which robbed their complexions -of their natural freshness, and induced them to have recourse to -artificial means for restoring the red and white of nature. The -eye-brows and eye-lids were stained black with στίμμι or στίμμις, -a sulphuret of antimony, which is still employed by the Turkish -ladies for the same purpose. The eye-brows were likewise stained -with ἄσβολος, a preparation of soot. Among the Romans the art of -painting the complexion was carried to a still greater extent than -among the Greeks, and even Ovid did not disdain to write a poem on -the subject, which he calls (_de Art. Am._ iii. 206) “parvus, sed -cura grande, libellus, opus;” though the genuineness of the fragment -of the _Medicamina faciei_, ascribed to this poet, is doubtful. -The Roman ladies even went so far as to paint with blue the veins -on the temples. The ridiculous use of patches (_splenia_), which -were common among the English ladies in the reign of Queen Anne and -the first Georges, was not unknown to the Roman ladies. The more -effeminate of the male sex at Rome, and likewise in Greece, also -employed paint. - -[Illustration: Girl painting herself. (From a Gem.)] - - -FŬGA LĀTA. [EXSILIUM.] - - -FŬGA LĪBĔRA. [EXSILIUM.] - - -FŬGĬTĪVUS. [SERVUS.] - - -FULLO (κναφεύς, γναφεύς), also called NACCA, a fuller, a washer or -scourer of cloth and linen. The fullones not only received the cloth -as it came from the loom in order to scour and smooth it, but also -washed and cleansed garments which had been already worn. The clothes -were first washed, which was done in tubs or vats, where they were -trodden upon and stamped by the feet of the fullones, whence Seneca -speaks of _saltus fullonicus_. The ancients were not acquainted with -soap, but they used in its stead different kinds of alkali, by which -the dirt was more easily separated from the clothes. Of these, by far -the most common was the urine of men and animals, which was mixed -with the water in which the clothes were washed. When the clothes -were dry, the wool was brushed and carded to raise the nap, sometimes -with the skin of a hedgehog, and sometimes with some plants of the -thistle kind. The clothes were then hung on a vessel of basket-work -(_viminea cavea_), under which sulphur was placed in order to whiten -the cloth. A fine white earth, called Cimolian by Pliny, was often -rubbed into the cloth to increase its whiteness. The establishment -or workshop of the fullers was called _Fullonica_, _Fullonicum_, or -_Fullonimn_. The Greeks were also accustomed to send their garments -to fullers to be washed and scoured. The word πλύνειν denoted the -washing of linen, and κναφεύειν or γναφεύειν the washing of woollen -clothes. - - -FŪNAMBŬLUS (καλοβάτης σχοινοβάτης), a rope-dancer. The art of -dancing on the tight-rope was carried to as great perfection among -the Romans as it is with us. The performers placed themselves in an -endless variety of graceful and sportive attitudes, and represented -the characters of bacchanals, satyrs, and other imaginary beings. -One of the most difficult exploits was running down the rope at the -conclusion of the performance. It was a strange attempt of Germanicus -and of the emperor Galba to exhibit elephants walking on the rope. - - -FUNDA (σφενδόνη), a sling. Slingers are not mentioned in the Iliad; -but the light troops of the Greek and Roman armies consisted in great -part of slingers (_funditores_, σφενδονήται). The most celebrated -slingers were the inhabitants of the Balearic islands. Besides -stones, plummets, called _glandes_ (μολυβδίδες), of a form between -acorns and almonds, were cast in moulds to be thrown with slings. -The manner in which the sling was wielded may be seen in the annexed -figure of a soldier with a provision of stones in the sinus of his -pallium, and with his arm extended in order to whirl the sling about -his head. - -[Illustration: Funda, Sling. (Column of Trajan.)] - - -FUNDĬTŌRES. [FUNDA.] - - -[Illustration: Coffins. (Stackelberg, ‘Die Gräber der Hellenen,’ pl. -7, 8.)] - -[Illustration: Tomb in Lycia.] - -FŪNUS, a funeral.--(1) GREEK. The Greeks attached great importance -to the burial of the dead. They believed that souls could not enter -the Elysian fields till their bodies had been buried; and so strong -was this feeling among the Greeks, that it was considered a religious -duty to throw earth upon a dead body, which a person might happen -to find unburied; and among the Athenians, those children who -were released from all other obligations to unworthy parents, were -nevertheless bound to bury them by one of Solon’s laws. The neglect -of burying one’s relatives is frequently mentioned by the orators -as a grave charge against the moral character of a man; in fact, -the burial of the body by the relations of the dead was considered -one of the most sacred duties by the universal law of the Greeks. -Sophocles represents Antigone as disregarding all consequences in -order to bury the dead body of her brother Polyneices, which Creon, -the king of Thebes, had commanded to be left unburied. The common -expressions for the funeral rites, τὰ δίκαια, νόμιμα or νομιζόμενα, -προσήκοντα, show that the dead had, as it were, a legal and moral -claim to burial. After a person was dead, it was the custom first to -place in his mouth an obolus, called _danace_ (δανάκη), with which -he might pay the ferryman in Hades. The body was then washed and -anointed with perfumed oil, the head was crowned with the flowers -which happened to be in season, and the body dressed in as handsome -a robe as the family could afford. These duties were not performed -by hired persons, like the _pollinctores_ among the Romans, but by -the women of the family, upon whom the care of the corpse always -devolved. The corpse was then laid out (πρόθεσις, προτίθεσθαι) on a -bed, which appears to have been of the ordinary kind, with a pillow -for supporting the head and back. By the side of the bed there -were placed painted earthen vessels, called λήκυθοι, which were -also buried with the corpse. Great numbers of these painted vases -have been found in modern times; and they have been of great use -in explaining many matters connected with antiquity. A honey-cake, -called μελιττοῦτα, which appears to have been intended for Cerberus, -was also placed by the side of the corpse. Before the door a vessel -of water was placed, called ὄστρακον, ἀρδάλιον or ἀρδάνιον, in order -that persons who had been in the house might purify themselves by -sprinkling water on their persons. The relatives stood around the -bed, the women uttering great lamentations, rending their garments, -and tearing their hair. On the day after the πρόθεσις, or the third -day after death, the corpse was carried out (ἐκφορά, ἐκκομιδή) -for burial, early in the morning and before sunrise. A burial soon -after death was supposed to be pleasing to the dead. In some places -it appears to have been usual to bury the dead on the day following -death. The men walked before the corpse, and the women behind. -The funeral procession was preceded or followed by hired mourners -(θρηνῳδοί), who appear to have been usually Carian women, playing -mournful tunes on the flute. The body was either buried or burnt. The -word θάπτειν is used in connection with either mode; it is applied to -the collection of the ashes after burning, and accordingly we find -the words καίειν and θάπτειν used together. The proper expression -for interment in the earth is κατορύττειν. In Homer the bodies of -the dead are burnt; but interment was also used in very ancient -times. Cicero says that the dead were buried at Athens in the time -of Cecrops; and we also read of the bones of Orestes being found in -a coffin at Tegea. The dead were commonly buried among the Spartans -and the Sicyonians, and the prevalence of this practice is proved -by the great number of skeletons found in coffins in modern times, -which have evidently not been exposed to the action of fire. Both -burning and burying appear to have been always used to a greater or -less extent at different periods; till the spread of Christianity -at length put an end to the former practice. The dead bodies were -usually burnt on piles of wood, called _pyres_ (πυραί). The body -was placed on the top; and in the heroic times it was customary to -burn with the corpse animals and even captives or slaves. Oils and -perfumes were also thrown into the flames. When the pyre was burnt -down, the remains of the fire were quenched with wine, and the -relatives and friends collected the bones. The bones were then washed -with wine and oil, and placed in urns, which were sometimes made of -gold. The corpses which were not burnt were buried in coffins, which -were called by various names, as σοροί, πύελοι, ληνοί, λάρνακες, -δροῖται, though some of these names are also applied to the urns in -which the bones were collected. They were made of various materials, -but were usually of baked clay or earthenware. The following woodcut -contains two of the most ancient kind; the figure in the middle is -the section of one. The dead were usually buried outside the town, -as it was thought that their presence in the city brought pollution -to the living. At Athens none were allowed to be buried within the -city; but Lycurgus, in order to remove all superstition respecting -the presence of the dead, allowed of burial in Sparta. Persons who -possessed lands in Attica were frequently buried in them, and we -therefore read of tombs in the fields. Tombs, however, were most -frequently built by the side of roads, and near the gates of the -city. At Athens, the most common place of burial was outside of the -Itonian gate, near the road leading to the Peiraeeus, which gate -was for that reason called the burial gate. Those who had fallen in -battle were buried at the public expense in the outer Cerameicus, on -the road leading to the Academia. Tombs were called θῆκαι, τάφοι, -μνήματα, μνημεῖα, σήματα. Many of these were only mounds of earth -or stones (χώματα, κολῶναι τύμβοι). Others were built of stone, -and frequently ornamented with great taste. Some Greek tombs were -built under ground, and called _hypogea_ (ὑπόγαια or ὑπόγεια). They -correspond to the Roman _conditoria_. The monuments erected over the -graves of persons were usually of four kinds: 1. στῆλαι, pillars -or upright stone tablets; 2. κίονες, columns; 3. ναΐδια or ἡρῷα, -small buildings in the form of temples; and 4. τράπεζαι, flat square -stones, called by Cicero _mensae_. The term στῆλαι is sometimes -applied to all kinds of funeral monuments, but properly designates -upright stone tablets, which were usually terminated with an oval -heading, called ἐπίθημα. The epithema was frequently ornamented with -a kind of arabesque work, as in the preceding specimen. The κίονες, -or columns, were of various forms, as is shown by the two specimens -in the annexed cut. - -[Illustration: Epithema or Heading of Tombstone. (Stackelberg, pl. -3.)] - -[Illustration: Sepulchral Columns. (Paintings on Vases.)] - -The inscriptions upon these funeral monuments usually contain -the name of the deceased person, and that of the demus to which -he belonged, as well as frequently some account of his life. The -following example of an ἡρῷον will give a general idea of monuments -of this kind.--Orations in praise of the dead were sometimes -pronounced; but Solon ordained that such orations should be confined -to persons who were honoured with a public funeral. In the heroic -ages games were celebrated at the funeral of a great man, as in -the case of Patroclus; but this practice does not seem to have been -usual in the historical times.--All persons who had been engaged in -funerals were considered polluted, and could not enter the temples -of the gods till they had been purified. After the funeral was over, -the relatives partook of a feast, which was called περίδειπνον or -νεκρόδειπνον. This feast was always given at the house of the nearest -relative of the deceased. - -[Illustration: Sepulchral Heroon. (Painting on Vase.)] - -Thus the relatives of those who had fallen at the battle of -Chaeroneia partook of the περίδειπνον at the house of Demosthenes, -as if he were the nearest relative to them all. On the second day -after the funeral a sacrifice to the dead was offered, called τρίτα; -but the principal sacrifice to the dead was on the ninth day, called -ἔννατα or ἔνατα. The mourning for the dead appears to have lasted -till the thirtieth day after the funeral, on which day sacrifices -were again offered. At Sparta the time of mourning was limited to -eleven days. During the time of mourning it was considered indecorous -for the relatives of the deceased to appear in public; they were -accustomed to wear a black dress, and in ancient times they cut -off their hair as a sign of grief.--The tombs were preserved by -the family to which they belonged with the greatest care, and were -regarded as among the strongest ties which attached a man to his -native land. In the Docimasia of the Athenian archons it was always -a subject of inquiry whether they had kept in proper repair the -tombs of their ancestors. On certain days the tombs were crowned -with flowers, and offerings were made to the dead, consisting of -garlands of flowers and various other things. The act of offering -these presents was called ἐναγίζειν, and the offerings themselves -ἐναγίσματα, or more commonly χοαί. The γενέσια mentioned by Herodotus -appear to have consisted in offerings of the same kind, which were -presented on the anniversary of the birth-day of the deceased. The -νεκύσια were probably offerings on the anniversary of the day of -the death; though, according to some writers, the νεκύσια were the -same as the γενέσια. Certain criminals, who were put to death by -the state, were also deprived of the rights of burial, which was -considered as an additional punishment. There were certain places, -both at Athens and Sparta, where the dead bodies of such criminals -were cast. A person who had committed suicide was not deprived of -burial, but the hand with which he had killed himself was cut off -and buried by itself.--(2) ROMAN. When a Roman was at the point of -death, his nearest relation present endeavoured to catch the last -breath with his mouth. The ring was taken off the finger of the -dying person; and as soon as he was dead his eyes and mouth were -closed by the nearest relation, who called upon the deceased by -name, exclaiming _have_ or _vale_. The corpse was then washed, and -anointed with oil and perfumes, by slaves, called _pollinctores_, -who belonged to the _libitinarii_, or undertakers. The libitinarii -appear to have been so called because they dwelt near the temple -of Venus Libitina, where all things requisite for funerals were -sold. Hence we find the expressions _vitare Libitinam_ and _evadere -Libitinam_ used in the sense of escaping death. At this temple an -account (_ratio, ephemeris_) was kept of those who died, and a small -sum was paid for the registration of their names. A small coin was -then placed in the mouth of the corpse, in order to pay the ferryman -in Hades, and the body was laid out on a couch in the vestibule of -the house, with its feet towards the door, and dressed in the best -robe which the deceased had worn when alive. Ordinary citizens were -dressed in a white toga, and magistrates in their official robes. -If the deceased had received a crown while alive as a reward for -his bravery, it was now placed on his head; and the couch on which -he was laid was sometimes covered with leaves and flowers. A branch -of cypress was also usually placed at the door of the house, if he -was a person of consequence. Funerals were usually called _funera -justa_ or _exsequiae_; the latter term was generally applied to -the funeral procession (_pompa funebris_). There were two kinds -of funerals, public and private; of which the former was called -_funus publicum_ or _indictivum_, because the people were invited -to it by a herald; the latter _funus tacitum_, _translatitium_, or -_plebeium_. A person appears to have usually left a certain sum of -money in his will to pay the expenses of his funeral; but if he did -not do so, nor appoint any one to bury him, this duty devolved upon -the persons to whom the property was left, and if he died without a -will, upon his relations, according to their order of succession to -the property. The expenses of the funeral were in such cases decided -by an arbiter, according to the property and rank of the deceased, -whence _arbitria_ is used to signify the funeral expenses.--The -following description of the mode in which a funeral was conducted -only applies strictly to the funerals of the great; the same pomp and -ceremony could not of course be observed in the case of persons in -ordinary circumstances. All funerals in ancient times were performed -at night, but afterwards the poor only were buried at night, because -they could not afford to have any funeral procession. The corpse was -usually carried out of the house (_efferebatur_) on the eighth day -after the death. The order of the funeral procession was regulated -by a person called _designator_ or _dominus funeris_, who was -attended by lictors dressed in black. It was headed by musicians -of various kinds (_cornicines, siticines_), who played mournful -strains, and next came mourning women, called _praeficae_, who were -hired to lament and sing the funeral song (_naenia_ or _lessus_) in -praise of the deceased. These were sometimes followed by players and -buffoons (_scurrae, histriones_), of whom one, called _archimimus_, -represented the character of the deceased, and imitated his words -and actions. Then came the slaves whom the deceased had liberated, -wearing the cap of liberty (_pileati_); the number of whom was -occasionally very great, since a master sometimes liberated all his -slaves, in his will, in order to add to the pomp of his funeral. -Before the corpse the images of the deceased and of his ancestors -were carried, and also the crowns or military rewards which he had -gained. The corpse was carried on a couch (_lectica_), to which the -name of _feretrum_ or _capulum_ was usually given; but the bodies -of poor citizens and of slaves were carried on a common kind of -bier or coffin, called _sandapila_. The _sandapila_ was carried by -bearers, called _vespae_ or _vespillones_, because they carried -out the corpses in the evening (_vespertino tempore_). The couches -on which the corpses of the rich were carried were sometimes made -of ivory, and covered with gold and purple. They were often carried -on the shoulders of the nearest relations of the deceased, and -sometimes on those of his freedmen. Julius Caesar was carried by -the magistrates, and Augustus by the senators. The relations of the -deceased walked behind the corpse in mourning; his sons with their -heads veiled, and his daughters with their heads bare and their hair -dishevelled, contrary to the ordinary practice of both. They often -uttered loud lamentations, and the women beat their breasts and tore -their cheeks, though this was forbidden by the Twelve Tables. If the -deceased was of illustrious rank, the funeral procession went through -the forum, and stopped before the _rostra_, where a funeral oration -(_laudatio_) in praise of the deceased was delivered. This practice -was of great antiquity among the Romans, and is said by some writers -to have been first introduced by Publicola, who pronounced a funeral -oration in honour of his colleague Brutus. Women also were honoured -by funeral orations. From the Forum the corpse was carried to the -place of burning or burial, which, according to a law of the Twelve -Tables, was obliged to be outside the city. The Romans in the most -ancient times buried their dead, though they also early adopted, to -some extent, the custom of burning, which is mentioned in the Twelve -Tables. Burning, however, does not appear to have become general -till the later times of the republic. Marius was buried, and Sulla -was the first of the Cornelian gens whose body was burned. Under the -empire burning was almost universally practised, but was gradually -discontinued as Christianity spread, so that it had fallen into -disuse in the fourth century. Persons struck by lightning were not -burnt, but buried on the spot, which was called _Bidental_, and was -considered sacred. [BIDENTAL.] Children also, who had not cut their -teeth, were not burnt, but buried in a place called _Suggrundarium_. -Those who were buried were placed in a coffin (_arca_ or _loculus_), -which was frequently made of stone, and sometimes of the Assian -stone, which came from Assos in Troas, and which consumed all the -body, with the exception of the teeth, in 40 days, whence it was -called _sarcophagus_. This name was in course of time applied to -any kind of coffin or tomb. The corpse was burnt on a pile of wood -(_pyra_ or _rogus_). This pile was built in the form of an altar, -with four equal sides, whence we find it called _ara sepulcri_ and -_funeris ara_. The sides of the pile were, according to the Twelve -Tables, to be left rough and unpolished, but were frequently covered -with dark leaves. Cypress trees were sometimes placed before the -pile. On the top of the pile the corpse was placed, with the couch on -which it had been carried, and the nearest relation then set fire to -the pile with his face turned away. When the flames began to rise, -various perfumes were thrown into the fire, though this practice was -forbidden by the Twelve Tables; cups of oil, ornaments, clothes, -dishes of food, and other things, which were supposed to be agreeable -to the deceased, were also thrown upon the flames. The place where -a person was burnt was called _bustum_, if he was afterwards buried -on the same spot, and _ustrina_ or _ustrinum_ if he was buried at a -different place. Sometimes animals were slaughtered at the pile, and -in ancient times captives and slaves, since the manes were supposed -to be fond of blood; but afterwards gladiators, called bustuarii, -were hired to fight round the burning pile. When the pile was burnt -down, the embers were soaked with wine, and the bones and ashes of -the deceased were gathered by the nearest relatives, who sprinkled -them with perfumes, and placed them in a vessel called _urna_, which -was made of various materials, according to the circumstances of -individuals. - -[Illustration: Sepulchral Urn in British Museum] - -The urnae were also of various shapes, but most commonly square or -round; and upon them there was usually an inscription or epitaph -(_titulus_ or _epitaphium_), beginning with the letters D. M. S., -or only D. M., that is, DIS MANIBUS SACRUM, followed by the name of -the deceased, with the length of his life, &c. The woodcut opposite -is a representation of a sepulchral urn in the British Museum. It -is of an upright rectangular form, richly ornamented with foliage, -and supported at the sides with pilasters. It is to the memory of -Cossutia Prima. Its height is 21 inches, and its width at the base 14 -inches 6-8ths. Below the inscription an infant genius is represented -driving a car drawn by four horses.--After the bones and ashes of -the deceased had been placed in the urn, the persons present were -thrice sprinkled by a priest with pure water from a branch of olive -or laurel for the purpose of purification; after which they were -dismissed by the _praefica_, or some other person, by the solemn -word _Ilicet_, that is, _ire licet_. At their departure they were -accustomed to bid farewell to the deceased by pronouncing the word -_Vale_. The urns were placed in sepulchres, which, as already stated, -were outside the city, though in a few cases we read of the dead -being buried within the city. Thus Valerius Publicola, Tubertus, and -Fabricius, were buried in the city; which right their descendants -also possessed, but did not use. The vestal virgins and the emperors -were buried in the city.--The verb _sepelire_, like the Greek -θάπτειν, was applied to every mode of disposing of the dead; and -_sepulcrum_ signified any kind of tomb in which the body or bones of -a man were placed. The term _humare_ was originally used for burial -in the earth, but was afterwards applied like _sepelire_ to any mode -of disposing of the dead: since it appears to have been the custom, -after the body was burnt, to throw some earth upon the bones.--The -places for burial were either public or private. The public places -of burial were of two kinds; one for illustrious citizens, who were -buried at the public expense, and the other for poor citizens, who -could not afford to purchase ground for the purpose. The former was -in the Campus Martius, which was ornamented with the tombs of the -illustrious dead, and in the Campus Esquilinus; the latter was also -in the Campus Esquilinus, and consisted of small pits or caverns, -called _puticuli_ or _puticulae_; but as this place rendered the -neighbourhood unhealthy, it was given to Maecenas, who converted it -into gardens, and built a magnificent house upon it. Private places -for burial were usually by the sides of the roads leading to Rome; -and on some of these roads, such as the Via Appia, the tombs formed -an almost uninterrupted street for many miles from the gates of -the city. They were frequently built by individuals during their -lifetime; thus Augustus, in his sixth consulship, built the Mausoleum -for his sepulchre between the Via Flaminia and the Tiber, and planted -round it woods and walks for public use. The heirs were often ordered -by the will of the deceased to build a tomb for him; and they -sometimes did it at their own expense.--Sepulchres were originally -called _busta_, but this word was afterwards employed in the manner -mentioned under Bustum. Sepulchres were also frequently called -_monumenta_, but this term was also applied to a monument erected to -the memory of a person in a different place from that where he was -buried. _Conditoria_ or _conditiva_ were sepulchres under ground, -in which dead bodies were placed entire, in contradistinction to -those sepulchres which contained the bones and ashes only.--The -tombs of the rich were commonly built of marble, and the ground -enclosed with an iron railing or wall, and planted round with trees. -The extent of the burying-ground was marked by cippi [CIPPUS]. The -name of mausoleum, which was originally the name of the magnificent -sepulchre erected by Artemisia to the memory of Mausolus, king of -Caria, was sometimes given to any splendid tomb. The open space -before a sepulchre was called forum, and neither this space nor the -sepulchre itself could become the property of a person by usucapion. -Private tombs were either built by an individual for himself and -the members of his family (_sepulcra familiaria_), or for himself -and his heirs (_sepulcra hereditaria_). A tomb, which was fitted up -with niches to receive the funeral urns, was called _columbarium_, -on account of the resemblance of these niches to the holes of a -pigeon-house. In these tombs the ashes of the freedmen and slaves of -great families were frequently placed in vessels made of baked clay, -called _ollae_, which were let into the thickness of the wall within -these niches, the lids only being seen, and the inscriptions placed -in front. Tombs were of various sizes and forms, according to the -wealth and taste of the owner. A sepulchre, or any place in which a -person was buried, was _religiosus_; all things which were left or -belonged to the Dii Manes were _religiosae_; those consecrated to -the Dii Superi were called _sacrae_. Even the place in which a slave -was buried was considered religiosus. Whoever violated a sepulchre -was subject to an action termed _sepulcri violati actio_. After the -bones had been placed in the urn at the funeral, the friends returned -home. They then underwent a further purification, called _suffitio_, -which consisted in being sprinkled with water and stepping over a -fire. The house itself was also swept with a certain kind of broom; -which sweeping or purification was called _exverrae_, and the -person who did it _everriator_. The _Denicales Feriae_ were also -days set apart for the purification of the family. The mourning and -solemnities connected with the dead lasted for nine days after the -funeral, at the end of which time a sacrifice was performed, called -_novendiale_.--A feast was given in honour of the dead, but it is -uncertain on what day; it sometimes appears to have been given at -the time of the funeral, sometimes on the novendiale, and sometimes -later. The name of _silicernium_ was given to this feast. Among the -tombs at Pompeii there is a funeral triclinium for the celebration -of these feasts, which is represented in the annexed woodcut. It is -open to the sky, and the walls are ornamented by paintings of animals -in the centre of compartments, which have borders of flowers. The -triclinium is made of stone, with a pedestal in the centre to receive -the table. After the funeral of great men, there was, in addition to -the feast for the friends of the deceased, a distribution of raw meat -to the people, called _visceratio_, and sometimes a public banquet. -Combats of gladiators and other games were also frequently exhibited -in honour of the deceased. Thus at the funeral of P. Licinius -Crassus, who had been Pontifex Maximus, raw meat was distributed to -the people, 120 gladiators fought, and funeral games were celebrated -for three days, at the end of which a public banquet was given in -the forum. Public feasts and funeral games were sometimes given on -the anniversary of funerals. At all banquets in honour of the dead, -the guests were dressed in white.--The Romans, like the Greeks, were -accustomed to visit the tombs of their relatives at certain periods, -and to offer to them sacrifices and various gifts, which were called -_inferiae_ and _parentalia_. The Romans appear to have regarded the -manes or departed souls of their ancestors as gods; whence arose -the practice of presenting to them oblations, which consisted of -victims, wine, milk, garlands of flowers, and other things. The -tombs were sometimes illuminated on these occasions with lamps. In -the latter end of the month of February there was a festival, called -_feralia_, in which the Romans were accustomed to carry food to the -sepulchres for the use of the dead. The Romans were accustomed to -wear mourning for their deceased friends, which appears to have been -black under the republic for both sexes. Under the empire the men -continued to wear black in mourning, but the women wore white. They -laid aside all kinds of ornaments, and did not cut either their hair -or beard. Men appear to have usually worn their mourning for only a -few days, but women for a year when they lost a husband or parent. -In a public mourning on account of some signal calamity, as, for -instance, the loss of a battle, or the death of an emperor, there -was a total cessation from business, called _justitium_, which was -usually ordained by public appointment. During this period the courts -of justice did not sit, the shops were shut, and the soldiers freed -from military duties. In a public mourning the senators did not wear -the latus clavus and their rings, nor the magistrates their badges of -office. - -[Illustration: Funeral Triclinium at Pompeii. (Mazois, Pomp., 1, pl. -xx.)] - - -FURCA, which properly means a fork, was also the name of an -instrument of punishment. It was a piece of wood in the form of -the letter Λ, which was placed upon the shoulders of the offender, -whose hands were tied to it. Slaves were frequently punished in -this way, and were obliged to carry about the furca wherever they -went; whence the appellation of _furcifer_ was applied to a man -as a term of reproach. The furca was used in the ancient mode of -capital punishment among the Romans; the criminal was tied to it, and -then scourged to death. The _patibulum_ was also an instrument of -punishment, resembling the furca; it appears to have been in the form -of the letter Π. Both the furca and patibulum were also employed as -crosses, to which criminals appear to have been nailed. - - -FURĬŌSUS. [CURATOR.] - - -FUSCĬNA (τρίαινα), a trident, more commonly called _tridens_, meaning -_tridens stimulus_, because it was originally a three-pronged goad, -used to incite horses to greater swiftness. Neptune was supposed to -be armed with it when he drove his chariot, and it thus became his -usual attribute, perhaps with an allusion also to the use of the same -instrument in harpooning fish. It is represented in the cut on p. -84. In the contests of gladiators, the _retiarius_ was armed with a -trident. [GLADIATORES] - - -FUSTŬĀRĬUM (ξυλοκοπία), was a capital punishment inflicted upon -Roman soldiers for desertion, theft, and similar crimes. It was -administered in the following manner:--When a soldier was condemned, -the tribune touched him slightly with a stick, upon which all the -soldiers of the legion fell upon him with sticks and stones, and -generally killed him upon the spot. If, however, he escaped, for he -was allowed to fly, he could not return to his native country, nor -did any of his relatives dare to receive him into their houses. - - -FŪSUS (ἄτρακτος), the spindle, was always, when in use, accompanied -by the distaff (_colus_, ἠλακάτη), as an indispensable part of the -same apparatus. The wool, flax, or other material, having been -prepared for spinning, was rolled into a ball (τολύπη, _glomus_), -which was, however, sufficiently loose to allow the fibres to be -easily drawn out by the hand of the spinner. The upper part of the -distaff was then inserted into this mass of flax or wool, and the -lower part was held under the left arm in such a position as was -most convenient for conducting the operation. The fibres were drawn -out, and at the same time spirally twisted, chiefly by the use of -the fore-finger and thumb of the right hand; and the thread (_filum, -stamen_, νήμα) so produced was wound upon the spindle until the -quantity was as great as it would carry. The spindle was a stick, -10 or 12 inches long, having at the top a slit or catch (_dens_, -ἄγκιστρον) in which the thread was fixed, so that the weight of the -spindle might continually carry down the thread as it was formed. Its -lower extremity was inserted into a small wheel, called the whorl -(_vorticellum_), made of wood, stone, or metal (see woodcut), the -use of which was to keep the spindle more steady, and to promote its -rotation. The accompanying woodcut shows the operation of spinning, -at the moment when the woman has drawn out a sufficient length of -yarn to twist it by whirling the spindle with her right thumb and -fore-finger, and previously to the act of taking it out of the slit -to wind it upon the bobbin (πήνιον) already formed. It was usual to -have a basket to hold the distaff and spindle, with the balls of wool -prepared for spinning, and the bobbins already spun. [CALATHUS.] -The distaff and spindle, with the wool and thread upon them, were -carried in bridal processions; and, without the wool and thread, they -were often suspended by females as offerings of religious gratitude, -especially in old age, or on relinquishing the constant use of them. -They were most frequently dedicated to Pallas, the patroness of -spinning, and of the arts connected with it. They were exhibited in -the representations of the three Fates, who were conceived, by their -spinning, to determine the life of every man. - -[Illustration: Fusus, spindle.] - - - - -GĂBINUS CINCTUS. [TOGA.] - - -GAESUM (γαισός), a term probably of Celtic origin, denoting a kind -of javelin which was used by the Gauls wherever their ramifications -extended. It was a heavy weapon, the shaft being as thick as a man -could grasp, and the iron head barbed, and of an extraordinary length -compared with the shaft. - - -GĂLĔA (κράνος, _poet_. κόρυς, πήληξ), a helmet; a casque. The -helmet was originally made of skin or leather, whence is supposed -to have arisen its appellation, κυνέη, meaning properly a helmet of -dog-skin, but applied to caps or helmets made of the hide of other -animals, and even to those which were entirely of bronze or iron. -The leathern basis of the helmet was also very commonly strengthened -and adorned by the addition of either bronze or gold. Helmets which -had a metallic basis were in Latin properly called _cassides_, -although the terms _galea_ and _cassis_ are often confounded. -The additions by which the external appearance of the helmet was -varied, and which served both for ornament and protection, were the -following:--1. Bosses or plates (φάλος), proceeding either from the -top or the sides, and varying in number from one to four (ἀμφίφαλος, -τετράφαλος). The φάλος was often an emblematical figure, referring -to the character of the wearer. Thus in the colossal statue of -Athena in the Parthenon at Athens, she bore a sphinx on the top of -her helmet, and a griffin on each side. 2. The helmet thus adorned -was very commonly surmounted by the crest (_crista_, λόφος), which -was often of horse-hair. 3. The two cheek-pieces (_bucculae_, -παραγναθίδες), which were attached to the helmet by hinges, so as to -be lifted up and down. They had buttons or ties at their extremities, -for fastening the helmet on the head. 4. The beaver, or visor, -a peculiar form of which is supposed to have been the αὐλῶπις -τρυφάλεια, _i.e._ the perforated beaver. The gladiators wore helmets -of this kind. - -[Illustration: Galeae, helmets. (From ancient Gems,--size of -originals.)] - - -GĂLĒRUS or GALĒRUM, originally a covering for the head worn by -priests, especially by the _flamen dialis_. It appears to have been a -round cap made of leather, with its top ending in an apex or point. -[APEX.] In course of time the name was applied to any kind of cap -fitting close to the head like a helmet. _Galerus_ and its diminutive -_Galericulum_ are also used to signify a covering for the head made -of hair, and hence a wig. - - -GALLI, the priests of Cybelé, whose worship was introduced at Rome -from Phrygia. The Galli were, according to an ancient custom, always -castrated, and it would seem that, impelled by religious fanaticism, -they performed this operation on themselves. In their wild, -enthusiastic, and boisterous rites they resembled the Corybantes. -They seem to have been always chosen from a poor and despised class -of people, for, while no other priests were allowed to beg, the Galli -were permitted to do so on certain days. The chief priest among them -was called _archigallus_. - - -GĂMĒLĬA (γαμηλία). The demes and phratries of Attica possessed -various means to prevent intruders from assuming the rights of -citizens. Among other regulations, it was ordained that every bride, -previous to her marriage, should be introduced by her parents or -guardians to the phratria of her husband. This introduction of the -young women was accompanied by presents to their new phratores, which -were called _gamelia_. The women were enrolled in the lists of the -phratries, and this enrolment was also called _gamelia_. - - -GAUSĂPA, GAUSĂPE, or GAUSĂPUM, a kind of thick cloth, which was on -one side very woolly, and was used to cover tables and beds, and by -persons to wrap themselves up after taking a bath, or in general to -protect themselves against rain and cold. It was worn by men as well -as women. The word gausapa is also sometimes used to designate a -thick wig, such as was made of the hair of Germans, and worn by the -fashionable people at Rome at the time of the emperors. - - -GĔNĔSIA. [FUNUS.] - - -GĔNOS (γένος). [TRIBUS, GREEK.] - - -GENS. According to the traditional accounts of the old Roman -constitution, the _Gentes_ were subdivisions of the _curiae_, just -as the _curiae_ were subdivisions of the three ancient tribes, the -_Ramnes_, _Titienses_, and _Luceres_. There were ten gentes in -each curia, and consequently one hundred gentes in each tribe, and -three hundred in the three tribes. Now if there is any truth in -the tradition of this original distribution of the population into -tribes, curiae, and gentes, it follows that there was no necessary -kinship among those families which belonged to a gens, any more than -among those families which belonged to one curia. The name of the -gens was always characterised by the termination _ia_, as Julia, -Cornelia, Valeria; and the gentiles, or members of a gens, all bore -the name of the gens to which they belonged. As the gentes were -subdivisions of the three ancient tribes, the populus (in the ancient -sense) alone had gentes, so that to be a patrician and to have a gens -were synonymous; and thus we find the expressions gens and patricii -constantly united. Yet it appears that some gentes contained plebeian -familiae, which it is conjectured had their origin in marriages -between patricians and plebeians before there was connubium between -them. A hundred new members were added to the senate by the first -Tarquin. These were the representatives of the _Luceres_, the third -and inferior tribe; which is indicated by the gentes of this tribe -being called _minores_, by way of being distinguished from the older -gentes, _majores_, of the Ramnes and Tities, a distinction which -appears to have been more than nominal. [SENATUS.] There were certain -sacred rites (_sacra gentilitia_) which belonged to a gens, to which -all the members of a gens, as such, were bound. It was the duty of -the pontifices to look after the due observance of these gentile -sacra, and to see that they were not lost. Each gens seems to have -had its peculiar place (_sacellum_) for the celebration of these -sacra, which were performed at stated times. By the law of the Twelve -Tables the property of a person who died intestate devolved upon the -gens to which he belonged. - - -GĔŌMŎRI. [TRIBUS, GREEK.] - - -GĔROUSĬA (γερούσια), or _assembly of elders_, was the aristocratic -element of the Spartan polity. It was not peculiar to Sparta only, -but found in other Dorian states, just as a _Boulé_ (βουλή) or -democratical council was an element of most Ionian constitutions. -The _Gerousia_ at Sparta, including the two kings, its presidents, -consisted of thirty members (γέροντες): a number which seems -connected with the divisions of the Spartan people. Every Dorian -state, in fact, was divided into three tribes: the Hylleis, the -Dymanes, and the Pamphyli. The tribes at Sparta were again subdivided -into _obae_ (ὠβαί), which were, like the _Gerontes_, thirty in -number, so that each oba was represented by its councillor: any -inference which leads to the conclusion that two obae at least of -the Hyllean tribe, must have belonged to the royal house of the -Heracleids. No one was eligible to the council till he was sixty -years of age, and the additional qualifications were strictly of -an aristocratic nature. We are told, for instance, that the office -of a councillor was the reward and prize of virtue, and that it -was confined to men of distinguished character and station. The -election was determined by vote, and the mode of conducting it -was remarkable for its old-fashioned simplicity. The competitors -presented themselves one after another to the assembly of electors; -the latter testified their esteem by acclamations, which varied -in intensity according to the popularity of the candidates for -whom they were given. These manifestations of esteem were noted by -persons in an adjoining building, who could judge of the shouting, -but could not tell in whose favour it was given. The person whom -these judges thought to have been most applauded was declared the -successful candidate. The office lasted for life. The functions of -the councillors were partly deliberative, partly judicial, and partly -executive. In the discharge of the first, they prepared measures -and passed preliminary decrees, which were to be laid before the -popular assembly, so that the important privilege of initiating all -changes in the government or laws was vested in them. As a criminal -court, they could punish with death and civil degradation (ἀτιμία). -They also appear to have exercised, like the Areiopagus at Athens, -a general superintendence and inspection over the lives and manners -of the citizens, and probably were allowed a kind of patriarchal -authority, to enforce the observance of ancient usage and discipline. -It is not, however, easy to define with exactness the original -extent of their functions, especially as respects the last-mentioned -duty, since the ephors not only encroached upon the prerogatives of -the king and council, but also possessed, in very early times, a -censorial power, and were not likely to permit any diminution of its -extent. - - -GERRHA (γέῤῥα), in Latin, _Gerrae_, properly signified any thing made -of wicker-work, and was especially used as the name of the Persian -shields, which were made of wicker-work, and were smaller and shorter -than the Greek shields. - - -GLĂDĬĀTŌRES (μονομάχοι) were men who fought with swords in the -amphitheatre and other places, for the amusement of the Roman people. -They are said to have been first exhibited by the Etrurians, and to -have had their origin from the custom of killing slaves and captives -at the funeral pyres of the deceased. [BUSTUM; FUNUS.] A show of -gladiators was called munus, and the person who exhibited (_edebat_) -it, _editor_, _munerator_, or _dominus_, who was honoured during the -day of exhibition, if a private person, with the official signs of -a magistrate. Gladiators were first exhibited at Rome in B.C. 264, -in the Forum Boarium, by Marcus and Decimus Brutus, at the funeral -of their father. They were at first confined to public funerals, but -afterwards fought at the funerals of most persons of consequence, and -even at those of women. Combats of gladiators were also exhibited at -entertainments, and especially at public festivals by the aediles -and other magistrates, who sometimes exhibited immense numbers, with -the view of pleasing the people. Under the empire the passion of -the Romans for this amusement rose to its greatest height, and the -number of gladiators who fought on some occasions appears almost -incredible. After Trajan’s triumph over the Dacians, there were more -than 10,000 exhibited. Gladiators consisted either of captives, -slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of freeborn citizens who fought -voluntarily. Freemen, who became gladiators for hire, were called -_auctorati_, and their hire _auctoramentum_ or _gladiatorium_. Even -under the republic, free-born citizens fought as gladiators, but -they appear to have belonged only to the lower orders. Under the -empire, however, both knights and senators fought in the arena, -and even women.--Gladiators were kept in schools (_ludi_), where -they were trained by persons called _lanistae_. The whole body of -gladiators under one lanista was frequently called _familia_. They -sometimes were the property of the lanistae, who let them out to -persons who wished to exhibit a show of gladiators; but at other -times they belonged to citizens, who kept them for the purpose of -exhibition, and engaged lanistae to instruct them. Thus we read of -the ludus Aemilius at Rome, and of Caesar’s ludus at Capua. The -gladiators fought in these ludi with wooden swords, called _rudes_. -Great attention was paid to their diet, in order to increase the -strength of their bodies.--Gladiators were sometimes exhibited at -the funeral pyre, and sometimes in the forum, but more frequently in -the amphitheatre. [AMPHITHEATRUM.]--The person who was to exhibit -a show of gladiators, published some days before the exhibition -bills (_libelli_), containing the number and frequently the names -of those who were to fight. When the day came, they were led along -the arena in procession, and matched by pairs; and their swords -were examined by the editor to see if they were sufficiently sharp. -At first there was a kind of sham battle, called _praelusio_, in -which they fought with wooden swords, or the like, and afterwards -at the sound of the trumpet the real battle began. When a gladiator -was wounded, the people called out _habet_ or _hoc habet_; and the -one who was vanquished lowered his arms in token of submission. -His fate, however, depended upon the people, who pressed down -their thumbs if they wished him to be saved, but turned them up if -they wished him to be killed, and ordered him to receive the sword -(_ferrum recipere_), which gladiators usually did with the greatest -firmness. If the life of a vanquished gladiator was spared, he -obtained his discharge for that day, which was called _missio_; -and hence in an exhibition of gladiators _sine missione_, the -lives of the conquered were never spared. This kind of exhibition, -however, was forbidden by Augustus. Palms were usually given to the -victorious gladiators. Old gladiators, and sometimes those who had -only fought for a short time, were discharged from the service by -the editor, at the request of the people, who presented each of them -with a rudis or wooden sword; whence those who were discharged were -called _Rudiarii_.--Gladiators were divided into different classes, -according to their arms and different mode of fighting, or other -circumstances. The names of the most important of these classes are -given in alphabetical order:--_Andabatae_ wore helmets without any -aperture for the eyes, so that they were obliged to fight blindfold, -and thus excited the mirth of the spectators.--_Catervarii_ was the -name given to gladiators when they did not fight in pairs, but when -several fought together.--_Essedarii_ fought from chariots, like the -Gauls and Britons. [ESSEDA.]--_Hoplomachi_ appear to have been those -who fought in a complete suit of armour.--_Laqueatores_ were those -who used a noose to catch their adversaries.--_Meridiani_ were those -who fought in the middle of the day, after combats with wild beasts -had taken place in the morning. These gladiators were very slightly -armed.--_Mirmillones_ are said to have been so called from their -having the image of a fish (_mormyr_, μορμύρος) on their helmets. -Their arms were like those of the Gauls, whence we find that they -were also called Galli. They were usually matched with the Retiarii -or Thracians.--_Provocatores_ fought with the Samnites, but we do -not know any thing respecting them except their name.--_Retiarii_ -carried only a three-pointed lance, called _tridens_ or _fuscina_ -[FUSCINA], and a net (_rete_), which they endeavoured to throw over -their adversaries, and they then attacked them with the fuscina while -they were entangled. The retiarius was dressed in a short tunic, -and wore nothing on his head. If he missed his aim in throwing the -net, he betook himself to flight, and endeavoured to prepare his net -for a second cast, while his adversary followed him round the arena -in order to kill him before he could make a second attempt. His -adversary was usually a _secutor_ or a _mirmillo_. In the following -woodcut a combat is represented between a retiarius and a mirmillo; -the former has thrown his net over the head of the latter, and is -proceeding to attack him with the fuscina. The lanista stands behind -the retiarius.--_Samnites_ were so called, because they were armed -in the same way as that people, and were particularly distinguished -by the oblong _scutum_.--_Secutores_ are supposed by some writers to -be so called because the secutor in his combat with the retiarius -pursued the latter when he failed in securing him by his net. - -[Illustration: A Mirmillo and a Retiarius. (Winckelmann, ‘Monum. -Ined.,’ pl. 197.)] - -Other writers think that they were the same as the _supposititii_, -who were gladiators substituted in the place of those who were -wearied or were killed.--_Thraces_ or _Threces_ were armed, like the -Thracians, with a round shield or buckler, and a short sword or -dagger (_sica_). They were usually matched, as already stated, with -the mirmillones. The following woodcut represents a combat between -two Thracians. A lanista stands behind each. - -[Illustration: Thracians. (Winckelmann, l. c.)] - - -GLĂDĬUS (ξίφος, _poet._ ἄορ, φάσγανον), a sword or glaive, by the -Latin poets called _ensis_. The ancient sword had generally a -straight two-edged blade, rather broad, and nearly of equal width -from hilt to point. The Greeks and Romans wore them on the left side, -so as to draw them out of the sheath (_vagina_, κολεός) by passing -the right hand in front of the body to take hold of the hilt with the -thumb next to the blade. The early Greeks used a very short sword. -Iphicrates, who made various improvements in armour about 400 B.C., -doubled its length. The Roman sword was larger, heavier, and more -formidable than the Greek. - - -GLANDES. [FUNDA.] - - -GRAECŎSTĂSIS, a place in the Roman forum, on the right of the -Comitium, so called because the Greek ambassadors, and perhaps also -deputies from other foreign or allied states, were allowed to stand -there to hear the debates. When the sun was seen from the Curia -coming out between the Rostra and the Graecostasis, it was mid-day; -and an accensus of the consul announced the time with a clear loud -voice. - - -GRAMMĂTEUS (γραμματεύς), a clerk or scribe. Among the great number -of scribes employed by the magistrates and government of Athens, -there were three of a higher rank, who were real state-officers. One -of them was appointed by lot, by the senate, to serve the time of -the administration of each prytany, though he always belonged to a -different prytany from that which was in power. He was, therefore, -called γραμματεὺς κατὰ πρυτανείαν. His province was to keep the -public records, and the decrees of the people which were made during -the time of his office, and to deliver to the thesmothetae the -decrees of the senate.--The second _grammateus_ was elected by the -senate, by χειροτονία, and was entrusted with the custody of the -laws. His usual name was γραμματεὺς τῆς βουλῆς.--A third _grammateus_ -was called γραμματεὺς τῆς πόλεως, or γραμματεὺς τῆς βουλῆς καὶ -τοῦ δήμου. He was appointed by the people, by χειροτονία, and the -principal part of his office was to read any laws or documents which -were required to be read in the assembly or in the senate. - - -GRĂPHĒ (γραφή). [DICE.] - - -GRĂPHĬĀRĬUM. [STILUS.] - - -GRĂPHIS. [PICTURA.] - - -GRĂPHĬUM. [STILUS.] - - -GŬBERNĀCŬLUM (πηδάλιον). [NAVIS.] - - -GUSTĀTĬO. [COENA.] - - -[Illustration: Guttus on Coin of L. Plancus.] - -GUTTUS, a vessel with a narrow mouth or neck, from which the liquid -was poured in drops, whence its name. It was especially used in -sacrifices, and hence we find it represented on the Roman coins -struck by persons who held any of the priestly offices. The guttus -was also used for keeping the oil, with which persons were anointed -in the baths. [See p. 56.] - - -[Illustration: Gymnasium, after the description of Vitruvius.] - -GYMNĀSIUM (γυμνάσιον). The whole education of a Greek youth was -divided into three parts,--grammar, music, and gymnastics (γράμματα, -μουσική, γυμναστική), to which Aristotle adds a fourth, the art -of drawing or painting. Gymnastics, however, were thought by the -ancients a matter of such importance, that this part of education -alone occupied as much time and attention as all the others put -together; and while the latter necessarily ceased at a certain period -of life, gymnastics continued to be cultivated by persons of all -ages, though those of an advanced age naturally took lighter and less -fatiguing exercises than boys and youths. The ancients, and more -especially the Greeks, seem to have been thoroughly convinced that -the mind could not possibly be in a healthy state, unless the body -was likewise in perfect health, and no means were thought, either -by philosophers or physicians, to be more conducive to preserve -or restore bodily health than well-regulated exercise. The word -gymnastics is derived from γυμνός (naked), because the persons who -performed their exercises in public or private gymnasia were either -entirely naked, or merely covered by the short _chiton_. Gymnastic -exercises among the Greeks seem to have been as old as the Greek -nation itself; but they were, as might be supposed, of a rude and -mostly of a warlike character. They were generally held in the open -air, and in plains near a river, which afforded an opportunity for -swimming and bathing. It was about the time of Solon that the Greek -towns began to build their regular gymnasia as places of exercise for -the young, with baths, and other conveniences for philosophers and -all persons who sought intellectual amusements. There was probably -no Greek town of any importance which did not possess its gymnasium. -Athens possessed three great gymnasia, the Lyceum (Λύκειον), -Cynosarges (Κυνόσαργες), and the Academia (Ἀκαδημία); to which, -in later times, several smaller ones were added. Respecting the -superintendence and administration of the gymnasia at Athens, we know -that Solon in his legislation thought them worthy of great attention; -and the transgression of some of his laws relating to the gymnasia -was punished with death. His laws mention a magistrate, called the -gymnasiarch (γυμνασίαρχος or γυμνασιάρχης), who was entrusted with -the whole management of the gymnasia, and with everything connected -therewith. His office was one of the regular liturgies like the -choregia and trierarchy, and was attended with considerable expense. -He had to maintain and pay the persons who were preparing themselves -for the games and contests in the public festivals, to provide them -with oil, and perhaps with the wrestlers’ dust. It also devolved upon -him to adorn the gymnasium, or the place where the agones were held. -The gymnasiarch was a real magistrate, and invested with a kind of -jurisdiction over all those who frequented or were connected with the -gymnasia. Another part of his duties was to conduct the solemn games -at certain great festivals, especially the torch-race (λαμπαδηφορία), -for which he selected the most distinguished among the ephebi of -the gymnasia. The number of gymnasiarchs was ten, one from every -tribe. An office of very great importance, in an educational point of -view, was that of the _Sophronistae_ (σωφρονίσται). Their province -was to inspire the youths with a love of σωφροσύνη, and to protect -this virtue against all injurious influences. In early times their -number at Athens was ten, one from every tribe, with a salary of one -drachma per day. Their duty not only required them to be present at -all the games of the ephebi, but to watch and correct their conduct -wherever they might meet them, both within and without the gymnasium. -The instructions in the gymnasia were given by the _Gymnastae_ -(γυμνασταί) and the _Paedotribae_ (παιδοτριβαί); at a later period -_Hypopaedotribae_ were added. The Paedotribae were required to -possess a knowledge of all the various exercises which were performed -in the gymnasia; the Gymnastes was the practical teacher, and was -expected to know the physiological effects and influences on the -constitution of the youths, and therefore assigned to each of them -those exercises which he thought most suitable. The anointing of -the bodies of the youths and strewing them with dust, before they -commenced their exercises, as well as the regulation of their diet, -was the duty of the aliptae. [ALIPTAE.]--Among all the different -tribes of the Greeks the exercises which were carried on in a Greek -gymnasium were either mere games, or the more important exercises -which the gymnasia had in common with the public contests in the -great festivals. Among the former we may mention, 1. The game at ball -(σφαιριστική), which was in universal favour with the Greeks. [PILA.] -Every gymnasium contained one large room for the purpose of playing -at ball in it (σφαιριστήριον). 2. Παίζειν ἑλκυστίνδα, διελκυστίνδα, -or διὰ γραμμῆς, was a game in which one boy, holding one end of a -rope, tried to pull the boy who held its other end, across a line -marked between them on the ground. 3. The top (βεμβηξ, βέμβιξ, -ῥόμβος, στρόβιλος), which was as common an amusement with Greek boys -as it is with ours. 4. The πεντάλιθος, which was a game with five -stones, which were thrown up from the upper part of the hand and -caught in the palm. 5. Σκαπέρδα, which was a game in which a rope was -drawn through the upper part of a tree or a post. Two boys, one on -each side of the post, turning their backs towards one another, took -hold of the ends of the rope and tried to pull each other up. This -sport was also one of the amusements at the Attic Dionysia. The more -important games, such as running (δρόμος), throwing of the δίσκος -and the ἄκων, jumping and leaping (ἅλμα, with and without ἁλτῆρες), -wrestling (πάλη), boxing (πυγμή), the pancratium (παγκράτιον), -πένταθλος, λαμπαδηφορία, dancing (ὀρχήσις), &c., are described in -separate articles. A gymnasium was not a Roman institution. The -regular training of boys in the Greek gymnastics was foreign to Roman -manners, and even held in contempt. Towards the end of the republic, -many wealthy Romans who had acquired a taste for Greek manners, -used to attach to their villas small places for bodily exercise, -sometimes called gymnasia, sometimes palaestrae, and to adorn them -with beautiful works of art. The emperor Nero was the first who built -a public gymnasium at Rome. - - -GYMNĒSII or GYMNĒTES (γυμνήσιοι, or γυμνῆτες), a class of -bond-slaves at Argos, who may be compared with the Helots at Sparta. -Their name shows that they attended their masters on military service -in the capacity of light-armed troops. - - -GYMNŎPAEDĬA (γυμνοπαιδία), the festival of “naked youths,” was -celebrated at Sparta every year in honour of Apollo Pythaeus, -Artemis, and Leto. The statues of these deities stood in a part of -the agora called χορός, and it was around these statues that, at the -gymnopaedia, Spartan youths performed their choruses and dances in -honour of Apollo. The festival lasted for several, perhaps for ten, -days, and on the last day men also performed choruses and dances in -the theatre; and during these gymnastic exhibitions they sang the -songs of Thaletas and Alcman, and the paeans of Dionysodotus. The -leader of the chorus (προστάτης or χοροποιός) wore a kind of chaplet -in commemoration of the victory of the Spartans at Thyrea. This -event seems to have been closely connected with the gymnopaedia, for -those Spartans who had fallen on that occasion were always praised -in songs at this festival. The boys in their dances performed such -rhythmical movements as resembled the exercises of the palaestra and -the pancration, and also imitated the wild gestures of the worship -of Dionysus. The whole season of the gymnopaedia, during which -Sparta was visited by great numbers of strangers, was one of great -merriment and rejoicings, and old bachelors alone seem to have been -excluded from the festivities. The introduction of the gymnopaedia is -generally assigned to the year 665 B.C. - - -GỸNAECONĪTIS. [DOMUS, GREEK.] - - -GỸNAECŎNŎMI or GỸNAECŎCOSMI (γυναικονόμοι or γυναικοκόσμοι), -magistrates at Athens, originally appointed to superintend the -conduct of Athenian women. Their power was afterwards extended in -such a manner that they became a kind of police for the purpose of -preventing any excesses or indecencies, whether committed by men -or by women. Hence they superintended the meetings of friends even -in private houses, for instance, at weddings and on other festive -occasions. - - - - -HALTĒRES (ἁλτῆρες) were certain masses of stone or metal, which were -used in the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and Romans. Persons who -practised leaping frequently performed their exercises with halteres -in both hands; but they were also frequently used merely to exercise -the body in somewhat the same manner as our dumb-bells. - -[Illustration: Halteres. (Tassie, ‘Catalogue,’ pl. 46.)] - - -HARMĂMAXA (ἁρμάμαξα), a carriage for persons, covered overhead and -inclosed with curtains. It was in general large, often drawn by four -horses, and attired with splendid ornaments. It occupied among the -Persians the same place which the carpentum did among the Romans, -being used, especially upon state occasions, for the conveyance of -women and children, of eunuchs, and of the sons of the king with -their tutors. - - -HARMOSTAE (ἁρμοσταί, from ἁρμόζω, to fit or join together), the name -of the governors whom the Lacedaemonians, after the Peloponnesian -war, sent into their subject or conquered towns, partly to keep -them in submission, and partly to abolish the democratical form of -government, and establish in its stead one similar to their own. -Although in many cases they were ostensibly sent for the purpose of -abolishing the tyrannical government of a town, and to restore the -people to freedom, yet they themselves acted like kings or tyrants. - - -[Illustration: Flesh-hook. (British Museum.)] - -HARPĂGO (ἁρπάγη: λύκος: κρεάγρα), a grappling-iron, a drag, a -flesh-hook. In war the grappling-iron, thrown at an enemy’s ship, -seized the rigging, and was then used to drag the ship within reach, -so that it might be easily boarded or destroyed. These instruments -appear to have been much the same as the _manus ferreae_. The -flesh-hook (κρεάγρα) was an instrument used in cookery, resembling a -hand with the fingers bent inwards, used to take boiled meat out of -the caldron. - - -HARPASTUM. [PILA.] - - -HĂRUSPĬCES, or ĂRUSPĬCES (ἱεροσκόποι), soothsayers or diviners, -who interpreted the will of the gods. They originally came to Rome -from Etruria, whence haruspices were often sent for by the Romans -on important occasions. The art of the haruspices resembled in many -respects that of the augurs; but they never acquired that political -importance which the latter possessed, and were regarded rather -as means for ascertaining the will of the gods than as possessing -any religious authority. They did not in fact form any part of the -ecclesiastical polity of the Roman state during the republic; they -are never called sacerdotes, they did not form a collegium, and -had no magister at their head. The art of the haruspices, which -was called _haruspicina_, consisted in explaining and interpreting -the will of the gods from the appearance of the entrails (_exta_) -of animals offered in sacrifice, whence they are sometimes called -_extispices_, and their art _extispicium_; and also from lightning, -earthquakes, and all extraordinary phenomena in nature, to which the -general name of _portenta_ was given. Their art is said to have been -invented by the Etruscan Tages, and was contained in certain books -called _libri haruspicini_, _fulgurales_, and _tonitruales_. This -art was considered by the Romans so important at one time, that the -senate decreed that a certain number of young Etruscans, belonging -to the principal families in the state, should always be instructed -in it. In later times, however, their art fell into disrepute among -well-educated Romans; and Cicero relates a saying of Cato, that he -wondered that one haruspex did not laugh when he saw another. The -name of haruspex is sometimes applied to any kind of soothsayer or -prophet. - -[Illustration: Hastae, spears.] - -HASTA (ἔγχος), a spear. The spear is defined by Homer, δόρυ χαλκήρες, -“a pole fitted with bronze,” and δόρυ χαλκοβάρες, “a pole heavy with -bronze.” The bronze, for which iron was afterwards substituted, -was indispensable to form the point (αἰχμή, ἀκωκή, Homer; λόγχη, -Xenophon; _acies_, _cuspis_, _spiculum_) of the spear. Each of these -two essential parts is often put for the whole, so that a spear is -called δόρυ and δοράτιον, αἰχμή, and λόγχη. Even the more especial -term μελία, meaning an ash-tree, is used in the same manner, because -the pole of the spear was often the stem of a young ash, stripped -of its bark and polished. The bottom of the spear was often inclosed -in a pointed cap of bronze, called by the Ionic writers σαυρωτῆρ -and οὐρίαχος, and in Attic or common Greek στύραξ. By forcing this -into the ground the spear was fixed erect. Many of the lancers who -accompanied the king of Persia, had, instead of this spike at the -bottom of their spears, an apple or a pomegranate, either gilt or -silvered. Fig. 1. in the annexed woodcut shows the top and bottom of -a spear, which is held by one of the king’s guards in the sculptures -at Persepolis. The spear was used as a weapon of attack in three -different ways:--1. It was thrown from catapults and other engines -[TORMENTUM]. 2. It was thrust forward as a pike. 3. It was commonly -thrown by the hand. The spear frequently had a leathern thong tied -to the middle of the shaft, which was called ἀγκύλη by the Greeks, -and _amentum_ by the Romans, and which was of assistance in throwing -the spear. The annexed figure represents the amentum attached to the -spear at the centre of gravity, a little above the middle. - -[Illustration: Hasta with Amentum. (From a Painting on a Vase.)] - -Under the general terms _hasta_ and ἔγχος were included various -kinds of missiles, of which the principal were as follow:--_Lancea_ -(λόγχη), the lance, a comparatively slender spear commonly used by -the Greek horsemen. The appendage shown in woodcut, Fig. 2, enabled -them to mount their horses with greater facility.--_Pilum_ (ὑσσός), -the javelin, much thicker and stronger than the Grecian lance. Its -shaft, often made of cornel, was 4½ feet (three cubits) long, and -the barbed iron head was of the same length, but this extended half -way down the shaft, to which it was attached with extreme care, so -that the whole length of the weapon was about 6 feet 9 inches. It -was used either to throw or to thrust with; it was peculiar to the -Romans, and gave the name of _pilani_ to the division of the army by -which it was adopted.--Whilst the heavy-armed Roman soldiers bore the -long lance and the thick and ponderous javelin, the light-armed used -smaller missiles, which, though of different kinds, were included -under the general term _hastae velitares_ (γρόσφοι). The γρόσφος was -a dart, with a shaft about three feet long and an inch in thickness: -the iron head was a span long, and so thin and acuminated as to be -bent by striking against anything, and thus rendered unfit to be -sent back against the enemy. Fig. 3, in the preceding woodcut, shows -one which was found in a Roman entrenchment in Gloucestershire.--The -light infantry of the Roman army used a similar weapon, called _a -spit_ (_veru_, _verutum_; σαύνιον). It was adopted by them from -the Samnites and the Volsci. Its shaft was 3½ feet long, its point -5 inches. Fig. 4, in the preceding woodcut, represents the head -of a dart in the Royal Collection at Naples; it may be taken as -a specimen of the _verutum_, and may be contrasted with fig. 5, -which is the head of a lance in the same collection.--The Romans -adopted in like manner the _gaesum_, which was properly a Celtic -weapon; it was given as a reward to any soldier who wounded an -enemy. [GAESUM.]--_Sparus_ is evidently the same word with the -English _spar_ and _spear_. It was the rudest missile of the whole -class.--Besides the terms _jaculum_ and _spiculum_ (ἄκων, ἀκόντιον), -which probably denoted darts, resembling in form the lance and -javelin, but much smaller, adapted consequently to the light-armed -(_jaculatores_), and used in hunting as well as in battle, we find -in classical authors the names of various other spears, which were -characteristic of particular nations.--Thus, the _sarissa_ was the -spear peculiar to the Macedonians. This was used both to throw and -as a pike. It exceeded in length all other missiles.--The Thracian -_romphea_, which had a very long point, like the blade of a sword, -was probably not unlike the sarissa.--With these weapons we may also -class the Illyrian _sibina_, which resembled a hunting-pole.--The -iron head of the German spear, called _framea_, was short and narrow, -but very sharp. The Germans used it with great effect either as a -lance or a pike: they gave to each youth a framea and a shield on -coming of age.--The _Falarica_ or _Phalarica_ was the spear of the -Saguntines, and was impelled by the aid of twisted ropes; it was -large and ponderous, having a head of iron a cubit in length, and a -ball of lead at its other end; it sometimes carried flaming pitch and -tow.--The _matura_ and _tragula_ were chiefly used in Gaul and Spain: -the tragula was probably barbed, as it required to be cut out of the -wound.--The _Aclis_ and _Cateia_ were much smaller missiles.--Among -the decorations which the Roman generals bestowed on their soldiers, -more especially for saving the life of a fellow-citizen, was a spear -without a head, called _hasta pura_. The _celibaris hasta_, having -been fixed into the body of a gladiator lying dead on the arena, -was used at marriages to part the hair of the bride. A spear was -erected at auctions [AUCTIO], and when tenders were received for -public offices (_locationes_). It served both to announce, by a -conventional sign conspicuous at a distance, that a sale was going -on, and to show that it was conducted under the authority of the -public functionaries. Hence an auction was called _hasta_, and an -auction-room _hastarium_. It was also the practice to set up a spear -in the court of the CENTUMVIRI. - - -HASTĀTI. [EXERCITUS, p. 168, b.] - - -HĔCĂTOMBĒ. [SACRIFICIUM.] - - -HECTĒ or HECTEUS (ἕκτη, ἑκτεύς), and its half, _Hemiecton_ or -_Hemiecteon_ (ἡμίεκτον, ἡμιεκτέον). In dry measures, the _hecteus_ -was the sixth part of the _medimnus_, and the _hemiecteon_, of -course, the twelfth part. The _hecteus_ was equal to the Roman -_modius_, as each contained 16 ξέσται or sextarii. The _Hecte_ or -_Hecteus_ and _Hemiecton_ were also the names of coins, but the -accounts we have of their value are very various. The only consistent -explanation is, that there were different _hectae_, derived from -different units; in fact, that these coins were not properly -_denominations_ of money, but _subdivisions_ of the recognised -denominations. - - -HĔLĔPŎLIS (ἑλέπολις), “the taker of cities,” a machine constructed -by Demetrius Poliorcetes, when he besieged the city of Salamis in -Cyprus. Its form was that of a square tower, each side being 90 -cubits high and 45 wide. It rested on four wheels, each eight cubits -high. It was divided into nine stories, the lower of which contained -machines for throwing great stones, the middle large catapults for -throwing spears, and the highest other machines for throwing smaller -stones, together with smaller catapults. It was manned with 200 -soldiers, besides those who moved it by pushing the parallel beams -at the bottom. At the siege of Rhodes, B.C. 306, Demetrius employed -an helepolis of still greater dimensions and more complicated -construction. In subsequent ages we find the name of “helepolis” -applied to moving towers which carried battering rams, as well as -machines for throwing spears and stones. - - -HELLĀNŎDĬCAE (ἑλλανοδίκαι), the judges in the Olympic games, of whom -an account is given under OLYMPIA. The same name was also given to -the judges or court-martial in the Lacedaemonian army, and they were -probably first called by this name when Sparta was at the head of the -Greek confederacy. - - -HELLĒNOTĂMĬAE (ἑλληνοταμίαι), or treasurers of the Greeks, were -magistrates appointed by the Athenians to receive the contributions -of the allied states. They were first appointed B.C. 477, when -Athens, in consequence of the conduct of Pausanias, had obtained the -command of the allied states. The money paid by the different states, -which was originally fixed at 460 talents, was deposited in Delos, -which was the place of meeting for the discussion of all common -interests; and there can be no doubt that the hellenotamiae not only -received, but were also the guardians of, these monies. The office -was retained after the treasury was transferred to Athens on the -proposal of the Samians, but was of course abolished on the conquest -of Athens by the Lacedaemonians. - - -HĒLŌTES (εἴλωτες), a class of bondsmen peculiar to Sparta. They were -Achaeans, who had resisted the Dorian invaders to the last, and had -been reduced to slavery as the punishment of their obstinacy. The -Helots were regarded as the property of the state, which, while it -gave their services to individuals, reserved to itself the power of -emancipating them. They were attached to the land, and could not -be sold away from it. They cultivated the land, and paid to their -masters as rent a certain measure of corn, the exact amount of which -had been fixed at a very early period, the raising of that amount -being forbidden under heavy imprecations. Besides being engaged in -the cultivation of the land, the Helots attended on their masters -at the public meal, and many of them were no doubt employed by the -state in public works. In war the Helots served as light-armed troops -(ψίλοι), a certain number of them attending every heavy-armed Spartan -to the field; at the battle of Plataeae there were seven Helots to -each Spartan. These attendants were probably called ἀμπίτταρες(i.e. -ἀμφίσταντες), and one of them in particular, the θεράπων, or -_servant_. The Helots only served as hoplites in particular -emergencies; and on such occasions they were generally emancipated. -The first instance of this kind was in the expedition of Brasidas, -B.C. 424. The treatment to which the Helots were subjected was marked -by the most wanton cruelty; and they were regarded by the Spartans -with the greatest suspicion. Occasionally the ephors selected -young Spartans for the secret service (κρυπτεία) of wandering over -the country, in order to kill the Helots. The Helots might be -emancipated, but there were several steps between them and the free -citizens, and it is doubtful whether they were ever admitted to all -the privileges of citizenship. The following classes of emancipated -Helots are enumerated:--ἀφεταί, ἀδεσπότοι, ἐρυκτῆρες, δεσποσιοναύται, -and νεοδαμώδεις. Of these the ἀφεταί were probably released from all -service; the ἐρυκτῆρες were those employed in war; the δεσποσιοναύται -served on board the fleet; and the νεοδαμώδεις were those who had -been possessed of freedom for some time. Besides these, there were -the μόθωνες or μόθακες, who were domestic slaves, brought up with the -young Spartans, and then emancipated. Upon being emancipated they -received permission to dwell where they wished. - - -HĒMĔRŎDRŎMI (ἡμεροδρόμοι), couriers in the Greek states, who could -keep on running all day, and were often employed to carry news of -important events. They were trained for the purpose, and could -perform the longest journeys in an almost incredibly short space -of time. Such couriers were in times of danger stationed on some -eminence in order to observe anything of importance that might -happen, and carry the intelligence with speed to the proper quarter. -Hence we frequently find them called _Hemeroscopi_ (ἡμεροσκόποι). - - -HĒMĬCYCLĬUM (ἡμικύκλιον), a semicircular seat, for the accommodation -of persons engaged in conversation; also the semicircular seat round -the tribunal in a basilica. - - -HĒMĬNA (ἡμίνα), the name of a Greek and Roman measure, seems to -be nothing more than the dialectic form used by the Sicilian and -Italian Greeks for ἡμίσυ. It was therefore applied to the half of the -standard fluid measure, the ξέστης, which the other Greeks called -κοτύλη, and the word passed into the Roman metrical system, where it -is used with exactly the same force, namely for a measure which is -half of the _sextarius_, and equal to the Greek _cotylé_. - - -HENDĔCA (οἱ ἕνδεκα), the Eleven, were magistrates at Athens of -considerable importance. They were annually chosen by lot, one from -each of the ten tribes, and a secretary (γραμματεύς), who must -properly be regarded as their servant (ὑπηρέτης), though he formed -one of their number. The principal duty of the Eleven was the care -and management of the public prison (δεσμωτήριον), which was entirely -under their jurisdiction. The prison, however, was seldom used by -the Athenians as a mere place of confinement, serving generally for -punishments and executions. When a person was condemned to death he -was immediately given into the custody of the Eleven, who were then -bound to carry the sentence into execution according to the laws. -The most common mode of execution was by hemlock juice (κώνειον), -which was drunk after sunset. The Eleven had under them gaolers, -executioners, and torturers. When torture was inflicted in causes -affecting the state, it was either done in the immediate presence -of the Eleven, or by their servant (ὁ δήμιος). The Eleven usually -had only to carry into execution the sentence passed in the courts -of law and the public assemblies; but in some cases they possessed -jurisdiction. This was the case in those summary proceedings called -_apagoge_, _ephegesis_ and _endeixis_, in which the penalty was -fixed by law, and might be inflicted by the court on the confession -or conviction of the accused, without appealing to any of the jury -courts. - -HĒPHAESTEIA. [LAMPADEPHORIA.] - - -HĒRAEA (ἡραῖα), the name of festivals celebrated in honour of Hera -in all the towns of Greece where the worship of this divinity was -introduced. The original seat of her worship was Argos; whence her -festivals in other places were, more or less, imitations of those -which were celebrated at Argos. Her service was performed by the -most distinguished priestesses of the place; one of them was the -high-priestess, and the Argives counted their years by the date of -her office. The Heraea of Argos were celebrated every fifth year. -One of the great solemnities which took place on the occasion, was -a magnificent procession to the great temple of Hera, between Argos -and Mycenae. A vast number of young men assembled at Argos, and -marched in armour to the temple of the goddess. They were preceded -by one hundred oxen (ἑκατόμβη, whence the festival is also called -ἑκατόμβαια). The high-priestess accompanied this procession, riding -in a chariot drawn by two white oxen. The 100 oxen were sacrificed, -and their flesh distributed among all the citizens; after which -games and contests took place. Of the Heraea celebrated in other -countries, those of Samos, which island derived the worship of Hera -from Argos, were perhaps the most brilliant of all the festivals -of this divinity. The Heraea of Elis, which were celebrated in the -fourth year of every Olympiad, were also conducted with considerable -splendour. - - -HĒRES.--(1) GREEK. To obtain the right of inheritance as well as -citizenship at Athens (ἀγχιστεία and πολιτεία), legitimacy was a -necessary qualification. When an Athenian died leaving legitimate -sons, they shared the inheritance, like our heirs in gavelkind; the -only advantage possessed by the eldest son being the first choice -in the division. Every man of full age and sound mind, not under -durance or improper influence, was competent to make a will; but if -he had a son he could not disinherit him, although his will might -take effect in case the son did not complete his seventeenth year. -If there was but one son, he took the whole estate; but if he had -sisters, it was incumbent on him to provide for them, and give them -suitable marriage portions; they were then called ἐπίπροικοι. On -failure of sons and their issue, daughters and daughters’ children -succeeded, and there seems to have been no limit to the succession in -the descending line. It will assist the student to be informed, that -ἀνεψιός signifies a first cousin. Ἀνεψιαδοῦς is a first cousin’s son; -formed in the same manner as ἀδελφιδοῦς from ἀδελφός, and θυγατριδοῦς -from θυγατήρ. Κλῆρος is the subject-matter of inheritance, or (in one -sense of the word) the inheritance; κληρόνομος the heir. Ἀγχιστεία, -proximity of blood in reference to succession, and sometimes right of -succession. Συγγένεια, natural consanguinity. Συγγενεῖς, collateral -relations, are opposed to ἔκγονοι, lineal descendants.--(2) ROMAN. A -person might become an heres by being named as such (_institutus_, -_scriptus_, _factus_) in a will executed by a competent person, -according to the forms required by law [TESTAMENTUM]. The testator -might either name one person as heres, or he might name several -heredes (_coheredes_), and he might divide the hereditas among -them as he pleased. The shares of the heredes were generally -expressed by reference to the divisions of the As: thus, “heres ex -asse” is heres to the whole property; “heres ex dodrante,” heres -to three-fourths; “heres ex semuncia,” heir to one twenty-fourth. -If there were several heredes named, without any definite shares -being given to them, the property belonged to them in equal shares. -As a general rule, only Roman citizens could be named as heredes -in the will of a Roman citizen; but a slave could also be named -heres, though he had no power to make a will, and a filius-familias -could also be named heres, though he was under the same incapacity. -Persons, not Roman citizens, who had received the commercium, could -take hereditates, legata and fideicommissa by testament.--Heredes -were either Necessarii, Sui et Necessarii, or Extranei. The heres -necessarius was a slave of the testator, who was made an heres and -liber at the same time; and he was called necessarius, because of -the necessity that he was under of accepting the hereditas. The -heredes sui et necessarii were sons and daughters, and the sons -and daughters of a son, who were in the power of a testator. These -heredes sui were called necessarii, because of the necessity that -they were under, according to the civil law, of taking the hereditas -with its incumbrances. But the praetor permitted such persons to -refuse the hereditas (_abstinere se ab hereditate_), and to allow -the property to be sold to pay the testator’s debts; and he gave the -same privilege to a mancipated son (_qui in causa mancipii est_). All -other heredes are called extranei, and comprehend all persons who -are not in the power of a testator, such as emancipated children. A -certain time was allowed to extranei for the _cretio hereditatis_, -that is, for them to determine whether they would take the hereditas -or not: hence the phrase, “cernere hereditatem.”--If a man died -intestate, the hereditas came to the heredes sui, and was then called -_legitima hereditas_. If an intestate had no sui heredes, the Twelve -Tables gave the hereditas to the agnati [COGNATI], and if there were -no agnati, to the gentiles. If a man had a son in his power, he was -bound either to make him heres, or to exheredate (_exheredare_) him -expressly (_nominatim_). If he passed him over in silence (_silentio -praetericrit_), the will was altogether void (_inutile_, _non jure -factum_). Other liberi could be passed over, and the will would -still be a valid will; but the liberi so passed over took a certain -portion of the hereditas _adcrescendo_, as it was termed, or _jure -adcrescendi_. It was necessary either to institute as heredes, or -to exheredate posthumous children _nominatim_, otherwise the will, -which was originally valid, became invalid (_ruptum_); and the will -became invalid by the birth either of a posthumous son or daughter, -or, as the phrase was, _adgnascendo rumpitur testamentum_. The heres -represented the testator and intestate, and had not only a claim to -all his property and all that was due to him, but was bound by all -his obligations. He succeeded to the sacra privata, and was bound -to maintain them, but only in respect of the property, for the -obligation of the sacra privata was attached to property and to the -heres only as the owner of it. Hence the expression “sine sacris -hereditas” meant an hereditas unencumbered with sacra. - - -HERMAE (ἑρμαῖ), and the diminutive Hermuli (ἑρμίδια), statues -composed of a head, usually that of the god Hermes, placed on a -quadrangular pillar, the height of which corresponds to the stature -of the human body. Such statues were very numerous at Athens. So -great was the demand for these works that the words ἑρμογλύφος, -ἑρμογλυφικὴ τέχνη, and ἑρμογλυφεῖον, were used as the generic terms -for a sculptor, his art, and his studio. Houses in Athens had one of -these statues placed at the door, called ἑρμῆς στροφαῖος or στροφεύς; -and sometimes also in the peristyle. The great reverence attached to -them is shown by the alarm and indignation which were felt at Athens -in consequence of the mutilation of the whole number in a single -night, just before the sailing of the Sicilian expedition. They were -likewise placed in front of temples, near to tombs, in the gymnasia, -palaestrae, libraries, porticoes, and public places, at the corners -of streets, on high roads as sign-posts, with distances inscribed -upon them, and on the boundaries of lands and states, and at the -gates of cities. Small Hermae were also used as pilasters, and as -supports for furniture and utensils. Many statues existed of other -deities, of the same form as the Hermae; which no doubt originated -in the same manner; and which were still called by the generic name -of _Hermae_; even though the bust upon them was that of another -deity. Some statues of this kind are described by a name compounded -of that of Hermes and another divinity: thus we have _Hermanubis_, -_Hermares_, _Hermathena_, _Hermeracles_, _Hermeros_, _Hermopan_. -There is another class of these works, in which the bust represented -no deity at all, but was simply the portrait of a man. Even these -statues, however, retained the names of _Hermae_ and _Termini_. The -Hermae were used by the wealthy Romans for the decoration of their -houses. The following engraving exhibits a Hermes decorated with -garlands and surrounded with the implements of his worship. - -[Illustration: Hermes. (From a Bas-relief.)] - - -HERMAEA (ἕρμαια), festivals of Hermes, celebrated in various parts -of Greece. As Hermes was the tutelary deity of the gymnasia and -palaestrae, the boys at Athens celebrated the Hermaea in the gymnasia. - - -HESTIĀSIS (ἑστίασις), was a species of liturgy, and consisted in -giving a feast to one of the tribes at Athens (τὴν φυλὴν ἑστιᾶν). It -was provided for each tribe at the expense of a person belonging to -that tribe, who was called ἑστιάτωρ. - - -HĬĔRODŪLI (ἱερόδουλοι), persons of both sexes, who were devoted like -slaves to the worship of the gods. They were of Eastern origin, and -are most frequently met with in connection with the worship of the -deities of Syria, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor. They consisted of two -classes; one composed of slaves, properly so called, who attended -to all the lower duties connected with the worship of the gods, -cultivated the sacred lands, &c., and whose descendants continued -in the same servile condition; and the other comprising persons who -were personally free, but had dedicated themselves as slaves to the -gods, and who were either attached to the temples, or were dispersed -throughout the country and brought to the gods the money they had -gained. To the latter class belonged the women, who prostituted their -persons, and presented to the gods the money they had obtained by -this means. This class was only found in Greece, in connection with -the worship of those divinities who were of Eastern origin, or whose -religious rites were borrowed from the East. This was the case with -Aphrodite (Venus), who was originally an Oriental goddess. - - -HĬĔRŎMNĒMŎNES (ἱερομνήμονες), the more honourable of the two classes -of representatives who composed the Amphictyonic council. An account -of them is given under AMPHICTYONES.--We also read of hieromnemones -in Grecian states, distinct from the Amphictyonic representatives -of this name. Thus the priests of Poseidon, at Megara, were called -hieromnemones, and at Byzantium, which was a colony of Megara, the -chief magistrate in the state appears to have been called by this -name. - - -HĬĔRŎNĪCAE. [ATHLETAE.] - - -HĬĔRŎPOII (ἱεροποιοί), sacrificers at Athens, of whom ten were -appointed every year, and conducted all the usual sacrifices, as well -as those belonging to the quinquennial festivals, with the exception -of those of the Panathenaea. - - -HĬLĂRĬA (ἱλάρια), a Roman festival, celebrated on the 25th of March, -in honour of Cybelé, the mother of the gods. - - -HIPPŎBŎTAE (ἱπποβόται), the feeders of horses, the name of the -nobility of Chalcis in Euboea, corresponding to the ἱππεῖς in other -Greek states. - - -HIPPŎDRŎMUS (ἱππόδρομος), the name by which the Greeks designated -the place appropriated to the horse-races, both of chariots and of -single horses, which formed a part of their games. The word was also -applied to the races themselves. In Homer’s vivid description (_Il._ -xxiii., 262-650) the nature of the contest and the arrangements for -it are very clearly indicated. There is no artificially constructed -hippodrome; but an existing land-mark or monument (σῆμα) is chosen -as the goal (τέρμα), round which the chariots had to pass, leaving -it on the left hand, and so returning to the Greek ships on the -sea-shore, from which they had started. The chariots were five in -number, each with two horses and a single driver, who stood upright -in his chariot. The critical point of the race was to turn the goal -as sharp as possible, with the nave of the near wheel almost grazing -it, and to do this safely: very often the driver was here thrown out, -and the chariot broken in pieces. The account in Homer will give us -an equally good idea of a chariot-race at Olympia, or in any other of -the Greek games of later times. The general form of the hippodrome -was an oblong, with a semicircular end. For an account of the chariot -races at Rome see CIRCUS. - - -HISTRĬO (ὑποκριτής), an actor.--(1) GREEK. It is shown in the -articles CHORUS and DIONYSIA that the Greek drama originated in the -chorus which at the festivals of Dionysus danced around his altar, -and that at first one person detached himself from the chorus, and, -with mimic gesticulation, related his story either to the chorus -or in conversation with it. If the story thus acted required more -than one person, they were all represented in succession by the same -actor, and there was never more than one person on the stage at a -time. This custom was retained by Thespis and Phrynichus. Aeschylus -introduced a second and a third actor; and the number of three -actors was but seldom exceeded in any Greek drama. The three regular -actors were distinguished by the technical names of πρωταγωνιστής, -δευτεραγωνιστής, and τριταγωνιστής, which indicated the more or -less prominent part which an actor had to perform in the drama. The -female characters of a play were always performed by young men. -A distinct class of persons, who made acting on the stage their -profession, was unknown to the Greeks during the period of their -great dramatists. The earliest and greatest dramatic poets, Thespis, -Sophocles, and probably Aeschylus also, acted in their own plays, and -in all probability as protagonistae. It was not thought degrading -in Greece to perform on the stage. At a later period persons began -to devote themselves exclusively to the profession of actors, and -distinguished individuals received even as early as the time of -Demosthenes exorbitant sums for their performances.--(2) ROMAN. The -word _histrio_, by which the Roman actor was called, is said to have -been formed from the Etruscan _hister_, which signified a ludio or -dancer. In the year 364 B.C. Rome was visited by a plague, and as -no human means could stop it, the Romans are said to have tried to -avert the anger of the gods by scenic plays (_ludi scenici_), which, -until then, had been unknown to them; and as there were no persons at -Rome prepared for such performances, the Romans sent to Etruria for -them. The first histriones, who were thus introduced from Etruria, -were dancers, and performed their movements to the accompaniment of -a flute. Roman youths afterwards not only imitated these dancers, -but also recited rude and jocose verses, adapted to the movements -of the dance and the melody of the flute. This kind of amusement, -which was the basis of the Roman drama, remained unaltered until the -time of Livius Andronicus, who introduced a slave upon the stage for -the purpose of singing or reciting the recitative, while he himself -performed the appropriate dance and gesticulation. A further step in -the development of the drama, which is likewise ascribed to Livius, -was, that the dancer and reciter carried on a dialogue, and acted a -story with the accompaniment of the flute. The name histrio, which -originally signified a dancer, was now applied to the actors in -the drama. The atellanae were played by freeborn Romans, while the -regular drama was left to the histriones, who formed a distinct class -of persons. The histriones were not citizens; they were not contained -in the tribes, nor allowed to be enlisted as soldiers in the Roman -legions; and if any citizen entered the profession of an histrio, he, -on this account, was excluded from his tribe. The histriones were -therefore always either freedmen, strangers, or slaves, and many -passages of Roman writers show that they were generally held in great -contempt. Towards the close of the republic it was only such men as -Cicero, who, by their Greek education, raised themselves above the -prejudices of their countrymen, and valued the person no less than -the talents of an Aesopus and a Roscius. But notwithstanding this -low estimation in which actors were generally held, distinguished -individuals among them attracted immense crowds to the theatres, and -were exorbitantly paid. Roscius alone received every day that he -performed one thousand denarii, and Aesopus left his son a fortune of -200,000 sesterces, which he had acquired solely by his profession. -The pay of the actors was called _lucar_, which word was perhaps -confined originally to the payment made to those who took part in the -religious services celebrated in groves. - - -HŎMOEI (ὅμοιοι), the Equals, were those Spartans who possessed the -full rights of citizenship, and are opposed to the ὑπομείονες, -or those who had undergone some kind of civil degradation. This -distinction between the citizens was no part of the ancient Spartan -constitution. In the institution ascribed to Lycurgus, every -citizen had a certain portion of land; but as in course of time -many citizens lost their lands through various causes, they were -unable to contribute to the expenses of the syssitia, and therefore -ceased to possess the full rights of Spartan citizens. Hence the -distinction appears to have arisen between the ὅμοιοι and ὑπομείονες, -the former being those who were in the possession of their land, -and consequently able to contribute to the syssitia, the latter -those who through having no land were unable to do so. The Homoei -were the ruling class in the state. They filled all the public -offices with the exception of the Ephoralty, and they probably met -together to determine upon public affairs under the name of ἔκκλητοι -in an assembly of their own, which is called ἡ μικρὰ ἐκκλησία, -to distinguish it from the assembly of the whole body of Spartan -citizens. - - -HŎNŌRES, the high offices of the state to which qualified individuals -were called by the votes of the Roman citizens. The words -“magistratus” and “honores” are sometimes coupled together. The -capacity of enjoying the honores was one of the distinguishing marks -of citizenship. [CIVITAS.] _Honor_ was distinguished from _munus_. -The latter was an office connected with the administration of the -state, and was attended with cost (_sumptus_) but not with rank -(_dignitas_). Honor was properly said _deferri, dari_; munus was said -_imponi_. A person who held a magistrates might be said to discharge -_munera_, but only as incident to the office, for the office itself -was the _honor_. Such munera as these were public games and other -things of the kind. - - -HOPLĪTAE. [EXERCITUS.] - - -HŌRA. [DIES.] - - -HŌRŎLŎGĬUM (ὡρολόγιον), the name of the various instruments by means -of which the ancients measured the time of the day and night. The -earliest and simplest horologia of which mention is made, were called -_polos_ (πόλος) and _gnomon_ (γνώμων). Both divided the day into -twelve equal parts, and were a kind of sun-dial. The _gnomon_, which -was also called _stoicheion_ (στοιχεῖον), was the more simple of the -two, and probably the more ancient. It consisted of a staff or pillar -standing perpendicular, in a place exposed to the sun (σκιάθηρον), -so that the length of its shadow might be easily ascertained. The -shadow of the gnomon was measured by feet, which were probably marked -on the place where the shadow fell. In later times the name gnomon -was applied to any kind of sun-dial, especially to its finger which -threw the shadow, and thus pointed to the hour. The _polos_ or -_heliotropion_ (ἡλιοτρόπιον), on the other hand, seems to have been a -more perfect kind of sun-dial; but it appears, nevertheless, not to -have been much used. It consisted of a basin (λεκανίς), in the middle -of which the perpendicular staff or finger (γνώμων) was erected, and -in it the twelve parts of the day were marked by lines.--Another -kind of horologium, was the _clepsydra_ (κλεψύδρα). It derived its -name from κλέπτειν and ὕδωρ, as in its original and simple form it -consisted of a vessel with several little openings (τρυπήματα) at -the bottom, through which the water contained in it escaped, as it -were by stealth. This instrument seems at first to have been used -only for the purpose of measuring the time during which persons were -allowed to speak in the courts of justice at Athens. It was a hollow -globe, probably somewhat flat at the top-part, where it had a short -neck (αὐλός), like that of a bottle, through which the water was -poured into it. This opening might be closed by a lid or stopper -(πῶμα), to prevent the water running out at the bottom. As the time -for speaking in the Athenian courts was thus measured by water, the -orators frequently use the term ὕδωρ instead of the time allowed to -them. An especial officer (ὁ ἐφ’ ὕδωρ) was appointed in the courts -for the purpose of watching the clepsydra, and stopping it when any -documents were read, whereby the speaker was interrupted. The time, -and consequently the quantity of water allowed to a speaker, depended -upon the importance of the case. The clepsydra used, in the courts of -justice was, properly speaking, no horologium; but smaller ones, made -of glass, and of the same simple structure, were undoubtedly used -very early in families for the purposes of ordinary life, and for -dividing the day into twelve equal parts. In these glass-clepsydrae -the division into twelve parts must have been visible, either on the -glass globe itself, or in the basin into which the water flowed.--The -first horologium with which the Romans became acquainted was a -sun-dial (_solarium_ or _horologium sciothericum_), and was said to -have been brought to Rome by Papirius Cursor twelve years before the -war with Pyrrhus. But as sun-dials were useless when the sky was -cloudy, P. Scipio Nasica, in his censorship, 159 B.C., established a -public clepsydra, which indicated the hours both of day and night. -This clepsydra was in after times generally called solarium. After -the time of Scipio Nasica several horologia, chiefly solaria, seem -to have been erected in various public places at Rome. Clepsydrae -were used by the Romans in their camps, chiefly for the purpose of -measuring accurately the four vigiliae into which the night was -divided. The custom of using clepsydrae as a check upon the speakers -in the courts of justice at Rome, was introduced by a law of Cn. -Pompeius, in his third consulship. Before that time the speakers had -been under no restrictions, but spoke as long as they deemed proper. -At Rome, as at Athens, the time allowed to the speakers depended upon -the importance of the case. - - -HORRĔUM (ὡρεῖον, σιτοφυλακεῖον, ἀποθήκη) was, according to its -etymological signification, a place in which ripe fruits, and -especially corn, were kept, and thus answered to our granary. During -the empire the name horreum was given to any place destined for the -safe preservation of things of any kind. Thus we find it applied -to a place in which beautiful works of art were kept, to cellars -(_horrea subterranea_, _horrea vinaria_), to depôts for merchandise, -and all sorts of provisions (_horreum penarium_). Seneca even calls -his library a horreum. But the more general application of the word -horreum was to places for keeping fruit and corn; and as some kinds -of fruit required to be kept more dry than others, the ancients had -besides the horrea subterranea, or cellars, two other kinds, one of -which was built like every other house upon the ground; but others -(_horrea pensilia_ or _sublimia_) were erected above the ground, -and rested upon posts or stone pillars, that the fruits kept in -them might remain dry.--From about the year 140 after Christ, Rome -possessed two kinds of public horrea. The one class consisted of -buildings in which the Romans might deposit their goods, and even -their money, securities, and other valuables. The second and more -important class of horrea, which may be termed public granaries, were -buildings in which a plentiful supply of corn was constantly kept at -the expense of the state, and from which, in seasons of scarcity, the -corn was distributed among the poor, or sold at a moderate price. - - -HORTUS (κῆπος), garden. Our knowledge of the horticulture of the -Greeks is very limited. In fact the Greeks seem to have had no -great taste for landscape beauties, and the small number of flowers -with which they were acquainted afforded but little inducement to -ornamental horticulture. At Athens the flowers most cultivated -were probably those used for making garlands, such as violets and -roses. In the time of the Ptolemies the art of gardening seems to -have advanced in the favourable climate of Egypt so far, that a -succession of flowers was obtained all the year round. The Romans, -like the Greeks, laboured under the disadvantage of a very limited -flora. This disadvantage they endeavoured to overcome, by arranging -the materials they did possess in such a way as to produce a striking -effect. We have a very full description of a Roman garden in a letter -of the younger Pliny, in which he describes his Tuscan villa. In -front of the _porticus_ there was generally a _xystus_, or flat piece -of ground, divided into flower-beds of different shapes by borders -of box. There were also such flower-beds in other parts of the -garden. Sometimes they were raised so as to form terraces, and their -sloping sides planted with evergreens or creepers. The most striking -features of a Roman garden were lines of large trees, among which -the plane appears to have been a great favourite, planted in regular -order; alleys or walks (_ambulationes_) formed by closely clipped -hedges of box, yew, cypress, and other evergreens; beds of acanthus, -rows of fruit-trees, especially of vines, with statues, pyramids, -fountains, and summer-houses (_diaetae_). The trunks of the trees -and the parts of the house or any other buildings which were visible -from the garden, were often covered with ivy. In one respect the -Roman taste differed most materially from that of the present day, -namely, in their fondness for the _ars topiaria_, which consisted in -tying, twisting, or cutting trees and shrubs (especially the box) -into the figures of animals, ships, letters, &c. Their principal -garden-flowers seem to have been violets and roses, and they also -had the crocus, narcissus, lily, gladiolus, iris, poppy, amaranth, -and others. Conservatories and hot-houses are frequently mentioned -by Martial. Flowers and plants were also kept in the central place -of the peristyle [DOMUS], on the roofs and in the windows of houses. -An ornamental garden was also called _viridarium_, and the gardener -_topiarius_ or _viridarius_. The common name for a gardener is -villicus or cultor hortorum. - -[Illustration: Hortus, Garden. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)] - - -HOSPĬTĬUM (ξενία, προξενία), hospitality, was in Greece, as well as -at Rome, of a two-fold nature, either private or public, in so far as -it was either established between individuals, or between two states. -(_Hospitium privatum_ and _hospitium publicum_, ξενία and προξενία.) -In ancient Greece the stranger, as such (ξένος and _hostis_), was -looked upon as an enemy; but whenever he appeared among another tribe -or nation without any sign of hostile intentions, he was considered -not only as one who required aid, but as a suppliant, and Zeus was -the protecting deity of strangers and suppliants (Ζεὺς ξένιος). -On his arrival, therefore, the stranger was kindly received, and -provided with every thing necessary to make him comfortable. It -seems to have been customary for the host, on the departure of the -stranger, to break a die (ἀστράγαλος) in two, one half of which he -himself retained, while the other half was given to the stranger; -and when at any future time they or their descendants met, they had -a means of recognising each other, and the hospitable connection was -renewed. Hospitality thus not only existed between the persons who -had originally formed it, but was transferred as an inheritance from -father to son. What has been said hitherto, only refers to _hospitium -privatum_; but of far greater importance was the _hospitium publicum_ -(προξενία, sometimes simply ξενία) or public hospitality, which -existed between two states, or between an individual or a family on -the one hand, and a whole state on the other. Of the latter kind of -public hospitality many instances are recorded, such as that between -the Peisistratids and Sparta, in which the people of Athens had no -share. The hospitium publicum among the Greeks arose undoubtedly from -the hospitium privatum, and it may have originated in two ways. When -the Greek tribes were governed by chieftains or kings, the private -hospitality existing between the ruling families of two tribes may -have produced similar relations between their subjects, which, after -the abolition of the kingly power, continued to exist between the new -republics as a kind of political inheritance of former times. Or a -person belonging to one state might have either extensive connections -with the citizens of another state, or entertain great partiality -for the other state itself, and thus offer to receive all those who -came from that state either on private or public business, and to -act as their patron in his own city. This he at first did merely -as a private individual, but the state to which he offered this -kind service would naturally soon recognise and reward him for it. -When two states established public hospitality, and no individuals -came forward to act as the representatives of their state, it was -necessary that in each state persons should be appointed to show -hospitality to, and watch over the interests of, all persons who -came from the state connected by hospitality. The persons who were -appointed to this office as the recognised agents of the state -for which they acted were called _proxeni_ (πρόξενοι), but those -who undertook it voluntarily _etheloproxeni_ (ἐθελοπρόξενοι). The -office of _proxenus_, which bears great resemblance to that of a -modern consul or minister-resident, was in some cases hereditary in -a particular family. When a state appointed a proxenus, it either -sent out one of its own citizens to reside in the other state, or it -selected one of the citizens of this state, and conferred upon him -the honour of proxenus. The former was, in early times, the custom -of Sparta, where the kings had the right of selecting from among the -Spartan citizens those whom they wished to send out as proxeni to -other states. But in subsequent times this custom seems to have been -given up, for we find that at Athens the family of Callias were the -proxeni of Sparta, and at Argos, the Argive Alciphron. The principal -duties of a proxenus were to receive those persons, especially -ambassadors, who came from the state which he represented; to procure -for them admission to the assembly, and seats in the theatre; to -act as the patron of the strangers, and to mediate between the two -states if any disputes arose. If a stranger died in the state, the -proxenus of his country had to take care of the property of the -deceased.--The hospitality of the Romans was, as in Greece, either -hospitium privatum or publicum. Private hospitality with the Romans, -however, seems to have been more accurately and legally defined than -in Greece. The character of a _hospes_, _i.e._ a person connected with -a Roman by ties of hospitality, was deemed even more sacred, and to -have greater claims upon the host, than that of a person connected by -blood or affinity. The relation of a hospes to his Roman friend was -next in importance to that of a cliens. The obligations which the -connection of hospitality with a foreigner imposed upon a Roman, were -to receive in his house his hospes when travelling; and to protect, -and, in case of need, to represent him as his patron in the courts of -justice. Private hospitality thus gave to the hospes the claims upon -his host which the client had on his patron, but without any degree -of the dependence implied in the clientele. Private hospitality -was established between individuals by mutual presents, or by the -mediation of a third person, and hallowed by religion; for Jupiter -hospitalis was thought to watch over the jus hospitii, as Zeus xenios -did with the Greeks, and the violation of it was as great a crime and -impiety at Rome as in Greece. When hospitality was formed, the two -friends used to divide between themselves a _tessera hospitalis_, -by which, afterwards, they themselves or their descendants--for the -connection was hereditary as in Greece--might recognise one another. -Hospitality, when thus once established, could not be dissolved -except by a formal declaration (_renuntiatio_), and in this case the -tessera hospitalis was broken to pieces. Public hospitality seems -likewise to have existed at a very early period among the nations -of Italy; but the first direct mention of public hospitality being -established between Rome and another city, is after the Gauls had -departed from Rome, when it was decreed that Caere should be rewarded -for its good services by the establishment of public hospitality -between the two cities. The public hospitality after the war with the -Gauls gave to the Caerites the right of isopolity with Rome, that is, -the civitas without the suffragium and the honores. [COLONIA.] In -the later times of the republic we no longer find public hospitality -established between Rome and a foreign state; but a relation which -amounted to the same thing was introduced in its stead, that is, -towns were raised to the rank of municipia, and thus obtained the -civitas without the suffragium and the honores; and when a town was -desirous of forming a similar relation with Rome, it entered into -clientela to some distinguished Roman, who then acted as patron of -the client-town. But the custom of granting the honour of hospes -publicus to a distinguished foreigner by a decree of the senate, -seems to have existed down to the end of the republic. His privileges -were the same as those of a municeps, that is, he had the civitas, -but not the suffragium or the honores. Public hospitality was, like -the hospitium privatum, hereditary in the family of the person to -whom it had been granted. - - -HỸĂCINTHĬA (ὑακίνθια), a great national festival, celebrated every -year at Amyclae by the Amyclaeans and Spartans, probably in honour of -the Amyclaean Apollo and Hyacinthus together. This Amyclaean Apollo, -however, with whom Hyacinthus was assimilated in later times, must -not be confounded with Apollo, the national divinity of the Dorians. -The festival was called after the youthful hero Hyacinthus, who -evidently derived his name from the flower hyacinth (the emblem of -death among the ancient Greeks), and whom Apollo accidentally struck -dead with a quoit. The Hyacinthia lasted for three days, and began -on the longest day of the Spartan month Hecatombeus, at the time -when the tender flowers, oppressed by the heat of the sun, drooped -their languid heads. On the first and last day of the Hyacinthia -sacrifices were offered to the dead, and the death of Hyacinthus was -lamented. During these two days, nobody wore any garlands at the -repasts, nor took bread, but only cakes and similar things, and when -the solemn repasts were over, everybody went home in the greatest -quiet and order. The second day, however, was wholly spent in public -rejoicings and amusements, such as horse-races, dances, processions, -&c. The great importance attached to this festival by the Amyclaeans -and Lacedaemonians is seen from the fact, that the Amyclaeans, even -when they had taken the field against an enemy, always returned home -on the approach of the season of the Hyacinthia, that they might not -be obliged to neglect its celebration; and that in a treaty with -Sparta, B.C. 421, the Athenians, in order to show their good-will -towards Sparta, promised every year to attend the celebration of this -festival. - - -HYBRĔŌS GRĂPHĒ (ὕβρεως γραφή), an action prescribed by the Attic law -for wanton and contumelious injury to the person, whether in the -nature of indecent (δι’ αἰσχρουργίας) or other assaults (διὰ πληγῶν). -The severity of the sentence extended to confiscation or death. - - -HYDRAULIS (ὕδραυλις), an hydraulic organ, invented by Ctesibius -of Alexandria, who lived about B.C. 200. Its pipes were partly of -bronze, and partly of reed. The number of its stops, and consequently -of its rows of pipes, varied from one to eight. It continued in use -so late as the ninth century of our era. The organ was well adapted -to gratify the Roman people in the splendid entertainments provided -for them by the emperors and other opulent persons. Nero was very -curious about organs, both in regard to their musical effect and -their mechanism. A contorniate coin of this emperor, in the British -Museum, shows an organ with a sprig of laurel on one side, and a man -standing on the other. - -[Illustration: Hydraulis, water-organ. (Coin of Nero in British -Museum.)] - - -HYDRĬAPHŎRĬA (ὑδριαφορία), was the carrying of a vessel with water -(ὑδρία), which service the married alien (μέτοικοι) women had to -perform to the married part of the female citizens of Athens, when -they walked to the temple of Athena in the great procession at the -Panathenaea. - - -HỸPORCHĒMA (ὑπόρχημα), a lively kind of mimic dance which accompanied -the songs used in the worship of Apollo, especially among the -Dorians. A chorus of singers at the festivals of Apollo usually -danced around the altar, while several other persons were appointed -to accompany the action of the song with an appropriate mimic -performance (ὑπορχεῖσθαι). The hyporchema was thus a lyric dance, and -often passed into the playful and comic. - - - - -IDUS. [CALENDARIUM.] - - -IGNŌMĬNĬA. [CENSOR; INFAMIA.] - - -IGNŌBĬLES. [NOBILES.] - - -ĬMĀGO, a representation or likeness, an image or figure of a person. -Among the Romans those persons, who had filled any of the higher or -curule magistracies of the state, had the right of having images of -themselves. Respecting this _jus imaginum_ see NOBILES. - - -IMMŪNĬTAS (from _in_ and _munus_), signifies, (1) A freedom from -taxes. (2) A freedom from services which other citizens had to -discharge. With respect to the first kind of immunitas we find that -the emperors frequently granted it to separate persons, or to certain -classes of persons, or to whole states. The second kind of immunitas -was granted to all persons who had a valid excuse (_excusatio_) -to be released from such, services, and also to other persons as -a special favour. The immunitas might be either general, from all -services which a citizen owed to the state, or special, such as from -military service, from taking the office of tutor or guardian, and -the like. - - -IMPĔRĀTOR. [IMPERIUM.] - - -IMPĔRĬUM, was under the republic a power, without which no military -operation could be carried on as in the name and on the behalf of the -state. It was not incident to any office, and was always specially -conferred by a lex curiata, that is, a lex passed in the comitia -curiata. Consequently, not even a consul could act as commander of -an army, unless he were empowered by a lex curiata. It could not be -held or exercised within the city in the republican period; but it -was sometimes conferred specially upon an individual for the day -of his triumph within the city, and at least, in some cases, by a -plebiscitum. As opposed to _potestas, imperium_ is the power which -was conferred by the state upon an individual who was appointed to -command an army. The phrases _consularis potestas_ and _consulare -imperium_ might both be properly used; but the expression _tribunitia -potestas_ only could be used, as the tribuni never received the -imperium. In respect of his imperium, he who received it was styled -_imperator_. After a victory it was usual for the soldiers to salute -their commander as imperator, but this salutation neither gave nor -confirmed the title, since the title as a matter of course was given -with the imperium. Under the republic the title came properly after -the name; thus Cicero, when he was proconsul in Cilicia, could -properly style himself M. Tullius Cicero Imperator, for the term -merely expressed that he had the imperium. The emperors Tiberius and -Claudius refused to assume the praenomen of imperator, but the use -of it as a praenomen became established among their successors. The -term imperium was applied in the republican period to express the -sovereignty of the Roman state. Thus Gaul is said by Cicero to have -come under the imperium and ditio of the populus Romanus. - - -IMPLŬVĬUM. [DOMUS.] - - -IMPŪBES. An infans was incapable of doing any legal act. An impubes, -who had passed the limits of infantia, could do any legal act with -the auctoritas of his tutor. With the attainment of pubertas, a -person obtained the full power over his property, and the tutela -ceased: he could also dispose of his property by will; and he could -contract marriage. Pubertas, in the case of a male, was attained -with the completion of the fourteenth, and, in a female, with the -completion of the twelfth year. Upon attaining the age of puberty a -Roman youth assumed the toga virilis, but until that time he wore the -toga praetexta, the broad purple hem of which (_praetexta_) at once -distinguished him from other persons. The toga virilis was assumed -at the Liberalia in the month of March, and though no age appears to -have been positively fixed for the ceremony, it probably took place -as a general rule on the feast which next followed the completion of -the fourteenth year; though it is certain that the completion of the -fourteenth year was not always the time observed. Still, so long as a -male wore the praetexta, he was impubes, and when he assumed the toga -virilis, he was pubes. - - -INAUGŬRĀTĬO, was in general the ceremony by which the augurs -obtained, or endeavoured to obtain, the sanction of the gods to -something which had been decreed by man; in particular, however, -it was the ceremony by which things or persons were consecrated -to the gods, whence the terms _dedicatio_ and _consecratio_ were -sometimes used as synonymous with inauguratio. Not only were priests -inaugurated, but also the higher magistrates, who for this purpose -were summoned by the augurs to appear on the capitol, on the third -day after their election. This inauguratio conferred no priestly -dignity upon the magistrates, but was merely a method of obtaining -the sanction of the gods to their election, and gave them the right -to take auspicia; and on important emergencies it was their duty to -make use of this privilege. - - -INAURIS, an ear-ring; called in Greek ἐνώτιον, because it was worn in -the ear (οὗς), and ἐλλόβιον, because it was inserted into the lobe -of the ear (λοβός), which was bored for the purpose. Ear-rings were -worn by both sexes in oriental countries. Among the Greeks and Romans -they were worn only by females. This ornament consisted of the ring -(κρίκος), and of the drops (_stalagmia_). The ring was generally -of gold, although the common people also wore ear-rings of bronze. -Instead of a ring a hook was often used. The drops were sometimes of -gold, very finely wrought, and sometimes of pearls. - - -INCENDĬUM, the crime of setting any object on fire, by which -the property of a man is endangered. A law of the Twelve Tables -inflicted a severe punishment on the person who set fire to property -maliciously (_sciens_, _prudens_); but if it was done by accident -(_casu_, _id est_, _negligentia_), the law obliged the offender to -repair the injury he had committed. Sulla, in his _Lex Cornelia -de Sicariis_, punished malicious (_dolo malo_) incendium, but only -in the city, or within a thousand paces of it, with aquae et ignis -interdictio. Cn. Pompeius, in B.C. 52, made incendium a crime of -_Vis_ by his _Lex Pompeia de Vi_, in consequence of the burning of -the Curia and the Porcia Basilica on the burial of Clodius; and -Julius Caesar also included it in his _Lex Julia de Vi_. Besides the -two criminal prosecutions given by the Lex Cornelia and Lex Julia, -a person could also bring actions to recover compensation for the -injury done to his property. - - -INCESTUM or INCESTUS. Incestum is non castum, and signifies generally -all immoral and irreligious acts. In a narrower sense it denotes the -unchastity of a Vestal, and sexual intercourse of persons within -certain degrees of consanguinity. Incest with a Vestal was punished -with the death of both parties. [VESTALES.] - - -INCŪNĀBŬLA or CŪNABŬLA (σπάργανον), swaddling-clothes, in which a -new-born child was wrapped. It was one of the peculiarities of the -Lacedaemonian education to dispense with the use of incunabula, and -to allow children to enjoy the free use of their limbs. - -[Illustration: Incunabula, swaddling-clothes. (From a Bas-relief at -Rome.)] - - -INDUTUS. [AMICTUS.] - - -INFĀMĬA, was a consequence of condemnation for certain crimes, -and also a direct consequence of certain acts, such as adultery, -prostitution, appearing on the public stage as an actor, &c. A -person who became _infamis_ lost the suffragium and honores, and -was degraded to the condition of an aerarian. Infamia should be -distinguished from the _Nota Censoria_, the consequence of which was -only _ignominia_. [CENSOR.] - - -INFANS, INFANTIA. In the Roman law there were several distinctions of -age which were made with reference to the capacity for doing legal -acts:--1. The first period was from birth to the end of the seventh -year, during which time persons were called _Infantes_, or _Qui fari -non possunt_. 2. The second period was from the end of seven years -to the end of fourteen or twelve years, according as the person was -a male or a female, during which persons were defined as those _Qui -fari possunt_. The persons included in these first two classes were -_Impuberes_. 3. The third period was from the end of the twelfth or -fourteenth to the end of the twenty-fifth year, during which period -persons were _Adolescentes_, _Adulti_. The persons included in these -three classes were minores xxv annis or annorum, and were often, -for brevity’s sake, called minores only [CURATOR]; and the persons -included in the third and fourth class were _Puberes_. 4. The fourth -period was from the age of twenty-five, during which persons were -_Majores_. - - -INFĔRĬAE. [FUNUS.] - - -INFŬLA, a flock of white and red wool, which was slightly twisted, -drawn into the form of a wreath or fillet, and used by the Romans for -ornament on festive and solemn occasions. In sacrificing it was tied -with a white band [VITTA] to the head of the victim and also of the -priest. - - -INGĔNŬI, were those freemen who were born free. Consequently, -freedmen (_libertini_) were not ingenui, though the sons of libertini -were ingenui; nor could a libertinus by adoption become ingenuus. -The words _ingenuus_ and _libertinus_ are often opposed to one -another; and the title of freeman (_liber_), which would comprehend -_libertinus_, is sometimes limited by the addition of _ingenuus_ -(_liber et ingenuus_.) Under the empire a person, not ingenuus by -birth, could be made ingenuus by the emperor. - - -INJŪRĬA. _Injuria_, in the general sense, is opposed to _Jus_. In a -special sense _injuria_ was done by striking or beating a man either -with the hand or with anything; by abusive words (_convicium_); by -the proscriptio bonorum, when the claimant knew that the alleged -debtor was not really indebted to him; by libellous writings or -verses; by soliciting a materfamilias, &c. The Twelve Tables had -various provisions on the subject of Injuria. Libellous songs or -verses were followed by capital punishment. In the case of a limb -being mutilated the punishment was Talio. In the case of a broken -bone, the penalty was 300 asses if the injury was done to a freeman, -and 150 if it was done to a slave. In other cases the Tables fixed -the penalty at 25 asses. These penalties were afterwards considered -to be insufficient; and the injured person was allowed by the praetor -to claim such damages as he thought that he was entitled to, and the -judex might give the full amount or less. Infamia was a consequence -of condemnation in an actio Injuriarum. - - -ĪNŌA (ἰνῶα), festivals celebrated in several parts of Greece, in -honour of Ino. - - -INQUĬLĪNUS. [EXSILIUM.] - - -INSTĬTA (περιπόδιον), a flounce; a fillet. The Roman matrons -sometimes wore a broad fillet with ample folds, sewed to the bottom -of the tunic and reaching to the instep. The use of it indicated a -superior regard to decency and propriety of manners. - - -INSŬLA was, properly, a house not joined to the neighbouring houses -by a common wall. An insula, however, generally contained several -separate houses, or at least separate apartments or shops, which -were let to different families; and hence the word _domus_ under -the emperors seems to be applied to the house where a family lived, -whether it were an insula or not, and insula to any hired lodgings. - - -INTERCESSĬO was the interference of a magistrates to whom an appeal -[APPELLATIO] was made. The object of the intercessio was to put a -stop to proceedings, on the ground of informality or other sufficient -cause. Any magistratus might _intercedere_, who was of equal rank -with or of rank superior to the magistratus from or against whom -the appellatio was. Cases occur in which one of the praetors -interposed (_intercessit_) against the proceedings of his colleague. -The intercessio is most frequently spoken of with reference to -the tribunes, who originally had not jurisdictio, but used the -intercessio for the purpose of preventing wrong which was offered to -a person in their presence. The intercessio of the tribunes of the -plebs was auxilium, and it might be exercised either _in jure_ or -_in judicio_. The tribune _qui intercessit_ could prevent a judicium -from being instituted. The tribunes could also use the intercessio -to prevent execution of a judicial sentence. A single tribune could -effect this, and against the opinion of his colleagues. - - -INTERCĪSI DĬES. [DIES.] - - -INTERDICTUM. “In certain cases (_certis ex causis_) the praetor or -proconsul, in the first instance (_principaliter_), exercises his -authority for the termination of disputes. This he chiefly does -when the dispute is about possession or quasi-possession; and the -exercise of his authority consists in ordering something to be done, -or forbidding something to be done. The formulae and the terms, -which he uses on such occasions, are called either _interdicta_ or -_decreta_. They are called _decreta_ when he orders something to be -done, as when he orders something to be produced (_exhiberi_) or to -be restored: they are called _interdicta_ when he forbids something -to be done, as when he orders that force shall not be used against -a person who is in possession rightfully (_sine vitio_), or that -nothing shall be done on a piece of sacred ground. Accordingly all -interdicta are either restitutoria, or exhibitoria, or prohibitoria.” -This passage, which is taken from Gaius, the Roman jurist, contains -the essential distinction between an _actio_ and an _interdictum_. -In the case of an actio, the praetor pronounces no order or decree, -but he gives a judex, whose business it is to investigate the -matter in dispute, and to pronounce a sentence consistently with -the formula, which is his authority for acting. In the case of an -actio, therefore, the praetor neither orders nor forbids a thing to -be done, but he says, _Judicium dabo_. In the case of an interdict, -the praetor makes an order that something shall be done or shall not -be done, and his words are accordingly words of command; _Restituas, -Exhibeas, Vim fieri veto_. This _immediate_ interposition of the -praetor is appropriately expressed by the word _principaliter_. - - -INTERPRES, an interpreter. This class of persons became very numerous -and necessary to the Romans as their empire extended. In large -mercantile towns the interpreters, who formed a kind of agents -through whom business was done, were sometimes very numerous. All -Roman praetors, proconsuls, and quaestors, who were entrusted with -the administration of a province, had to carry on all their official -proceedings in the Latin language, and as they could not be expected -to be acquainted with the language of the provincials, they had -always among their servants [APPARITORES] one or more interpreters, -who were generally Romans, but in most cases undoubtedly freedmen. -These interpreters had not only to officiate at the conventus -[CONVENTUS], but also explained to the Roman governor everything -which the provincials might wish to be laid before him. - - -INTERREGNUM. [INTERREX.] - - -INTERREX. This office is said to have been instituted on the death of -Romulus, when the senate wished to share the sovereign power among -themselves, instead of electing a king. For this purpose, according -to Livy, the senate, which then consisted of one hundred members, -was divided into ten decuries; and from each of these decuries one -senator was nominated. These together formed a board of ten, with the -title of _Interreges_, each of whom enjoyed in succession the regal -power and its badges for five days; and if no king was appointed at -the expiration of fifty days, the rotation began anew. The period -during which they exercised their power was called an _Interregnum_. -These ten interreges were the _Decem Primi_, or ten leading senators, -of whom the first was chief of the whole senate. The interreges -agreed among themselves who should be proposed as king, and if the -senate approved of their choice, they summoned the assembly of the -curiae, and proposed the person whom they had previously agreed -upon; the power of the curiae was confined to accepting or rejecting -him. Interreges were appointed under the republic for holding the -comitia for the election of the consuls, when the consuls, through -civil commotions or other causes, had been unable to do so in their -year of office. Each held the office for only five days, as under -the kings. The comitia were hardly ever held by the first interrex; -more usually by the second or third; but in one instance we read of -an eleventh, and in another of a fourteenth interrex. The interreges -under the republic, at least from B.C. 482, were elected by the -senate from the whole body, and were not confined to the decem primi -or ten chief senators, as under the kings. Plebeians, however, were -not admissible to this office; and consequently, when plebeians were -admitted into the senate, the patrician senators met without the -plebeian members to elect an interrex. For this reason, as well as on -account of the influence which the interrex exerted in the election -of the magistrates, we find that the tribunes of the plebs were -strongly opposed to the appointment of an interrex. The interrex had -jurisdictio. Interreges continued to be appointed occasionally till -the time of the second Punic war, but after that time we read of no -interrex, till the senate, by command of Sulla, created an interrex -to hold the comitia for his election as dictator, B.C. 82. In B.C. 55 -another interrex was appointed, to hold the comitia in which Pompey -and Crassus were elected consuls; and we also read of interreges in -B.C. 53 and 52, in the latter of which years an interrex held the -comitia in which Pompey was appointed sole consul. - - -ISTHMĬA (ἴσθμια), the Isthmian games, one of the four great national -festivals of the Greeks. This festival derived its name from the -Corinthian isthmus, where it was held. Subsequent to the age of -Theseus the Isthmia were celebrated in honour of Poseidon; and this -innovation is ascribed to Theseus himself. The celebration of the -Isthmia was conducted by the Corinthians, but Theseus had reserved -for his Athenians some honourable distinctions: those Athenians who -attended the Isthmia sailed across the Saronic gulf in a sacred -vessel (θεωρίς), and an honorary place (προεδρία), as large as the -sail of their vessel, was assigned to them during the celebration -of the games. In times of war between the two states a sacred truce -was concluded, and the Athenians were invited to attend at the -solemnities. These games were celebrated regularly every other year, -in the first and third years of each Olympiad. After the fall of -Corinth, in 146 B.C., the Sicyonians were honoured with the privilege -of conducting the Isthmian games; but when the town of Corinth was -rebuilt by Julius Caesar, the right of conducting the solemnities -was restored to the Corinthians. The season of the Isthmian -solemnities was, like that of all the great national festivals, -distinguished by general rejoicings and feasting. The contests and -games of the Isthmia were the same as those at Olympia, and embraced -all the varieties of athletic performances, such as wrestling, -the pancratium, together with horse and chariot racing. Musical -and poetical contests were likewise carried on, and in the latter -women were also allowed to take part. The prize of a victor in the -Isthmian games consisted at first of a garland of pine-leaves, and -afterwards of a wreath of ivy. Simple as such a reward was, a victor -in these games gained the greatest distinction and honour among -his countrymen; and a victory not only rendered the individual who -obtained it a subject of admiration, but shed lustre over his family, -and the whole town or community to which he belonged. Hence Solon -established by a law, that every Athenian who gained the victory at -the Isthmian games should receive from the public treasury a reward -of one hundred drachmae. His victory was generally celebrated in -lofty odes, called Epinikia, or triumphal odes, of which we still -possess some beautiful specimens among the poems of Pindar. - - - - -JĂCŬLUM. [HASTA.] - - -JĀNŬA (θύρα), a door. Besides being applicable to the doors of -apartments in the interior of a house, which were properly called -_ostia_, this term more especially denoted the first entrance into -the house, _i.e._ the front or street door, which was also called -_anticum_, and in Greek θύρα αὔλειος, αὐλεία, αὔλιος, or αὐλία. The -houses of the Romans commonly had a back door, called _posticum_, -_postica_, or _posticula_, and in Greek παράθυρα, _dim._ παραθύριον. -The door-way, when complete, consisted of four indispensable -parts; the threshold, or sill (_limen_, βηλός, οὖδας); the lintel -(_jugumentum, limen superum_); and the two jambs (_postes_, σταθμοί). -The door itself was called _foris_ or _valva_, and in Greek σανίς, -κλισιάς, or θύρετρον. These words are commonly found in the plural, -because the door-way of every building of the least importance -contained two doors folding together. When _foris_ is used in the -singular, it denotes one of the folding doors only. The fastenings -of the door (_claustra_, _obices_) commonly consisted of a bolt -(_pessulus_; μάνδαλος, κατοχεύς, κλεῖθρον) placed at the base of each -_foris_, so as to admit of being pushed into a socket made in the -sill to receive it. By night, the front-door of the house was further -secured by means of a wooden and sometimes an iron bar (_sera_, -_repagula_, μοχλός) placed across it, and inserted into sockets on -each side of the door-way. Hence it was necessary to remove the bar -(τὸν μοχλὸν παράφερειν) in order to open the door (_reserare_). It -was considered improper to enter a house without giving notice to its -inmates. This notice the Spartans gave by shouting; the Athenians and -all other nations by using the knocker, or more commonly by rapping -with the knuckles or with a stick (κρούειν, κόπτειν). In the houses -of the rich a porter (_janitor_, _custos_, θυρωρός) was always in -attendance to open the door. He was commonly an eunuch or a slave, -and was chained to his post. To assist him in guarding the entrance, -a dog was universally kept near it, being also attached by a chain -to the wall; and in reference to this practice, the warning _cave -canem_, εὐλαβοῦ τὴν κύνα, was sometimes written near the door. The -appropriate name for the portion of the house immediately behind the -door (θυρών) denotes that it was a kind of apartment; it corresponded -to the hall or lobby of our houses. Immediately adjoining it, and -close to the front door, there was in many houses a small room for -the porter. - - -JENTĀCŬLUM. [COENA.] - - -JŪDEX, JŪDĬCĬUM. A Roman magistratus generally did not investigate -the facts in dispute in such matters as were brought before him: -he appointed a judex for that purpose, and gave him instructions. -[ACTIO.] Accordingly, the whole of civil procedure was expressed -by the two phrases _Jus_ and _Judicium_, of which the former -comprehended all that took place before the magistratus (_in -jure_), and the latter all that took place before the judex (_in -judicio_). In many cases a single judex was appointed: in others, -several were appointed, and they seem to have been sometimes -called recuperatores, as opposed to the single judex. Under certain -circumstances the judex was called arbiter: thus judex and arbiter -are named together in the Twelve Tables. A judex when appointed was -bound to discharge the functions of the office, unless he had some -valid excuse (_excusatio_). There were certain seasons of the year -when legal business was done at Rome, and at these times the services -of the judices were required. These legal terms were regulated -according to the seasons, so that there were periods of vacation. -When the judex was appointed, the proceedings _in jure_ or before the -praetor were terminated. The parties appeared before the judex on -the third day (_comperendinatio_), unless the praetor had deferred -the judicium for some sufficient reason. The judex was generally -aided by advisers (_jurisconsulti_) learned in the law, who were -said _in consilio adesse_; but the judex alone was empowered to give -judgment. The matter was first briefly stated to the judex (_causae -conjectio, collectio_), and the advocates of each party supported -his cause in a speech. Witnesses were produced on both sides, and -examined orally: the witnesses on one side were also cross-examined -by the other. After all the evidence was given and the advocates had -finished, the judex gave sentence: if there were several judices, a -majority decided. If the matter was one of difficulty, the hearing -might be adjourned as often as was necessary (_ampliatio_); and if -the judex could not come to a satisfactory conclusion, he might -declare this upon oath, and so release himself from the difficulty. -This was done by the form of words _non liquere_ (N. L.). The -sentence was pronounced orally, and was sometimes first written on a -tablet. If the defendant did not make his appearance after being duly -summoned, judgment might be given against him.--According to Cicero, -all judicia had for their object, either the settlement of disputes -between individuals (_controversiae_), or the punishment of crimes -(_maleficia_). This refers to a division of judicia, which appears -in the jurists, into _judicia publica_ and _judicia privata_. The -former, the _judicia publica_, succeeded to the _judicia populi_ of -the early republican period: the latter were so called because in -them the populus acted as judices. Originally the kings presided in -all criminal cases, and the consuls succeeded to their authority. But -after the passing of the Lex Valeria (B.C. 507), which gave an appeal -to the populus (that is, the comitia curiata) from the magistratus, -the consul could not sit in judgment on the caput of a Roman -citizen, but such cases were tried in the comitia, or persons were -appointed to preside at such inquiries, who were accordingly called -_Quaesitores_ or _Quaestores parricidii_ or _rerum capitalium_. In -course of time, as such cases became of more frequent occurrence, -such quaestiones were made perpetual, that is, particular magistrates -were appointed for the purpose. It was eventually determined, -that while the _praetor urbanus_ and _peregrinus_ should continue -to exercise their usual jurisdictions, the other praetors should -preside at public trials. In such trials any person might be an -accuser (_accusator_). The praetor generally presided as quaesitor, -assisted by a judex quaestionis, and a body of judices called his -consilium. The judices were generally chosen by lot out of those who -were qualified to act; but in some cases the accuser and the accused -(_reus_) had the privilege of choosing (_edere_) a certain number of -judices out of a large number, who were thence called _Edititii_. -Both the accusator and the reus had the privilege of rejecting or -challenging (_rejicere_) such judices as they did not like. In many -cases a lex was passed for the purpose of regulating the mode of -procedure.--The judices voted by ballot, at least generally, and a -majority determined the acquittal or condemnation of the accused. -Each judex was provided with three tablets (_tabulae_), on one of -which was marked A, _Absolvo_; on a second C, _Condemno_; and on -a third N. L., _Non liquet_. The judices voted by placing one of -these tablets in the urns, which were then examined for the purpose -of ascertaining the votes. It was the duty of the magistratus to -pronounce the sentence of the judices; in the case of condemnation, -to adjudge the legal penalty; of acquittal, to declare the accused -acquitted; and of doubt, to declare that the matter must be further -investigated (_amplius cognoscendum_).--A _judicium populi_, properly -so called, was one in which the case was tried in the comitia -curiata, but afterwards in the comitia centuriata and tributa. -The accuser, who must be a magistratus, commenced by declaring in -a contio that he would on a certain day accuse a certain person, -whom he named, of some offence, which he also specified. This was -expressed by the phrase _diem dicere_. If the offender held any -high office, it was necessary to wait till his time of service had -expired, before proceedings could be thus commenced against him. The -accused was required to give security for his appearance on the day -of trial; the security was called _vades_ in a causa capitalis, and -_praedes_ when the penalty for the alleged offence was pecuniary. If -such security was not given, the accused was kept in confinement. If -nothing prevented the inquiry from taking place at the time fixed for -it, the trial proceeded, and the accuser had to prove his case by -evidence. The investigation of the facts was called _anquisitio_ with -reference to the proposed penalty: accordingly, the phrases _pecunia, -capite_ or _capitis anquirere_, are used. When the investigation was -concluded, the magistratus promulgated a rogatio, which comprehended -the charge and the punishment or fine. It was a rule of law that a -fine should not be imposed together with another punishment in the -same rogatio. The rogatio was made public during three nundinae, like -any other lex, and proposed at the comitia for adoption or rejection. -The accused sometimes withdrew into exile before the votes were -taken; or he might make his defence. The offences which were the -chief subject of judicia populi and publica were majestas, adulteria -and stupra, parricidium, falsum, vis publica and privata, peculatus, -repetundae, ambitus.--With the passing of special enactments for -the punishment of particular offences, was introduced the practice -of forming a body of judices for the trial of such offences as the -enactments were directed against. The _Album Judicum_ was the body -out of which judices were to be chosen. It is not known what was -the number of the body so constituted, but it has been conjectured -that the number was 350, and that ten were chosen from each tribe, -and thus the origin of the phrase _Decuriae Judicum_ is explained. -It is easy to conceive that the judicia populi, properly so called, -would be less frequent, as special leges were framed for particular -offences, the circumstances of which could be better investigated -by a smaller body of judices than by the assembled people. The Lex -Servilia (B.C. 104) enacted that the judices should not be under -thirty nor above sixty years of age, that the accuser and accused -should severally propose one hundred judices, and that each might -reject fifty from the list of the other, so that one hundred would -remain for the trial. Up to B.C. 122 the judices were always -senators, but in this year the Sempronia Lex of C. Gracchus took the -judicia from the senators and gave them to the equites. This state -of things lasted nearly fifty years, till Sulla (B.C. 80) restored -the judicia to the senate, and excluded the equites from the album -judicum. A Lex Aurelia (B.C. 70) enacted that the judices should be -chosen from the three classes--of senators, equites, and tribuni -aerarii; and accordingly the judicia were then said to be divided -between the senate and the equites. The tribuni aerarii were taken -from the rest of the citizens, and were, or ought to have been, -persons of some property. Thus the three decuriae of judices were -formed; and it was either in consequence of the Lex Aurelia or the -Lex Fufia that, instead of one urn for all the tablets, the decuriae -had severally their balloting urn, so that the votes of the three -classes were known. It is not known if the Lex Aurelia determined the -number of judices in any given case. The Lex Pompeia de Vi and De -Ambitu (B.C. 52) determined that eighty judices were to be selected -by lot, out of whom the accuser and the accused might reject thirty. -In the case of Clodius, in the matter of the Bona Dea, there were -fifty-six judices. It is conjectured that the number fixed for a -given case, by the Lex Aurelia, was seventy judices. Augustus added -to the existing three decuriae judicum a fourth decuria, called that -of the _Ducenarii_, who had a lower pecuniary qualification, and only -decided in smaller matters. Caligula added a fifth decuria, in order -to diminish the labours of the judices. - - -JŪGĔRUM, a Roman measure of surface, 240 feet in length and 120 in -breadth, containing therefore 28,800 square feet. It was the double -of the _Actus Quadratus_, and from this circumstance, according to -some writers, it derived its name. [ACTUS.] The uncial division [AS] -was applied to the _jugerum_, its smallest part being the _scrupulum_ -of 10 feet square, = 100 square feet. Thus the _jugerum_ contained -288 scrupula. The jugerum was the common measure of land among the -Romans. Two _jugera_ formed an _heredium_, a hundred _heredia_ a -_centuria_, and four _centuriae_ a _saltus_. These divisions were -derived from the original assignment of landed property, in which two -_jugera_ were given to each citizen as heritable property. - - -JŬGUM (ζυγός, ζυγόν), signified in general that which joined two -things together, such as the transverse beam which united the upright -posts of a loom, the cross-bar of a lyre, a scale-beam, &c., but -it denoted more especially the yoke by which ploughs and carriages -were drawn. The following woodcut shows two examples of the yoke: -the upper one is provided with two collars, the lower one with -excavations cut in the yoke, in order to give more ease and freedom -to the animals. The latter figure shows the method of tying the -yoke to the pole (_temo_, ῥυμός) by means of a leathern strap. The -word jugum is often used to signify _slavery_, or the condition in -which men are compelled, against their will, like oxen or horses, to -labour for others. Hence, to express symbolically the subjugation -of conquered nations, the Romans made their captives pass under a -yoke (_sub jugum mittere_), which, however, was not made like the -yoke used in drawing carriages or ploughs, but consisted of a spear -supported transversely by two others placed upright. - -[Illustration: Jugum, yoke.] - - -JŪRISCONSULTI or JŪRĔCONSULTI arose among the Romans after the -separation of the Jus Civile from the Jus Pontificium. Such a body -certainly existed before the time of Cicero, and the persons who -professed to expound the law were called by the various names of -_jurisperiti_, _jurisconsulti_, or _consulti_ simply. They were also -designated by other names, as _jurisprudentes_, _prudentiores_, -_peritiores_, and _juris auctores_. The business of the early -jurisconsulti consisted both in advising and acting on behalf of -their clients (_consultores_) gratuitously. They gave their advice -or answers (_responsa_) either in public places which they attended -at certain times, or at their own houses; and not only on matters -of law, but on any thing else that might be referred to them. The -words _scribere_ and _cavere_ referred to their employment in -drawing up formal instruments, such as contracts or wills, &c. At a -later period, many of these functions were performed by persons who -were paid by a fee, and thus there arose a body of practitioners -distinct from those who gave responsa and who were writers and -teachers. Tiberius Coruncanius, a plebeian, who was consul B.C. 281, -and also the first plebeian Pontifex Maximus, is mentioned as the -first who publicly professed (_publice professus est_), and he was -distinguished both for his knowledge of the law and his eloquence. - - -JŪRISDICTIO, signifies generally the authority of the magistrate “qui -jus dicit,” and is mostly applied to the authority of the praetor in -civil cases, such as the giving of the formula in an actio and the -appointment of a judex. [ACTIO.] - - -JŪS. The law peculiar to the Roman state is sometimes called _Jus -Civile Romanorum_, but more frequently _Jus Civile_ only. The _Jus -Quiritium_ is equivalent to the _Jus Civile Romanorum_. The _jus -civil_e of the Romans is divisible into two parts, _jus civile_ in -the narrower sense, and _jus pontificium_, or the law of religion. -This opposition is sometimes expressed by the words _Jus_ and _Fas_. -The law of religion, or the _Jus Pontificium_, was under the control -of the pontifices, who in fact originally had the control of the -whole mass of the law; and it was only after the separation of the -jus civile in its wider sense into the two parts of the jus civile, -in its narrower sense, and the jus pontificium, that each part had -its proper and peculiar limits. Still, even after the separation, -there was a mutual relation between these two branches of law; for -instance, an adrogatio was not valid by the jus civile unless it was -valid by the jus pontificium. Again, jus pontificium, in its wider -sense, as the law of religion, had its subdivisions, as into jus -augurum, pontificium, &c. - - -JŪS CĪVĪLE. [JUS.] - - -JŪS LĂTĪI. [CIVITAS; LATINITAS.] - - -JUS PONTĬFĬCĬUM. [JUS.] - - -JUS QUĬRĪTĬUM. [JUS.] - - -JUSJŪRANDUM (ὅρκος), an oath. (1) GREEK. An oath is an appeal to -some superior being, calling on him to bear witness that the swearer -speaks the truth, or intends to perform the promise which he makes. -We find early mention in the Greek writers of oaths being taken -on solemn and important occasions, as treaties, alliances, vows, -compacts, and agreements, both between nations and individuals. -The Greeks paid high regard to the sanctity of oaths. The poets -frequently allude to the punishment of perjury after death, which -they assign to the infernal gods or furies, and we find many proofs -of a persuasion that perjurers would not prosper in this world. -Anciently the person who took an oath stood up, and lifted his hands -to heaven, as he would in prayer; for an oath was a species of -prayer, and required the same sort of ceremony. Oaths were frequently -accompanied with sacrifice or libation. The parties used also to -lay their hands upon the victims, or on the altar or some other -sacred thing, as if by so doing they brought before them the deity -by whom the oath was sworn, and made him witness of the ceremony. -Hence the expressions πρὸς τὸν βωμὸν ἐξορκίζειν, ὀμνύναι καθ’ -ἱερῶν. The hand especially was regarded as a pledge of fidelity, -and the allusions to the junction of hands in making contracts and -agreements abound in the ancient writers. The different nations of -Greece swore by their own peculiar gods and heroes; as the Thebans -by Hercules, Iolaus, &c., the Lacedaemonians by Castor and Pollux, -the Corinthians by Poseidon; the Athenians swore principally by Zeus, -Athena, Apollo (their πατρῷος θεὸς), Demeter, and Dionysus. The -office or character of the party, or the place, or the occasion often -suggested the oath to be taken. As swearing became a common practice -with men upon trivial occasions, and in ordinary conversation, they -used to take oaths by any god, person, or thing, as their peculiar -habits or predilections, or the fancy of the moment, dictated. Women -also had their favourite oaths. As the men preferred swearing by -Hercules, Apollo, &c., so the other sex used to swear by Aphrodite, -Demeter, and Persephone, Hera, Hecate, Artemis; and Athenian women by -Aglauros, Pandrosus, &c.--(2) ROMAN. I. _Oaths taken by magistrates -and other persons who entered the service of the republic._--After -the establishment of the republic the consuls, and subsequently all -the other magistrates, were obliged, within five days after their -appointment, to promise on oath that they would protect and observe -the laws of the republic (_in leges jurare_). Vestal virgins and the -flamen dialis were not allowed to swear on any occasion. During the -later period of the republic we also find that magistrates, when the -time of their office had expired, addressed the people and swore that -during their office they had undertaken nothing against the republic, -but had done their utmost to promote its welfare. All Roman soldiers -after they were enlisted for a campaign, had to take the military -oath (_sacramentum_). It may here be remarked that any oath might be -taken in two ways: the person who took it, either framed it himself, -or it was put to him in a set form, and in this case he was said -in _verba jurare_, or _jurare verbis conceptis_.--II. _Oaths taken -in transactions with foreign nations in the name of the republic._ -According to the most ancient form the pater patratus pronounced -the oath in the name of his country, and struck the victim with a -flint-stone, calling on Jupiter to destroy the Roman nation in like -manner, as he (the pater patratus) destroyed the animal, if the -people should violate the oath. The chiefs or priests of the other -nation then swore in a similar manner by their own gods. In swearing -to a treaty with a foreign nation, a victim (a pig or a lamb) was -in the early times always sacrificed by the fetialis (whence the -expressions _foedus icere_, ὅρκια τέμνειν), and the priest while -pronouncing the oath probably touched the victim or the altar. The -jus fetiale, however, fell into disuse as the Romans extended their -conquests; and as in most cases of treaties with foreign nations, the -Romans were not the party that chose to promise anything on oath, we -hear no more of oaths on their part. At first the Romans were very -scrupulous in observing their oaths in contracts or treaties with -foreigners, and even with enemies; but from the third Punic war to -the end of the republic, perjury was common among the Romans in their -dealings with foreigners as well as among themselves.--III. _Oaths or -various modes of swearing in common life._ The practice of swearing -in ordinary conversations, was as common among the Romans as among -the Greeks. The forms used were sometimes simple invocations of one -or more gods, as _Hercle_ or _Mehercle_, that is, ita me Hercules -juvet, amet, or servet; _Pol_, _Perpol_ or _Aedepol_, that is, per -Pollucem; _per Jovem Lapidem_ or simply _per Jovem_; _per superos_; -_per deos immortales_; _medius fidius_, that is, ita me Dius (Δίος) -filius juvet; _ita me deus amet_, or _dii ament_. Women as well as -men swore by most of the gods; but some oaths were peculiar to one -of the sexes. Thus women never swore by Hercules, and men never by -Castor. Sometimes oaths were accompanied with an execration, in case -the swearer was stating a falsehood: as _Dii me perdant_; _dii me -interficiant_; _dispeream_; _ne vivam_; _ne salvus sim_, &c.--IV. -_Oaths taken before the praetor or in courts of justice._ There might -be a _jusjurandum_ either _in jure_ or _in judicio_. The _jusjurandum -in jure_ is the oath which one party proposed to his adversary -(_detulit_) that he should make about the matter in dispute; and -the effect of the oath being taken or refused was equivalent to a -judicium. The _jusjurandum in judicio (jusjurandum judiciale)_ was -required by the judex, and not by either of the parties, though -either of the parties might suggest it. - - -JUSTĬTĬUM, a cessation of public business of every kind. Thus the -courts of law and the treasury were shut up, no ambassadors were -received in the senate, and no auctions took place. The _Justitium_ -was proclaimed (_edicere_, _indicere_) by the senate and the -magistrates in times of public alarm and danger; and after confidence -and tranquillity had been restored, the Justitium was removed -(_remittere_, _exuere_) by the same authorities. As such times of -alarm are usually accompanied with general sorrow, a _Justitium_ -came in course of time to be ordained as a mark of public mourning, -and under the empire was only employed for this reason. - - -JŬVĔNĀLĬA, or JŬVĔNĀLES LŪDI, scenic games instituted by Nero, in -A.D. 59, in commemoration of his shaving his beard for the first -time, thus intimating that he had passed from youth to manhood. He -was then in the twenty-second year of his age. These games were not -celebrated in the circus, but in a private theatre erected in a -pleasure-ground (_nemus_), and consisted of every kind of theatrical -performance, Greek and Roman plays, mimetic pieces, and the like. The -Juvenalia continued to be celebrated by subsequent emperors, but not -on the same occasion. The name was given to those games which were -exhibited by the emperors on the 1st of January in each year. They no -longer consisted of scenic representations, but of chariot races and -combats of wild beasts. - - - - -LĂBĂRUM. [SIGNA MILITARIA.] - - -LĂBRUM. [BALNEUM.] - - -LĂBỸRINTHUS (λαβύρινθος), a labyrinth, a large and complicated -subterraneous cavern with numerous and intricate passages, similar -to those of a mine. The earliest and most renowned labyrinth was -that of Egypt, which lay beyond lake Moeris. It had 3000 apartments, -1500 under ground, and the same number above it, and the whole was -surrounded by a wall. It was divided into courts, each of which -was surrounded by colonnades of white marble. The second labyrinth -mentioned by the ancients was that of Crete, in the neighbourhood -of Cnossus, where the Minotaur is said to have dwelt. Although the -Cretan labyrinth is very frequently mentioned by ancient authors, -yet none of them speaks of it as an eyewitness. It was probably some -natural cavern in the neighbourhood of Cnossus. A third labyrinth, -the construction of which belongs to a more historical age, was -that in the island of Lemnos. A fabulous edifice in Etruria is also -mentioned, to which Pliny applies the name of labyrinth. It is -described as being in the neighbourhood of Clusium, and as the tomb -of Lar Porsena; but no writer says that he ever saw it, or remains of -it. - - -LĂCERNA (μανδύας, μανδύη), a cloak worn by the Romans over the toga. -It differed from the paenula in being an open garment like the Greek -pallium, and fastened on the right shoulder by means of a buckle -(_fibula_), whereas the paenula was what is called a _vestimentum -clausum_ with an opening for the head. The Lacerna appears to have -been commonly used in the army. In the time of Cicero it was not -usually worn in the city, but it soon afterwards became quite common -at Rome. The lacerna was sometimes thrown over the head for the -purpose of concealment; but a _cucullus_ or cowl was generally used -for that purpose, which appears to have been frequently attached to -the lacerna, and to have formed a part of the dress. - - -LĂCĬNĬAE, the angular extremities of the toga, one of which was -brought round over the left shoulder. It was generally tucked into -the girdle, but sometimes was allowed to hang down loose. - - -LĂCŌNĬCUM. [BALNEUM.] - - -LĂCŪNAR. [DOMUS.] - - -LĂCUS. [FONS.] - - -LAENA (χλαῖνα), a woollen cloak, the cloth of which was twice the -ordinary thickness, shaggy upon both sides, and worn over the pallium -or the toga for the sake of warmth. In later times the laena seems, -to a certain extent, to have been worn as a substitute for the toga. - - -LAMPĂDĒPHŎRĬA (λαμπαδηφορία), _torch-bearing_, LAMPADEDROMIA -(λαμπαδηδρομία), _torch-race_, and often simply LAMPAS (λαμπάς), -was a game common throughout Greece. At Athens we know of five -celebrations of this game: one to Prometheus at the Prometheia, a -second to Athena at the Panathenaca, a third to Hephaestos at the -Hephaesteia, a fourth to Pan, and a fifth to the Thracian Artemis -or Bendis. The first three are of unknown antiquity; the fourth was -introduced soon after the battle of Marathon; the last in the time of -Socrates. The race was usually run on foot, horses being first used -in the time of Socrates; sometimes also at night. The preparation for -it was a principal branch of the _Gymnasiarchia_, so much so indeed -in later times, that the _Lampadarchia_ (λαμπαδαρχία) seems to have -been pretty much equivalent to the _Gymnasiarchia_. The gymnasiarch -had to provide the lampas, which was a candlestick with a kind of -shield set at the bottom of the socket, so as to shelter the flame of -the candle; as is seen in the following woodcut, taken from a coin. -He had also to provide for the training of the runners, which was -of no slight consequence, for the race was evidently a severe one, -with other expenses, which on the whole were very heavy, so that -Isaeus classes this office with the _choregia_ and _trierarchia_, and -reckons that it had cost him 12 minae. - -[Illustration: Lampae. (From a Coin.)] - - -LAMPAS. [LAMPADEPHORIA.] - - -LANCĔA. [HASTA.] - - -LĂNISTA. [GLADIATORES.] - - -LANX, a large dish, made of silver or some other metal, and sometimes -embossed, used at splendid entertainments to hold meat or fruit; and -consequently at sacrifices and funeral banquets. - - -LAPHRĬA (Λάφρια), an annual festival, celebrated at Patrae in Achaia, -in honour of Artemis, surnamed Laphria. - - -LĂPĬCĪDĪNAE. [LAUTUMIAE.] - - -LĂQUĔAR. [DOMUS, p. 144, _b._] - - -LĂQŬEĀTŌRES. [GLADIATORES.] - - -LĂQUĔUS, a rope, was used to signify the punishment of death by -strangling. This mode of execution was never performed in public, -but only in prison and generally in the Tullianum. Hence we find the -words _carcer_ and _laqueus_ frequently joined together. Persons -convicted of treason were most frequently put to death by strangling, -as for instance the Catilinarian conspirators (_laqueo gulam -fregere_). - - -LĂRĀRĬUM, a place in the inner part of a Roman house, which was -dedicated to the Lares, and in which their images were kept and -worshipped. It seems to have been customary for religious Romans in -the morning, immediately after they rose, to perform their prayers in -the lararium. - - -LĀRENTĀLĬA, sometimes written LĀRENTINĀLIA and LAURENTĀLIA, a Roman -festival in honour of Acca Larentia, the wife of Faustulus and the -nurse of Romulus and Remus. It was celebrated in December, on the -10th before the calends of January. - - -LARGĪTĬO. [AMBITUS.] - - -LĂTER πλίνθος, a brick. The Romans distinguished between those bricks -which were merely dried by the sun and air (_lateres crudi_), and -those which were burnt in the kiln (_cocti_ or _coctiles_). They -preferred for brick making clay which was either whitish or decidedly -red. Pliny calls the brickfield _lateraria_, and to make bricks -_lateres ducere_, corresponding to the Greek πλίνθους ἕλκειν or -ἔρυειν. - - -LĀTĬCLĀVĬI. [CLAVUS.] - - -LĂTĪNAE FĔRĬAE. [FERIAE.] - - -LĂTĪNĬTAS, LĂTĬUM, JUS LĂTĬI. All these expressions are used to -signify a certain status intermediate between that of cives and -peregrini. Before the passing of the Lex Julia de Civitate (B.C. -90) the above expressions denoted a certain nationality, and as part -of it a certain legal status with reference to Rome; but after the -passing of that lex, these expressions denoted only a certain status, -and had no reference to any national distinction. About the year -B.C. 89, a Lex Pompeia gave the jus Latii to all the Transpadani, -and consequently the privilege of obtaining the Roman civitas by -having filled a magistratus in their own cities. To denote the status -of these Transpadani, the word Latinitas was used, which since the -passing of the Lex Julia had lost its proper signification; and this -was the origin of that Latinitas which thenceforth existed to the -time of Justinian. This new Latinitas or jus Latii was given to whole -towns and countries; as, for instance, by Vespasian to the whole of -Spain. It is not certain wherein this new Latinitas differed from -that Latinitas which was the characteristic of the Latini before the -passing of the Lex Julia. It is, however, clear that all the old -Latini had not the same right with respect to Rome; and that they -could acquire the civitas on easier terms than those by which the new -Latinitas was acquired. - - -LĂTRUNCŬLI (πεσσοί, ψήφοι), draughts. The invention of a game -resembling draughts was attributed by the Greeks to Palamedes; -and it is mentioned by Homer. There were two sets of men, one set -being black, the other white or red. Being intended to represent -a miniature combat between two armies, they were called soldiers -(_milites_), foes (_hostes_), and marauders (_latrones_, dim. -_latrunculi_); also _calculi_, because stones were often employed for -the purpose. The Romans often had twelve lines on the draught-board, -whence the game so played was called _duodecim scripta_. - - -LAUDĀTĬO. [FUNUS.] - - -LAURENTĀLĬA. [LARENTALIA.] - - -LAUTŬMĬAE, LAUTŎMIAE, LĀTOMIAE, Or LĀTUMIAE (λιθοτομίαι, -λατομίαι,Lat. _Lapicidinae_), literally places where stones are cut, -or quarries, and more particularly the public prison of Syracuse. It -lay in the steep and almost inaccessible part of the town which was -called Epipolae, and had been built by Dionysius the tyrant. It was -cut to an immense depth into the solid rock, so that nothing could be -imagined to be a safer or stronger prison, though it had no roof, and -thus left the prisoners exposed to the heat of the sun, the rain, and -the coldness of the nights. The Tullianum at Rome was also sometimes -called lautumiae. [CARCER.] - - -LECTICA (κλίνη, κλινίδιον, or φορεῖον), was a kind of couch or -litter, in which persons, in a lying position, were carried from one -place to another. Lecticae were used for carrying the dead [FUNUS] as -well as the living. The Greek lectica consisted of a bed or mattress, -and a pillow to support the head, placed upon a kind of bedstead or -couch. It had a roof, consisting of the skin of an ox, extending over -the couch and resting on four posts. The sides of this lectica were -covered with curtains. In the republican period it appears to have -been chiefly used by women, and by men only when they were in ill -health. When this kind of lectica was introduced among the Romans, -it was chiefly used in travelling, and very seldom in Rome itself. -But towards the end of the republic, and under the empire, it was -commonly used in the city, and was fitted up in the most splendid -manner. Instead of curtains, it was frequently closed on the sides -with windows made of transparent stone (_lapis specularis_), and was -provided with a pillow and bed. When standing, it rested on four -feet, generally made of wood. Persons were carried in a lectica by -slaves (_lecticarii_), by means of poles (_asseres_) attached to it, -but not fixed, so that they might easily be taken off when necessary. -The number of lecticarii employed in carrying one lectica varied -according to its size, and the display of wealth which a person -might wish to make. The ordinary number was probably two; but it -varied from two to eight, and the lectica is called _hexaphoron_ or -_octophoron_, accordingly as it was carried by six or eight persons. - - -LECTISTERNIUM. Sacrifices being of the nature of feasts, the Greeks -and Romans, on occasion of extraordinary solemnities, placed images -of the gods reclining on couches, with tables and viands before them, -as if they were really partaking of the things offered in sacrifice. -This ceremony was called a _lectisternium_. The woodcut here -introduced exhibits one of these couches, which is represented with -a cushion covered by a cloth hanging in ample folds down each side. -This beautiful _pulvinar_ is wrought altogether in white marble, and -is somewhat more than two feet in height. - -[Illustration: Pulvinar used at Lectisternium. (From the Glyptothek -at Munich.)] - - -LECTUS (λέχος, κλίνη, εὐνή), a bed. The complete bed (εὐνή) of a -wealthy Greek in later times generally consisted of the following -parts:--κλίνη, ἐπίτονοι, τυλεῖον or κνέφαλον, προσκεφάλειον, and -στρώματα. The κλίνη is, properly speaking, merely the bedstead, and -seems to have consisted only of posts fitted into one another and -resting upon four feet. At the head part alone there was a board -(ἀνάκλιντρον or ἐπίκλιντρον) to support the pillow and prevent its -falling out. Sometimes, however, the bottom part of a bedstead -was likewise protected by a board, so that in this case a Greek -bedstead resembled what we call a French bedstead. The bedstead was -provided with girths (τόνοι, ἐπίτονοι, κειρία) on which the bed or -mattress (κνέφαλον, τυλεῖον, or τύλη) rested. The cover or ticking -of a mattress was made of linen or woollen cloth, or of leather, -and the usual material with which it was filled was either wool -or dried weeds. At the head part of the bed, and supported by the -ἐπίκλιντρον, lay a round pillow (προσκεφάλειον) to support the head. -The bed-covers (στρώματα) were generally made of cloth, which was -very thick and woolly, either on one or on both sides. The beds -of the Romans (_lecti cubiculares_) in the earlier periods of the -republic were probably of the same description as those used in -Greece; but towards the end of the republic and during the empire, -the richness and magnificence of the beds of the wealthy Romans far -surpassed every thing we find described in Greece. The bedstead was -generally rather high, so that persons entered the bed (_scandere_, -_ascendere_) by means of steps placed beside it (_scamnum_). It was -sometimes made of metal, and sometimes of costly kinds of wood, -or veneered with tortoise-shell or ivory; its feet (_fulcra_) -were frequently of silver or gold. The bed or mattress (_culcita_ -and _torus_) rested upon girths or strings (_restes_, _fasciae_, -_institae_, or _funes_), which connected the two horizontal -side-posts of the bed. In beds destined for two persons the two sides -are distinguished by different names; the side at which persons -entered was open, and bore the name _sponda_; the other side, which -was protected by a board, was called _pluteus_. The two sides of such -a bed are also distinguished by the names _torus exterior_ and _torus -interior_, or _sponda exterior_ and _sponda interior_; and from these -expressions it is not improbable that such lecti had two beds or -mattresses, one for each person. Mattresses were in the earlier times -filled with dry herbs or straw, and such beds continued to be used -by the poor. But in subsequent times wool, and, at a still later -period, feathers, were used by the wealthy for the beds as well as -the pillows. The cloth or ticking (_operimentum_ or _involucrum_) -with which the beds or mattresses were covered, was called _toral_, -_torale_, _linteum_, or _segestre_. The blankets or counterpanes -(_vestes stragulae_, _stragula_, _peristromata_, _peripetasmata_) -were in the houses of wealthy Romans of the most costly description, -and generally of a purple colour, and embroidered with beautiful -figures in gold. Covers of this sort were called _peripetasmata -Attalica_, because they were said to have been first used at the -court of Attalus. The pillows were likewise covered with magnificent -casings. The _lectus genialis_ or _adversus_ was the bridal bed, -which stood in the atrium, opposite the janua, whence it derived -the epithet _adversus_. It was generally high, with steps by its -side, and in later times beautifully adorned. Respecting the lectus -funebris see FUNUS. An account of the disposition of the couches used -at entertainments is given under TRICLINIUM. - - -LĒGĀTĬO LĪBĔRA. [LEGATUS.] - - -LĒGĀTUM, a part of the hereditas which a testator gives out of it, -from the heres (_ab herede_); that is, it is a gift to a person out -of that whole (_universum_) which is diminished to the heres by -such gift. There were several laws limiting the amount of property -which a person might give in legacies; and it was at last fixed by -the Lex Falcidia (B.C. 40), that he should not bequeath more than -three-fourths of his property in legacies, and thus a fourth was left -to the heres. By the Law of the Twelve Tables a man could dispose -of his property as he pleased, and he might exhaust (_erogare_) the -whole hereditas by legacies and bequests of freedom to slaves, so as -to leave the heres nothing. The consequence was that in such cases -the scripti heredes refused to take the hereditas, and there was of -course an intestacy. Legata were inutilia or void, if they were given -before a heres was instituted by the will, for the will derived all -its legal efficacy from such institution; there was the same rule as -to a gift of freedom. - - -LĒGĀTUS, from _lego_, a person commissioned or deputed to do certain -things. They may be divided into three classes:--1. Legati or -ambassadors sent to Rome by foreign nations; 2. Legati or ambassadors -sent from Rome to foreign nations and into the provinces; 3. Legati -who accompanied the Roman generals into the field, or the proconsuls -and praetors into the provinces. 1. Foreign legati at Rome, from -whatever country they came, had to go to the temple of Saturn, and -deposit their names with the quaestors. Previous to their admission -into the city, foreign ambassadors seem to have been obliged to give -notice from what nation they came and for what purpose; for several -instances are mentioned, in which ambassadors were prohibited from -entering the city, especially in case of a war between Rome and the -state from which they came. In such cases the ambassadors were either -not heard at all, and obliged to quit Italy, or an audience was given -to them by the senate (_senatus legatis datur_) outside the city, -in the temple of Bellona. This was evidently a sign of mistrust, -but the ambassadors were nevertheless treated as public guests, and -some public villa outside the city was sometimes assigned for their -reception. In other cases, however, as soon as the report of the -landing of foreign ambassadors on the coast of Italy was brought to -Rome, especially if they were persons of great distinction, or if -they came from an ally of the Roman people, some one of the inferior -magistrates, or a legatus of a consul, was despatched by the senate -to receive, and conduct them to the city at the expense of the -republic. When they were introduced into the senate by the praetor -or consul, they first explained what they had to communicate, and -then the praetor invited the senators to put their questions to the -ambassadors. The whole transaction was carried on by interpreters, -and in the Latin language. [INTERPRES.] After the ambassadors had -thus been examined, they were requested to leave the assembly of the -senate, who now began to discuss the subject brought before them. The -result was communicated to the ambassadors by the praetor. In some -cases ambassadors not only received rich presents on their departure, -but were at the command of the senate conducted by a magistrate, and -at the public expense, to the frontier of Italy, and even farther. -By the Lex Gabinia it was decreed, that from the 1st of February -to the 1st of March, the senate should every day give audience to -foreign ambassadors. There was a place on the right-hand side of -the senate-house, called Graecostasis, in which foreign ambassadors -waited. All ambassadors, whencesoever they came, were considered by -the Romans throughout the whole period of their existence as sacred -and inviolable. 2. Legati to foreign nations in the name of the Roman -republic were always sent by the senate; and to be appointed to such -a mission was considered a great honour, which was conferred only -on men of high rank or eminence: for a Roman ambassador had the -powers of a magistrate and the venerable character of a priest. If -a Roman during the performance of his mission as ambassador died or -was killed, his memory was honoured by the republic with a public -sepulchre and a statue in the Rostra. The expenses during the journey -of an ambassador were, of course, paid by the republic; and when he -travelled through a province, the provincials had to supply him with -every thing he wanted. 3. The third class of legati, to whom the name -of ambassadors cannot be applied, were persons who accompanied the -Roman generals on their expeditions, and in later times the governors -of provinces also. They are mentioned at a very early period as -serving along with the tribunes, under the consuls. They were -nominated (_legabantur_) by the consul or the dictator under whom -they served, but the sanction of the senate was an essential point, -without which no one could be legally considered a legatus. The -persons appointed to this office were usually men of great military -talents, and it was their duty to advise and assist their superior -in all his undertakings, and to act in his stead both in civil -and military affairs. The legati were thus always men in whom the -consul placed great confidence, and were frequently his friends or -relations: but they had no power independent of the command of their -general. Their number varied according to the greatness or importance -of the war, or the extent of the province: three is the smallest -number that we know of, but Pompey, when in Asia, had fifteen legati. -Whenever the consuls were absent from the army, or when a proconsul -left his province, the legati or one of them took his place, and then -had the insignia as well as the power of his superior. He was in -this case called legatus pro praetore, and hence we sometimes read -that a man governed a province as legatus without any mention being -made of the proconsul whose vicegerent he was. During the latter -period of the republic, it sometimes happened that a consul carried -on a war, or a proconsul governed his province, through his legati, -while he himself remained at Rome, or conducted some other more -urgent affairs. When the provinces were divided at the time of the -empire [PROVINCIA], those of the Roman people were governed by men -who had been either consuls or praetors, and the former were always -accompanied by three legati, the latter by one. The provinces of the -emperor, who was himself the proconsul, were governed by persons whom -the emperor himself appointed, and who had been consuls or praetors, -or were at least senators. These vicegerents of the emperor were -called _legati augusti pro praetore_, _legati praetorii_, _legati -consulares_, or simply _legati_, and they, like the governors of -the provinces of the Roman people, had one or three legati as their -assistants. During the latter period of the republic it had become -customary for senators to obtain from the senate the permission -to travel through or stay in any province at the expense of the -provincials, merely for the purpose of managing and conducting their -own personal affairs. There was no restraint as to the length of time -the senators were allowed to avail themselves of this privilege, -which was a heavy burden upon the provincials. This mode of -sojourning in a province was called _legatio libera_, because those -who availed themselves of it enjoyed all the privileges of a public -legatus or ambassador, without having any of his duties to perform. -At the time of Cicero the privilege of legatio libera was abused to -a very great extent. Cicero, therefore, in his consulship (B.C. 63) -endeavoured to put an end to it, but, owing to the opposition of a -tribune, he only succeeded in limiting the time of its duration to -one year. Julius Caesar afterwards extended the time during which a -senator might avail himself of the legatio libera to five years. - - -LĔGĬO. [EXERCITUS.] - - -LEITURGIA (λειτουργία, from λεῖτον, Ion. λήϊτον, _i.e._ δημόσιον, or, -according to others, πρυτανεῖον), a liturgy, is the name of certain -personal services which, at Athens, every citizen who possessed -a certain amount of property had to perform towards the state. -These personal services, which in all cases were connected with -considerable expenses, were at first a natural consequence of the -greater political privileges enjoyed by the wealthy, who, in return, -had also to perform heavier duties towards the republic; but when the -Athenian democracy was at its height the original character of these -liturgies became changed, for, as every citizen now enjoyed the same -rights and privileges as the wealthiest, they were simply a tax upon -property connected with personal labour and exertion. All liturgies -may be divided into two classes: 1, ordinary or encyclic liturgies -(ἐγκύκλιοι λειτουργίαι); and 2, extraordinary liturgies. The former -were called encyclic, because they recurred every year at certain -festive seasons, and comprised the _Choregia_, _Gymnasiarchia_, -_Lampadarchia_, _Architheoria_, and _Hestiasis_. Every Athenian who -possessed three talents and above was subject to them, and they were -undertaken in turns by the members of every tribe who possessed the -property qualification just mentioned, unless some one volunteered to -undertake a liturgy for another person. But the law did not allow any -one to be compelled to undertake more than one liturgy at a time, and -he who had in one year performed a liturgy was free for the next, so -that legally a person had to perform a liturgy only every other year. -Those whose turn it was to undertake any of the ordinary liturgies -were always appointed by their own tribe. The persons who were exempt -from all kinds of liturgies were the nine archons, heiresses, and -orphans until after the commencement of the second year of their -coming of age. Sometimes the exemption from liturgies (ἀτελεία) was -granted to persons for especial merits towards the republic. The only -kind of extraordinary liturgy to which the name is properly applied -is the _trierarchia_ (τριηραρχία); in the earlier times, however, the -service in the armies was in reality no more than an extraordinary -liturgy. [See EISPHORA and TRIERARCHIA.] In later times, during and -after the Peloponnesian war, when the expenses of a liturgy were -found too heavy for one person, we find that in many instances two -persons combined to defray its expenses. Such was the case with the -choragia and the trierarchy. - - -LEMBUS, a skiff or small boat, used for carrying a person from a ship -to the shore. The name was also given to the light boats which were -sent ahead of a fleet to obtain information of the enemy’s movements. - - -LEMNISCUS (λημνίσκος), a kind of coloured ribbon which hung down -from crowns or diadems at the back part of the head. Coronae adorned -with lemnisci were a greater distinction than those without them. -This serves to explain an expression of Cicero (_palma lemniscata, -pro Rosc. Am._ 35), where palma means a victory, and the epithet -lemniscata indicates the contrary of infamis, and at the same time -implies an honourable as well as lucrative victory. Lemnisci were -also worn alone and without being connected with crowns, especially -by ladies, as an ornament for the head. - - -LĔMŬRĬA, a festival for the souls of the departed, which was -celebrated at Rome every year in the month of May. It was said to -have been instituted by Romulus to appease the spirit of Remus, -whom he had slain, and to have been called originally Remuria. It -was celebrated at night and in silence, and during three alternate -days, that is, on the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth of May. During -this season the temples of the gods were closed, and it was thought -unlucky for women to marry at this time and during the whole month -of May, and those who ventured to marry were believed to die soon -after, whence the proverb, _mense Maio malae nubent_. Those who -celebrated the Lemuria walked barefooted, washed their hands three -times, and threw black beans nine times behind their backs, believing -by this ceremony to secure themselves against the Lemures. As regards -the solemnities on each of the three days, we only know that on the -second there were games in the circus in honour of Mars, and that on -the third day the images of the thirty Argei, made of rushes, were -thrown from the Pons Sublicius into the Tiber by the Vestal virgins -[ARGEI]. On the same day there was a festival of the merchants, -probably because on this day the temple of Mercury had been dedicated -in the year 495 B.C. - - -LĒNAEA. [DIONYSIA.] - - -LESCHĒ (λέσχη), an Ionic word, signifying _council_ or -_conversation_, and _a place for council or conversation_. There is -frequent mention of places of public resort, in the Greek cities, by -the name of _Leschae_, some set apart for the purpose, and others so -called because they were so used by loungers; to the latter class -belong the agora and its porticoes, the gymnasia, and the shops -of various tradesmen. The former class were small buildings or -porticoes, furnished with seats, and exposed to the sun, to which -the idle resorted to enjoy conversation, and the poor to obtain -warmth and shelter: at Athens alone there were 360 such. In the -Dorian states the word retained the meaning of a place of meeting for -deliberation and intercourse, a council-chamber or club-room. There -were generally chambers for council and conversation, called by this -name, attached to the temples of Apollo. The _Lesche_ at Delphi was -celebrated through Greece for the paintings with which it was adorned -by Polygnotus. - - -LEX. Of Roman leges, viewed with reference to the mode of enactment, -there were properly two kinds, _Leges Curiatae_ and _Leges -Centuriatae_. Plebiscita are improperly called leges, though they -were laws, and in the course of time had the same effect as leges. -[PLEBISCITUM.] Originally the leges curiatae were the only leges, -and they were passed by the populus in the comitia curiata. After -the establishment of the comitia centuriata, the comitia curiata -fell almost into disuse; but so long as the republic lasted, and -even under Augustus, a shadow of the old constitution was preserved -in the formal conferring of the imperium by a lex curiata only, -and in the ceremony of adrogation being effected only in these -comitia. [ADOPTIO.] Those leges, properly so called, with which -we are acquainted, were passed in the comitia centuriata, and were -proposed (_rogabantur_) by a magistratus of senatorial rank, after -the senate had approved of them by a decretum. Such a lex was -also designated by the name _Populi Scitum_.--The word _rogatio_ -(from the verb _rogo_) properly means any measure proposed to the -legislative body, and therefore is equally applicable to a proposed -lex and a proposed plebiscitum. It corresponds to our word _bill_, -as opposed to _act_. When the measure was passed, it became a lex -or plebiscitum; though rogationes, after they had become laws, were -sometimes, but improperly, called rogationes. A rogatio began with -the words _velitis_, _jubeatis_, &c., and ended with the words _ita -vos Quirites rogo_. The corresponding expression of assent to the -rogatio on the part of the sovereign assembly was _uti rogas_. The -phrases for proposing a law are _rogare legem_, _legem ferre_, and -_rogationem promulgare_; the phrase _rogationem accipere_ applies -to the enacting body. The terms relating to legislation are thus -explained by Ulpian the jurist:--“A lex is said either _rogari_ or -_ferri_; it is said _abrogari_, when it is repealed; it is said -_derogari_, when a part is repealed; it is said _subrogari_, when -some addition is made to it; and it is said _obrogari_, when some -part of it is changed.”--A _privilegium_ is an enactment that had -for its object a single person, which is indicated by the form of -the word (_privilegium_), _privae res_ being the same as _singulae -res_. The word privilegium did not convey any notion of the character -of the legislative measures; it might be beneficial to the party to -whom it referred, or it might not. Under the empire, the word is -used in the sense of a special grant proceeding from the imperial -favour.--The title of a lex was generally derived from the gentile -name of the magistratus who proposed it, as the _Lex Hortensia_ from -the dictator Hortensius. Sometimes the lex took its name from the -two consuls or other magistrates, as the _Acilia Calpurnia_, _Aelia_ -or _Aelia Sentia_, _Papia_ or _Papia Poppaea_, and others. It seems -to have been the fashion to omit the word _et_ between the two -names, though instances occur in which it was used. A lex was also -designated, with reference to its object, as the _Lex Cincia de Donis -et Muneribus_, _Lex Furia Testamentaria_, _Lex Julia Municipalis_, -and many others. Leges which related to a common object, were often -designated by a collective name, as _Leges Agrariae_, _Judiciariae_, -and others. A lex sometimes took its name from the chief contents -of its first chapter, as _Lex Julia de Maritandis Ordinibus_. -Sometimes a lex comprised very various provisions, relating to -matters essentially different, and in that case it was called _Lex -Satura_.--The number of leges was greatly increased in the later -part of the republican period, and Julius Caesar is said to have -contemplated a revision of the whole body. Under him and Augustus -numerous enactments were passed, which are known under the general -name of Juliae Leges. It is often stated that no leges, properly so -called, or plebiscita, were passed after the time of Augustus; but -this is a mistake. Though the voting might be a mere form, still -the form was kept. Besides, various leges are mentioned as having -been passed under the Empire, such as the Lex Junia under Tiberius, -the Lex Visellia, the Lex Mamilia under Caligula, and a Lex Claudia -on the tutela of women. It does not appear when the ancient forms -of legislation were laid aside. A particular enactment is always -referred to by its name. The following is a list of the principal -leges, properly so called; but the list includes also various -plebiscita and privilegia:-- - - ACĪLĬA, De Coloniis Deducendis. (Liv. xxxii. 29.) - - - ACĪLIA. [REPETUNDAE.] - - - ACĪLIA CALPURNĬA or CALPURNIA. [AMBITUS.] - - - AEBUTĬA, of uncertain date, which with two Juliae Leges put an end - to the Legis Actiones, except in certain cases. This or another - lex of the same name prohibited the proposer of a lex, which - created any office or power (_curatio ac potestas_), from having - such office or power, and even excluded his collegae, cognati, and - affines. - - - AELIA. This lex and a Fufia Lex, passed about the end of the sixth - century of the city, gave to all the magistrates the obnunciatio, - or power of preventing or dissolving the comitia, by observing the - omens and declaring them to be unfavourable. - - - AELĬA, De Coloniis Deducendis. (Liv. xxxiv. 53.) - - - AELĬA SENTĬA, passed in the time of Augustus (about A.D. 3). This - lex contained various provisions as to the manumission of slaves. - - - AEMĬLĬA. A lex passed in the dictatorship of Mamercus Aemilius - (B.C. 433), by which the censors were elected for a year and - a half, instead of a whole lustrum. After this lex they had - accordingly only a year and a half allowed them for holding the - census and letting out the public works to farm. - - - AEMĬLĬA BAEBĬA. [CORNELIA BAEBIA.] - - - AEMĬLĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.] - - - AGRĀRÏAE, the name of laws which had relation to the ager - publicus. [AGER PUBLICUS.] The most important of these are - mentioned under the names of their proposers. [APPULEIA; CASSIA; - CORNELIA; FLAMINIA; FLAVIA; JULIA; LICINIA; SEMPRONIA; SERVILIA; - THORIA.] - - - AMBĬTUS. [AMBITUS.] - - - AMPĬA, to allow Cn. Pompeius to wear a crown of bay at the Ludi - Circenses, &c. Proposed by T. Ampius and T. Labienus, tr. pl. B.C. - 64. - - - ANNĀLIS or VILLĬA, proposed by L. Villius Tapulus in B.C. 179, - fixed the age at which a Roman citizen might become a candidate for - the higher magistracies. It appears that until this law was passed, - any office might be enjoyed by a citizen after completing his - twenty-seventh year. The Lex Annalis fixed 31 as the age for the - quaestorship, 37 for the aedileship, 40 for the praetorship, and 43 - for the consulship. - - - ANTĬA. [SUMPTUARIAE LEGES.] - - - ANTŌNĬA DE THERMENSIBUS, about B.C. 72, by which Thermessus in - Pisidia was recognised as Libera. - - - ANTŌNĬAE, the name of various enactments proposed or passed by the - influence of M. Antonius, after the death of the dictator J. Caesar. - - - APPŬLĒIA, respecting sureties. - - - APPŬLĒIA AGRĀRĬA, proposed by the tribune L. Appuleius Saturninus, - B.C. 101. - - - APPŬLĒIA FRŪMENTĀRĬA, proposed about the same time by the same - tribune. - - - APPŬLĒIA, DE COLONIIS DEDUCENDIS. (Cic. _pro Balbo_, 21.) - - - APPŬLĒIA MAJESTĀTIS. [MAJESTAS.] - - - ATERNIA TARPĒIA, B.C. 455. This lex empowered all magistrates to - fine persons who resisted their authority; but it fixed the highest - fine at two sheep and thirty cows, or two cows and thirty sheep, - for the authorities vary in this. - - - ĂTĬA DE SĂCERDŌTIIS (B.C. 63), proposed by the tribune T. Atius - Labienus, repealed the Lex Cornelia de Sacerdotiis. - - - ĂTĪLĬA MARCĬA, B.C. 312, empowered the populus to elect 16 tribuni - militum for each of four legions. - - - ĂTĪLĬA, respecting tutores. - - - ĂTĪNĬA, respecting thefts. - - - ĂTĪNĬA, of uncertain date, was a plebiscitum which gave the rank - of senator to a tribune. This measure probably originated with C. - Atinius, who was tribune B.C. 130. - - - AUFĬDĬA. [AMBITUS.] - - - AURĒLĬA (B.C. 70), enacted that the judices should be chosen from - the senators, equites, and tribuni aerarii. [JUDEX.] - - - AURĒLĬA TRĬBŪNĬCĬA, respecting the tribunes. - - - BAEBĬA (B.C. 192 or 180), enacted that four praetors and six - praetors should be chosen alternately; but the law was not observed. - - - BAEBĬA CORNĒLĬA. [AMBITUS.] - - - CAECĬLĬA DE CENSŌRĬBUS or CENSŌRIA (B.C. 54), proposed by Metellus - Scipio, repealed a Clodia Lex (B.C. 58), which had prescribed - certain regular forms of proceeding for the censors in exercising - their functions as inspectors of mores, and had required the - concurrence of both censors to inflict the nota censoria. When - a senator had been already convicted before an ordinary court, - the lex permitted the censors to remove him from the senate in a - summary way. - - - CAECĬLĬA DE VECTĪGĀLĬBUS (B.C. 62), released lands and harbours in - Italy from the payment of taxes and dues (_portoria_). The only - vectigal remaining after the passing of this lex was the Vicesima. - - - CAECĬLĬA DĪDĬA (B.C. 98) forbade the proposing of a Lex Satura, on - the ground that the people might be compelled either to vote for - something which they did not approve, or to reject something which - they did approve, if it was proposed to them in this manner. This - lex was not always operative. - - - CAELIA. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.] - - - CĂLĬGŬLAE LEX AGUĀRĬA. [MAMILIA.] - - - CALPURNĬA DE AMBĬTU. [AMBITUS.] - - - CALPURNĬA DE RĔPĔTUNDIS. [REPETUNDAE.] - - - CĂNŬLĒIA. (B.C. 445) established connubium between the patres and - plebs, which had been taken away by the law of the Twelve Tables. - - - CASSĬA (B.C. 104), proposed by the tribune L. Cassius Longinus, - did not allow a person to remain a senator who had been convicted - in a judicium populi, or whose imperium had been abrogated by the - populus. - - - CASSĬA empowered the dictator Caesar to add to the number of the - patricii, to prevent their extinction. - - - CASSĬA AGRĀRĬA, proposed by the consul Sp. Cassius, B.C. 486. This - is said to have been the first agrarian law. It enacted that of - the land taken from the Hernicans, half should be given to the - Latins, and half to the plebs, and likewise that part of the public - land possessed by the patricians should be distributed among the - plebeians. This law met with the most violent opposition, and - appears not to have been carried. Cassius was accused of aiming at - the sovereignty, and was put to death. [AGER PUBLICUS.] - - - CASSĬA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.] - - - CASSĬA TĔRENTĬA FRŪMENTĀRĬA (B.C. 73) for the distribution of corn - among the poor citizens and the purchasing of it. - - - CINCĬA DE DŌNIS ET MŪNĔRĬBUS, a plebiscitum passed in the time of - the tribune M. Cincius Alimentus (B.C. 204). It forbade a person - to take any thing for his pains in pleading a cause. In the time - of Augustus, the Lex Cincia was confirmed by a senatus-consultum, - and a penalty of four times the sum received was imposed on the - advocate. The law was so far modified in the time of Claudius, that - an advocate was allowed to receive ten sestertia; if he took any - sum beyond that, he was liable to be prosecuted for repetundae. - It appears that this permission was so far restricted in Trajan’s - time, that the fee could not be paid till the work was done. - - - CLAUDĬA, passed under the emperor Claudius, took away the agnatorum - tutela in case of women. - - - CLAUDĬA DE SENATORIBUS, B.C. 218 (Liv. xxi. 63), the provisions of - which are alluded to by Cicero as antiquated and dead in his time. - - - CLŌDIAE, the name of various plebiscita, proposed by Clodius, when - tribune, B.C. 58. - - CLODIA DE AUSPICIIS prevented the magistratus from dissolving the - comitia tributa, by declaring that the auspices were unfavourable. - This lex therefore repealed the Aelia and Fufia. It also enacted - that a lex might be passed on the dies fasti. [AELIA LEX.] - - CLODIA DE CENSORIBUS. [CAECILIA.] - - CLODIA DE CIVIBUS ROMANIS INTEREMPTIS, to the effect that - “qui civem Romanum indemnatum interemisset, ei aqua et igni - interdiceretur.” It was in consequence of this lex that the - interdict was pronounced against Cicero, who considers the whole - proceeding as a privilegium. - - CLODIA FRUMENTARIA, by which the corn, which had formerly been sold - to the poor citizens at a low rate, was given. - - CLODIA DE SODALITATIBUS or DE COLLEGIIS restored the Sodalitia, - which had been abolished by a senatus-consultum of the year B.C. - 80, and permitted the formation of new Sodalitia. - - CLODIA DE LIBERTINORUM SUFFRAGIIS. (Cic. _pro Mil._ 12, 33.) - - CLODIA DE REGE PTOLEMAEO ET DE EXSULIBUS BYZANTINIS. (Vell. Pat. - ii. 45.) - - There were other so-called Leges Clodiae, which were however - privilegia. - - - COMMISSORĬA LEX, respecting sales. - - - CORNĒLĬAE. Various leges passed in the dictatorship of Sulla, and - by his influence, are so called. - - AGRARIA, by which many of the inhabitants of Etruria and Latium - were deprived of the complete civitas, and retained only the - commercium, and a large part of their lands were made public, and - given to military colonists. - - DE CIVITATE. (Liv., _Epit._ 86.) - - DE FALSIS, against those who forged testaments or other deeds, and - against those who adulterated or counterfeited the public coin, - whence Cicero calls it _testamentaria_ and _nummaria_. - - DE INJURIIS. [INJURIA.] - - JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX.] - - DE MAGISTRATIBUS, partly a renewal of old plebiscita. (Appian, B.C. - i. 100, 101.) - - MAJESTATIS. [MAJESTAS.] - - DE PARRICIDIO. [See below: DE SICARIIS.] - - DE PROSCRIPTIONE ET PROSCRIPTIS. [PROSCRIPTIO.] - - DE PROVINCIIS ORDINANDIS. (Cic. _ad Fam._ i. 9; iii. 6, 8, 10.) - - DE REPETUNDIS. [REPETUNDAE.] - - DE SACERDOTIIS. [SACERDOS.] - - DE SICARIIS ET VENEFICIS, contained provisions as to death or fire - caused by _dolus malus_, and against persons going about armed with - the intention of killing or thieving. The law not only provided - for cases of poisoning, but contained provisions against those who - made, sold, bought, possessed, or gave poison for the purpose of - poisoning; also against a magistratus or senator who conspired in - order that a person might be condemned in a _judicium publicum_, &c. - - SUMPTUARIAE. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.] - - TRIBUNICIA, which diminished the power of the Tribuni Plebis. - - UNCIARIA appears to have been a lex which lowered the rate of - interest, and to have been passed about the same time with the - Leges Sumptuariae of Sulla. - - - CORNĒLĬAE, which were proposed by the tribune C. Cornelius about - B.C. 67. One limited the edictal power by compelling the praetors - _Jus dicere ex edictis suis perpetuis_.--Another lex of the same - tribune enacted that no one _legibus solveretur_, unless such a - measure was agreed on in a meeting of the senate at which two - hundred members were present, and afterwards approved by the - people; and it enacted that no tribune should put his veto on such - a senatus-consultum.--There was also a Lex Cornelia concerning the - wills of those Roman citizens who died in captivity (_apud hostes_). - - - CORNĒLIA DE NOVIS TABELLIS, proposed by P. Corn. Dolabella, B.C. 47. - - - CORNĒLIA ET CAECĬLĪA, B.C. 57, gave Cn. Pompeius the - superintendence of the Res Frumentaria for five years. - - - CORNĒLĬA BAEBĬA DE AMBĬTU, proposed by the consuls P. Cornelius - Cethegus and M. Baebius Tamphilus, B.C. 181. This law is sometimes, - but erroneously, attributed to the consuls of the preceding year, - L. Aemilius and Cn. Baebius. [AMBITUS.] - - - CŪRIĀTA LEX DE IMPERIO. [IMPERIUM.] - - - CŪRIĀTA LEX DE ADOPTIONE. [ADOPTIO.] - - - DĔCEMVĬRĀLIS. [LEX DUODECIM TABULARUM.] - - - DĔCĬA DE DUUMVIRIS NAVALIBUS. (Liv. ix. 30.) - - - DĪDĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.] - - - DOMĬTĬA DE SĂCERDŌTIIS. [SACERDOS.] - - - DUĪLĬA (B.C. 449), a plebiscitum proposed by the tribune Duilius, - which enacted that whoever left the people without tribunes, or - created a magistrate from whom there was no appeal (_provocatio_), - should be scourged and beheaded. - - - DUĪLĬA MAENĬA, proposed by the tribunes Duilius and Maenius - (B.C. 357), restored the old uncial rate of interest (_unciarium - fenus_), which had been fixed by the Twelve Tables. [FENUS.] The - same tribunes carried a measure which was intended, in future, to - prevent such unconstitutional proceedings as the enactment of a lex - by the soldiers out of Rome, on the proposal of the consul. - - - DŬŎDĔCIM TĂBŬLĀRUM. In the year B.C. 454 the Senate assented to a - Plebiscitum, pursuant to which commissioners were to be sent to - Athens and the Greek cities generally, in order to make themselves - acquainted with their laws. Three commissioners were appointed - for the purpose. On the return of the commissioners, B.C. 452, - it was agreed that persons should be appointed to draw up the - code of laws (decemviri Legibus scribundis), but they were to be - chosen only from the Patricians, with a provision that the rights - of the Plebeians should be respected by the decemviri in drawing - up the laws. In the following year (B.C. 451) the Decemviri were - appointed in the Comitia Centuriata, and during the time of their - office no other magistratus were chosen. The body consisted of - ten Patricians, including the three commissioners who had been - sent abroad: Appius Claudius, Consul designatus, was at the head - of the body. Ten Tables of Laws were prepared during the year, - and after being approved by the Senate were confirmed by the - Comitia Centuriata. As it was considered that some further Laws - were wanted, Decemviri were again elected B.C. 450, consisting of - Appius Claudius and his friends. Two more Tables were added by - these Decemviri, which Cicero calls “Duae tabulae iniquarum legum.” - The provision which allowed no connubium between the Patres and - the Plebs is referred to the Eleventh Table. The whole Twelve - Tables were first published in the consulship of L. Valerius and - M. Horatius after the downfall of the Decemviri, B.C. 449. This - the first attempt to make a code remained also the only attempt - for near one thousand years, until the legislation of Justinian. - The Twelve Tables are mentioned by the Roman writers under a great - variety of names: _Leges Decemvirales_, _Lex Decemviralis_, _Leges - XII._, _Lex XII. tabularum_ or _Duodecim_, and sometimes they are - referred to under the names of _Leges_ and _Lex_ simply, as being - pre-eminently The Law. The Laws were cut on bronze tablets and - put up in a public place. They contained matters relating both to - the Jus Publicum and the Jus Privatum (_fons publici privatique - juris_). The Jus Publicum underwent great changes in the course of - years, but the Jus Privatum of the Twelve Tables continued to be - the fundamental law of the Roman State. The Roman writers speak - in high terms of the precision of the enactments contained in the - Twelve Tables, and of the propriety of the language in which they - were expressed. - - - FĂBĬA DE PLĂGIO. [PLAGIUM.] - - - FĂBĬA DE NUMERO SECTATORUM. (Cic. _pro Murena_, 34.) - - - FALCIDIA. [LEX VOCONIA.] - - - FANNĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.] - - - FANNĬA. [JUNIA DE PEREGRINIS.] - - - FLĀMĬNĬA was an Agraria Lex for the distribution of lands in - Picenum, proposed by the tribune C. Flaminius, in B.C. 228 - according to Cicero, or in B.C. 232 according to Polybius. The - latter date is the more probable. - - - FLĀVĬA AGRĀRĬA, B.C. 60, for the distribution of lands among - Pompey’s soldiers, proposed by the tribune L. Flavius, who - committed the consul Caecilius Metellus to prison for opposing it. - - - FRŪMENTĀRĬAE. Various leges were so called which had for their - object the distribution of grain among the people, either at a low - price or gratuitously. [FRUMENTARIAE LEGES, p. 182.] - - - FŪFĬA DE RĒLĬGĬŌNE, B.C. 61, was a privilegium which related to the - trial of Clodius. - - - FŪFĬA JŪDĬCĬĀRĬA. [JUDEX, p. 217.] - - - FŪRIA or FŪSĬA CĂNĪNĬA limited the number of slaves to be - manumitted by testament. - - - FŪRIA or FŪSĬA TESTĂMENTĀRĬA, enacted that a testator should not - give more than three-fourths of his property in legacies, thus - securing one-fourth to the heres. - - - GĂBĪNĬA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.] There were various - Gabiniae Leges, some of which were privilegia, as that for - conferring extraordinary power on Cn. Pompeius for conducting the - war against the pirates. A Gabinia Lex, B.C. 58, forbade all loans - of money at Rome to legationes from foreign parts. The object of - the lex was to prevent money being borrowed for the purpose of - bribing the senators at Rome. - - - GALLĬAE CISALPĪNAE. [RUBRIA.] - - - GELLIA CORNĒLĬA, B.C. 72, which gave to Cn. Pompeius the - extraordinary power of conferring the Roman civitas on Spaniards in - Spain, with the advice of his consilium. - - - GENUCĬA, B.C. 341, forbade altogether the taking of interest for - the use of money. - - - HĬĔRŎNĬCA was not a lex properly so called. Before the Roman - conquest of Sicily, the payment of the tenths of wine, oil, and - other produce had been fixed by Hiero; and the Roman quaestors, - in letting these tenths to farm, followed the practice which they - found established. - - - HŎRĀTĬAE ET VALĔRĬAE. [LEGES VALERIAE.] - - - HORTENSIA DE PLĒBISCĪTIS. [LEGES PUBLILIAE; PLEBISCITUM.] Another - Lex Hortensia enacted that the nundinae, which had hitherto been - feriae, should be dies fasti. This was done for the purpose of - accommodating the inhabitants of the country. - - - ICILĬA, B.C. 456, by which the Aventinus was assigned to the plebs. - This was the first instance of the ager publicus being assigned to - the plebs. Another Lex Icilia, proposed by the tribune Sp. Icilius, - B.C. 470, had for its object to prevent all interruption to the - tribunes while acting in the discharge of their duties. In some - cases the penalty was death. - - - JŪLĬAE. Most of the Juliae Leges were passed in the time of C. - Julius Caesar and Augustus. - - DE ADULTERIIS. [ADULTERIUM.] - - AGRARIA, B.C. 59, in the consulship of Caesar, for distributing the - ager publicus in Campania among 20,000 poor citizens, who had each - three children or more. - - DE AMBITU. [AMBITUS.] - - DE BONIS CEDENDIS. This lex provided that a debtor might escape all - personal molestation from his creditors by giving up his property - to them for the purpose of sale and distribution. It is doubtful if - this lex was passed in the time of Julius Caesar or of Augustus, - though probably of the former. - - DE CAEDE ET VENEFICIO (Suet. _Ver._ 33), perhaps the same as the - Lex De Vi Publica. - - DE CIVITATE was passed in the consulship of L. Julius Caesar and P. - Rutilius Lupus, B.C. 90. [CIVITAS; FOEDERATAE CIVITATES.] - - DE FENORE, or rather De Pecuniis Mutuis or Creditis (B.C. 47), - passed in the time of Julius Caesar. The object of it was to make - an arrangement between debtors and creditors, for the satisfaction - of the latter. The possessiones and res were to be estimated at the - value which they had before the civil war, and to be surrendered to - the creditors at that value; whatever had been paid for interest - was to be deducted from the principal. The result was, that the - creditor lost about one-fourth of his debt; but he escaped the loss - usually consequent on civil disturbance, which would have been - caused by novae tabulae. - - JUDICIARIAE. [JUDEX.] - - DE LIBERIS LEGATIONIBUS. [LEGATUS.] - - DE MAJESTATE. [MAJESTAS.] - - DE MARITANDIS ORDINIBUS. [See below: JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA.] - - MUNICIPALIS, commonly called the Table of Heraclea. In the year - 1732 there were found near the Gulf of Tarentum and in the - neighbourhood of the city of ancient Heraclea, large fragments of a - bronze table, which contained on one side a Roman lex, and on the - other a Greek inscription. The whole is now in the Museo Borbonico - at Naples. The lex contains various provisions as to the police - of the city of Rome, and as to the constitution of communities of - Roman citizens (_municipia_, _coloniae_, _praefecturae_, _fora_, - _conciliabula civium Romanorum_). It was accordingly a lex of that - kind which is called Satura. It was probably passed in B.C. 45. - - JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA. Augustus appears to have caused a lex to - be enacted about B.C. 18, which is cited as the _Lex Julia de - Maritandis Ordinibus_, and is referred to in the Carmen Seculare of - Horace, which was written in the year B.C. 17. The object of this - lex was to regulate marriages, as to which it contained numerous - provisions; but it appears not to have come into operation till - the year B.C. 13. In the year A.D. 9, and in the consulship of - M. Papius Mutilus and Q. Poppaeus Secundus (consules suffecti), - another lex was passed as a kind of amendment and supplement to - the former lex, and hence arose the title of Lex Julia et Papia - Poppaea, by which this lex is often quoted. The lex is often - variously quoted, according as reference is made to its various - provisions; sometimes it is called _Lex Julia_, sometimes _Papia - Poppaea_, sometimes _Lex Julia et Papia_, sometimes _Lex de - Maritandis Ordinibus_, from the chapter which treated of the - marriages of the senators, sometimes _Lex Caducaria, Decimaria_, - &c. from the various chapters. The Lex Julia forbade the marriage - of a senator or senator’s children with a libertina, with a woman - whose father or mother had followed an ars ludicra, and with a - prostitute; and also the marriage of a libertinus with a senator’s - daughter. In order to promote marriage, various penalties were - imposed on those who lived in a state of celibacy (_caelibatus_) - after a certain age, and various privileges were given to those who - had three or more children. A candidate for the public offices who - had several children was preferred to one who had fewer. After the - passing of this lex, it became usual for the senate, and afterwards - the emperor (_princeps_), to give occasionally, as a privilege to - certain persons who had not children, the same advantage that the - lex secured to those who had children. This was called the _Jus - Liberorum_, and sometimes the _Jus trium Liberorum_. - - PECULATUS, cited in the Digest, related to sacrilege as well as - peculatus. - - JULIA ET PLAUTIA, respecting stolen things. - - JULIA PAPIRIA. [PAPIRIA.] - - DE PROVINCIIS. [PROVINCIAE.] - - REPETUNDARUM. [REPETUNDAE.] - - SACRILEGIS. [See above: JULIA PECULATUS.] - - SUMPTUARIAE. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.] - - THEATRALIS, which permitted Roman equites, in case they or their - parents had ever had a census equestris, to sit in the fourteen - rows (_quatuordecim ordines_) fixed by the Lex Roscia Theatralis, - B.C. 69. - - JULIA ET TITIA, respecting Tutors. - - DE VI PUBLICA AND PRIVATA. [VIS.] - - VICESIMARIA. [VICESIMA.] - - - JŪNĬA DE PĔRĔGRĪNIS, proposed B.C. 126, by M. Junius Pennus, a - tribune, banished peregrini from the city. A lex of C. Fannius, - consul B.C. 122, contained the same provisions respecting the - Latini and Italici; and a lex of C. Papius, perhaps B.C. 65, - contained the same respecting all persons who were not domiciled in - Italy. - - - JŪNĬA LĬCĬNĬA. [LICINIA JUNIA.] - - - JŪNIA NORBĀNA, of uncertain date, but probably about A.D. 17, - enacted that when a Roman citizen had manumitted a slave without - the requisite formalities, the manumission should not in all cases - be ineffectual, but the manumitted person should have the status of - a Latinus. - - - JŪNIA RĒPĔTUNDĀRUM. [REPETUNDAE.] - - - LAETŌRIA, the false name of the Lex Plaetoria. [CURATOR.] Sometimes - the lex proposed by Volero for electing plebeian magistrates at the - comitia tributa is cited as a Lex Laetoria. - - - LĬCĬNĬA DE SŎDĀLĬTIIS. [AMBITUS.] - - - LĬCĬNIA. [AEBUTIA.] - - - LĬCĬNIA DE LŪDIS ĂPOLLĬNĀRĬBUS. (Liv. xxvii. 23.) - - - LĬCĬNIA JŪNIA, or, as it is sometimes called, Junia et Licinia, - passed in the consulship of L. Licinius Murena and Junius Silanus, - B.C. 62, enforced the Caecilia Didia, in connection with which it - is sometimes mentioned. - - - LĬCĬNIA MŪCĬA DE CĪVĬBUS RĔGUNDIS, passed in the consulship of L. - Licinius Crassus and Q. Mucius Scaevola, B.C. 95, enacted a strict - examination as to the title to citizenship, and deprived of the - exercise of civic rights all those who could not make out a good - title to them. This measure partly led to the Marsic war. - - - LĬCĬNIA SUMPTUĀRIA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.] - - - LĬCĬNIAE, proposed by C. Licinius, who was tribune of the people - from B.C. 376 to 367, and who brought the contest between the - patricians and plebeians to a happy termination. He was supported - in his exertions by his colleague L. Sextius. The laws which he - proposed were: 1. That in future no more consular tribunes should - be appointed, but that consuls should be elected as in former - times, one of whom should always be a plebeian. 2. That no one - should possess more than 500 jugera of the public land, nor keep - upon it more than 100 head of large, or 500 of small cattle. It - is related that Licinius was accused and condemned for violating - his own law. Livy states that Licinius, together with his son, - held 1000 jugera of the public land, and by emancipating his son - had acted in fraud of the law. The son thus possessed 500 jugera - in his own name, while his father had the actual enjoyment. 3. - A law regulating the affairs between debtor and creditor, which - ordained that the interest already paid for borrowed money should - be deducted from the capital, and that the remainder of the - latter should be paid back in three yearly instalments. 4. That - the Sibylline books should be entrusted to a college of ten men - (_decemviri_), half of whom should be plebeians, in order that no - falsifications might be introduced in favour of the patricians. - These rogations were passed after a most vehement opposition on the - part of the patricians, and L. Sextius was the first plebeian who, - in accordance with the first of them, obtained the consulship for - the year B.C. 366. - - - LĬCĬNIA, also called MANLĬA, B.C. 196, created the triumviri - epulones. - - - LĪVĬAE, various enactments proposed by the tribune M. Livius - Drusus, B.C. 91, for establishing colonies in Italy and Sicily, - distributing corn among the poor citizens at a low rate, and - admitting the foederatae civitates to the Roman civitas. He is also - said to have been the mover of a law for adulterating silver by - mixing with it an eighth part of brass. Drusus was assassinated, - and the senate declared that all his laws were passed _contra - auspicia_, and were therefore not leges. - - - LUTĀTIA DE VI, proposed by the consul Q. Lutatius Catulus, with the - assistance of Plautius the tribune: usually called Lex Plautia or - Plotia. [VIS.] - - - MAENĬA LEX, is only mentioned by Cicero, who says that M. Curius - compelled the patres _ante auctores fieri_ in the case of the - election of a plebeian consul, “which,” adds Cicero, “was a great - thing to accomplish, as the Lex Maenia was not yet passed.” The lex - therefore required the patres to give their consent at least to the - election of a magistratus, or, in other words, to confer or agree - to confer the imperium on the person whom the comitia should elect. - It was probably proposed by the tribune Maenius B.C. 287. - - - MAJESTĀTIS. [MAJESTAS.] - - - MAMILĬA DE JŬGURTHAE FAUTŌRĬBUS. (Sall. _Jug._ 40.) - - - MAMILIA FINIUM RĔGUNDŌRUM, B.C. 239 or 165, respecting boundaries. - - - MĀNĪLĬA, proposed by the tribune C. Manilius, B.C. 66, was a - privilegium by which was conferred on Pompey the command in the war - against Mithridates. The lex was supported by Cicero when praetor. - - - MANLĬA. [LICINIA.] - - - MANLIA DE VĪCĒSĬMA, B.C. 357, imposed the tax of five per cent. - (_vicesima_) on the value of manumitted slaves. - - - MARCĬA, probably about the year B.C. 352, _adversus feneratores_. - - - MARCĬA, an agrarian law proposed by the tribune L. Marcius - Philippus, B.C. 104. - - - MĂRĬA, proposed by Marius when tribune, B.C. 119, for narrowing the - pontes at elections. - - - MEMMIA or REMMĬA. [CALUMNIA.] - - - MENSĬA, respecting the marriage of a Roman woman with a peregrinus, - declared the offspring of such marriages peregrini. - - - MĬNŬCĬA, B.C. 216, created the triumviri mensarii. - - - NERVAE AGRĀRIA, the latest known instance of a lex. - - - OCTĀVĬA, B.C. 91, one of the numerous leges frumentariae which - repealed a Sempronia Frumentaria. It is mentioned by Cicero as a - more reasonable measure than the Sempronia, which was too profuse. - - - OGULNĬA, proposed by the tribunes, B.C. 300, increased the number - of pontifices to eight, and that of the augurs to nine; it also - enacted that four of the pontifices and five of the augurs should - be taken from the plebes. - - - OPPĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.] - - - ORCHĬA. [LEGES SUMPTUARIAE.] - - - ŎVĪNĬA, of uncertain date, was a plebiscitum which gave the censors - certain powers in regulating the lists of the senators (_ordo - senatorius_): the main object seems to have been to exclude all - improper persons from the senate, and to prevent their admission, - if in other respects qualified. - - - PĀPĬA DE PĔRĔGRĪNIS. [LEX JUNIA DE PEREGRINIS.] - - - PĀPIA POPPAEA. [LEX JULIA ET PAPIA POPPAEA.] - - - PĂPĪRĬA or JŪLIA PĂPĪRIA DE MULCTĀRUM AESTĬMĀTIŌNE (B.C. 430), - fixed a money value according to which fines were paid, which - formerly were paid in sheep and cattle. Some writers make this - valuation part of the Aternian law [ATERNIA TARPEIA], but in this - they appear to have been mistaken. - - - PĂPĪRIA, by which the as was made semuncialis, one of the various - enactments which tampered with the coinage. - - - PĂPĪRĬA, B.C. 332, proposed by the praetor Papirius, gave the - Acerrani the civitas without the suffragium. It was properly a - privilegium, but is useful as illustrating the history of the - extension of the civitas Romana. - - - PĂPĪRĬA, of uncertain date, enacted that no _aedes_ should be - declared _consecratae_ without a plebiscitum. - - - PĂPĪRIA PLAUTĬA, a plebiscitum of the year B.C. 89, proposed by - the tribunes C. Papirius Carbo and M. Plautius Silvanus, in the - consulship of Cn. Pompeius Strabo and L. Porcius Cato, is called - by Cicero a lex of Silvanus and Carbo. [See CIVITAS; FOEDERATAE - CIVITATES.] - - - PĂPĪRIA POETELĬA. [LEX POETELIA.] - - - PĂPĪRIA TĂBELLĀRĬA. [LEGES TABELLARIAE.] - - - PĔDĬA, relating to the murderers of Caesar. - - - PĒDŪCAEA, B.C. 113, a plebiscitum, seems to have been merely a - privilegium, and not a general law against incestum. - - - PESULĀNĬA, provided that if an animal did any damage, the owner - should make it good, or give up the animal. - - - PĔTILLĬA, DE PECUNIA REGIS ANTIOCHI. (Liv. xxxviii. 54.) - - - PETRĒIA, _de decimatione militum_, in case of mutiny. - - - PETRŌNĬA, probably passed in the time of Augustus, and subsequently - amended by various senatusconsulta, forbade a master to deliver up - his slave to fight with wild beasts. - - - PĪNĀRĬ, related to the giving of a judex within a limited time. - - - PLAETŌRĬA. [CURATOR.] - - - PLAUTĬA or PLŎTIA DE VI. [VIS.] - - - PLAUTIA or PLŌTIA JŪDĬCĬĀRIA, enacted that fifteen persons should - be annually taken from each tribe to be placed in the Album Judicum. - - - PLAUTIA ET PLŌTIA DE RĔDĬTU LĔPĬDĀNORUM. (Suet. Caes. 5.) - - - POETELĬA, B.C. 358, a plebiscitum, was the first lex against - ambitus. - - - POETELIA PĂPĪRIA, B.C. 326, made an important change in the - liabilities of the Nexi. - - - POMPĒIAE. There were various leges so called. - - DE CIVITATE, proposed by Cn. Pompeius Strabo, the father of Cn. - Pompeius Magnus, probably in his consulship B.C. 89, gave the - jus Latii or Latinitas to all the towns of the Transpadani, and - probably the civitas to the Cispadani. - - DE AMBITU. [AMBITUS.] - - DE IMPERIO CAESARI PROROGANDO. (Vell. Pat. ii. 46; Appian, B.C. ii. - 18.) - - JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX, p. 217, _a_.] - - DE JURE MAGISTRATUUM, forbade a person to be a candidate for public - offices (_petitio honorum_) who was not at Rome; but J. Caesar was - excepted. This was doubtless the old law, but it had apparently - become obsolete. - - DE PARRICIDIIS. [PARRICIDIUM.] - - TRIBUNITIA (B.C. 70), restored the old tribunitia potestas, which - Sulla had nearly destroyed. [TRIBUNI.] - - DE VI, was a privilegium, and only referred to the case of Milo. - - - PORCĬAE DE CĂPĬTE CĪVĬUM, or DE PRŌVŎCĀTIŌNE, enacted that no Roman - citizen should be scourged or put to death. - - - PORCIA DE PRŌVINCIIS, about B.C. 198, the enactments of which are - doubtful. - - - PUBLĬCĬA, permitted betting at certain games which required - strength. - - - PUBLĪLĬA. In the consulship of L. Pinarius and P. Furius, B.C. - 471, the tribune Publilius Volero proposed, in the assembly of the - tribes, that the tribunes should in future be appointed in the - comitia of the tribes (_ut plebeii magistratus tributis comitiis - fierent_), instead of by the centuries, as had formerly been the - case; since the clients of the patricians were so numerous in the - centuries, that the plebeians could not elect whom they wished. - This measure was violently opposed by the patricians, who prevented - the tribes from coming to any resolution respecting it throughout - this year; but in the following year, B.C. 471, Publilius was - re-elected tribune, and together with him C. Laetorius, a man - of still greater resolution than Publilius. Fresh measures were - added to the former proposition: the aediles were to be chosen by - the tribes, as well as the tribunes, and the tribes were to be - competent to deliberate and determine on all matters affecting the - whole nation, and not such only as might concern the plebes. This - proposition, though still more violently resisted by the patricians - than the one of the previous year, was carried. Some said that the - number of the tribunes was now for the first time raised to five, - having been only two previously. - - - PUBLĪLĬAE, proposed by the dictator Q. Publilius Philo, B.C. 339. - According to Livy, there were three Publiliae Leges. 1. The first - is said to have enacted, that plebiscita should bind all Quirites, - which is to the same purport as the Lex Hortensia of B.C. 286. It - is probable, however, that the object of this law was to render the - approval of the senate a sufficient confirmation of a plebiscitum, - and to make the confirmation of the curiae unnecessary. 2. The - second law enacted, _ut legum quae comitiis centuriatis ferrerentur - ante initum suffragium patres auctores fierent_. By patres - Livy here means the curiae; and accordingly this law made the - confirmation of the curiae a mere formality in reference to all - laws submitted to the comitia centuriata, since every law proposed - by the senate to the centuries was to be considered to have the - sanction of the curiae also. 3. The third law enacted that one of - the two censors should necessarily be a plebeian. It is probable - that there was also a fourth law, which applied the Licinian law to - the praetorship as well as to the censorship, and which provided - that in each alternate year the praetor should be a plebeian. - - - PŪPĬA, mentioned by Cicero, seems to have enacted that the senate - could not meet on comitiales dies. - - - QUINTĬA, was a lex proposed by T. Quintius Crispinus, consul B.C. - 9, for the preservation of the aquaeductus. - - - RĒGĬA. A _Lex Regia_ during the kingly period of Roman history - might have a two-fold meaning. In the first place it was a law - which had been passed by the comitia under the presidency of the - king, and was thus distinguished from a _Lex Tribunicia_, which was - passed by the comitia under the presidency of the tribunus celerum. - In later times all laws, the origin of which was attributed to - the time of the kings, were called _Leges Regiae_, though it by no - means follows that they were all passed under the presidency of the - kings, and much less, that they were enacted by the kings without - the sanction of the curies. Some of these laws were preserved and - followed at a very late period of Roman history. A collection - of them was made, though at what time is uncertain, by Papisius - or Papirius, and this compilation was called the _Jus Civile - Papirianum_ or _Papisianum_. The second meaning of _Lex Regia_ - during the kingly period was undoubtedly the same as that of the - _Lex Curiata de Imperio_. [IMPERIUM.] This indeed is not mentioned - by any ancient writer, but must be inferred from the _Lex Regia_ - which we meet with under the empire, for the name could scarcely - have been invented then; it must have come down from early times, - when its meaning was similar, though not nearly so extensive. - During the empire the curies continued to hold their meetings, - though they were only a shadow of those of former times; and after - the election of a new emperor, they conferred upon him the imperium - in the ancient form by a _Lex Curiata de Imperio_, which was now - usually called _Lex Regia_. The imperium, however, which this - _Regia Lex_ conferred upon an emperor, was of a very different - nature from that which in former times it had conferred upon the - kings. It now embraced all the rights and powers which the populus - Romanus had formerly possessed, so that the emperor became what - formerly the populus had been, that is, the sovereign power in the - state. A fragment of such a lex regia, conferring the imperium upon - Vespasian, engraved upon a brazen table, is still extant in the - Lateran at Rome. - - - REMNĬA. [CALUMNIA.] - - - RĔPĔTUNDĀRUM. [REPETUNDAE.] - - - RHŎDĬA. The Rhodians had a maritime code which was highly esteemed. - Some of its provisions were adopted by the Romans, and have thus - been incorporated into the maritime law of European states. It was - not, however, a lex in the proper sense of the term. - - - ROSCĬA THEĀTRĀLIS, proposed by the tribune L. Roscius Otho, B.C. - 67, which gave the equites a special place at the public spectacles - in fourteen rows or seats (_in quatuordecim gradibus sive - ordinibus_) next to the place of the senators, which was in the - orchestra. This lex also assigned a certain place to spendthrifts. - The phrase _sedere in quatuordecim ordinibus_ is equivalent to - having the proper census equestris which was required by the lex. - There are numerous allusions to this lex, which is sometimes - simply called the Lex of Otho, or referred to by his name. It is - erroneously supposed by some writers to have been enacted in the - consulship of Cicero, B.C. 63. - - - RUBRĬA. The province of Gallia Cisalpina ceased to be a - provincia, and became a part of Italia, about the year B.C. 43. - When this change took place, it was necessary to provide for - the administration of justice, as the usual modes of provincial - administration would cease with the determination of the provincial - form of government. This was effected by a lex, a large part of - which, on a bronze tablet, is preserved in the Museum at Parma. The - name of this lex is not known, but it is supposed by some to be the - Lex Rubria. - - - RŬPĬLĬAE LĒGES (B.C. 131), were the regulations established by P. - Rupilius, and ten legati, for the administration of the province of - Sicily, after the close of the first servile war. They were made - in pursuance of a consultum of the senate. Cicero speaks of these - regulations as a decretum of Rupilius, which he says they call - Lex Rupilia; but it was not a lex proper. The powers given to the - commissioners by the Lex Julia Municipalis were of a similar kind. - - - SĂCRĀTAE. Leges were properly so called which had for their object - to make a thing or person _sacer_. A lex sacrata militaris is also - mentioned by Livy. - - - SAENĬA DE PATRICIORUM NUMERO AUGENDO, enacted in the 5th consulship - of Augustus. - - - SĂTŬRA. [LEX, p. 226, _a_.] - - - SCANTĪNĬA, proposed by a tribune; the date and contents are not - known, but its object was to suppress unnatural crimes. It existed - in the time of Cicero. - - - SCRĪBŌNĬA. The date and whole import of this lex are not known; but - it enacted that a right to servitutes should not be acquired by - usucapion. - - - SCRĪBŌNIA VĬĀRIA or DE VIIS MUNIENDIS, B.C. 51. - - - SEMPRŌNĬAE, the name of various laws proposed by Tiberius and Caius - Sempronius Gracchus. - - AGRARIA. In B.C. 133 the tribune Tib. Gracchus revived the Agrarian - law of Licinius [LEGES LICINIAE]: he proposed that no one should - possess more than 500 jugera of the public land, and that the - surplus land should be divided among the poor citizens, who were - not to have the power of alienating it: he also proposed, as a - compensation to the possessors deprived of the land on which they - had frequently made improvements, that the former possessors should - have the full ownership of 500 jugera, and each of their sons, if - they had any, half that quantity: finally, that three commissioners - (_triumviri_) should be appointed every year to carry the law into - effect. This law naturally met with the greatest opposition, but - it was eventually passed in the year in which it was proposed, and - Tib. Gracchus, C. Gracchus, and Appius Claudius were the three - commissioners appointed under it. It was, however, never carried - fully into effect, in consequence of the murder of Tib. Gracchus. - Owing to the difficulties which were experienced in carrying his - brother’s agrarian law into effect, it was again brought forward by - C. Gracchus, B.C. 123. - - DE CAPITE CIVIUM ROMANORUM, proposed by C. Gracchus B.C. 123, - enacted that the people only should decide respecting the caput or - civil condition of a citizen. This law continued in force till the - latest times of the republic. - - FRUMENTARIA, proposed by C. Gracchus B.C. 123, enacted that corn - should be sold by the state to the people once a month at the price - of 6⅓ asses for each modius, which was equal to 1 gallon and nearly - 8 pints English. This was only a trifle more than half the market - price. - - JUDICIARIA. [JUDEX, p. 216.] - - MILITARIS, proposed by C. Gracchus B.C. 123, enacted that the - soldiers should receive their clothing gratis, and that no one - should be enrolled as a soldier under the age of seventeen. - Previously a fixed sum was deducted from the pay for all clothes - and arms issued to the soldiers. - - NE QUIS JUDICIO CIRCUMVENIRETUR, proposed by C. Gracchus, B.C. 123, - punished all who conspired to obtain the condemnation of a person - in a judicium publicum. One of the provisions of the Lex Cornelia - de Sicariis was to the same effect. - - DE PROVINCIIS CONSULARIBUS, proposed by C. Gracchus B.C. 123, - enacted that the senate should fix each year, before the comitia - for electing the consuls were held, the two provinces which were to - be allotted to the two new consuls. There was also a Sempronian law - concerning the province of Asia, which probably did not form part - of the Lex de Provinciis Consularibus: it enacted that the taxes - of this province should be let out to farm by the censors at Rome. - This law was afterwards repealed by J. Caesar. - - - SEMPRŌNIA DE FĒNŎRE, B.C. 193, was a plebiscitum proposed by a - tribune, M. Sempronius, which enacted that the law (_jus_) about - money lent (_pecunia credita_) should be the same for the Socii and - Latini (_Socii ac nomen Latinum_) as for Roman citizens. The object - of the lex was to prevent Romans from lending money in the name of - the Socii, who were not bound by the fenebres leges. The lex could - obviously only apply within the jurisdiction of Rome. - - - SERVĪLĬA AGRĀRIA, proposed by the tribune P. S. Rullus in the - consulship of Cicero, B.C. 63, was a very extensive agrarian - rogatio. It was successfully opposed by Cicero; but it was in - substance carried by J. Caesar, B.C. 59 [LEX JULIA AGRARIA], and is - the lex called by Cicero _Lex Campana_, from the public land called - ager campanus being assigned under this lex. - - - SERVĪLĬA GLAUCIA DE CĪVĬTĀTE. [REPETUNDAE.] - - - SERVĪLIA GLAUCIA DE RĔPĔTUNDIS. [REPETUNDAE.] - - - SERVĪLIA JŪDĬCĬĀRIA, B.C. 106. [JUDEX, p. 216.] It is assumed by - some writers that a lex of the tribune Servius Glaucia repealed the - Servilia Judiciaria two years after its enactment. - - - SĪLĬA, relating to Publica Pondera. - - - SILVĀNI ET CARBŌNIS. [LEX PAPIRIA PLAUTIA.] - - - SULPĬCĬAE, proposed by the tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus, a - supporter of Marius, B.C. 88, enacted the recall of the exiles, - the distribution of the new citizens and the libertini among the - thirty-five tribes, that the command in the Mithridatic war should - be taken from Sulla and given to Marius, and that a senator should - not contract debt to the amount of more than 2000 denarii. The last - enactment may have been intended to expel persons from the senate - who should get in debt. All these leges were repealed by Sulla. - - - SULPĬCĬA SEMPRŌNĬA, B.C. 304. No name is given to this lex by Livy, - but it was probably proposed by the consuls. It prevented the - dedicatio of a templum or altar without the consent of the senate - or a majority of the tribunes. - - - SUMPTUĀRĬAE, the name of various laws passed to prevent inordinate - expense (_sumptus_) in banquets, dress, &c. In the states of - antiquity it was considered the duty of government to put a check - upon extravagance in the private expenses of persons, and among the - Romans in particular we find traces of this in the laws attributed - to the kings, and in the Twelve Tables. The censors, to whom - was entrusted the _disciplina_ or _cura morum_, punished by the - _nota censoria_ all persons guilty of what was then regarded as - a luxurious mode of living; a great many instances of this kind - are recorded. But as the love of luxury greatly increased with - the foreign conquests of the republic and the growing wealth of - the nation, various leges sumptuariae were passed at different - times with the object of restraining it. These, however, as may be - supposed, rarely accomplished their object, and in the latter times - of the republic they were virtually repealed. The following list of - them is arranged in chronological order:-- - - OPPIA, proposed by the tribune C. Oppius in B.C. 215, enacted - that no woman should have above half an ounce of gold, nor wear a - dress of different colours, nor ride in a carriage in the city or - in any town, or within a mile of it, unless on account of public - sacrifices. This law was repealed twenty years afterwards, whence - we frequently find the Lex Orchia mentioned as the first lex - sumptuaria. - - ORCHIA, proposed by the tribune C. Orchius in B.C. 181, limited the - number of guests to be present at entertainments. - - FANNIA, proposed by the consul C. Fannius, B.C. 61, limited the - sums which were to be spent on entertainments, and enacted that not - more than 100 asses should be spent on certain festivals named in - the lex, whence it is called _centussis_ by Lucilius; that on ten - other days in each month not more than 30 asses, and that on all - other days not more than 10 asses, should be expended; also that no - other fowl but one hen should be served up, and that not fattened - for the purpose. - - DIDIA, passed B.C. 143, extended the Lex Fannia to the whole of - Italy, and enacted that not only those who gave entertainments - which exceeded in expense what the law had prescribed, but also - all who were present at such entertainments, should be liable to - the penalties of the law. We are not, however, told in what these - consisted. - - LICINIA, agreed in its chief provisions with the Lex Fannia, and - was brought forward, we are told, that there might be the authority - of a new law upon the subject, inasmuch as the Lex Fannia was - beginning to be neglected. It allowed 200 asses to be spent on - entertainments upon marriage days, and on other days the same as - the Lex Fannia; also, that on ordinary days there should not be - served up more than three pounds of fresh, and one pound of salt - meat. It was probably passed in B.C. 103. - - CORNELIA, a law of the dictator Sulla, B.C. 81, was enacted on - account of the neglect of the Fannian and Licinian Laws. Like - these, it regulated the expenses of entertainments. Extravagance in - funerals, which had been forbidden even in the Twelve Tables, was - also restrained by a law of Sulla. - - AEMILIA, proposed by the consul Aemilius Lepidus, B.C. 78, did not - limit the expenses of entertainments, but the kind and quantity of - food that was to be used. - - ANTIA, of uncertain date, proposed by Antius Resto, besides - limiting the expenses of entertainments, enacted that no actual - magistrate, or magistrate elect, should dine abroad anywhere except - at the houses of certain persons. This law however was little - observed; and we are told that Antius never dined out afterwards, - that he might not see his own law violated. - - JULIA, proposed by the dictator C. Julius Caesar, enforced the - former sumptuary laws respecting entertainments which had fallen - into disuse. He stationed officers in the provision market to seize - upon all eatables forbidden by the law, and sometimes sent lictors - and soldiers to banquets to take everything which was not allowed - by the law. - - JULIA, a lex of Augustus, allowed 200 sesterces to be expended - upon festivals on dies profesti, 300 on those of the calends, - ides, nones, and some other festive days, and 1000 upon marriage - feasts. There was also an edict of Augustus or Tiberius, by which - as much as from 300 to 2000 sesterces were allowed to be expended - upon entertainments, the increase being made with the hope of - securing thereby the observance of the law. Tiberius attempted to - check extravagance in banquets; and a senatusconsultum was passed - in his reign for the purpose of restraining luxury, which forbade - gold vases to be employed, except for sacred purposes, and also - prohibited the use of silk garments to men. This sumptuary law, - however, was but little observed. Some regulations on the subject - were also made by Nero and by succeeding emperors, but they appear - to have been of little or no avail in checking the increasing love - of luxury in dress and food. - - - TĂBELLĀRĬAE, the laws by which the ballot was introduced in voting - in the comitia. As to the ancient mode of voting at Rome, see - COMITIA, p. 107. - - GABINIA, proposed by the tribune Gabinius B.C. 139, introduced the - ballot in the election of magistrates; whence Cicero calls the - tabella _vindex tacitae libertatis_. - - CASSIA, proposed by the tribune L. Cassius Longinus B.C. 137, - introduced the ballot in the _judicium populi_, or cases tried in - the comitia by the whole body of the people, with the exception of - cases of perduellio. - - PAPIRIA, proposed by the tribune C. Papirius Carbo, B.C. 131, - introduced the ballot in the enactment and repeal of laws. - - CAELIA, proposed by C. Caelius Caldus, B.C. 107, introduced the - ballot in cases of perduellio, which had been excepted in the - Cassian law. There was also a law brought forward by Marius, B.C. - 119, which, was intended to secure freedom and order in voting. - - - TARPĒIA ATERNĬA. [ATERNIA TARPEIA.] - - - TĔRENTĪLĬA, proposed by the tribune C. Terentilius, B.C. 462, but - not carried, was a rogatio which had for its object an amendment of - the constitution, though in form it only attempted a limitation of - the imperium consulare. This rogatio probably led to the subsequent - legislation of the decemviri. - - - TESTĀMENTĀRĬAE. Various leges, such as the Cornelia, Falcidia, - Furia, and Voconia, regulated testamentary dispositions. - - - THŎRĬA, passed B.C. 121, concerned the public land in Italy as - far as the rivers Rubico and Macra, or all Italy except Cisalpine - Gaul, the public land in the province of Africa, the public land in - the territory of Corinth, and probably other public land besides. - It relieved a great part of the public land of the land-tax - (_vectigal_). Some considerable fragments of this lex have come - down to us, engraved on the back part of the same bronze tablet - which contained the Servilia Lex Judiciaria, and on Repetundae. - - - TĬTĬA, similar in its provisions to the Lex Publicia. - - - TĬTĬA, DE TUTORIBUS. [JULIA ET TITIA.] - - - TRĒBONĬA, a plebiscitum proposed by L. Trebonius, B.C. 448, which - enacted that if the ten tribunes were not chosen before the comitia - were dissolved, those who were elected should not fill up the - number (_co-optare_), but that the comitia should be continued till - the ten were elected. - - - TRĒBŌNĬA DE PRŌVINCIIS CONSULĀRĬBUS. (Plut. _Cat. Min._ 43; Liv. - _Epit._ 105.) - - - TRĬBŪNĬTĬA. (1) A law passed in the times of the kings under - the presidency of the tribunus celerum, and was so called to - distinguish it from one passed under the presidency of the king. - [LEX REGIA.]--(2) Any law proposed by a tribune of the plebs.--(3) - The law proposed by Pompey in B.C. 70, restoring to the tribunes of - the plebs the power of which they had been deprived by Sulla. - - - TULLĬA DE AMBĬTU. [AMBITUS.] - - - TULLIA DE LĒGĀTIŌNE LĪBĔRA. [LEGATUS, p. 224.] - - - VĂLĔRĬAE, proposed by the consul P. Valerius Publicola, B.C. 508, - enacted, 1. That whoever attempted to obtain possession of royal - power should be devoted to the gods, together with his substance. - 2. That whoever was condemned by the sentence of a magistrate to - be put to death, to be scourged, or to be fined, should possess - the right of appeal (_provocatio_) to the people. The patricians - possessed previously the right of appeal from the sentence of a - magistrate to their own council the curiae, and therefore this - law of Valerius probably related only to the plebeians, to whom - it gave the right of appeal to the plebeian tribes, and not to - the centuries. Hence the laws proposed by the Valerian family - respecting the right of appeal are always spoken of as one of - the chief safeguards of the liberty of the plebs. The right of - appeal did not extend beyond a mile from the city, where unlimited - imperium began, to which the patricians were just as much subject - as the plebeians. - - - VĂLĔRĬAE ET HŎRĀTĬAE, three laws proposed by the consuls L. - Valerius and M. Horatius, B.C. 449, in the year after the - decemvirate, enacted, 1. That a plebiscitum should be binding on - the whole people, respecting the meaning of which expression, see - PLEBISCITUM. 2. That whoever should procure the election of a - magistrate without appeal should be outlawed, and might be killed - by any one with impunity. 3. Renewed the penalty threatened against - any one who should harm the tribunes and the aediles, to whom were - now added the judices and decemviri. There is considerable doubt as - to who are meant by the _judices_ and _decemviri_. - - - VĂLĔRĬA, proposed by the consul M. Valerius, B.C. 300, re-enacted - for the third time the celebrated law of his family respecting - appeal (_provocatio_) from the decision of a magistrate. The law - specified no fixed penalty for its violation, leaving the judges to - determine what the punishment should be. - - - VĂRĬA. [MAJESTAS.] - - - VĂTĪNĬA DE PRŌVINCIIS, was the enactment by which Julius Caesar - obtained the province of Gallia Cisalpina with Illyricum for - five years, to which the senate added Gallia Transalpina. This - plebiscitum was proposed by the tribune Vatinius. A Trebonia Lex - subsequently prolonged Caesar’s imperium for five years. - - - VĂTĪNĬA DE CŎLŌNIS, under which the Latina Colonia [LATINITAS] of - Novum-Comum in Gallia Cisalpina was planted, B.C. 59. - - - VĂTĪNIA DE REJECTIŌNE JŪDĬCUM. (Cic. _in Vatin._ 11.) - - - DE VI. [VIS.] - - - VĬĀRĬA. A viaria lex which Cicero says the tribune C. Curio - talked of; but nothing more seems to be known of it. Some modern - writers speak of leges viariae, but there do not appear to be any - leges properly so called. The provisions as to roads in many of - the Agrarian laws were parts of such leges, and had no special - reference to roads. - - - VISELLĬA, made a Latinus who assumed the rights of an ingenuus - liable to prosecution. - - - VILLĬA ANNĀLIS. [LEX ANNALIS.] - - - VŎCŌNIA, enacted on the proposal of Q. Voconius Saxa, a tribunus - plebis, B.C. 169. One provision of the lex was, that no person - who should be rated in the census at 100,000 sesterces (_centum - millia aeris_) after the census of that year, should make any - female (_virginem neve mulierem_) his heres. The lex allowed no - exceptions, even in favour of an only daughter. It applied simply - to testaments, and therefore a daughter or other female could - inherit ab intestato to any amount. The vestal virgins could make - women their heredes in all cases, which was the only exception to - the provisions of the lex. Another provision of the lex forbade - a person who was included in the census to give more in amount, - in the form of a legacy to any person, than the heres or heredes - should take. This provision secured something to the heres or - heredes, but still the provision was ineffectual, and the object of - the lex was only accomplished by the Lex Falcidia, B.C. 44, which - enacted that a testator should not give more than three-fourths in - legacies, thus securing a fourth to the heres. - - -LĪBELLA, a small Roman silver coin, which existed in the early age -of the city. The name was retained later as a proverbial expression -for a very small value. The _libella_ was equal in value to the old -full-weight _as_; and it seems most probable that the coin ceased -being struck at the time of the reduction of the _as_, on account -of the inconveniently small size which it would have assumed. -The _libella_ was subdivided into the _sembella_, its half, and -the _teruncius_, its quarter. Cicero uses these words to express -fractions of an estate, with reference to the _denarius_ as the unit, -the _libella_ signifying 1-10th, and the _teruncius_ 1-40th of the -whole. - - -LĬBELLUS, the diminutive form of liber, signifies properly a little -book. It was distinguished from other kinds of writings, by being -written like our books by pages, whereas other writings were written -_transversa charta_. It was used by the Romans as a technical term -in the following cases:--1. _Libelli accusatorum_ or _accusatorii_, -the written accusations which in some cases a plaintiff, after having -received the permission to bring an action against a person, drew up, -signed, and sent to the judicial authorities. 2. _Libelli famosi_, -libels or pasquinades, intended to injure the character of persons. -A law of the Twelve Tables inflicted very severe punishments on -those who composed defamatory writings. 3. _Libellus memorialis_, -a pocket or memorandum book. 4. _Libellus_ is used by the Roman -jurists as equivalent to _Oratio Principis_. 5. The word libellus was -also applied to a variety of writings, which in most cases probably -consisted of one page only; such as short letters, advertisements, &c. - - -[Illustration: Ancient Writing Materials. (From a Painting at -Herculaneum.)] - -LĬBER (βιβλίον), a book. The most common material on which books -were written by the Greeks and Romans, was the thin coats or rind -(_liber_, whence the Latin name for a book) of the Egyptian papyrus. -This plant was called by the Egyptians Byblos (βύβλος), whence the -Greeks derived their name for a book (βιβλίον). The papyrus-tree -grows in swamps to the height of ten feet and more, and paper -(_charta_) was prepared from the thin coats or pellicles which -surround the plant. Next to the papyrus, parchment (_membrana_) -was the most common material for writing upon. It is said to have -been invented by Eumenes II. king of Pergamus, in consequence of -the prohibition of the export of papyrus from Egypt by Ptolemy -Epiphanes. It is probable, however, that Eumenes introduced only -some improvement in the manufacture of parchment, as Herodotus -mentions writing on skins as common in his time, and says that the -Ionians had been accustomed to give the name of skins (διφθέραι) to -books. The ancients wrote usually on only one side of the paper or -parchment. The back of the paper, instead of being written upon, was -usually stained with saffron colour or the cedrus, which produced a -yellow colour. As paper and parchment were dear, it was frequently -the custom to erase or wash out writing of little importance, and -to write upon the paper or parchment again, which was then called -_Palimpsestus_ (παλιμψήστος). The paper or parchment was joined -together so as to form one sheet, and when the work was finished, it -was rolled on a staff, whence it was called a _volumen_; and hence we -have the expression _evolvere librum_. When an author divided a work -into several books, it was usual to include only one book in a volume -or roll, so that there was generally the same number of volumes as -of books. In the papyri rolls found at Herculaneum, the stick on -which the papyrus is rolled does not project from the papyrus, but -is concealed by it. Usually, however, there were balls or bosses, -ornamented or painted, called _umbilici_ or _cornua_, which were -fastened at each end of the stick and projected from the papyrus. The -ends of the roll were carefully cut, polished with pumice-stone and -coloured black; they were called the _geminae frontes_. The way in -which a book was held while reading is shown in the following cut, -taken from a painting at Herculaneum. To protect the roll from injury -it was frequently put into a parchment case, which was stained with -a purple colour or with the yellow of the Lutum. The title of the -book (_titulus_, _index_) was written on a small strip of papyrus or -parchment with a light red colour (_coccum_ or _minium_). - -[Illustration: Book held by a crowned Poet. (From a Painting at -Herculaneum.)] - - -LĪBĔRĀLĬA. [DIONYSIA.] - - -LĪBĔRI. [INGENUI; LIBERTUS.] - - -LĪBERTUS, LĪBERTĪNUS. Freemen (_liberi_) were either _Ingenui_ -[INGENUI] or _Libertini_. _Libertini_ were those persons who -had been released from legal servitude. A manumitted slave was -_Libertus_ (that is, _liberatus_) with reference to his master; with -reference to the class to which he belonged after manumission, he was -_Libertinus_. Respecting the mode in which a slave was manumitted, -and his status after manumission, see MANUMISSIO.--At Athens, a -liberated slave was called ἀπελεύθερος. When manumitted he did not -obtain the citizenship, but was regarded as a _metoicus_ [METOICUS], -and, as such, he had to pay not only the _metoicion_ μετοίκιον but -a triobolon in addition to it. His former master became his patron -προστάτης to whom he owed certain duties. - - -LĬBĬTĪNĀRĬI. [FUNUS.] - - -LĪBRA, _dim._ LĪBELLA σταθμός, a balance, a pair of scales. The -principal parts of this instrument were, 1. The beam (_jugum_). 2. -The two scales, called in Greek τάλαντα, and in Latin _lances_. -The beam was made without a tongue, being held by a ring or other -appendage (_ligula_, ῥῦμα) fixed in the centre. - - -LĪBRA or AS, a pound, the unit of weight among the Romans and -Italians. The uncial division, which has been noticed in speaking -of the coin As, was also applied to the weight.--(See Tables at the -end.) The divisions of the ounce are given under UNCIA. Where the -word _pondo_, or its abbreviations P. or POND., occur with a simple -number, the weight understood is the _libra_. The name _libra_ was -also given to a measure of horn, divided into twelve equal parts -(_unciae_) by lines marked on it, and used for measuring oil. - - -LIBRĀRĬI, the name of slaves, who were employed by their masters -in writing or copying, sometimes called _antiquarii_. They must be -distinguished from the Scribae publici, who were freemen [SCRIBAE], -and also from the booksellers [BIBLIOPOLA], to both of whom this name -was also applied. - - -LĪBRĀTOR, in general a person who examines things by a LIBRA; -but specially applied to two kinds of persons.--(1) _Libratores -aquae_, persons whose knowledge of hydrostatics was indispensable -in the construction of aquaeducts, sewers, and other structures for -the purpose of conveying a fluid from one place to another.--(2) -_Libratores_ in the armies were probably soldiers who attacked the -enemy by hurling with their own hands (_librando_) lances or spears -against them. - - -LIBRĬPENS. [MANCIPIUM.] - - -LĬBURNA, LĬBURNĬCA, a light vessel, which derived its name from -the Liburni. The ships of this people were of great assistance to -Augustus at the battle of Actium; and experience having shown their -efficiency, vessels of a similar kind were built and called by the -name of the people. - - -LICTOR, a public officer, who attended on the chief Roman -magistrates. The number which waited on the different magistrates -is stated in the article FASCES. The office of lictor is said to -have been derived by Romulus from the Etruscans. The lictors went -before the magistrates one by one in a line; he who went last or -next to the magistrate was called _proximus lictor_, to whom the -magistrate gave his commands; and as this lictor was always the -principal one, we also find him called _primus lictor_. The lictors -had to inflict punishment on those who were condemned, especially -in the case of Roman citizens; for foreigners and slaves were -punished by the Carnifex; and they also probably had to assist in -some cases in the execution of a decree or judgment in a civil suit. -The lictors likewise commanded persons to pay proper respect to a -magistrate passing by, which consisted in dismounting from horseback, -uncovering the head, standing out of the way, &c. The lictors were -originally chosen from the plebs, but afterwards appear to have been -generally freedmen, probably of the magistrate on whom they attended. -Lictors were properly only granted to those magistrates who had the -Imperium. Consequently, the tribunes of the plebs never had lictors, -nor several of the other magistrates. Sometimes, however, lictors -were granted to persons as a mark of respect or for the sake of -protection. Thus by a law of the Triumvirs every vestal virgin was -accompanied by a lictor, whenever she went out, and the honour of -one or two lictors was usually granted to the wives and other female -members of the Imperial family. There were also thirty lictors called -_Lictores Curiati_, whose duty it was to summon the curiae to the -comitia curiata; and when these meetings became little more than a -form, their suffrages were represented by the thirty lictors. - - -LĬGŬLA, a Roman measure of fluid capacity, containing one-fourth -of the CYATHUS. It signifies _a spoonful_, like _cochlear_; only -the _ligula_ was larger than the _cochlear_. The spoon which was -called _ligula_, or _lingula_ (dim. of _lingua_) from its shape, was -used for various purposes, especially to clean out small and narrow -vessels, and to eat jellies and such things. The word is also used -for the leather tongue of a shoe. - - -LĪMEN. [JANUA.] - - -LINTER, a light boat, frequently formed of the trunk of a tree, and -drawing little water. - - -LĬTHOSTRŌTA. [DOMUS, p. 144.] - - -LITRA λίτρα, a Sicilian silver coin, equal in value to the Aeginetan -obol. - - -[Illustration: Lituus, Augur’s Staff. (Centre figure from an Etruscan -sculpture; the two others are Roman coins.)] - -LĬTUUS, probably an Etruscan word signifying _crooked_.--(1) -The crooked staff borne by the augurs, with which they divided -the expanse of heaven, when viewed with reference to divination -(_templum_), into regions (_regiones_).--(2) A sort of trumpet -slightly curved at the extremity. It differed both from the _tuba_ -and the _cornu_, the former being straight, while the latter was bent -round into a spiral shape. Its tones are usually characterised as -harsh and shrill. The Liticines, or blowers on the Lituus, formed a -Collegium along with the Cornicines. [CORNU.] - -[Illustration: Lituus, Trumpet. (From Fabretti.)] - - -LIXAE. [CALONES.] - - -LŎCŬPLĒTES or ASSĬDŬI, the name of the Roman citizens included in -the five classes of the Servian constitution, and opposed to the -_Proletarii_. - - -LŌDIX, a small shaggy blanket. It was also used as a carpet. - - -LOGISTAE. [EUTHYNE.] - - -[Illustration: Lorica, as worn by a Greek Warrior. (From a Vase.) - -Lorica, as worn by a Roman Emperor. (Statue of -Caligula in Louvre.)] - -LŌRĪCA (θώραξ), a cuirass. The cuirass was worn by the heavy-armed -infantry both among the Greeks and Romans. The soldiers commonly -wore cuirasses made of flexible bands of steel, or cuirasses of -chain mail; but those of generals and officers usually consisted of -two γύαλα, the breast-piece and back-piece, made of bronze, iron, -&c., which were joined by means of buckles (περόναι). The epithets -λεπιδωτός and φολιδωτός are applied to a cuirass; the former on -account of its resemblance to the scales of fish (λεπίσιν), the -latter to the scales of serpents (φολίσιν). Among the Asiatic nations -the cuirass was frequently made of cotton, and among the Sarmatians -and other northern nations of horn. - -[Illustration: - - Lorica. λεπιδωτός. - Lorica. φολιδωτός. - (Bartoli, ‘Arcus Triumph.’)] - - -LŪCAR. [HISTRIO.] - - -LŪCĔRES. [TRIBUS.] - - -[Illustration: Lucerna, lamp. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iv. pl. 10.)] - -LŬCERNA (λύχνος), an oil lamp. The Greeks and Romans originally used -candles; but in later times candles were chiefly confined to the -houses of the lower classes. [CANDELA.] A great number of ancient -lamps has come down to us; the greater part of which are made of -terra cotta, but also a considerable number of bronze. Most of the -lamps are of an oval form, and flat upon the top, on which there are -frequently figures in relief. In the lamps there are one or more -round holes, according to the number of wicks (_ellychnia_) burnt -in them; and as these holes were called from an obvious analogy, -μυκτῆρες or μύξαι, literally nostrils or nozzles, the lamp was also -called _Monomyxos_, _Dimyxos_, _Trimyxos_, or _Polymyxos_, according -as it contained one, two, three, or a greater number of nozzles -or holes for the wicks. The following is an example of a _dimyxos -lucerna_, upon which there is a winged boy with a goose. The next -woodcut represents one of the most beautiful bronze lamps which has -yet been found. Upon it is the figure of a standing Silenus. The -lamps sometimes hung in chains from the ceiling of the room, but -they generally stood upon a stand. [CANDELABRUM.] - -[Illustration: Lucerna lamp. (Museo Borbonico, vol. i. pl 10.)] - - -LUCTA, LUCTĀTĬO (πάλη, πάλαισμα, παλαισμοσύνη, or καταβλητική), -wrestling. The Greeks ascribed the invention of wrestling to mythical -personages, and Hermes, the god of all gymnastic exercises, also -presided over wrestling. In the Homeric age wrestling was much -practised: during this period wrestlers contended naked, and only -the loins were covered with the perizoma (περίζωμα), and this custom -probably remained throughout Greece until Ol. 15, from which time the -perizoma was no longer used, and wrestlers contended entirely naked. -In the Homeric age the custom of anointing the body for the purpose -of wrestling does not appear to have been known, but in the time of -Solon it was quite general, and was said to have been adopted by the -Cretans and Lacedaemonians at a very early period. After the body was -anointed, it was strewed over with sand or dust, in order to enable -the wrestlers to take a firm hold of each other. If one combatant -threw the other down three times, the victory was decided. Wrestling -was practised in all the great games of the Greeks. The most renowned -wrestler was Milon, of Croton. [PANCRATIUM.] - - -LŪDI, the common name for the whole variety of games and contests -which were held at Rome on various occasions, but chiefly at the -festivals of the gods; and as the ludi at certain festivals formed -the principal part of the solemnities, these festivals themselves are -called ludi. Sometimes ludi were also held in honour of a magistrate -or a deceased person, in which case they may be considered as ludi -privati. All ludi were divided by the Romans into two classes, _ludi -circenses_ and _ludi scenici_, accordingly as they were held in -the circus or in the theatre; in the latter case they were mostly -theatrical representations with their various modifications; in the -former they consisted of all or of a part of the games enumerated -in the articles CIRCUS and GLADIATORES. Another division of the -ludi into _stati_, _imperativi_, and _votivi_, is analogous to the -division of the feriae. [FERIAE.] The superintendence of the games, -and the solemnities connected with them, was in most cases intrusted -to the aediles. [AEDILES.] If the lawful rites were not observed in -the celebration of the ludi, it depended upon the decision of the -pontiffs whether they were to be held again (_instaurari_) or not. An -alphabetical list of the principal ludi is subjoined. - -LUDI APOLLINARES were instituted at Rome during the second Punic -war, after the battle of Cannae (212 B.C.), at the command of an -oracle contained in the books of the ancient seer Marcius, in order -to obtain the aid of Apollo. They were held every year under the -superintendence of the praetor urbanus, and ten men sacrificed to -Apollo, according to Greek rites, a bull with gilt horns and two -white goats also with gilt horns, and to Latona a heifer with gilt -horns. The games themselves were held in the Circus Maximus, the -spectators were adorned with chaplets, and each citizen gave a -contribution towards defraying the expenses. In B.C. 208, it was -ordained that they should always be celebrated on the 6th of July. - -LUDI AUGUSTALES. [AUGUSTALES.] - -LUDI CAPITOLINI were instituted B.C. 387, after the departure -of the Gauls from Rome, as a token of gratitude towards Jupiter -Capitolinus, who had saved the Capitol in the hour of danger. The -superintendence of the games was entrusted to a college of priests -called _Capitolini_. - -LUDI CIRCENSES, ROMANI or MAGNI, were celebrated every year during -several days, from the fourth to the twelfth of September, in -honour of the three great divinities, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, -or, according to others, in honour of Jupiter, Consus, and Neptunus -Equestris. They were superintended by the curule aediles. For further -particulars see CIRCUS. - -LUDI COMPITALICII. [COMPITALIA.] - -LUDI FLORALES. [FLORALIA.] - -LUDI FUNEBRES were games celebrated at the funeral pyre of -illustrious persons. Such games are mentioned in the very early -legends of the history of Greece and Rome, and they continued with -various modifications until the introduction of Christianity. It was -at such a ludus funebris, in B.C. 264, that gladiatorial fights were -exhibited at Rome for the first time, which henceforwards were the -most essential part in all funeral games. [GLADIATORES.] - -LUDI LIBERALES. [DIONYSIA.] - -LUDI MEGALENSES. [MEGALESIA.] - -LUDI PLEBEII were instituted probably in commemoration of the -reconciliation between the patricians and plebeians after the -first secession to the Mons Sacer, or, according to others, to the -Aventine. They were held on the 16th, 17th, and 18th of November, and -were conducted by the plebeian aediles. - -LUDI SAECULARES. During the time of the republic these games were -called _ludi Tarentini_, _Terentini_, or _Taurii_, and it was -not till the time of Augustus that they bore the name of _ludi -saeculares_. The names _Tarenti_ or _Taurii_ are perhaps nothing but -different forms of the same word, and of the same root as Tarquinius. -There were various accounts respecting the origin of the games, -yet all agree in stating that they were celebrated for the purpose -of averting from the state some great calamity by which it had been -afflicted, and that they were held in honour of Dis and Proserpina. -From the time of the consul Valerius Publicola down to that of -Augustus, the Tarentine games were held only three times, and again -only on certain emergencies, and not at any fixed period, so that -we must conclude that their celebration was in no way connected -with certain cycles of time (_saecula_). Not long after Augustus -had assumed the supreme power in the republic, the quindecimviri -announced that according to their books _ludi saeculares_ ought to -be held, and at the same time tried to prove from history that in -former times they had not only been celebrated repeatedly, but almost -regularly once in every century. The festival, however, which was -now held, was in reality very different from the ancient Tarentine -games; for Dis and Proserpina, to whom formerly the festival belonged -exclusively, were now the last in the list of the divinities in -honour of whom the ludi saeculares were celebrated. The festival -took place in summer, and lasted for three days and three nights. -On the first day the games commenced in that part of the Campus -Martius, Which had belonged to the last Tarquin, from whom it derived -its name Tarentum, and sacrifices were offered to Jupiter, Juno, -Neptune, Minerva, Venus, Apollo, Mercury, Ceres, Vulcan, Mars, Diana, -Vesta, Hercules, Latona, the Parcae, and to Dis and Proserpina. The -solemnities began at the second hour of the night, and the emperor -opened them by the river side with the sacrifice of three lambs to -the Parcae upon three altars erected for the purpose, and which -were sprinkled with the blood of the victims. The lambs themselves -were burnt. A temporary scene like that of a theatre was erected in -the Tarentum, and illuminated with lights and fires. In this scene -festive hymns were sung by a chorus, and various other ceremonies, -together with theatrical performances, took place. During the morning -of the first day the people went to the Capitol to offer solemn -sacrifices to Jupiter; thence they returned to the Tarentum, to sing -choruses in honour of Apollo and Diana. On the second day the noblest -matrons, at an hour fixed by an oracle, assembled in the Capitol, -offered supplications, sang hymns to the gods, and also visited the -altar of Juno. The emperor and the quindecimviri offered sacrifices -which had been vowed before, to all the great divinities. On the -third day Greek and Latin choruses were sung in the sanctuary of -Apollo by three times nine boys and maidens of great beauty, whose -parents were still alive. The object of these hymns was to implore -the protection of the gods for all cities, towns, and officers -of the empire. One of these hymns was the _carmen saeculare_ by -Horace, which was especially composed for the occasion and adapted -to the circumstances of the time. During the whole of the three -days and nights, games of every description were carried on in all -the circuses and theatres, and sacrifices were offered in all the -temples. The first celebration of the ludi saeculares in the reign of -Augustus took place in the summer of B.C. 17. - -LUDI TARENTINI or TAURII. [LUDI SAECULARES.] - - -LŪDUS. [GLADIATORES.] - - -LŪDUS TRŌJAE. [CIRCUS.] - - -LŬPERCĀLĬA, one of the most ancient Roman festivals, which was -celebrated every year in honour of Lupercus, the god of fertility. -It was originally a shepherd-festival, and hence its introduction at -Rome was connected with the names of Romulus and Remus, the kings of -shepherds. It was held every year, on the 15th of February, in the -Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were said to have been nurtured -by the she-wolf; the place contained an altar and a grove sacred -to the god Lupercus. Here the Luperci assembled on the day of the -Lupercalia, and sacrificed to the god goats and young dogs. Two -youths of noble birth were then led to the Luperci, and one of the -latter touched their foreheads with a sword dipped in the blood of -the victims; other Luperci immediately after wiped off the bloody -spots with wool dipped in milk. Hereupon the two youths were obliged -to break out into a shout of laughter. This ceremony was probably a -symbolical purification of the shepherds. After the sacrifice was -over, the Luperci partook of a meal, at which they were plentifully -supplied with wine. They then cut the skins of the goats which they -had sacrificed, into pieces: with some of which they covered parts of -their body in imitation of the god Lupercus, who was represented half -naked and half covered with goatskin. The other pieces of the skins -they cut in the shape of thongs, and holding them in their hands they -ran with them through the streets of the city, touching or striking -with them all persons whom they met in their way, and especially -women, who even used to come forward voluntarily for the purpose, -since they believed that this ceremony rendered them fruitful, -and procured them an easy delivery in child-bearing. This act of -running about with thongs of goatskin was a symbolic purification -of the land, and that of touching persons a purification of men, -for the words by which this act is designated are _februare_ and -_lustrare_. The goatskin itself was called _februum_, the festive -day _dies februata_, the month in which it occurred _Februarius_, -and the god himself _Februus_. The festival of the Lupercalia, -though it necessarily lost its original import at the time when the -Romans were no longer a nation of shepherds, was yet always observed -in commemoration of the founders of the city. M. Antonius, in his -consulship, was one of the Luperci, and not only ran with them half -naked and covered with pieces of goatskin through the city, but even -addressed the people in the forum in this rude attire. - - -LŬPERCI, the priests of the god Lupercus. They formed a college, -the members of which were originally youths of patrician families, -and which was said to have been instituted by Romulus and Remus. -The college was divided into two classes, the one called _Fabii_ -or _Fabiani_, and the other _Quinctilii_ or _Quinctiliani_. The -office was not for life, but how long it lasted is not known. Julius -Caesar added to the two classes of the college a third with the -name of _Julii_ or _Juliani_, and made Antonius their high-priest. -He also assigned to them certain revenues (_vectigalia_) which were -afterwards withdrawn from them. - - -LŬPUS FERREUS, the iron wolf used by the besieged in repelling the -attacks of the besiegers, and especially in seizing the battering-ram -and diverting its blows. - - -LUSTRĀTĬO (κάθαρσις) was originally a purification by ablution in -water. But the lustrations of which we possess direct knowledge are -always connected with sacrifices and other religious rites, and -consisted in the sprinkling of water by means of a branch of laurel -or olive, and at Rome sometimes by means of the aspergillum, and in -the burning of certain materials, the smoke of which was thought to -have a purifying effect. Whenever sacrifices were offered, it seems -to have been customary to carry them around the person or thing to be -purified. Lustrations were made in ancient Greece, and probably at -Rome also, by private individuals when they had polluted themselves -by any criminal action. Whole cities and states also sometimes -underwent purifications to expiate the crime or crimes committed by -a member of the community. The most celebrated purification of this -kind was that of Athens, performed by Epimenides of Crete, after the -Cylonian massacre. Purification also took place when a sacred spot -had been unhallowed by profane use, as by burying dead bodies in -it, as was the case with the island of Delos. The Romans performed -lustrations on many occasions, on which the Greeks did not think of -them; and the object of most Roman lustrations was not to atone for -the commission of crime, but to obtain the blessing of the gods upon -the persons or things which were lustrated. Thus fields were purified -after the business of sowing was over, and before the sickle was put -to the corn. [ARVALES FRATRES.] Sheep were purified every year at the -festival of the Palilia. All Roman armies before they took the field -were lustrated; and as the solemnity was probably always connected -with a review of the troops, the word lustratio is also used in the -sense of the modern review. The establishment of a new colony was -always preceded by a lustratio with solemn sacrifices. The city of -Rome itself, as well as other towns within its dominion, always -underwent a lustratio after they had been visited by some great -calamity, such as civil bloodshed, awful prodigies, and the like. A -regular and general lustratio of the whole Roman people took place -after the completion of every lustrum, when the censor had finished -his census and before he laid down his office. This lustratio (also -called lustrum) was conducted by one of the censors, and held with -sacrifices called _Suovetaurilia_, because the sacrifices consisted -of a pig (or ram), a sheep, and an ox. It took place in the Campus -Martius, where the people assembled for the purpose. The sacrifices -were carried three times around the assembled multitude. - - -LUSTRUM (from _luo_, Gr. λούω) is properly speaking a lustration or -purification, and in particular the purification of the whole Roman -people performed by one of the censors in the Campus Martius, after -the business of the census was over. [CENSUS; LUSTRATIO.] As this -purification took place only once in five years, the word lustrum -was also used to designate the time between two lustra. The first -lustrum was performed in B.C. 566, by king Servius, after he had -completed his census, and it is said to have taken place subsequently -every five years, after the census was over. The census might be held -without the lustrum, and indeed two cases of this kind are recorded -which happened in B.C. 459 and 214. In these cases the lustrum was -not performed on account of some great calamities which had befallen -the republic. The time when the lustrum took place has been very -ingeniously defined by Niebuhr. Six ancient Romulian years of 304 -days each were, with the difference of one day, equal to five solar -years of 365 days each, or the six ancient years made 1824 days, -while the five solar years contained 1825 days. The lustrum, or the -great year of the ancient Romans, was thus a cycle, at the end of -which the beginning of the ancient year nearly coincided with that -of the solar year. As the coincidence, however, was not perfect, a -month of 24 days was intercalated in every eleventh lustrum. Now -it is highly probable that the recurrence of such a cycle or great -year was, from the earliest times, solemnised with sacrifices and -purifications, and that Servius Tullius did not introduce them, but -merely connected them with his census, and thus set the example for -subsequent ages. Many writers of the latter period of the republic -and during the empire, use the word lustrum for any space of five -years, and without any regard to the census, while others even apply -it in the sense of the Greek pentaeteris or an Olympiad, which -contained only four years. - - -LỸCAEA (λύκαια), a festival with contests, celebrated by the -Arcadians in honour of Zeus surnamed Λυκαῖος. It was said to have -been instituted by the ancient hero Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus, who -is also said, instead of the cakes which had formerly been offered to -the god, to have sacrificed a child to Zeus, and to have sprinkled -the altar with its blood. - - -[Illustration: Lyre with four strings, from a Lycian coin. (Cabinet -of Sir Charles Fellows.)] - -[Illustration: Lyre with seven strings, from a coin of Chalcis. -(British Museum.)] - -LỸRA (λύρα, Lat. _fides_), a lyre, one of the most ancient musical -instruments of the stringed kind. The Greeks attributed the invention -of the lyre to Hermes, who is said to have formed the instrument of -a tortoise-shell, over which he placed gut-strings. The name λύρα, -however, does not occur in the Homeric poems, and the ancient lyre, -called in Homer _phorminx_ (φόρμιγξ) and _citharis_ (κίθαρις), seems -rather to have resembled the _cithara_ of later times, which was in -some respects like a modern guitar. In the cithara the strings were -drawn across the bottom, whereas in the lyra of ancient times they -were free on both sides. The lyre is also called χέλυς or χελώνη, and -in Latin _testudo_, because it was made of a tortoise-shell. The lyre -had originally three or four strings, but after the time of Terpander -of Antissa (about B.C. 650), who is said to have added three more, it -was generally made with seven. The ancients, however, made use of a -variety of lyres; and about the time of Sappho and Anacreon several -stringed instruments, such as _magadis_, _barbiton_, and others, were -used in Greece, and especially in Lesbos. They had been introduced -from Asia Minor, and their number of strings far exceeded that of the -lyre, for we know that some had even twenty strings, so that they -must have more resembled a modern harp than a lyre. But the lyra and -cithara had in most cases no more than seven strings. The lyre had -a great and full-sounding bottom, which continued as before to be -made generally of tortoise-shell, from which the horns rose as from -the head of a stag. A transverse piece of wood connecting the two -horns at or near their top-ends served to fasten the strings, and -was called ζύγον, and in Latin _transtillum_. The horns were called -πήχεις or _cornua_. These instruments were often adorned in the -most costly manner with gold and ivory. The lyre was considered as -a more manly instrument than the cithara, which, on account of its -smaller-sounding bottom, excluded full-sounding and deep tones, and -was more calculated for the middle tones. The lyre when played stood -in an upright position between the knees, while the cithara stood -upon the knees of the player. Both instruments were held with the -left hand, and played with the right. It has generally been supposed -that the strings of these instruments were always touched with a -little staff called _plectrum_ (πλῆκτρον), but among the paintings -discovered at Herculaneum we find several instances where the persons -play the lyre with their fingers. The lyre was at all times only -played as an accompaniment to songs. The Latin name _fides_, which -was used for a lyre as well as a cithara, is probably the same as -the Greek σφίδες, which signifies gut-string. The lyre (_cithara_ -or _phorminx_) was at first used in the recitations of epic poetry, -though it was probably not played during the recitation itself, but -only as a prelude before the minstrel commenced his story, and in the -intervals or pauses between the several parts. The lyre has given its -name to a species of poetry called lyric; this kind of poetry was -originally never recited or sung without the accompaniment of the -lyre, and sometimes also of an appropriate dance. - -[Illustration: Anacreon playing the lyre. (Vase-painting in the -British Museum.)] - - - - -MAENIĀNUM, signified, originally, a projecting balcony, which was -erected round the Roman forum, by the censor, C. Maenius, B.C. -318, in order to give more accommodation to the spectators of the -gladiatorial combats. Hence balconies in general came to be called -_maeniana_. - - -MĂGĂDIS. [LYRA.] - - -MĂGISTER., which contains the same root as _mag-is_ and _mag-nus_, -was applied at Rome to persons possessing various kinds of offices, -and especially to the leading person in a collegium or corporation -[COLLEGIUM]; thus the _magister societatis_ was the president of the -corporation of equites, who farmed the taxes at Rome. - - -MĂGISTER ĔQUITUM. [DICTATOR.] - - -MĂGISTRĀTUS was a person _qui juri dicundo praeerat_. The King was -originally the sole Magistratus; he had all the Potestas. On the -expulsion of the Kings, two Consuls were annually appointed, and they -were Magistratus. In course of time other Magistratus were appointed; -namely, dictators, censors, praetors, aediles, tribunes of the plebs, -and the decemviri litibus judicandis. The governors of provinces with -the title of propraetor or proconsul were also Magistratus. The word -Magistratus contains the same element as _mag(ister)_ and _mag(nus)_; -and it signifies both the person and the office, as we see in the -phrase _se magistratu abdicare_. The auspicia maxima belonged to the -consuls, praetors, and censors, and the minora auspicia to the other -magistrates; accordingly the consuls, praetors, and censors were -called _Majores_, and they were elected at the comitia centuriata; -the other magistratus were called _Minores_. The former had the -imperium, the latter had not. The magistratus were also divided into -curules and those who were not curules: the magistratus curules were -the dictator, consuls, praetors, censors, and the curule aediles, -who were so called, because they had the jus sellae curulis. The -magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the early -republic, but in course of time the plebeians shared these honours, -with the exception of that of the Interrex: the plebeian magistratus, -properly so called, were the plebeian aediles and the tribuni plebis. - - -MAJESTAS pretty nearly corresponds to treason in English law; but -all the offences included under majestas comprehend more than the -English treason. One of the offences included in majestas was the -effecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistratus populi -Romani, or of one who had imperium or potestas. Though the phrase -_crimen majestatis_ was used, the complete expression was _crimen -laesae_, _imminutae_, _diminutae_, or _minutae majestatis_. The word -majestas, consistently with its relation to _mag(nus)_, signifies -the magnitude or greatness of a thing. Accordingly, the phrases -_majestas populi Romani_, _imperii majestas_, signify the whole of -that which constituted the Roman state; in other words, the sovereign -power of the Roman state. The expression _minuere majestatem_ -consequently signifies any act by which this majestas is impaired. -In the republican period the term _majestas laesa_ or _minuta_ was -most commonly applied to cases of a general betraying or surrendering -his army to the enemy, exciting sedition, and generally by his bad -conduct in administration impairing the majestas of the state. The -old punishment of majestas was perpetual interdiction from fire and -water. In the later imperial period, persons of low condition were -thrown to wild beasts, or burnt alive; persons of better condition -were simply put to death. In the early times of the republic, every -act of a citizen which was injurious to the state or its peace was -called _perduellio_, and the offender (_perduellis_) was tried before -the populus (_populi judicio_), and, if convicted, put to death. -_Perduellis_ originally signified _hostis_; and thus the old offence -of perduellio was equivalent to making war on the Roman state. The -trial for perduellio (_perduellionis judicium_) existed to the later -times of the republic; but the name seems to have almost fallen into -disuse, and various leges were passed for the purpose of determining -more accurately what should be majestas. These were a lex Apuleia, -probably passed in the fifth consulship of Marius, the exact contents -of which are unknown, a lex Varia B.C. 91, a lex Cornelia passed by -L. Cornelius Sulla, and the lex Julia, which continued under the -empire to be the fundamental enactment on this subject. This lex -Julia is by some attributed to C. Julius Caesar, and assigned to -the year B.C. 48. Under the empire the term majestas was applied to -the person of the reigning Caesar, and we find the phrases majestas -Augusta, imperatoria, and regia. It was, however, nothing new to -apply the term to the emperor, considered in some of his various -capacities, for it was applied to the magistratus under the republic, -as to the consul and praetor. Horace even addresses Augustus in the -terms _majestas tua_, but this can hardly be viewed otherwise than as -a personal compliment, and not as said with reference to any of the -offices which he held. - - -MALLĔŎLUS, a hammer, the transverse head of which was formed for -holding pitch and tow, which, having been set on fire, was projected -slowly, so that it might not be extinguished during its flight, upon -houses and other buildings in order to set them on fire: it was -therefore commonly used in sieges together with torches and falaricae. - - -MĀLUS. [NAVIS.] - - -MANCEPS has the same relation to Mancipium that Auspex has to -Auspicium. It is properly _qui manu capit_. But the word has several -special significations. Mancipes were they who bid at the public -lettings of the censors for the purpose of farming any part of the -public property. Sometimes the chief of the publicani generally are -meant by this term, as they were no doubt the bidders and gave -the security, and then they shared the undertaking with others or -underlet it. The mancipes would accordingly have distinctive names -according to the kind of revenue which they took on lease, as -_Decumani_, _Portitores_, _Pecuarii_. - - -MANCĬPĀTĬO. [MANCIPIUM.] - - -MANCĬPĬUM, MANCĬPĀTIO. These words are used to indicate the -formal transfer of the ownership of a thing, and are derived from -the fact that the person who received the thing took hold of it -(_mancipatio dicitur quia manu res capitur_). It was not a simple -corporeal apprehension, but one which was accompanied with certain -forms described by Gaius the jurist:--“Mancipatio is effected in -the presence of not less than five witnesses, who must be Roman -citizens and of the age of puberty (_puberes_), and also in the -presence of another person of the same status, who holds a pair of -brazen scales, and hence is called _Libripens_. The purchaser (_qui -mancipio accipit_), taking hold of the thing, says: I affirm that -this slave (_homo_) is mine Ex Jure Quiritium, and he is purchased -by me with this piece of money (_aes_) and brazen scales. He then -strikes the scales with the piece of money, and gives it to the -seller as a symbol of the price (_quasi pretii loco_).” This mode of -transfer applied to all free persons or slaves, animals or lands, -all of which persons and things were called _Res Mancipi_; other -things were called _Nec Mancipi_. Lands (_praedia_) might be thus -transferred, though the parties to the mancipatio were not on the -lands; but all other things, which were objects of mancipatio, were -only transferable in the presence of the parties, because corporeal -apprehension was a necessary part of the ceremony. The party who -transferred the ownership of a thing pursuant to these forms was -said _mancipio dare_; he who thus acquired the ownership was said -_mancipio accipere_. The verb _mancipare_ is sometimes used as -equivalent to _mancipio dare_. Mancipium may be used as equivalent -to complete ownership, and may thus be opposed to _usus_ and to -_fructus_. Sometimes the word mancipium signifies a slave, as being -one of the res mancipi. - - -MANDĀTUM, often signifies a command from a superior to an inferior. -Under the empire the mandata principum were the commands and -instructions given to governors of provinces and others. - - -MĂNĬPŬLUS. [EXERCITUS.] - - -MANSĬO σταθμός, a post-station at the end of a day’s journey. The -word is derived from _manere_, signifying to pass the night at a -place in travelling. On the great Roman roads the mansiones were -at the same distance from one another as on those of the Persian -empire, where such resting-places (khans or caravanseras) were first -provided, viz. at intervals of about 20 English miles. They were -originally called _castra_, being probably mere places of encampment -formed by making earthen entrenchments. In process of time they -included, not only barracks and magazines of provisions (_horrea_) -for the troops, but commodious buildings adapted for the reception -of travellers of all ranks, and even of the emperor himself, if he -should have occasion to visit them. At those stations the cisiarii -kept gigs for hire and for conveying government despatches. [CISIUM; -ESSEDUM.] The _mansio_ was under the superintendence of an officer -called _mansionarius_. - - -MĂNŬBĬAE. [SPOLIA.] - - -MĂNŪMISSĬO was the form by which slaves were released from slavery. -There were three modes by which this was effected, namely, Vindicta, -Census, and Testamentum. Of these the manumissio by vindicta -is probably the oldest, and perhaps was once the only mode of -manumission. It is mentioned by Livy as in use at an early period; -and, indeed, he states that some persons refer the origin of the -vindicta to the event which he relates, and derive its name from -Vindicius; the latter part, at least, of the supposition is of -no value. The ceremony of the manumissio by the vindicta was as -follows:--The master brought his slave before the magistratus, and -stated the grounds (_causa_) of the intended manumission. The lictor -of the magistratus laid a rod (_festuca_) on the head of the slave, -accompanied with certain formal words, in which he declared that he -was a freeman ex jure quiritium, that is, _vindicavit in libertatem_. -The master in the meantime held the slave, and after he had -pronounced the words _hunc hominem liberum volo_, he turned him round -and let him go (_emisit e manu_), whence the general name of the -act of manumission. The word vindicta itself, which is properly the -res _vindicata_, is used for festuca by Horace. In the case of the -census the slave was registered by the censors as a citizen with his -master’s consent. The third mode of manumission was, when a master -gave liberty to a slave by his will (_testamentum_). The act of -manumission established the relation of patronus and libertus between -the manumissor and the manumitted. When manumitted by a citizen, the -libertus took the praenomen and the gentile name of the manumissor, -and became in a sense a member of the gens of his patron. To these -two names he added some other name as a cognomen, either some name by -which he was previously known, or some name assumed on the occasion: -thus we find the names M. Tullius Tiro, P. Terentius Afer, and other -like names. The relation between a patronus and libertus is stated -under PATRONUS. Before the year B.C. 311, the libertini had not the -suffragium, but in that year the censor Appius Claudius gave the -libertini a place in the tribes, and from this time the libertini -had the suffragium after they were duly admitted on the censors’ -roll. In the year B.C. 304, they were placed in the tribus urbanae, -and not allowed to perform military service. In the censorship of -Tiberius Gracchus, B.C. 169, they were placed in one of the tribus -urbanae, determined by lot. Subsequently, by a law of Aemilius -Scaurus, about B.C. 116, they were restored to the four city tribes, -and this remained their condition to the end of the republic, though -various attempts were made to give them a better suffrage. A tax was -levied on manumission by a lex Manlia, B.C. 357: it consisted of the -twentieth part of the value of the slave, hence called _Vicesima_. - - -MĂNUS FERREA. [HARPAGO.] - - -MARSŪPĬUM (μαρσύπιον, βαλάντιον), a purse. The purse used by the -ancients was commonly a small leathern bag, and was often closed by -being drawn together at the mouth (σύσπαστα βαλάντια). Mercury is -commonly represented holding one in his hand. (See cut, p. 63.) - - -MARTỸRĬA (μαρτύρια), signifies strictly the deposition of a witness -in a court of justice, though the word is applied metaphorically -to all kinds of testimony. At Athens none but freemen could be -witnesses. The incapacity of women may be inferred from the general -policy of the Athenian law, and the absence of any example in the -orators where a woman’s evidence is produced. The same observation -applies to minors. Slaves were not allowed to give evidence, unless -upon examination by torture (βάσανος). Citizens who had been -disfranchised (ἠτιμωμένοι) could not appear as witnesses (any more -than as jurors or plaintiffs) in a court of justice; for they had -lost all honourable rights and privileges. But there was no objection -to alien freemen. The party who desired the evidence of a witness, -summoned him to attend for that purpose. The summons was called -πρόσκλησις. If the witness promised to attend and failed to do so, -he was liable to an action called δίκη λειπομαρτυρίου. Whether he -promised or not, he was bound to attend, and if his absence caused -injury to the party, he was liable to an action (δίκη βλάβης). The -attendance of the witness was first required at the ἀνάκρισις, where -he was to make his deposition before the superintending magistrate -(ἡγεμὼν δικαστηρίου). The party in whose favour he appeared, -generally wrote the deposition at home upon a whitened board or -tablet (λελευκωμένον γραμματεῖον), which he brought with him to the -magistrate’s office, and, when the witness had deposed thereto, put -into the box (ἐχῖνος) in which all the documents in the cause were -deposited. An oath was usually taken by the witness at the ἀνάκρισις, -where he was sworn by the opposite party at an altar. The witness, -whether he had attended before the magistrate or not, was obliged to -be present at the trial, in order to confirm his testimony. The only -exception was, when he was ill or out of the country, in which case a -commission might be sent to examine him. [ECMARTYRIA.] All evidence -was produced by the party during his own speech, the κλεψύδρα being -stopped for that purpose. The witness was called by an officer of the -court, and mounted on the raised platform (βῆμα.) of the speaker, -while his deposition was read over to him by the clerk; he then -signified his assent, either by express words, or bowing his head in -silence.--We conclude by noticing a few expressions. Μαρτυρεῖν τινι -is to testify in favour of a man, καταμαρτυρεῖν τινος to testify -against. Μαρτύρεσθαι to call to witness (a word used poetically), -διαμαρτύρεσθαι and sometimes ἐπιμαρτύρεσθαι τοὺς παρόντας, to call -upon those who are present to take notice of what passes, with a -view to give evidence. Ψευδομαρτυρεῖν and ἐπιορκεῖν are never used -indifferently, which affords some proof that testimony was not -necessarily on oath. The μάρτυς (witness in the cause) is to be -distinguished from the κλητὴρ or κλήτωρ, who merely gave evidence of -the summons to appear. - - -MASTĪGŎPHŎRI or MASTĪGŎNOMI (μαστιγοφόροι or μαστιγονόμοι), the -name of the lower police officers in the Greek states, who carried -into execution the corporal punishments inflicted by the higher -magistrates. In the theatre the mastigophori preserved order, and -were stationed for this purpose in the orchestra, near the thymele. -In the Olympic games the ῥαβδοῦχοι performed the same duties. At -Athens they were discharged by the public slaves, called bowmen -(τοξόται), or Scythians (Σκύθαι). [DEMOSII.] - - -MĀTERFĂMĬLĬAS. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - -MATRĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome every year on the 11th of -June, in honour of the goddess Mater Matuta, whose temple stood in -the Forum Boarium. It was celebrated only by Roman matrons, and -the sacrifices offered to the goddess consisted of cakes baked in -pots of earthenware. Slaves were not allowed to take part in the -solemnities, or to enter the temple of the goddess. One slave, -however, was admitted by the matrons, but only to be exposed to a -humiliating treatment, for one of the matrons gave her a blow on the -cheek, and then sent her away from the temple. The matrons on this -occasion took with them the children of their sisters, but not their -own, held them in their arms, and prayed for their welfare. - - -MĀTRŌNĀLĬA, a festival celebrated on the Kalends of March in honour -of Juno Lucina. Hence Horace says, “Martiis _caelebs_ quid agam -Kalendis.” - - -MĀTRĬMŌNĬUM NUPTĬAE (γάμος), marriage. (1) GREEK. The ancient Greek -legislators considered the relation of marriage as a matter not -merely of private, but also of public or general interest. This -was particularly the case at Sparta, where proceedings might be -taken against those who married too late or unsuitably, as well as -against those who did not marry at all. But independent of public -considerations, there were also private or personal reasons, peculiar -to the ancients, which made marriage an obligation. One of these was -the duty incumbent upon every individual to provide for a continuance -of representatives to succeed himself as ministers of the Divinity; -and another was the desire felt by almost every one, not merely to -perpetuate his own name, but to leave some one who might make the -customary offerings at his grave. We are told that with this view -childless persons sometimes adopted children. The choice of a wife -among the ancients was but rarely grounded upon affection, and -scarcely ever could have been the result of previous acquaintance -or familiarity. In many cases a father chose for his son a bride -whom the latter had never seen, or compelled him to marry for the -sake of checking his extravagances. By the Athenian laws a citizen -was not allowed to marry with a foreign woman, nor conversely, -under very severe penalties, but proximity by blood (ἀγχιστεία), or -consanguinity (συγγένεια), was not, with some few exceptions, a bar -to marriage in any part of Greece; direct lineal descent was. At -Athens the most important preliminary to marriage was the betrothal -(ἐγγύησις), which was in fact indispensable to the complete validity -of a marriage contract. It was made by the natural or legal guardian -(ὁ κύριος) of the bride elect, and attended by the relatives of -both parties as witnesses. The wife’s dowry was settled at the -betrothal. On the day before the _gamos_, or marriage, or sometimes -on the day itself, certain sacrifices or offerings (προτέλεια γάμων -or προγάμεια) were made to the gods who presided over marriage. -Another ceremony of almost general observance on the wedding day, -was the bathing of both the bride and bridegroom in water fetched -from some particular fountain, whence, as some think, the custom -of placing the figure of a λουτροφόρος or “water carrier” over the -tombs of those who died unmarried. After these preliminaries, the -bride was generally conducted from her father’s to the house of the -bridegroom at nightfall, in a chariot (ἐφ’ ἁμάξης) drawn by a pair -of males or oxen, and furnished with a kind of couch (κλινίς) as a -seat. On either side of her sat the bridegroom and one of his most -intimate friends or relations, who from his office was called the -_paranymph_ (παράνυμφος or νυμφευτής); but as he rode in the carriage -(ὄχημα) with the bride and bridegroom, he was sometimes called the -πάροχος. The nuptial procession was probably accompanied, according -to circumstances, by a number of persons, some of whom carried the -nuptial torches. Both bride and bridegroom (the former veiled) were -decked out in their best attire, with chaplets on their heads, -and the doors of their houses were hung with festoons of ivy and -bay. As the bridal procession moved along, the hymenaean song was -sung to the accompaniment of Lydian flutes, even in olden times, -as beautifully described by Homer, and the married pair received -the greetings and congratulations of those who met them. After -entering the bridegroom’s house, into which the bride was probably -conducted by his mother, bearing a lighted torch, it was customary -to shower sweetmeats upon them (καταχύσματα), as emblems of plenty -and prosperity. After this came the nuptial feast, to which the -name _gamos_ was particularly applied; it was generally given in -the house of the bridegroom or his parents; and besides being a -festive meeting, served other and more important purposes. There -was no public rite, whether civil or religious, connected with the -celebration of marriage amongst the ancient Greeks, and therefore no -public record of its solemnisation. This deficiency then was supplied -by the marriage feast, for the guests were of course competent to -prove the fact of a marriage having taken place. To this feast, -contrary to the usual practice amongst the Greeks, women were invited -as well as men; but they seem to have sat at a separate table, with -the bride still veiled amongst them. At the conclusion of this feast -she was conducted by her husband into the bridal chamber; and a -law of Solon required that on entering it they should eat a quince -together, as if to indicate that their conversation ought to be -sweet and agreeable. The song called the _Epithalamium_ was then sung -before the doors of the bridal chamber. The day after the marriage, -the first of the bride’s residence in her new abode, was called -the _epaulia_ (ἐπαύλια); on which their friends sent the customary -presents to the newly married couple. On another day, the _apaulia_ -(ἀπαύλια), perhaps the second after marriage, the bridegroom left -his house, to lodge apart from his wife at his father’s-in-law. -Some of the presents made to the bride by her husband and friends -were called _anacalypteria_ (ἀνακαλυπτήρια), as being given on the -occasion of the bride first appearing unveiled: they were probably -given on the _epaulia_, or day after the marriage. Another ceremony -observed after marriage was the sacrifice which the husband offered -up on the occasion of his bride being registered amongst his own -phratores. The above account refers to Athenian customs.--At Sparta -the betrothal of the bride by her father or guardian (κύριος) was -requisite as a preliminary of marriage, as well as at Athens. Another -custom peculiar to the Spartans, and a relic of ancient times, was -the seizure of the bride by her intended husband, but of course with -the sanction of her parents or guardians. She was not, however, -immediately domiciled in her husband’s house, but cohabited with him -for some time clandestinely, till he brought her, and frequently -her mother also, to his home.--The Greeks, generally speaking, -entertained little regard for the female character. They considered -women, in fact, as decidedly inferior to men, qualified to discharge -only the subordinate functions in life, and rather necessary as -helpmates than agreeable as companions. To these notions female -education for the most part corresponded, and in fact confirmed -them; it did not supply the elegant accomplishments and refinement -of manners which permanently engage the affections, when other -attractions have passed away. Aristotle states, that the relation of -man to woman is that of the governor to the subject; and Plato, that -a woman’s virtue may be summed up in a few words, for she has only -to manage the house well, keeping what there is in it, and obeying -her husband. Among the Dorians, however, and especially at Sparta, -women enjoyed much more estimation than in the rest of Greece.--(2) -ROMAN. A legal Roman marriage was called _justae nuptiae_, _justum -matrimonium_, as being conformable to _jus_ (_civile_) or to law. A -legal marriage was either _Cum conventione uxoris in manum viri_ or -it was without this convention. But both forms of marriage agreed -in this: there must be connubium between the parties, and consent. -The legal consequences as to the power of the father over his -children were the same in both. _Connubium_ is merely a term which -comprehends all the conditions of a legal marriage. Generally it may -be stated, that there was only connubium between Roman citizens; -the cases in which it at any time existed between parties, not both -Roman citizens, were exceptions to the general rule. Originally, -or at least at one period of the republic, there was no connubium -between the patricians and the plebeians; but this was altered by the -Lex Canuleia (B.C. 445.), which allowed connubium between persons -of those two classes. There were various degrees of consanguinity -and affinity, within which there was no connubium. An illegal union -of a male and female, though affecting to be, was not a marriage: -the man had no legal wife, and the children had no legal father: -consequently they were not in the power of their reputed father. The -marriage _Cum conventione_ differed from that _Sine conventione_, -in the relationship which it effected between the husband and the -wife; the marriage _cum conventione_ was a necessary condition to -make a woman a _materfamilias_. By the marriage cum conventione, -the wife passed into the familia of her husband, and was to him -in the relation of a daughter, or, as it was expressed, _in manum -convenit_. In the marriage sine conventione, the wife’s relation -to her own familia remained as before, and she was merely _uxor_. -“_Uxor_,” says Cicero, “is a genus of which there are two species; -one is _materfamilias, quae in manum convenit_; the other is _uxor_ -only.” Accordingly, a materfamilias is a wife who is in manu, and -in the familia of her husband. A wife not in manu was not a member -of her husband’s familia, and therefore the term could not apply -to her. _Matrona_ was properly a wife not in manu, and equivalent -to uxor; and she was called matrona before she had any children. -But these words are not always used in these their original and -proper meanings. It does not appear that any forms were requisite -in the marriage sine conventione; and apparently the evidence of -such marriage was cohabitation matrimonii causa. The matrimonii -causa might be proved by various kinds of evidence. In the case of -a marriage cum conventione, there were three forms, 1. _Usus_, 2. -_Farreum_, and 3. _Coemptio_.--1. Marriage was effected by _usus_, -if a woman lived with a man for a whole year as his wife; and this -was by analogy to usucaption of movables generally, in which usus -for one year gave ownership. The Law of the Twelve Tables provided, -that if a woman did not wish to come into the manus of her husband -in this manner, she should absent herself from him annually for -three nights (_trinoctium_) and so break the usus of the year. -2. _Farreum_ was a form of marriage, in which certain words were -used in the presence of ten witnesses, and were accompanied by a -certain religious ceremony, in which panis farreus was employed; -and hence this form of marriage was also called _confarreatio_. -It appears that certain priestly offices, such as that of Flamen -Dialis, could only be held by those who were born of parents who -had been married by this ceremony (_confarreati parentes_). 3. -_Coemptio_ was effected by mancipatio, and consequently the wife was -in mancipio. [MANCIPIUM.] A woman who was cohabiting with a man as -uxor, might come into his manus by this ceremony, in which case the -coemptio was said to be matrimonii causa, and she who was formerly -uxor became _apud maritum filiae loco_. _Sponsalia_ were not an -unusual preliminary of marriage, but they were not necessary.--The -sponsalia were an agreement to marry, made in such form as to give -each party a right of action in case of non-performance, and the -offending party was condemned in such damages as to the judex seemed -just. The woman who was promised in marriage was accordingly called -_sponsa_, which is equivalent to promissa; the man who was engaged -to marry was called _sponsus_.--The sponsalia were of course not -binding, if the parties consented to waive the contract. Sometimes -a present was made by the future husband to the future wife by way -of earnest (_arrha_, _arrha sponsalitia_), or, as it was called, -_propter nuptias donatio_.--The consequences of marriage were--1. -The power of the father over the children of the marriage, which was -a completely new relation, an effect indeed of marriage, but one -which had no influence over the relation of the husband and wife. -[PATRIA POTESTAS.] 2. The liabilities of either of the parties to -the punishments affixed to the violation of the marriage union. -[ADULTERIUM; DIVORTIUM.] 3. The relation of husband and wife with -respect to property. [DOS.] When marriage was dissolved, the parties -to it might marry again; but opinion considered it more decent for a -woman not to marry again. A woman was required by usage (_mos_) to -wait a year before she contracted a second marriage, on the pain of -infamia.--It remains to describe the customs and rites which were -observed by the Romans at marriages. After the parties had agreed to -marry and the persons in whose potestas they were had consented, a -meeting of friends was sometimes held at the house of the maiden for -the purpose of settling the marriage-contract, which was written on -tablets, and signed by both parties. The woman after she had promised -to become the wife of a man was called _sponsa_, _pacta_, _dicta_, -or _sperata_. It appears that, at least during the imperial period, -the man put a ring on the finger of his betrothed, as a pledge of -his fidelity. This ring was probably, like all rings at this time, -worn on the left hand, and on the finger nearest to the smallest. -The last point to be fixed was the day on which the marriage was to -take place. The Romans believed that certain days were unfortunate -for the performance of the marriage rites, either on account of -the religious character of those days themselves, or on account of -the days by which they were followed, as the woman had to perform -certain religious rites on the day after her wedding, which could -not take place on a dies ater. Days not suitable for entering upon -matrimony were the calends, nones, and ides of every month, all dies -atri, the whole months of May and February, and a great number of -festivals. On the wedding-day, which in the early times was never -fixed upon without consulting the auspices, the bride was dressed -in a long white robe with a purple fringe, or adorned with ribands. -This dress was called _tunica recta_, and was bound round the waist -with a girdle (_corona_, _cingulum_, or _zona_), which the husband -had to untie in the evening. The bridal veil, called _flammeum_, -was of a bright yellow colour, and her shoes likewise. Her hair was -divided on this occasion with the point of a spear. The bride was -conducted to the house of her husband in the evening. She was taken -with apparent violence from the arms of her mother, or of the person -who had to give her away. On her way she was accompanied by three -boys dressed in the praetexta, and whose fathers and mothers were -still alive (_patrimi et matrimi_). One of them carried before her -a torch of white thorn (_spina_), or, according to others, of pine -wood; the two others walked by her side, supporting her by the arm. -The bride herself carried a distaff and a spindle, with wool. A boy -called _camillus_ carried in a covered vase (_cumera_, _cumerum_, or -_camillum_), the so-called utensils of the bride and playthings for -children (_crepundia_). Besides these persons who officiated on the -occasion, the procession was attended by a numerous train of friends, -both of the bride and the bridegroom. When the procession arrived -at the house of the bridegroom, the door of which was adorned with -garlands and flowers, the bride was carried across the threshold by -_pronubi_, _i.e._ men who had been married to only one woman, that -she might not knock against it with her foot, which would have been -an evil omen. Before she entered the house, she wound wool around the -door-posts of her new residence, and anointed them with lard (_adeps -suillus_) or wolf’s fat (_adeps lupinus_). The husband received her -with fire and water, which the woman had to touch. This was either a -symbolic purification, or a symbolic expression of welcome, as the -interdicere aqua et igni was the formula for banishment. The bride -saluted her husband with the words: _ubi tu Caius, ego Caia_. After -she had entered the house with distaff and spindle, she was placed -upon a sheep-skin, and here the keys of the house were delivered -into her hands. A repast (_coena nuptialis_) given by the husband -to the whole train of relatives and friends who accompanied the -bride, generally concluded the solemnity of the day. Many ancient -writers mention a very popular song, _Talasius_ or _Talassio_, which -was sung at weddings; but whether it was sung during the repast or -during the procession is not quite clear, though we may infer from -the story respecting the origin of the song, that it was sung while -the procession was advancing towards the house of the husband. It may -easily be imagined that a solemnity like that of marriage did not -take place among the merry and humorous Italians without a variety -of jests and railleries, and the ancient writers mention songs which -were sung before the door of the bridal apartment by girls, after -the company had left. These songs were probably the old Fescennina -[FESCENNINA], and are frequently called _Epithalamia_. At the end of -the repast the bride was conducted by matrons who had not had more -than one husband (_pronubae_), to the lectus genialis in the atrium, -which was on this occasion magnificently adorned and strewed with -flowers. On the following day the husband sometimes gave another -entertainment to his friends, which was called _repotia_, and the -woman, who on this day undertook the management of the house of her -husband, had to perform certain religious rites; on which account, -as was observed above, it was necessary to select a day for the -marriage which was not followed by a dies ater. These rites probably -consisted of sacrifices to the Dii Penates. The position of a Roman -woman after marriage was very different from that of a Greek woman. -The Roman presided over the whole household; she educated her -children, watched over and preserved the honour of the house, and as -the materfamilias she shared the honours and respect shown to her -husband. Far from being confined like the Greek women to a distinct -apartment, the Roman matron, at least during the better centuries -of the republic, occupied the most important part of the house, the -atrium. - - -MAUSŌLĒUM Μαυσωλεῖον, signified originally _the sepulchre of -Mausolus_, which was a magnificent monument erected at Halicarnassus -B.C. 353, by Artemisia, the widow of Mausolus. (See _Classical -Dict., art. Artemisia_.) It was adorned with beautiful works of -art, and was regarded as one of the seven wonders of the world. -The word _Mausoleum_ was used by the Romans as a generic name for -any magnificent sepulchral edifice. Mausolus, the dynast of Caria, -having died in B.C. 353, his queen Artemisia evinced her sorrow -by observing his funeral rites with the most expensive splendour, -and by commencing the erection of a sepulchral monument to him at -Halicarnassus, which should surpass any thing the world had yet seen. -The building extended 63 feet from north to south, being shorter on -the fronts, and its whole circuit was 411 feet (or, according to the -Bamberg MS., 440); it rose to the height of 25 cubits (37½ feet); -and was surrounded by 36 columns. This part of the building was -called _Pteron_. It was adorned with sculptures in relief, on its -eastern face by Scopas, on the northern by Bryaxis, on the southern -by Timotheus, on the western by Leochares. Above this _pteron_ was -a pyramid equal to it in height, diminishing by 24 steps to its -summit, which was surmounted by the marble quadriga made by Pythis. -The total height, including this ornament, was 140 feet. In the Roman -_Mausolea_ the form chiefly employed was that of a succession of -terraces in imitation of the _rogus_. Of these the most celebrated -were those of Augustus and of Hadrian; the latter of which, stripped -of its ornaments, still forms the fortress of modern Rome (the castle -of S. Angelo); but of the other, which was on a still larger scale, -and which was considered as one of the most magnificent buildings of -Augustus, there are only some insignificant ruins. - - -MĔDĬASTĪNI, the name given to slaves, used for any common purpose. -The name is chiefly given to certain slaves belonging to the familia -rustica, but it is also applied sometimes to slaves in the city. - - -MĔDIMNUS μέδιμνος, the principal dry measure of the Greeks. It was -used especially for measuring corn. The Attic medimnus was equal -to six Roman modii. For its subdivisions see Tables at the end. -[METRETES; CHOENIX; XESTES; COTYLA.] - - -MĒDIX TUTICUS, the name of the supreme magistrate among the Oscan -people. _Medix_ appears to have signified a magistrate of any kind, -and _tuticus_ to have been equivalent to _magnus_ or _summus_. Livy, -therefore, in calling the medix tuticus the _summus magistratus_, -gives a literal translation of the word. - - -MĔGĂLĒSĬA, MĔGĂLENSĬA, or MĔGĂLENSES LŪDI, a festival with games, -celebrated at Rome in the month of April and in honour of the great -mother of the gods (Cybelé, μεγάλη θεός, whence the festival derived -its name). The statue of the goddess was brought to Rome from -Pessinus in B.C. 203, and the day of its arrival was solemnised with -a magnificent procession, lectisternia, and games, and great numbers -of people carried presents to the goddess on the Capitol. The regular -celebration of the Megalesia, however, did not begin till twelve -years later (B.C. 191), when the temple, which had been vowed and -ordered to be built in B.C. 203, was completed and dedicated by M. -Junius Brutus. The festival lasted for six days, beginning on the 4th -of April. The season of this festival, like that of the whole month -in which it took place, was full of general rejoicings and feasting. -It was customary for the wealthy Romans on this occasion to invite -one another mutually to their repasts. The games which were held at -the Megalesia were purely scenic, and not circenses. They were at -first held on the Palatine, in front of the temple of the goddess, -but afterwards also in the theatres. The day which was especially -set apart for the performance of scenic plays was the third of the -festival. Slaves were not permitted to be present at the games, and -the magistrates appeared dressed in a purple toga and praetexta, -whence the proverb, _purpura Megalensis_. The games were under the -superintendence of the curule aediles, and we know that four of the -extant plays of Terence were performed at the Megalesia. - - -MEMBRĀNA. [LIBER.] - - -MENSA (τράπεζα), a table. The simplest kind of table was a round -one with three legs, called in Greek τρίπους. Tables, however, must -usually have had four legs, as the etymology of τράπεζα, the common -word for table, indicates. For the houses of the opulent, tables were -made of the most valuable and beautiful kinds of wood, especially of -maple, or of the citrus of Africa, which was a species of cypress -or juniper. As the table was not large, it was usual to place the -dishes and the various kinds of meat upon it, and then to bring it -thus furnished to the place where the guests were reclining. On many -occasions, indeed, each guest either had a small table to himself, -or the company was divided into parties of two or three, with a -separate table for each party, as is distinctly represented in the -cut under SYMPOSIUM. Hence we have such phrases as _mensam apponere_ -or _opponere_, and _mensam auferre_ or _removere_. The two principal -courses of a _deipnon_ and _coena_, or a Greek and Roman dinner, -were called respectively πρώτη τράπεζα, δεύτερα τράπεζα, and _mensa -prima_, _mensa secunda_. [COENA; DEIPNON.] - - -MENSĀRĬI, MENSŬLĀRĬI, or NŪMŬLĀRĬI, a kind of public bankers at -Rome who were appointed by the state; they were distinct from the -argentarii, who were common bankers, and did business on their -own account. [ARGENTARII.] The mensarii had their tables or banks -(_mensae_) like ordinary bankers, in the forum, and in the name of -the aerarium they offered ready money to debtors who could give -security to the state for it. Such an expediency was devised by the -state only in times of great distress. The first time that mensarii -(_quinqueviri mensarii_) were appointed was in B.C. 352, at the time -when the plebeians were so deeply involved in debt, that they were -obliged to borrow money from new creditors in order to pay the old -ones, and thus ruined themselves completely. On this occasion they -were also authorised to ordain that cattle or land should be received -as payment at a fair valuation. With the exception of this first -time, they appear during the time of the republic to have always -been _triumviri mensarii_. One class of mensarii, however (perhaps -an inferior order), the _mensularii_ or _numularii_, seem to have -been permanently employed by the state, and these must be meant when -we read, that not only the aerarium, but also private individuals, -deposited in their hands sums of money which they had to dispose of. - - -MENSIS. [CALENDARIUM.] - - -MĔRENDA. [COENA.] - - -MĔTAE. [CIRCUS.] - - -MĔTALLUM (μέταλλον), a _mine_ and _metal_. The metals which have been -known from the earliest period of which we have any information are -those which were long distinguished as the seven principal metals, -namely, gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, lead, and mercury. If to -this list we add the compound of gold and silver called _electrum_, -the compound of copper and tin called χαλκός and _aes_ (bronze), and -steel, we have, in all probability, a complete list of the metals -known to the Greeks and Romans, with the exception of zinc, which -they do not seem to have known as a metal, but only in its ores, and -of brass, which, they regarded as a sort of bronze. The early Greeks -were no doubt chiefly indebted for a supply of the various metals to -the commerce of the Phoenicians, who procured them principally from -Arabia and Spain, and tin from our own island and the East. They were -perfectly acquainted with the processes of smelting the metal from -the ore, and of forging heated masses into the required shapes, by -the aid of the hammer and tongs. The smith’s instruments were the -anvil (ἄκμων) with the block on which it rested (ἀκμόθετον), the -tongs (πυράγρη) and the hammer (ῥαιστήρ, σφῦρα). The advances made in -the art of metallurgy in subsequent times are chiefly connected with -the improvements in the art of statuary. The method of working, as -described in Homer, seems to have long prevailed, namely by beating -out lumps of the material into the form proposed, and afterwards -fitting the pieces together by means of pins or keys. It was called -σφυρήλατον, from σφῦρα, a hammer. The next mode, among the Greeks, of -executing metal works seems to have been by plating upon a nucleus, -or general form, of wood--a practice which was employed also by the -Egyptians. It is extremely difficult to determine at what date the -casting of metal was introduced. According to the statements of -Pausanias and Pliny, the art of casting in bronze and in iron was -invented by Rhoecus and Theodorus of Samos, who probably lived in the -sixth and fifth centuries before our era. - - -MĔTOICI (μέτοικοι), the name by which, at Athens and in other -Greek states, the _resident aliens_ were designated. They must be -distinguished from such strangers as made only a transitory stay -in a place, for it was a characteristic of a _metoicus_, that he -resided permanently in the city. No city of Greece perhaps had -such a number of resident aliens as Athens, since none afforded to -strangers so many facilities for carrying on mercantile business, -or a more agreeable mode of living. In the census instituted by -Demetrius Phalereus (B.C. 309), the number of resident aliens at -Athens was 10,000, in which number women and children were probably -not included. The jealousy with which the citizens of the ancient -Greek republics kept their body clear of intruders, is also manifest -in their regulations concerning aliens. However long they might -have resided in Athens, they were always regarded as strangers, -whence they are sometimes called ξένοι, and to remind them of their -position, they had on some occasions to perform certain degrading -services for the Athenian citizens [HYDRIAPHORIA]. These services -were, however, in all probability not intended to hurt the feelings -of the aliens, but were simply acts symbolical of their relation to -the citizens. Aliens were not allowed to acquire landed property in -the state they had chosen for their residence, and were consequently -obliged to live in hired houses or apartments. As they did not -constitute a part of the state, and were yet in constant intercourse -and commerce with its members, every alien was obliged to select a -citizen for his patron (προστάτης), who was not only the mediator -between them and the state, through whom alone they could transact -any legal business, whether private or public, but was at the same -time answerable (ἐγγυητής) to the state for the conduct of his -client. On the other hand, however, the state allowed the aliens to -carry on all kinds of industry and commerce under the protection of -the law; in fact, at Athens nearly all business was in the hands -of aliens, who on this account lived for the most part in the -Peiraeeus. Each family of aliens, whether they availed themselves of -the privilege of carrying on any mercantile business or not, had to -pay an annual tax (μετοίκιον or ξενικά) of twelve drachmae, or if -the head of the family was a widow, of only six drachmae. If aliens -did not pay this tax, or if they assumed the right of citizens, -and probably also in case they refused to select a patron, they -not only forfeited the protection of the state, but were sold as -slaves. Extraordinary taxes and liturgies (εἰσφοραί and λειτουργίαι) -devolved upon aliens no less than upon citizens. The aliens were also -obliged, like citizens, to serve in the regular armies and in the -fleet, both abroad and at home, for the defence of the city. Those -aliens who were exempt from the burthens peculiar to their class were -called _isoteles_ (ἰσοτελεῖς). They had not to pay the μετοίκιον -(ἀτέλια μετοικίου), were not obliged to choose a προστάτης, and in -fact enjoyed all the rights of citizens, except those of a political -nature. Their condition was termed ἰσοτέλεια and ἰσοπολιτεία. - - -MĔTOPA or MĔTŎPE (μετόπη), the name applied to each of the spaces -between the triglyphs in the frieze of the Doric order, and by -metonymy to the sculptured ornament with which those spaces were -filled up. In the original significance of the parts the triglyphs -represent the ends of the cross-beams or joists which rested on the -architrave; the beds of these beams were called ὀπαί, and hence the -spaces between them μετόπαι. Originally they were left open; next -they were filled up with plain slabs, as in the propylaea at Eleusis, -and many other buildings, and lastly, but still at an early period, -they were adorned with sculptures either in low or high relief. The -metopes from the Parthenon in the British Museum are adorned with -sculptures in high relief. - - -MĔTRĒTES (μετρητής), the principal Greek liquid measure. The Attic -metretes was equal in capacity to the amphora, containing 8 galls. -7·365 pints, English. See the Tables. [CHOUS; CHOENIX; XESTES; -COTYLA.] - - -MĒTRŎPŎLIS. [COLONIA.] - - -MĬLIĀRE, MILLĬĀRĬUM, or MILLE PASSUUM (μίλιον), the Roman mile, -consisted of 1000 paces (_passus_) of 5 feet each, and was therefore -= 5000 feet. Taking the Roman foot at 11·6496 English inches [PES], -the Roman mile would be 1618 English yards, or 142 yards less than -the English statute mile. The most common term for the mile is -_mille passuum_, or only the initials M. P.; sometimes the word -_passuum_ is omitted. The Roman mile contained 8 Greek stadia. The -mile-stones along the Roman roads were called _milliaria_. They were -also called _lapides_; thus we have _ad tertium lapidem_ (or without -the word _lapidem_) for 3 miles from Rome. Augustus erected a gilt -pillar in the Forum, where the principal roads terminated, which was -called _milliarium aureum_; but the miles were not reckoned from -it, but from the gates of the city. Such central marks appear to -have been common in the principal cities of the Roman empire. The -“London-stone” in Cannon-street is supposed to have marked the centre -of the Roman roads in Britain. - - -MĪMUS (μῖμος), the name by which, in Greece and at Rome, a species -of the drama was designated, though the Roman mimus differed -essentially from the Greek. The Greek mimus seems to have originated -among the Greeks of Sicily and southern Italy, and to have consisted -originally of extemporary representations or imitations of ridiculous -occurrences of common life at certain festivals. At a later period -these rude representations acquired a more artistic form, which was -brought to a high degree of perfection by Sophron of Syracuse (about -B.C. 420). He wrote his pieces in the popular dialect of the Dorians -and a kind of rhythmical prose. Among the Romans the word mimus was -applied to a species of dramatic plays as well as to the persons who -acted in them. It is certain that the Romans did not derive their -mimus from the Greeks in southern Italy, but that it was of native -growth. The Greek mimes were written in prose, and the name μῖμος -was never applied to an actor, but if used of a person it signified -one who made grimaces. The Roman mimes were imitations of foolish -and mostly indecent occurrences, and scarcely differed from comedy -except in consisting more of gestures and mimicry than of spoken -dialogue. At Rome such mimes seem originally to have been exhibited -at funerals, where one or more persons (_mimi_) represented in a -burlesque manner the life of the deceased. If there were several -mimi, one of them, or their leader, was called _archimimus_. These -coarse and indecent performances had greater charms for the Romans -than the regular drama. They were performed on the stage as farces -after tragedies, and during the empire they gradually supplanted the -place of the Atellanae. It was peculiar to the actors in these mimes, -to wear neither masks, the cothurnus, nor the soccus, whence they are -sometimes called planipedes. - - -MĬNA. [TALENTUM.] - - -MIRMILLŌNES. [GLADIATORES.] - - -MISSĬO. [EXERCITUS.] - - -MISSĬO. [GLADIATORES.] - - -MITRA (μίτρα), in general a band of any kind, and specifically, (1) A -belt or girdle worn by warriors round the waist. [ZONA.]--(2) A broad -band of cloth worn round the head, to which the name of _anadema_ was -sometimes given. [COMA.] - - -MODĬUS, the principal dry measure of the Romans, was equal to -one-third of the amphora, and therefore contained nearly two gallons -English. (See the Tables.) The modius was one-sixth of the medimnus. - - -MŎLA (μύλος), a mill. All mills were anciently made of stone, the -kind used being a volcanic trachyte or porous lava (_pyrites_, -_silices_, _pumiceas_). Every mill consisted of two essential parts, -the upper mill-stone, which was moveable (_catillus_, ὄνος, τὸ -ἐπιμύλιον), and the lower, which was fixed and by much the larger of -the two. Hence a mill is sometimes called _molae_ in the plural. The -principal mills mentioned by ancient authors are the following:--I. -The hand-mill, or quern, called _mola manuaria, versatilis_, or -_trusatilis_. The hand-mills were worked among the Greeks and Romans -by slaves. Their pistrinum was consequently proverbial as a place of -painful and degrading labour; and this toil was imposed principally -on women. II. The cattle-mill, _mola asinaria_, in which human labour -was supplied by the use of an ass or some other animal. III. The -water-mill (_mola aquaria_, ὑδραλέτης). A cogged wheel, attached to -the axis of the water wheel, turned another which was attached to the -axis of the upper mill-stone: the corn to be ground fell between the -stones out of a hopper (_infundibulum_), which was fixed above them. -IV. The floating-mill. V. The saw-mill. VI. The pepper-mill. - - -MŎNARCHĬA (μοναρχία), a general name for any form of government -in which the supreme functions of political administration are in -the hands of a single person. The term μοναρχία is applied to such -governments, whether they are hereditary or elective, legal or -usurped. In its commonest application, it is equivalent to βασιλεία, -whether absolute or limited. But the rule of an _aesymnetes_ or a -_tyrant_ would equally be called a μοναρχία. Hence Plutarch uses it -to express the Latin _dictatura_. It is by a somewhat rhetorical use -of the word that it is applied now and then to the δῆμος. - - -MŎNĒTA, the mint, or the place where money was coined. The mint of -Rome was a building on the Capitoline, and attached to the temple -of Juno Moneta, as the aerarium was to the temple of Saturn. The -officers who had the superintendence of the mint were the _Triumviri -Monetales_, who were perhaps first appointed about B.C. 269. Under -the republic, the coining of money was not a privilege which belonged -exclusively to the state. The coins struck in the time of the -republic mostly bear the names of private individuals; and it would -seem that every Roman citizen had the right of having his own gold -and silver coined in the public mint, and under the superintendence -of its officers. Still no one till the time of the empire had the -right of putting his own image upon a coin; Julius Caesar was the -first to whom this privilege was granted. - - -MŎNĪLE (ὅρμος), a necklace. Necklaces were worn by both sexes -among the most polished of those nations which the Greeks called -barbarous, especially the Indians, the Egyptians, and the Persians. -Greek and Roman females adopted them more particularly as a bridal -ornament. They were of various forms, as may be seen by the following -specimens:-- - -[Illustration: Monilia, necklaces. (British Museum.)] - - -MŎNŬMENTUM. [FUNUS.] - - -MŎRA. [EXERCITUS.] - - -MORTĀRIUM, also called PĪLA and PILUM (ὄλμος, ἴγδη, ἴγδις), a mortar. -Before the invention of mills [MOLA] corn was pounded and rubbed in -mortars (_pistum_), and hence the place for making bread, or the -bake-house, was called _pistrinum_. Also long after the introduction -of mills this was an indispensable article of domestic furniture. -Those used in pharmacy were sometimes made of Egyptian alabaster. -The mortar was also employed in pounding charcoal, rubbing it with -glue, in order to make black paint (_atramentum_), in making plaster -for the walls of apartments, in mixing spices and fragrant herbs -and flowers for the use of the kitchen, and in metallurgy, as in -triturating cinnabar to obtain mercury from it by sublimation. - - -MULSUM. [VINUM.] - - -MŪNĔRĀTOR. [GLADIATORES.] - - -MŪNĬCEPS, MŪNĬCĬPĬUM. [COLONIA; FOEDERATAE CIVITATES.] - - -MŪNUS. [HONORES.] - - -MŪNUS. [GLADIATORES.] - - -MŪRĀLIS CŎRŌNA. [CORONA.] - - -MURRHĬNA VĀSA, or MURRĔA VĀSA, were first introduced into Rome by -Pompey, who dedicated cups of this kind to Jupiter Capitolinus. Their -value was very great. Nero gave 300 talents for a capis or drinking -cup. These murrhine vessels came from the East, principally from -places within the Parthian empire, and chiefly from Caramania. They -were made of a substance formed by a moisture thickened in the earth -by heat, and were chiefly valued on account of the variety of their -colours. Modern writers differ much respecting the material of which -they were composed, and some think they may have been true Chinese -porcelain. - - -MŪRUS, MOENĬA (τεῖχος), the wall of a city, in contradistinction to -PARIES (τοῖχος), the wall of a house, and _Maceria_, a boundary wall. -We find cities surrounded by massive walls at the earliest periods -of Greek and Roman history. Homer speaks of the chief cities of the -Argive kingdom as “the walled Tiryns,” and “Mycenae the well-built -city,” attesting the great antiquity of those identical gigantic -walls which still stand at Tiryns and Mycenae, and which have been -frequently attributed to the Cyclopes and Pelasgians. Three principal -species can be clearly distinguished:--1. That in which the masses of -stone are of irregular shape and are put together without any attempt -to fit them into one another, the interstices being loosely filled in -with smaller stones. An example is given in the annexed engraving. - -[Illustration: Ancient Wall at Tiryns.] - -2. In other cases we find the blocks still of irregular polygonal -shapes, but their sides are sufficiently smoothed to make each fit -accurately into the angles between the others, and their faces are -cut so as to give the whole wall a tolerably smooth surface. An -example is given in the annexed engraving. - -[Illustration: Ancient Wall of Larissa, the Acropolis of Argos.] - -3. In the third species, the blocks are laid in horizontal courses, -more or less regular (sometimes indeed so irregular, that none of -the horizontal joints are continuous), and with vertical joints -either perpendicular or oblique, and with all the joints more or less -accurately fitted. The walls of Mycenae present one of the ruder -examples of this sort of structure; and the following engraving -of the “Lion Gate” of that fortress (so called from the rudely -sculptured figures of lions) shows also the manner in which the gates -of these three species of walls were built, by supporting an immense -block of stone, for the lintel, upon two others, for jambs, the -latter inclining inwards, so as to give more space than if they were -upright.-- - -[Illustration: Ancient Wall at Mycenae.] - -The materials employed in walls about the time of Pericles were -various sorts of stone, and, in some of the most magnificent temples, -marble. The practice of putting a facing of marble over a wall of a -commoner material was introduced in the next period of architectural -history. For buildings of a common sort, the materials employed were -smaller stones, rough or squared, or flints, as well as bricks. These -were bound together with various kinds of mortar or cement, composed -of lime mixed with different sands and volcanic earths. The history -of Roman masonry is not very different from that of the Greek.--The -most ancient works at Rome, such as the _Carcer Mamertinus_, the -_Cloaca Maxima_, and the Servian Walls, were constructed of massive -quadrangular hewn stones, placed together without cement. [CLOACA.] -Five species of Roman masonry may be distinguished; namely, 1. when -the blocks of stone are laid in alternate courses, lengthwise in one -course, and crosswise in the next; this is the most common; 2. when -the stones in each course are laid alternately along and across; this -construction was usual when the walls were to be faced with slabs -of marble; 3. when they are laid entirely lengthwise; 4. entirely -crosswise; and 5. when the courses are alternately higher and lower -than each other. As by the Greeks, so by the Romans, walls of a -commoner sort were built of smaller quarried stones (_caementa_) or -of bricks. The excellence of the cement which the Romans used enabled -them to construct walls of very small rough stones, not laid in -courses, but held together by the mortar; this structure was called -_opus incertum_. Another structure of which the Romans made great -use, and which was one of the most durable of all, was that composed -of courses of flat tiles. Such courses were also introduced in the -other kinds of stone and brick walls, in which they both served as -bond-courses, and, in the lower part of the wall, kept the damp -from rising from the ground. Brick walls covered with stucco were -exceedingly common with the Romans: even columns were made of brick -covered with stucco. - - -MUSCŬLUS was a kind of vinea, one of the smaller military machines, -by which the besiegers of a town were protected. - - -MŪSĒUM (μουσεῖον), the name of an institution founded by Ptolemy -Philadelphus, about B.C. 280, for the promotion of learning and the -support of learned men. The museum formed part of the palace, and -contained cloisters or porticoes (περίπατος), a public theatre or -lecture-room (ἐξέδρα), and a large hall (οἶκος μέγας), where the -learned men dined together. The museum was supported by a common -fund, supplied apparently from the public treasury; and the whole -institution was under the superintendence of a priest, who was -appointed by the king, and after Egypt became a province of the Roman -empire, by the Caesar. Botanical and zoological gardens appear to -have been attached to the museum. - - -MȲRĬI (μυρίοι), the name given to the popular assembly of the -Arcadians, which was established after the overthrow of the Spartan -supremacy by the battle of Leuctra, and which used to meet at -Megalopolis in order to determine upon matters affecting the whole -people. - - -MYSĬA (μύσια), a festival celebrated by the inhabitants of Pellene in -Achaia in honour of Demeter Mysia, which lasted for 7 days. - - -MYSTĒRĬA. The names by which mysteries or mystic festivals were -designated in Greece, are μυστήρια, τελεταί, and ὄργια. The name -ὄργια (from ἔοργα) originally signified only sacrifices accompanied -by certain ceremonies, but it was afterwards applied especially -to the ceremonies observed in the worship of Dionysus, and at a -still later period to mysteries in general. Τελετή signifies, in -general, a religious festival, but more particularly a lustration or -ceremony performed in order to avert some calamity, either public -or private. Μυστήριον signifies, properly speaking, the secret part -of the worship, but was also used in the same sense as τελετή, and -for mystic worship in general. Mysteries in general may be defined -as sacrifices and ceremonies which took place at night or in secret -within some sanctuary, which the uninitiated were not allowed -to enter. What was essential to them, were objects of worship, -sacred utensils, and traditions with their interpretation, which -were withheld from all persons not initiated. The most celebrated -mysteries in Greece were those of Samothrace and Eleusis, which are -described in separate articles. [CABEIRIA; ELEUSINIA.] - - - - -NAENĬA. [FUNUS.] - - -NĂTĀTĬO, NĂTĀTŌRĬUM. [BALNEUM.] - - -NĀVĀLIA, docks at Rome where ships were built, laid up, and refitted. -They were attached to the emporium outside of the Porta Trigemina, -and were connected with the Tiber. The emporium and navalia were -first included within the walls of the city by Aurelian.--The docks -(νεώσοικοι or νεώρια) in the Peiraeeus at Athens cost 1000 talents, -and having been destroyed in the anarchy were again restored and -finally completed by Lycurgus, the contemporary of Demosthenes. They -were under the superintendence of regular officers, called ἐπιμεληταὶ -τῶν νεωρίων. - - -NĀVĀLIS CŎRŌNA. [CORONA.] - - -NĀVARCHUS (ναύαρχος), the name by which the Greeks designated both -the captain of a single ship, and the admiral of a fleet. The office -itself was called ναυαρχία. The admiral of the Athenian fleet was -always one of the ten generals (στρατηγοί) elected every year, and -he had either the whole or the chief command of the fleet. The -chief officers who served under him were the trierarchs and the -pentecontarchs, each of whom commanded one vessel; the inferior -officers in the vessels were the κυβερνῆται or helmsmen, the -κελευσταί or commanders of the rowers, and the πρωρᾶται, who must -have been employed at the prow of the vessels. Other Greek states -who kept a navy had likewise their navarchs. The chief admiral of -the Spartan fleet was called navarchus, and the second in command -_epistoleus_ (ἐπιστολεύς). The same person was not allowed to hold -the office of navarchus two successive years at Sparta. [EPISTOLEUS.] - - -NAUCRĀRĬA (ναυκραρία), the name of a division of the inhabitants -of Attica. The four ancient phylae were each divided into three -phratries, and each of these twelve phratries into four naucraries, -of which there were thus forty-eight. What the naucraries were -previous to the legislation of Solon is not stated anywhere, but it -is not improbable that they were political divisions similar to the -demes in the constitution of Cleisthenes, and were made perhaps at -the time of the institution of the nine archons, for the purpose of -regulating the liturgies, taxes, or financial and military affairs -in general. At any rate, however, the naucraries before the time of -Solon can have had no connection with the navy, for the Athenians -then had no navy; the word ναύκραρος therefore cannot be derived -from ναῦς, ship, but must come from ναιω, and ναύκραρος is thus only -another form for ναύκληρος in the sense of a householder, as ναῦλον -was used for the rent of a house. Solon in his legislation retained -the old institution of the naucraries, and charged each of them with -the equipment of one trireme and with the mounting of two horsemen. -All military affairs, as far as regards the defraying of expenses, -probably continued as before to be regulated according to naucraries. -Cleisthenes, in his change of the Solonian constitution, retained -the division into naucraries for military and financial purposes; -but he increased their number to fifty, making five for each of his -ten tribes; so that now the number of their ships was increased from -forty-eight to fifty, and that of horsemen from ninety-six to one -hundred. The statement of Herodotus, that the Athenians in their war -against Aegina had only fifty ships of their own, is thus perfectly -in accordance with the fifty naucraries of Cleisthenes. The functions -of the former ναύκραροι, or the heads of their respective naucraries, -were now transferred to the demarchs. [DEMARCHI.] The obligation of -each naucrary to equip a ship of war for the service of the republic -may be regarded as the first form of trierarchy. As the system of -trierarchy became developed and established, this obligation of the -naucraries appears to have gradually ceased, and to have fallen into -disuse. [TRIERARCHIA.] - - -NAUCRĀRUS. [NAUCRARIA.] - - -NĀVIS, NĀVĬGIUM (ναῦς, πλοῖον), a ship. The numerous fleet, with -which the Greeks are said to have sailed to the coast of Asia Minor, -must on the whole be regarded as sufficient evidence of the extent -to which navigation was carried on in those times, however much -of the detail in the Homeric description may have arisen from the -poet’s own imagination. In the Homeric catalogue it is stated that -each of the fifty Boeotian ships carried 120 warriors, and a ship -which carried so many cannot have been of very small dimensions. What -Homer states of the Boeotian vessels applies more or less to the -ships of other Greeks. These boats were provided with a mast (ἱστός) -which was fastened by two ropes (πρότονοι) to the two ends of the -ship, so that when the rope connecting it with the prow broke, the -mast would fall towards the stern, where it might kill the helmsman. -The mast could be erected or taken down as necessity required. They -also had sails (ἱστία), but no deck; each vessel however appears to -have had only one sail, which was used in favourable winds; and the -principal means of propelling the vessel lay in the rowers, who sat -upon benches (κληΐδες). The oars were fastened to the side of the -ship with leathern thongs (τροποὶ δερμάτινοι), in which they were -turned as a key in its hole. The ships in Homer are mostly called -black (μέλαιναι), probably because they were painted or covered with -a black substance, such as pitch, to protect the wood against the -influence of the water and the air; sometimes other colours, such -as μίλτος, _minium_ (a red colour), were used to adorn the sides -of the ships near the prow, whence Homer occasionally calls ships -μιλτοπάρῃοι, i.e. red-cheeked; they were also painted occasionally -with a purple colour (φοινικοπάρῃοι). When the Greeks had landed on -the coast of Troy, the ships were drawn on land, and fastened at -the poop to large stones with a rope which served as anchors. The -Greeks then surrounded the fleet with a fortification to secure it -against the attacks of the enemy. This custom of drawing the ships -upon the shore, when they were not used, was followed in later times -also, as every one will remember from the accounts in Caesar’s -Commentaries. In the Odyssey (v. 243, &c.) the building of a boat -(σχεδία) is described, though not with the minuteness which an -actual ship-builder might wish for. Ulysses first cuts down with his -axe twenty trees, and prepares the wood for his purpose by cutting -it smooth and giving it the proper shape. He then bores the holes -for nails and hooks, and fits the planks together and fastens them -with nails. He rounds the bottom of the ship like that of a broad -transport vessel, and raises the bulwark (ἴκρια), fitting it upon -the numerous ribs of the ship. He afterwards covers the whole of the -outside with planks, which are laid across the ribs from the keel -upwards to the bulwark: next the mast is made, and the sail-yard -attached to it, and lastly the rudder. When the ship is thus far -completed, he raises the bulwark still higher by a wicker-work which -goes all around the vessel, as a protection against the waves. This -raised bulwark of wicker-work and the like was used in later times -also. For ballast Ulysses throws into the ship ὕλη, which according -to the Scholiast consisted of wood, stones, and sand. Calypso then -brings him materials to make a sail of, and he fastens the ὑπέραι or -ropes which run from the top of the mast to the two ends of the yard, -and also the κάλοι with which the sail is drawn up or let down. The -πόδες mentioned in this passage were undoubtedly, as in the later -times, the ropes attached to the two lower corners of the square -sail. The ship of which the building is thus described was a small -boat, a σχεδία, as Homer calls it; but it had like all the Homeric -ships a round or flat bottom. Greater ships must have been of a more -complicated structure, as ship-builders are praised as artists. Below -(p. 266), a representation of two boats is given which appear to -bear great resemblance to the one of which the building is described -in the Odyssey.--The Corinthians were the first who brought the art -of ship-building nearest to the point at which we find it in the -time of Thucydides, and they were the first who introduced ships -with three ranks of rowers (τριήρεις, _Triremes_). About B.C. 700, -Ameinocles the Corinthian, to whom this invention is ascribed, made -the Samians acquainted with it; but it must have been preceded by -that of the _Biremes_, that is, ships with two ranks of rowers, which -Pliny attributes to the Erythraeans.[3] These innovations however -do not seem to have been generally adopted for a long time; for we -read that about the time of Cyrus the Phocaeans introduced long -sharp-keeled ships called πεντηκόντοροι. These belonged to the class -of long war-ships (νῆες μακραί), and had fifty rowers, twenty-five on -each side of the ship, who sat in one row. It is further stated that -before this time vessels called στρογγύλαι, with large round or -rather flat bottoms, had been used exclusively by all the Ionians in -Asia. At this period most Greeks seem to have adopted the long ships -with only one rank of rowers on each side (Moneris). - -[Illustration: Moneris. (Montfaucon, vol. IV. pt. II. pl. 142.)] - -Their name varied accordingly as they had fifty (πεντηκόντοροι), or -thirty (τριακόντοροι), or even a smaller number of rowers. A ship -of war of this class is represented in the preceding woodcut. The -following cut contains a beautiful fragment of a Biremis with a -complete deck. Another specimen of a small Biremis is given further -on.-- - -[Illustration: Biremis. (Winckelmann, pl. 207.)] - -[Illustration: Navis Aperta. (Coin of Corcyra.)] - -The first Greek people whom we know to have acquired a navy of -importance were the Corinthians, Samians, and Phocaeans. About the -time of Cyrus and Cambyses the Corinthian Triremes were generally -adopted by the Sicilian tyrants and by the Corcyraeans, who soon -acquired the most powerful navies among the Greeks. In other parts of -Greece and even at Athens and in Aegina the most common vessels about -this time were long ships with only one rank of rowers on each side. -Athens, although the foundation of its maritime power had been laid -by Solon [NAUCRARIA], did not obtain a fleet of any importance until -the time of Themistocles, who persuaded the Athenians to build 200 -Triremes for the purpose of carrying on the war against Aegina. But -even then ships were not provided with complete decks (καταστρώματα) -covering the whole of the vessel. Ships with only a partial deck or -with no deck at all, were called ἄφρακτοι νῆες, and in Latin _naves -apertae_. Even at the time of the Persian war, the Athenian ships -were without a complete deck. Ships which had a complete deck were -called κατάφρακτοι, and the deck itself κατάστρωμα. At the time when -Themistocles induced the Athenians to build a fleet of 200 sail he -also carried a decree, that every year twenty new Triremes should -be built from the produce of the mines of Laurium. After the time -of Themistocles as many as twenty Triremes must have been built -every year both in times of war and of peace, as the average number -of Triremes which was always ready amounted to between three and -four hundred. Such an annual addition was the more necessary, as -the vessels were of a light structure and did not last long. The -whole superintendence of the building of new Triremes was in the -hands of the senate of the Five Hundred, but the actual business was -entrusted to a committee called the τριηροποιοί, one of whom acted -as their treasurer, and had in his keeping the money set apart for -the purpose. Under the Macedonian supremacy the Rhodians became the -greatest maritime power in Greece. The navy of Sparta was never of -great importance. Navigation remained for the most part what it had -been before; the Greeks seldom ventured out into the open sea, and -it was generally considered necessary to remain in sight of the -coast or of some island, which also served as guides in daytime: in -the night the position, rising and setting of the different stars -answered the same purpose. In winter navigation generally ceased -altogether. In cases where it would have been necessary to coast -around a considerable extent of country, which was connected with the -main land by a narrow neck, the ships were sometimes drawn across the -neck of land from one sea to the other, by machines called ὁλκοί. -This was done most frequently across the isthmus of Corinth.--The -various kinds of ships used by the Greeks might be divided, according -to the number of ranks of rowers employed in them, into Moneres, -Biremes, Triremes, Quadriremes, Quinqueremes, &c., up to the enormous -ship with forty ranks of rowers, built by Ptolemaeus Philopator. But -all these appear to have been constructed on the same principle, -and it is more convenient to divide them into _ships of war_ and -_ships of burden_ (φορτικὰ, φορτηγοὶ, ὁλκάδες, πλοῖα, στρογγύλαι, -_naves onerariae_, _naves actuariae_). Ships of the latter kind were -not calculated for quick movement or rapid sailing, but to carry the -greatest possible quantity of goods. Hence their structure was bulky, -their bottom round, and although they were not without rowers, yet -the chief means by which they were propelled were their sails. The -most common ships of war in the earlier times were the pentecontori -(πεντηκόντοροι), but afterwards they were chiefly Triremes, and -the latter are frequently designated only by the name νῆες, while -all the others are called by the name indicating their peculiar -character. Triremes however were again divided into two classes: -the one consisting of real men-of-war, which were quick-sailing -vessels (ταχεῖαι), and the other of transports either for soldiers -(στρατιώτιδες or ὁπλιταγωγοί) or for horses (ἱππηγοί, ἱππαγωγοί). -Ships of this class were more heavy and awkward, and were therefore -not used in battle except in cases of necessity. The ordinary size of -a war galley may be inferred from the fact that the average number of -men engaged in it, including the crew and marines, was two hundred, -to whom on some occasions as many as thirty epibatae were added. -[EPIBATAE.]--Vessels with more than three ranks of rowers on each -side were not constructed in Greece till about the year 400 B.C., -when Dionysius I., tyrant of Syracuse, who bestowed great care upon -his navy, built the first Quadriremes (τετρήρεις), and Quinqueremes -(πεντήρεις). In the reign of Dionysius II., Hexeres (ἑξήρεις) are -also mentioned. After the time of Alexander the Great the use of -vessels with four, five, and more ranks of rowers became very -general, and it is well known that the first Punic war was chiefly -carried on with Quinqueremes. Ships with twelve, thirty, or even -forty ranks of rowers, such as they were built by Alexander and the -Ptolemies, appear to have been mere curiosities, and did not come -into common use. The Athenians at first did not adopt vessels larger -than Triremes, probably because they thought that with rapidity and -skill they could do more than with large and unwieldy ships. In the -year B.C. 356 they continued to use nothing but Triremes; but in -B.C. 330 the republic had already a number of Quadriremes, which was -afterwards increased. The first Quinqueremes at Athens are mentioned -in a document belonging to the year B.C. 325.--Among the smaller -vessels we may mention the ἄκατος or ἀκάτιον, which seems to have -been sometimes used as a ship of burden. The name Scapha (σκάφη) -denotes a small skiff or life-boat, which was commonly attached to -merchantmen for the purpose of saving the crew in danger.--_Liburna_, -or _Liburnica_, in Greek λιβυρνίς or λιβυρνόν, is a name given -apparently to every war-ship, from a bireme up to those with six -lines of rowers on each side, but in the time of Augustus, liburnae -even with six lines of rowers were considered small and swift in -comparison with the unwieldy ships of Antony at Actium. They were -usually provided with a beak, whence a _navis rostrata_ is generally -the same as a Liburna. They were first constructed by the Liburnians -(whence they derived their name), and formed the main part of the -fleet of Augustus in the battle of Actium.--Every vessel at Athens, -as in modern times, had a name given to it, which was generally -of the feminine gender. The Romans sometimes gave to their ships -masculine names. The Greek names were either taken from ancient -heroines such as Nausicaa, or they were abstract words such as -_Forethought_, _Safety_, _Guidance_, &c. In many cases the name of -the builder also was added.--The Romans appear to have first become -aware of the importance of a fleet during the second Samnite war, -in the year B.C. 311: when _duumviri navales_ were for the first -time appointed by the people. The ships which the Romans now built -were undoubtedly Triremes. This fleet, however insignificant it may -have been, continued to be kept up until the time when Rome became a -real maritime power. In the year B.C. 260, when the Romans saw that -without a navy they could not carry on the war against Carthage with -any advantage, the senate ordained that a fleet should be built. -Triremes would now have been of no avail against the high-bulwarked -vessels (Quinqueremes) of the Carthaginians. But the Romans would -have been unable to build others had not fortunately a Carthaginian -Quinquereme been wrecked on the coast of Bruttium, and fallen into -their hands. This wreck the Romans took as their model, and after it -built 120, or according to others 130 ships. From this time forward -the Romans continued to keep up a powerful navy. Towards the end of -the Republic they also increased the size of their ships, and built -war vessels of from six to ten ranks of rowers. The construction of -their ships, however, scarcely differed from that of Greek vessels; -the only great difference was that the Roman galleys were provided -with a greater variety of destructive engines of war than those of -the Greeks. They even erected turres and tabulata upon the decks of -their great men-of-war (_naves turritae_), and fought upon them as if -they were standing upon the walls of a fortress (see cut, p. 260). - -[Illustration: BIREMIS. - - A. _Prora_, πρώρα. - B. _Oculus_, ὀφθαλμός. - C. _Rostrum_, ἔμβολος. - D. _Cheniscus_, χηνίσκος. - E. _Puppis_, πρύμνη. - F. _Aplustre_, ἄφλαστον, with the pole containing the _fascia_ or _taenia_. - G. τράφηξ. - H. _Remi_, κώπαι. - I. _Gubernaculum_, πηδάλιον. - K. _Malus_, ἱστός. - L. _Velum_, ἱστός. - M. _Antenna_, κεραία, κέρας. - N. _Cornua_, ἀκροκέραιαι. - O. _Ceruchi_, κεροῦχοι. - P. _Carchesium_, καρχήσιον. - Q. κάλοι, καλῴδια. - R. πρότονος. - S. _Pedes_, πόδες. - T. _Opifera_, ὑπέραι.] - -We now proceed to describe the parts of ancient vessels.--1. The prow -(πρώρα or μέτωπον, prora) was generally ornamented on both sides -with figures, which were either painted upon the sides or laid in. -It seems to have been very common to represent an eye on each side -of the prow. Upon the prow or fore-deck there was always some emblem -(παράσημον, insigne, figura) by which the ship was distinguished from -others. At the head of the prow there projected the στόλος, and its -extremity was termed ἀκροστόλιον, which was frequently made in the -shape of an animal or a helmet. It appears to have been sometimes -covered with brass and to have served as an embole (ἐμβολή) against -the enemy’s vessels. The ἀκροστόλιον is sometimes designated by -the name of χηνίσκος(from χήν, a goose), because it was formed -in the shape of the head or neck of a goose or swan, as in the -accompanying woodcut. - -[Illustration: Cheniscus. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)] - -The cheniscus was often gilt and made of bronze. Just below the prow -and projecting a little above the keel was the _Rostrum_ (ἔμβολος, -ἔμβολον) or beak, which consisted of a beam, to which were attached -sharp and pointed irons, or the head of a ram and the like. This -ἔμβολος was used for the purpose of attacking another vessel and of -breaking its sides. These beaks were at first always above the water -and visible; afterwards they were attached lower, so that they were -invisible, and thus became still more dangerous to other ships. The -annexed woodcuts represent three different beaks of ships. - -[Illustration: Rostra, Beaks of Ships. (Montfaucon, pl. 133.)] - -The command in the prow of a vessel was exercised by an officer -called πρωρεύς, who seems to have been next in rank to the steersman, -and to have had the care of the gear, and the command over the -rowers.--2. _The stern_ (πρύμνη, _puppis_) was generally above the -other parts of the deck, and in it the helmsman had his elevated -seat. It is seen in the representations of ancient vessels to be -rounder than the prow, though its extremity is likewise sharp. The -stern was, like the prow, adorned in various ways, but especially -with the image of the tutelary deity of the vessel (_tutela_). In -some representations a kind of roof is formed over the head of the -steersman, and the upper part of the stern frequently has an elegant -ornament called _aplustre_, and in Greek ἄφλαστον, which constituted -the highest part of the poop. It formed a corresponding ornament to -the ἀκροστόλιον at the prow. At the junction of the aplustre with -the stern on which it was based, we commonly observe an ornament -resembling a circular shield: this was called ἀσπιδεῖον or ἀσπιδίσκη. -It is seen on the two aplustria here represented. The aplustre rose -immediately behind the gubernator, and served in some degree to -protect him from wind and rain. Sometimes there appears, beside the -aplustre, a pole, to which a fillet or pennon (ταινία) was attached, -which served both to distinguish and adorn the vessel, and also to -show the direction of the wind.--3. The τράφηξ is the bulwark of the -vessel, or rather the uppermost edge of it. In small boats the pegs -(σκαλμοί, _scalmi_) between which the oars move, and to which they -are fastened by a thong (τροπωτήρ), were upon the τράφηξ. In all -other vessels the oars passed through holes in the side of the vessel -(ὀφθαλμοί, τρήματα, or τρυπήματα).-- - -[Illustration: Aphlaston, Aplustre.] - -4. The middle part of the deck in most ships of war appears to have -been raised above the bulwark, or at least to a level with its upper -edge, and thus enabled the soldiers to occupy a position from which -they could see far around and hurl their darts against the enemy. -Such an elevated deck appears in the annexed woodcut representing a -_Moneris_. - -[Illustration: Moneris. (From a Painting at Pompeii.)] - -In this instance the flag is standing upon the hind-deck.--5. One of -the most interesting, as well as important parts in the arrangements -of the Biremes, Triremes, &c., is the position of the ranks of -rowers, from which the ships themselves derive their names. Various -opinions have been entertained by those who have written upon this -subject. Thus much is certain, that the different ranks of rowers, -who sat along the sides of a vessel, were placed one above the -other. In ordinary vessels, from the Moneris up to the Quinqueremis, -each oar was managed by one man. The rowers sat upon little benches -attached to the ribs of the vessel, and called ἑδώλια, and in Latin -_fori_ and _transtra_. The lowest row of rowers was called θαλάμος, -the rowers themselves, θαλαμῖται or θαλάμιοι. The uppermost ordo of -rowers was called θράνος, and the rowers themselves θρανῖται. The -middle ordo or ordines of rowers were called ζυγὰ, ζύγιοι or ζυγῖται. -Each of this last class of rowers had likewise his own seat, and -did not, as some have supposed, sit upon benches running across the -vessel. The gear of a vessel was divided into _wooden_ and _hanging -gear_ (σκεύη ξύλινα, and σκεύη κρεμαστά). - -I. WOODEN GEAR.--1. _Oars_ (κώπαι, remi). The collective term for -oars is ταῤῥός, which properly signified only the blade or flat -part of the oar, but was afterwards used as a collective expression -for all the oars, with the exception of the rudder. The oars varied -in size accordingly as they were used by a lower or higher ordo of -rowers, and from the name of the ordo by which they were used, they -also received their special names, viz., κώπαι θαλάμιαι, ζύγιαι, and -θρανίτιδες. Each Trireme had on an average 170 rowers. In a Roman -Quinquereme during the first Punic war, the average number of rowers -was 300; in later times we even find as many as 400. The lower part -of the holes through which the oars passed appears to have been -covered with leather (ἄσκωμα), which also extended a little way -outside the hole.--2. _The rudder_ (πηδάλιον, _gubernaculum_). - -[Illustration: Gubernacula, rudders. (From an ancient Lamp and Gems.)] - -Before the invention of the rudder, vessels must have been propelled -and guided by the oars alone. This circumstance may account for the -form of the ancient rudder, as well as for the mode of using it. It -was like an oar with a very broad blade, and was commonly placed on -each side of the stern, not at its extremity. The annexed woodcut -presents examples of its appearance as it is frequently exhibited on -gems, coins, and other works of art. The figure in the centre shows a -Triton blowing the buccina, and holding a rudder over his shoulder. -The left-hand figure represents a rudder with its helm or tiller -crossed by the cornucopia. In the third figure Venus leans with her -left arm upon a rudder to indicate her origin from the sea. The -rudder was managed by the gubernator (κυβερνήτης), who is also called -the _rector navis_ as distinguished from the _magister_. A ship had -sometimes one, but more commonly two rudders; but they were managed -by the steersman to prevent confusion. In larger ships the two -rudders were joined by a pole, which was moved by the gubernator, -and kept the rudders parallel. The contrivances for attaching the -two rudders to one another and to the sides of the ship, are called -ζεῦγλαι or ζευκτηρίαι.--3. _Ladders_ (κλιμακίδες, _scalae_). Each -Trireme had two wooden ladders, and the same seems to have been the -case in τριακόντοροι.--4. _Poles_ or punt poles (κοντοί, _conti_). -Three of these, of different lengths, belonged to every Trireme.--5. -Παραστάται or supports for the masts. They seem to have been a kind -of props placed at the foot of the masts.--6. The _mast_ (ἱστός, -_malus_). The ancients had vessels with one, two, or three masts. -The fore-mast was called ἀκάτειος, the mainmast, ἱστὸς μέγας. A -triaconter, or a vessel with 30 rowers, had likewise two masts, and -the smaller mast here, as well as in a trireme, was near the prow. -In three-masted vessels the largest mast was nearest the stern. The -masts as well as the yards were usually of fir. The part of the mast -immediately above the yard (_antenna_), formed a structure similar to -a drinking-cup, and bore the name of _carchesium_ (καρχήσιον). Into -it the mariners ascended in order to manage the sail, to obtain a -distant view, or to discharge missiles. Breastworks (θωράκια) were -fixed to these structures, so as to supply the place of defensive -armour; and pulleys (τροχηλίαι, _trochleae_) for hoisting up stones -and weapons from below. The continuation of the mast above the -carchesium was called the “distaff” (ἠλακάτη), corresponding to -our top-mast or top-gallant mast.--7. The _yards_ (κέρα, κεραίαι, -_antennae_). - -[Illustration: Ceruchi. (From an ancient Lamp.)] - -The mainyard was fastened to the top of the mast by ropes termed -_ceruchi_, as seen in the preceding woodcut. To the mainyard was -attached the mainsail, which was hoisted or let down as the occasion -might require. In the two extremities of the yard (_cornua_, -ἀκροκέραιαι), ropes (_ceruchi_, κηροῦχοι) were attached, which passed -to the top of the mast; and by means of these ropes and the pulleys -connected with them, the yard and sail, guided by the hoop, were -hoisted to the height required. There are numerous representations of -ancient ships in which the antenna is seen, as in the two woodcuts -here appended. In the second of them there are ropes hanging down -from the antenna, the object of which was to enable the sailors to -turn the antenna and the sail according to the wind. - -[Illustration: Antennae. (From ancient Gems.)] - -II. HANGING GEAR.--1. _Hypozomata_ (Ὑποζώματα), thick and broad ropes -running in a horizontal direction around the ship from the stern to -the prow, and intended to keep the whole fabric together. They ran -round the vessel in several circles, and at certain distances from -one another. The Latin name for ὑπόζωμα is _tormentum_. Sometimes -they were taken on board when a vessel sailed, and not put on till -it was thought necessary. The act of putting them on was called -ὑποζωννύναι, or διαζωννύναι, or ζῶσαι. A Trireme required four -ὑποζώματα.--2. _The sail_ (Ἱστίον, _velum_). Most ancient ships had -only one sail, which was attached with the yard to the great mast. In -a Trireme also one sail might be sufficient, but the trierarch might -nevertheless add a second. As each of the two masts of a Trireme -had two sail-yards, it further follows that each mast might have -two sails, one of which was placed lower than the other. The two -belonging to the mainmast were called ἱστία μεγάλα, and those of the -fore-mast ἱστία ἀκάτεια. The former were used on ordinary occasions, -but the latter probably only in cases when it was necessary to sail -with extraordinary speed. The sails of the Attic war-galleys, and -of most ancient ships in general, were of a square form. Whether -triangular sails were ever used by the Greeks, as has been frequently -supposed, is very doubtful. The Romans, however, used triangular -sails, which they called _Suppara_, and which had the shape of an -inverted Greek Δ (⛛), the upper side of which was attached to the -yard.--3. _Cordage_ (τοπεῖα) differed from the σχοινία or κάλοι. -The σχοινία (_funes_) are the strong ropes to which the anchors -were attached, and by which a ship was fastened to the land; while -the τοπεῖα were a lighter kind of ropes and made with greater care, -which were attached to the masts, yards, and sails. Each rope of this -kind was made for a distinct purpose and place (τόπος, whence the -name τοπεῖα). The following kinds are most worthy of notice:--_a_. -καλῴδια or κάλοι, were probably the ropes by which the mast was -fastened to both sides of the ship, so that the πρότονοι in the -Homeric ships were only an especial kind of καλῴδια, or the καλῴδια -themselves differently placed. In later times the πρότονος was the -rope which went from the top of the mainmast (καρχήσιον) to the prow -of the ship, and thus was what is now called the main-stay. _b_. -_Ceruchi_ (κεροῦχοι, ἱμάντες), ropes which ran from the two ends -of the sail-yard to the top of the mast. In more ancient vessels -the ἱμὰς consisted of only one rope; in later times it consisted of -two, and sometimes four, which uniting at the top of the mast, and -there passing through a ring, descended on the other side, where it -formed the ἐπίτονος, by means of which the sail was drawn up or let -down. _c_. ἄγκοινα, Latin _anquina_, was the rope which went from -the middle of a yard to the top of the mast, and was intended to -facilitate the drawing up and letting down of the sail. _d_. Πόδες -(_pedes_) were in later times, as in the poems of Homer, the ropes -attached to the two lower corners of a square sail. These πόδες ran -from the ends of the sail to the sides of the vessel towards the -stern, where they were fastened with rings attached to the outer -side of the bulwark. _e_. Ὑπέραι were the two ropes attached to the -two ends of the sail-yard, and thence came down to a part of the -ship near the stern. Their object was to move the yard according to -the wind. In Latin they are called _opifera_, which is, perhaps, -only a corruption of _hypera_.--4. Παραῤῥύματα. The ancients as -early as the time of Homer had various preparations raised above -the edge of a vessel, which were made of skins and wicker-work, and -which were intended as a protection against high waves, and also to -serve as a kind of breast-work behind which the men might be safe -against the darts of the enemy. These elevations of the bulwark are -called παραῤῥύματα. They were probably fixed upon the edge on both -sides of the vessel, and were taken off when not wanted. Each galley -appears to have had several παραῤῥύματα, two made of hair and two -white ones, these four being regularly mentioned as belonging to one -ship.--5. Σχοινία are the stronger and heavier kinds of ropes. There -were two kinds of these, viz. the σχοινία ἀγκύρεια, to which the -anchor was attached, and σχοινία ἐπίγυα or ἐπίγεια (_retinacula_), -by which the ship was fastened to the shore or drawn upon the -shore.--6. The _anchor_ (ἀγκύρα, _ancora_). We have already remarked -that in the Homeric age anchors were not known, and large stones -(εὐναὶ, _sleepers_) used in their stead. When anchors came to be -used, they were generally made of iron, and their form resembled -that of a modern anchor. Such an anchor was often termed _bidens_, -διπλῆ, ἀμφίβολος or ἀμφίστομος, because it had two teeth or flukes; -but sometimes it had only one, and was then called ἑτεροστόμος. -The technical expressions in the use of the anchor are: _ancoram -solvere_, ἀγκύραν χαλᾷν, to loose the anchor; _ancoram jacere_, -ἀγκύραν βάλλειν or ῥίπτειν, to cast anchor; and _ancoram tollere_, -ἀγκύραν αἴρειν or ἀναίρεσθαι, to weigh anchor, whence αἴρειν by -itself means “to set sail,” ἀγκύραν being understood. The following -figure shows the cable (_funis_), passing through a hole in the -prow (_oculus_). Each ship of course had several anchors. The last -or most powerful anchor, “the last hope,” was called ἱερά, _sacra_, -and persons trying their last hope were said _sacram solvere_.--The -preceding account of the different parts of the ship will be rendered -still clearer by the drawing on p. 263. - -[Illustration: Biremis. (From a Marble at Rome.)] - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[3] Biremes are sometimes called by the Greeks δίκροτα. The name -biremis is also applied to a little boat managed by only two oars. - - -NAUMĂCHIA, the name given to the representation of a sea-fight -among the Romans, and also to the place where such engagements -were exhibited. These fights sometimes took place in the circus or -amphitheatre, sufficient water being introduced to float ships, but -more generally in buildings especially devoted to this purpose. -The combatants in these sea-fights, called _Naumachiarii_, were -usually captives, or criminals condemned to death, who fought as in -gladiatorial combats, until one party was killed, unless preserved -by the clemency of the emperor. The ships engaged in the sea fights -were divided into two parties, called respectively by the names of -different maritime nations, as Tyrians and Egyptians, Rhodians and -Sicilians, Persians and Athenians, Corcyraeans and Corinthians, -Athenians and Syracusans, &c. These sea-fights were exhibited with -the same magnificence and lavish expenditure of human life as -characterised the gladiatorial combats and other public games of the -Romans. In Nero’s naumachia there were sea-monsters swimming about in -the artificial lake. In the sea-fight exhibited by Titus there were -3000 men engaged, and in that exhibited by Domitian the ships were -almost equal in number to two real fleets. - - -NAUTŎDĬCAE (ναυτόδικαι), magistrates at Athens, who had jurisdiction -in matters belonging to navigation and commerce, and in matters -concerning such persons as had entered their names as members of -a phratria without both their parents being citizens of Athens, -or in other words, in the δίκαι ἐμπόρων and δίκαι ξενίας. The time -when nautodicae were first instituted is not mentioned, but it must -have been previous to Pericles, and perhaps as early as the time of -Cleisthenes. The nautodicae were appointed every year by lot in the -month of Gamelion, and probably attended to the δίκαι ἐμπόρων only -during the winter, when navigation ceased, whereas the δίκαι ξενίας -might be brought before them all the year round. - - -NĔFASTI DIES. [DIES.] - - -NĔGŌTĬĀTŌRES, signified specially during the later times of the -republic Roman citizens settled in the provinces, who lent money -upon interest or bought up corn on speculation, which they sent to -Rome as well as to other places. Their chief business however was -lending money upon interest, and hence we find the words _negotia_, -_negotiatio_, and _negotiari_ used in this sense. The _negotiatores_ -are distinguished from the _publicani_, and from the _mercatores_. -The _negotiatores_ in the provinces corresponded to the _argentarii_ -and _feneratores_ at Rome. - - -NĔMEA (νέμεα, νεμεῖα, or νεμαῖα), the Nemean games, one of the four -great national festivals of the Greeks. It was held at Nemea, a -place near Cleonae in Argolis, and is said to have been originally -instituted by the Seven against Thebes in commemoration of the death -of Opheltes, afterwards called Archemorus. The games were revived -by Hercules, after he had slain the Nemean lion; and were from this -time celebrated in honour of Zeus. They were at first of a warlike -character, and only warriors and their sons were allowed to take part -in them; subsequently, however, they were thrown open to all the -Greeks. The various games were horse-racing, running in armour in the -stadium, wrestling, chariot-racing and the discus, boxing, throwing -the spear and shooting with the bow, to which we may add musical -contests. The prize given to the victors was at first a chaplet -of olive-branches, but afterwards a chaplet of green parsley. The -presidency of these games, and the management of them, belonged at -different times to Cleonae, Corinth, and Argos. They were celebrated -twice in every Olympiad, viz. at the commencement of every second -Olympic year, in the winter, and soon after the commencement of every -fourth Olympic year, in the summer. - - -NĒNIA. [FUNUS, p. 188, _a._] - - -NĔŌCŎRI (νεωκόροι), signified originally temple-sweepers, but was -applied even in early times to priestly officers of high rank, who -had the supreme superintendence of temples and their treasures. -Under the Roman emperors the word was especially applied to those -cities in Asia, which erected temples to the Roman emperors, since -the whole city in every such case was regarded as the guardian of the -worship of the emperor. Accordingly we frequently find on the coins -of Ephesus, Smyrna, and other cities, the epithet Νεωκόρος, which -also occurs on the inscriptions of these cities. - - -NEPTŪNĀLĬA, a festival of Neptune, celebrated at Rome, of which very -little is known. The day on which it was held was probably the 23rd -of July. In the ancient calendaria this day is marked as _Nept. ludi -et feriae_, or _Nept. ludi_, from which we see that the festival was -celebrated with games. - - -NEXUM, was either the transfer of the ownership of a thing, or the -transfer of a thing to a creditor as a security; accordingly in -one sense Nexum included Mancipium [MANCIPIUM]; in another sense, -Mancipium and Nexum are opposed in the same way in which Sale and -Mortgage or Pledge are opposed. The formal part of both transactions -consisted in a transfer _per aes et libram_. The person who became -_nexus_ by the effect of a _nexum_ or _nexus_ (for this form of -the word also is used) was said _nexum inire_. The phrases _nexi -datio_, _nexi liberatio_, respectively express the contracting and -the release from the obligation. The Roman law as to the payment of -borrowed money was very strict. By a law of the Twelve Tables, if the -debtor admitted the debt, or had been condemned in the amount of the -debt by a judex, he had thirty days allowed him for payment. At the -expiration of this time, he was liable to be assigned over to the -creditor (_addictus_) by the sentence of the praetor. The creditor -was required to keep him for sixty days in chains, during which time -he publicly exposed the debtor on three nundinae, and proclaimed the -amount of his debt. If no person released the prisoner by paying the -debt, the creditor might sell him as a slave or put him to death. -If there were several creditors, the letter of the law allowed them -to cut the debtor in pieces, and to take their share of his body in -proportion to their debt. There is no instance of a creditor ever -having adopted this extreme mode of satisfying his debt. But the -creditor might treat the debtor, who was addictus, as a slave, and -compel him to work out his debt; and the treatment was often very -severe. The Lex Poetilia (B.C. 326) alleviated the condition of the -nexi. So far as we can understand its provisions, it set all the nexi -free, or made them _soluti_, and it enacted that for the future there -should be no nexum, and that no debtor should for the future be put -in chains. - - -NŌBILES, NŌBĬLĬTAS. In the early periods of the Roman state the -Patricians were the Nobles as opposed to the Plebs. In B.C. 366, the -plebeians obtained the right of being eligible to the consulship, -and finally they obtained access to all the curule magistracies. -Thus the two classes were put on the same footing as to political -capacity; but now a new order of nobility arose. The descendants of -plebeians who had filled curule magistracies, formed a class called -Nobiles or men “known,” who were so called by way of distinction -from “Ignobiles” or people who were not known. The Nobiles had no -legal privileges as such; but they were bound together by a common -distinction derived from a legal title and by a common interest; -and their common interest was to endeavour to confine the election -to all the high magistracies to the members of their body, to the -Nobilitas. Thus the descendants of those Plebeians who had won their -way to distinction combined to exclude other Plebeians from the -distinction which their own ancestors had transmitted to them. The -external distinction of the Nobiles was the Jus Imaginum, a right or -privilege which was apparently established on usage only, and not on -any positive enactments. These Imagines were figures with painted -masks of wax, made to resemble the person whom they represented; and -they were placed in the Atrium of the house, apparently in small -wooden receptacles or cases somewhat in the form of temples. The -Imagines were accompanied with the tituli or names of distinction -which the deceased had acquired; and the tituli were connected in -some way by lines or branches so as to exhibit the pedigree (stemma) -of the family. These Imagines were generally enclosed in their cases, -but they were opened on festival days and other great ceremonials, -and crowned with bay (laureatae): they also formed part of a solemn -funeral procession. It seems probable that the Roman Nobilitas, in -the strict sense of that term, and the Jus Imaginum, originated -with the admission of the Plebeians to the consulship B.C. 366. A -plebeian who first attained a Curule office was the founder of his -family’s Nobilitas (princeps nobilitatis; auctor generis). Such a -person could have no imagines of his ancestors; and he could have -none of his own, for such imagines of a man were not made till after -he was dead. Such a person then was not nobilis in the full sense of -the term, nor yet was he ignobilis. He was called by the Romans a -“novus homo” or a new man; and his status or condition was called -Novitas. The term novus homo was never applied to a Patrician. The -two most distinguished “novi homines” were C. Marius and M. Tullius -Cicero, both natives of an Italian municipium. The Patricians would -of course be jealous of the new nobility; but this new nobility once -formed would easily unite with the old aristocracy of Rome to keep -the political power in their hands, and to prevent more novi homines -from polluting this exclusive class. As early as the second Punic war -this new class, compounded of Patricians or original aristocrats, -and Nobiles or newly-engrafted aristocrats, was able to exclude novi -homines from the consulship. They maintained this power to the end -of the republican period, and the consulship continued almost in -the exclusive possession of the Nobilitas. The _Optimates_ were the -Nobilitas and the chief part of the Equites, a rich middle class, -and also all others whose support the Nobilitas and Equites could -command, in fact all who were opposed to change that might affect the -power of the Nobilitas and the interests of those whom the Nobilitas -allied with themselves. Optimates in this sense are opposed to -Plebs, to the mass of the people; and Optimates is a wider term than -Nobilitas, inasmuch as it would comprehend the Nobilitas and all who -adhered to them. - - -NŌMEN (ὄνομα), a name. The Greeks bore only one name, and it was -one of the especial rights of a father to choose the names for his -children, and to alter them if he pleased. It was customary to give -to the eldest son the name of the grandfather on his father’s side; -and children usually received their names on the tenth day after -their birth.--Originally every Roman citizen belonged to a gens, and -derived his name (_nomen_ or _nomen gentilicium_) from his gens, -which _nomen gentilicium_ generally terminated in _ius_. Besides -this, every Roman had a name, called _praenomen_, which preceded the -nomen gentilicium, and which was peculiar to him as an individual, -_e.g._ Caius, Lucius, Marcus, Cneius, Sextus, &c. This praenomen -was at a later time given to boys on the ninth day after their -birth, and to girls on the eighth day. This day was called _dies -lustricus_, _dies nominum_, or _nominalia_. The praenomen given to -a boy was in most cases that of the father, but sometimes that of -the grandfather or great-grandfather. These two names, a _praenomen_ -and a _nomen gentilicium_, or simply _nomen_, were indispensable -to a Roman, and they were at the same time sufficient to designate -him; hence the numerous instances of Romans being designated only -by these two names, even in cases where a third or fourth name was -possessed by the person. Every Roman citizen, besides belonging to -a gens, was also frequently a member of a familia, contained in a -gens, and accordingly might have a third name or _cognomen_. Such -cognomina were derived by the Romans from a variety of mental or -bodily peculiarities, or from some remarkable event in the life of -the person who was the founder of the familia. Such cognomina are, -Asper, Imperiosus, Magnus, Maximus, Publicola, Brutus, Capito, Cato, -Naso, Labeo, Caecus, Cicero, Scipio, Sulla, Torquatus, &c. These -names were in most cases hereditary, and descended to the latest -members of a familia; in some cases they ceased with the death of the -person to whom they were given for special reasons. Many Romans had a -second cognomen (_cognomen secundum_ or _agnomen_), which was given -to them as an honorary distinction, and in commemoration of some -memorable deed or event of their life, _e.g._ Africanus, Asiaticus, -Hispallus, Cretensis, Macedonicus, Allobrogicus, &c. Such agnomina -were sometimes given by one general to another, sometimes by the army -and confirmed by the chief-general, sometimes by the people in the -comitia, and sometimes they were assumed by the person himself, as -in the case of L. Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus. The regular order in -which these names followed one another was:--1. praenomen; 2. nomen -gentilicium; 3. cognomen primum; 4. cognomen secundum or agnomen. -Sometimes the name of the tribe to which a person belonged, was added -to his name, in the ablative case, as Q. Verres Romilia, C. Claudius -Palatina. If a person by adoption passed from one gens into another, -he assumed the praenomen, nomen, and cognomen of his adoptive father, -and added to these the name of his former gens, with the termination -_anus_. Thus C. Octavius, after being adopted by his uncle C. Julius -Caesar, was called C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, and the son of L. -Aemilius Paullus, when adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio, was called P. -Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus. [ADOPTIO.] Slaves had only one name, -and usually retained that which they had borne before they came -into slavery. If a slave was restored to freedom, he received the -praenomen and nomen gentilicium of his former master, and to these -was added the name which he had had as a slave. Instances of such -freedmen are, T. Ampius Menander, a freedman of T. Ampius Balbus, -L. Cornelius Chrysogonus, a freedman of L. Cornelius Sulla, and M. -Tullius Tiro, freedman of M. Tullius Cicero. - - -NŎMŎPHỸLĂCES (νομοφύλακες), certain magistrates or official persons -of high authority, who exercised a control over other magistrates, -and indeed over the whole body of the people, it being their duty to -see that the laws were duly administered and obeyed. Mention is made -of such officers at Sparta and elsewhere, but no such body existed at -Athens, for they must have had a power too great for the existence of -a democracy. The Senate of 500, or the Areopagitic council, performed -in some measure the office of law-guardians; but the only persons -designated by this name appear to have been inferior functionaries (a -sort of police), whose business it was to prevent irregularities and -disturbances in the public assemblies. - - -NŎMOS (νόμος). This word comprehends the notion not only of -established or statute law, but likewise of all customs and opinions -to which long prescription or natural feeling gives the force of -law. Before any written codes appeared, law was promulgated by the -poets or wise men, who sang the great deeds of their ancestors, and -delivered their moral and political lessons in verse. As civilisation -advanced, laws were reduced to writing, in the shape either of -regular codes or distinct ordinances, and afterwards publicly -exhibited, engraved on tablets, or hewn on columns. The first -written laws we hear of are those of Zaleucus. The first at Athens -were those of Draco, called θεσμοὶ, and by that name distinguished -from the νόμοι of Solon. The laws of Lycurgus were not written. He -enjoined that they should never be inscribed on any other tablet -than the hearts of his countrymen. Those of Solon were inscribed on -wooden tablets, arranged in pyramidal blocks, turning on an axis, -called ἄξονες and κύρβεις. They were first hung in the Acropolis, but -afterwards brought down to the Prytaneum. - - -NŎMŎTHĔTAE (νομόθεται), movers or proposers of laws, the name of a -legislative committee at Athens, which, by an institution of Solon, -was appointed to amend and revise the laws. At the first κυρία -ἐκκλησία in every year, any person was at liberty to point out -defects in the existing code or propose alterations. If his motion -was deemed worthy of attention, the third assembly might refer -the matter to the Nomothetae. They were selected by lot from the -Heliastic body; it being the intention of Solon to limit the power -of the popular assembly by means of a superior board emanating from -itself, composed of citizens of mature age, bound by a stricter oath, -and accustomed to weigh legal principles by the exercise of their -judicial functions. The number of the committee so appointed varied -according to the exigency of the occasion. The people appointed -five advocates (σύνδικοι) to attend before the board and maintain -the policy of the existing institution. If the proposed measure -met the approval of the committee, it passed into law forthwith. -Besides this, the Thesmothetae were officially authorised to review -the whole code, and to refer to the _Nomothetae_ all statutes which -they considered unworthy of being retained. Hence appears the -difference between _Psephisma_ (ψήφισμα) and _Nomos_ (νόμος). The -mere resolution of the people in assembly was a _psephisma_, and only -remained in force a year, like a decree of the senate. Nothing was a -_law_ that did not pass the ordeal of the Nomothetae. - - -NŌNAE. [CALENDARIUM.] - - -NŎTA, which signified a mark or sign of any kind, was also employed -for an abbreviation. Hence _notae_ signified the marks or signs -used in taking down the words of a speaker, and was equivalent to -our short-hand writing, or stenography; and _notarii_ signified -short-hand writers. It must be borne in mind, however, that _notae_ -also signified writing in cipher; and many passages in the ancient -reciters which are supposed to refer to short-hand, refer in reality -to writing in cipher. Among the Greeks it is said to have been -invented by Xenophon, and their short-hand writers were called -ταχυγράφοι, ὀξυγράφοι and σημειογράφοι. The first introduction of -the art among the Romans is ascribed to Cicero. He is said to have -caused the debate in the senate on the punishment of the Catilinarian -conspirators to be taken down in short-hand. Eusebius ascribes it to -Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, and hence the system of abbreviated -writing, in which some manuscripts are written, has received the name -of _Notae Tironianae_; but there is no evidence to show whether this -species of short-hand was really the invention of Tiro. The system of -short-hand employed in the time of the Roman empire must have been of -a much simpler and more expeditious kind than the _Notae Tironianae_, -which were merely abbreviations of the words. Many of the wealthy -Romans kept slaves, who were trained in the art. It was also -learnt even by the Roman nobles, and the emperor Titus was a great -proficient in it. At a later time, it seems to have been generally -taught in the schools. There were, moreover, short-hand writers -(_notarii_) by profession, who were chiefly employed in taking down -(_notare_, _excipere_) the proceedings in the courts of justice. At a -later period, they were called _exceptores_. These short-hand writers -were also employed on some occasions to take down a person’s will. - - -NOTĀRĬI, short-hand writers, spoken of under NOTA. They were likewise -called _Actuarii_. They were also employed by the emperors, and in -course of time the title of _Notarii_ was exclusively applied to the -private secretaries of the emperors, who, of course, were no longer -slaves, but persons of high rank. The short-hand writers were now -called _exceptores_, as is remarked under NOTA. - - -NŎTA CENSŌRĬA. [CENSOR.] - - -NŎVENDĬĀLE (sc. _sacrum_).--(1) A festival lasting nine days, -which was celebrated as often as stones rained from heaven. It was -originally instituted by Tullus Hostilius, when there was a shower of -stones upon the Mons Albanus, and was frequently celebrated in later -times.--(2) This name was also given to the sacrifice performed nine -days after a funeral. [FUNUS.] - - -NŎVI HŎMĬNES. [NOBILES.] - - -NŪDUS (γυμνός). These words, besides denoting absolute nakedness, -were applied to any one who, being without an AMICTUS, wore only his -tunic or indutus. In this state of nudity the ancients performed the -operations of ploughing, sowing, and reaping. This term applied to -the warrior expressed the absence of some part of his armour. Hence -the light-armed were called γυμνῆτες. [ARMA.] - - -NUMMŬLĀRĬI or NŪMŬLĀRII. [MENSARII.] - - -NUMMUS or NŪMUS. [SESTERTIUS.] - - -NUNDĬNAE is derived by all the ancient writers from _novem_ and -_dies_, so that it literally signifies the ninth day. Every eighth -day, according to our mode of speaking, was a nundinae, and there -were thus always seven ordinary days between two nundinae. The Romans -in their peculiar mode of reckoning added these two nundinae to the -seven ordinary days, and consequently said that the nundinae recurred -every ninth day, and called them _nundinae_, as it were _novemdinae_. -The number of nundinae in the ancient year of ten months was 38. -They were originally market-days for the country folk, on which they -came to Rome to sell the produce of their labour, and on which the -king settled the legal disputes among them. When, therefore, we read -that the nundinae were feriae, or dies nefasti, and that no comitia -were allowed to be held, we have to understand this of the populus -or patricians, and not of the plebes; and while for the populus -the nundinae were feriae, they were real days of business (_dies -fasti_ or _comitiales_) for the plebeians, who on these occasions -pleaded their causes with members of their own order, and held their -public meetings (the ancient comitia of the plebeians). Afterwards -the nundinae became fasti for both orders, and this innovation -facilitated the attendance of the plebeians at the comitia -centuriata. The subjects to be laid before the comitia, whether they -were proposals for new laws, or the appointment of officers, were -announced to the people three nundinae beforehand (_trinundino die -proponere_). Instead of _nundinae_ the form _nundinum_ is sometimes -used, but only when it is preceded by a numeral, as in _trinundinum_, -or _trinum nundinum_. - - -NUPTĬAE. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - - - -ŎBOLUS. [DRACHMA.] - - -OCRĔA (κνημίς), a greave, a leggin. A pair of greaves (κνημῖδες) -was one of the six articles of armour which formed the complete -equipment of a Greek warrior [ARMA], and likewise of a Roman soldier -as fixed by Servius Tullius. They were made of various metals, with -a lining probably of leather, felt, or cloth. Their form is shown in -the accompanying cut. The figure is that of a fallen warrior, and -in consequence of the bending of the knees, the greaves are seen to -project a little above them. This statue also shows the ankle-rings -(ἐπισφύρια), which were used to fasten the greaves immediately above -the feet. - -[Illustration: Ocreae, Greaves. (From the Aeginetan Marbles.)] - - -ŌDĒUM (ᾠδεῖον), a species of public building for contests in vocal -and instrumental music. In its general form and arrangements it was -very similar to the theatre; and it is sometimes called θέατρον. -There were, however, some characteristic differences: the Odeum was -much smaller than the theatre; and it was roofed over, in order to -retain the sound. The earliest building of this kind was that erected -by Pericles at Athens, for the purpose of celebrating the musical -contests at the Panathenaea. Its proximity to the theatre suggested -some of the uses made of it, namely, as a refuge for the audience -when driven out of the theatre by rain, and also as a place in which -the chorus could be prepared. Another Odeum was built at Athens by -Herodes Atticus, and was the most magnificent edifice of the sort in -the whole empire. The length of its largest diameter was 248 feet, -and it is calculated to have furnished accommodation for about 8000 -persons. There were also Odea in other Greek towns. The first Odeum, -properly so called, at Rome, was built by Domitian, and the second by -Trajan. There are ruins of such buildings in the villa of Hadrian at -Tivoli, at Pompeii, and at Catana. - - -ŎLĔA, ŎLĪVA (ἐλαία); ŎLĔUM, OLĪVUM (ἔλαιον). The importance of -the olive was recognised from the most remote period of antiquity -in all civilised countries where the temperature admitted of its -cultivation: and it was widely adopted as an emblem of industry and -peace. Hence the honour paid to it at Athens, and hence the title -of “prima omnium arborum,” bestowed upon it by Columella. The fruit -(_bacca_) of the olive was for the most part employed for one of -two purposes. 1. It was eaten as a fruit, either fresh, pickled, or -preserved in various ways. 2. It was pressed so as to yield the oil -and other juices which it contained. And again, the oil was employed -for a variety of purposes, but chiefly 1. As an article of food. -2. For anointing the body, and in this case was frequently made a -vehicle for perfumes (_unguenta_). 3. For burning in lamps. - - -OLĬGARCHĬA (ὀλιγαρχια), the government of a few: a term applied to -that perversion (παρέκβασις) of an _Aristocratia_ into which the -latter passed, when, owing to the rise of the _demus_ [DEMOCRATIA], -and the vanishing of those substantial grounds of pre-eminence -which rendered an Aristocratia not unjust, the rule of the dominant -portion of the community became the ascendancy of a faction, whose -efforts were directed chiefly towards their own aggrandisement. The -preservation of power under such circumstances of course depended -chiefly upon the possession of superior wealth and the other -appliances of wealth which were its concomitants. Thus it came to be -regarded as essentially characteristic of an oligarchy, that the main -distinction between the dominant faction and the subject portion of -the community was the possession of greater wealth on the part of the -former. Hence the term _Oligarchia_ would not have been applied, if a -small section of the community, consisting of _poor_ persons, by any -means got the reins of government into their hands. - - -OLLA (λέβης, χύτρος), a vessel of any material, round and plain, and -having a wide mouth; a pot; a jar. - - -ŎLYMPĬA (ὀλύμπια), the Olympic games, the greatest of the national -festivals of the Greeks. It was celebrated at Olympia in Elis, the -name given to a small plain to the west of Pisa, which was bounded -on the north and north-east by the mountains Cronius and Olympus, -on the south by the river Alpheus, and on the west by the Cladeus, -which flows into the Alpheus. Olympia does not appear to have been a -town, but rather a collection of temples and public buildings. The -origin of the Olympic games is buried in obscurity, but the festival -was of very great antiquity. The first historical fact connected with -this festival is its revival by Iphitus, king of Elis, who is said -to have accomplished it with the assistance of Lycurgus, the Spartan -lawgiver, and Cleosthenes of Pisa. The date of this event is given -by some writers as B.C. 884, and by others as B.C. 828. The interval -of four years between each celebration of the festival was called -an Olympiad; but the Olympiads were not employed as a chronological -aera till the victory of Coroebus in the foot-race, B.C. 776. -[OLYMPIAS.] The most important point in the renewal of the festival -by Iphitus was the establishment of the _Ececheiria_ (ἐκεχειρία), -or sacred armistice. The proclamation was made by peace-heralds -(σπονδοφόροι), first in Elis and afterwards in the other parts of -Greece; it put a stop to all warfare for the month in which the games -were celebrated, and which was called the _sacred month_ (ἱερομηνία). -The territory of Elis itself was considered especially sacred during -the games, and no armed force could enter it without incurring the -guilt of sacrilege. The Olympic festival was probably confined at -first to the Peloponnesians; but as its celebrity extended, the -other Greeks took part in it, till at length it became a festival -for the whole nation. No one was allowed to contend in the games -but persons of pure Hellenic blood: barbarians might be spectators, -but slaves were entirely excluded. After the conquest of Greece by -the Romans, the latter were permitted to take part in the games. No -women were allowed to be present or even to cross the Alpheus during -the celebration of the games, under penalty of being hurled down -from the Typaean rock, but women could send chariots to the races. -The number of spectators at the festival was very great; and these -were drawn together not merely by the desire of seeing the games, -but partly through the opportunity it afforded them of carrying on -commercial transactions with persons from distant places, as is the -case with the Mohammedan festivals at Mecca and Medina. Many of the -persons present were also deputies (θεωροί) sent to represent the -various states of Greece; and we find that these embassies vied with -one another in the number of their offerings, and the splendour of -their general appearance, in order to support the honour of their -native cities. The Olympic festival was a Pentaëteris (πενταετηρίς), -that is, according to the ancient mode of reckoning, a space of four -years elapsed between each festival, in the same way as there was -only a space of two years between a Trieteris. It was celebrated on -the first full moon after the summer solstice. It lasted, after all -the contests had been introduced, five days, from the 11th to the -15th days of the month inclusive. The fourth day of the festival -was the 14th of the month, which was the day of the full moon, and -which divided the month into two equal parts. The festival was under -the immediate superintendence of the Olympian Zeus, whose temple at -Olympia, adorned with the statue of the god made by Phidias, was one -of the most splendid works of art in Greece. There were also temples -and altars to most of the other gods. The festival itself may be -divided into two parts, the games or contests (ἀγὼν Ολυμπιακός), -and the festive rites (ἑορτή) connected with the sacrifices, with -the processions, and with the public banquets in honour of the -conquerors.--The contests consisted of various trials of strength -and skill, which were increased in number from time to time. There -were in all twenty-four contests, eighteen in which men took part, -and six in which boys engaged, though they were never all exhibited -at one festival, since some were abolished almost immediately after -their institution, and others after they had been in use only a -short time. We subjoin a list of these from Pausanias, with the -date of the introduction of each, commencing from the Olympiad of -Coroebus:--1. The foot-race (δρόμος), which was the only contest -during the first 13 Olympiads. 2. The δίαυλος, or foot-race, in which -the stadium was traversed twice, first introduced in Ol. 14. 3. The -δόλιχος, a still longer foot-race than the δίαυλος, introduced in Ol. -15. For a more particular account of the δίαυλος and δόλιχος, see -STADIUM. 4. Wrestling (πάλη), and, 5. The Pentathlum (πένταθλον), -which consisted of five exercises [PENTATHLUM], both introduced -in Ol. 18. 6. Boxing (πυγμή) introduced in Ol. 23. [PUGILATUS.] -7. The chariot-race, with four full-grown horses (ἵππων τελείων -δρόμος, ἅρμα), introduced in Ol. 25. 8. The Pancratium (παγκράτιον) -[PANCRATIUM], and 9. The horse-race (ἵππος κέλης), both introduced -in Ol. 33. 10 and 11. The foot-race and wrestling for boys, both -introduced in Ol. 37. 12. The Pentathlum for boys, introduced in -Ol. 38., but immediately afterwards abolished. 13. Boxing for boys, -introduced in Ol. 41. 14. The foot-race, in which men ran with the -equipments of heavy-armed soldiers (τῶν ὁπλιτῶν δρόμος), introduced -in Ol. 65., on account of its training men for actual service in war. -15. The chariot-race with mules (ἀπήνη), introduced in Ol. 70.; and -16. The horse-race with mares (κάλπη), introduced in Ol. 71., both -of which were abolished in Ol. 84. 17. The chariot-race with two -full-grown horses (ἵππων τελείων συνωρίς), introduced in Ol. 93. 18, -19. The contest of heralds (κήρυκες) and trumpeters (σαλπιγκταί), -introduced in Ol. 96. 20. The chariot-race with four foals (πώλων -ἅρμασιν), introduced in Ol. 99. 21. The chariot-race with two foals -(πώλων συνωρίς), introduced in Ol. 128. 22. The horse-race with -foals (πῶλος κέλης), introduced in Ol. 131. 23. The Pancratium -for boys, introduced in Ol. 145. 24. There was also a horse-race -(ἵππος κέλης) in which boys rode, but we do not know the time of its -introduction.--The judges in the Olympic Games, called _Hellanodicae_ -(Ἑλλανοδίκαι), were appointed by the Eleans, who had the regulation -of the whole festival. It appears to have been originally under the -superintendence of Pisa, in the neighbourhood of which Olympia was -situated, but after the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians -on the return of the Heraclidae, the Aetolians, who had been of -great assistance to the Heraclidae, settled in Elis, and from this -time the Aetolian Eleans obtained the regulation of the festival, -and appointed the presiding officers. The Hellanodicae were chosen -by lot from the whole body of the Eleans. Their number varied at -different periods, but at a later time there were eight Hellanodicae. -Their office probably lasted for only one festival. They had to -see that all the laws relating to the games were observed by the -competitors and others, to determine the prizes, and to give them -to the conquerors. An appeal lay from their decision to the Elean -senate. Under the direction of the Hellanodicae was a certain number -of _Alytae_ (ἀλύται) with an _Alytarches_ (ἀλυτάρχης) at their head, -who formed a kind of police, and carried into execution the commands -of the Hellanodicae. There were also various other minor officers -under the control of the Hellanodicae.--All free Greeks were allowed -to contend in the games, who had complied with the rules prescribed -to candidates. The equestrian contests were necessarily confined to -the wealthy; but the poorest citizens could contend in the athletic -games. This, however, was far from degrading the games in public -opinion; and some of the noblest as well as meanest citizens of the -state took part in these contests. The owners of the chariots and -horses were not obliged to contend in person; and the wealthy vied -with one another in the number and magnificence of the chariots and -horses which they sent to the games. All persons, who were about to -contend, had to prove to the Hellanodicae that they were freemen, and -of pure Hellenic blood, that they had not been branded with atimia, -nor guilty of any sacrilegious act. They further had to prove that -they had undergone the preparatory training (προγυμνάσματα) for ten -months previous. All competitors were obliged, thirty days before -the festival, to undergo certain exercises in the Gymnasium at Elis, -under the superintendence of the Hellanodicae. The competitors took -their places by lot. The herald then proclaimed the name and country -of each competitor. When they were all ready to begin the contest, -the judges exhorted them to acquit themselves nobly, and then gave -the signal to commence.--The only prize given to the conqueror was -a garland of wild olive (κότινος), cut from a sacred olive tree, -which grew in the sacred grove of Altis in Olympia. The victor was -originally crowned upon a tripod covered over with bronze, but -afterwards upon a table made of ivory and gold. Palm branches, the -common tokens of victory on other occasions, were placed in his -hands. The name of the victor, and that of his father and of his -country, were then proclaimed by a herald before the representatives -of assembled Greece. The festival ended with processions and -sacrifices, and with a public banquet given by the Eleans to the -conquerors in the Prytaneium. The most powerful states considered an -Olympic victory, gained by one of their citizens, to confer honour -upon the state to which he belonged; and a conqueror usually had -immunities and privileges conferred upon him by the gratitude of -his fellow-citizens. On his return home the victor entered the city -in a triumphal procession, in which his praises were celebrated, -frequently in the loftiest strains of poetry. [ATHLETAE.] As persons -from all parts of the Hellenic world were assembled together at the -Olympic Games, it was the best opportunity which the artist and the -writer possessed of making their works known. It answered, to some -extent, the same purpose as the press does in modern times. Before -the invention of printing, the reading of an author’s works to as -large an assembly as could be obtained, was one of the easiest and -surest modes of publishing them; and this was a favourite practice of -the Greeks and Romans. Accordingly we find many instances of literary -works thus published at the Olympic festival. Herodotus is said to -have read his history at this festival; but though there are some -reasons for doubting the correctness of this statement, there are -numerous other writers who thus published their works, as the sophist -Hippias, Prodicus of Ceos, Anaximenes, the orator Lysias, Dion -Chrysostom, &c. It must be borne in mind that these recitations were -not contests, and that they formed properly no part of the festival. -In the same way painters and other artists exhibited their works at -Olympia. - - -OLYMPĬAS (ὀλυμπιάς), an Olympiad, the most celebrated chronological -aera among the Greeks, was the period of four years which elapsed -between each celebration of the Olympic Games. The Olympiads began -to be reckoned from the victory of Coroebus in the foot-race, which -happened in the year B.C. 776. Timaeus of Sicily, however, who -flourished B.C. 264, was the first writer who regularly arranged -events according to the conquerors in each Olympiad. His practice -of recording events by Olympiads was followed by Polybius, Diodorus -Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, &c. The writers who make use of -the aera of the Olympiads, usually give the number of the Olympiad -(the first corresponding to B.C. 776), and then the name of the -conqueror in the foot-race. Some writers also speak of events as -happening in the first, second, third, or fourth year, as the case -may be, of a certain Olympiad; but others do not give the separate -years of each Olympiad. The rules for converting Olympiads into the -year B.C., and _vice versa_, are given under CHRONOLOGIA; but as this -is troublesome, the student will find at the end of the book a list -of the Olympiads, with the years of the Christian aera corresponding -to them from the beginning of the Olympiads to A.D. 301. To save -space, the separate years of each Olympiad, with the corresponding -years B.C., are only given from the 47th to the 126th Olympiad, as -this is the most important period of Grecian history; in the other -Olympiads the first year only is given. In consulting the table it -must be borne in mind that the Olympic Games were celebrated about -midsummer, and that the Attic year commenced at about the same time. -If, therefore, an event happened in the second half of the Attic -year, the year B.C. must be reduced by 1. Thus Socrates was put to -death in the 1st year of the 95th Olympiad, which corresponds in the -table to B.C. 400; but as his death happened in Thargelion, the 11th -month of the Attic year, the year B.C. must be reduced by 1, which -gives us B.C. 399, the true date of his death. - - -ŎPĀLĬA, a Roman festival in honour of Opis, celebrated on the 19th of -December, being the third day of the Saturnalia. It was believed that -Opis was the wife of Saturnus, and for this reason the festivals were -celebrated at the same time. - - -OPSŌNĬUM, or OBSŌNĬUM (ὄψον, _dim._ ὀψάριον; ὀψήμα), denoted -everything which was eaten with bread, the principal substance of -every meal. Those numerous articles of diet called _opsonia_ or -_pulmentaria_ were designed to give nutriment, but still more to -add a relish to food. Some of these articles were taken from the -vegetable kingdom, but were much more pungent and savoury than bread, -such as olives, either fresh or pickled, radishes, and sesamum. Of -animal food by much the most common kind was fish, whence the terms -under explanation were in the course of time used in a confined and -special sense to denote fish only, but fish variously prepared, and -more especially salt fish, which was most extensively employed to -give a relish to the vegetable diet. The Athenians were in the habit -of going to markets (εἰς τοῦψον) themselves in order to purchase -their opsonia (ὀψωνεῖν, _opsonare_). But the opulent, Romans had a -slave, called _opsonator_ (ὀψώνης), whose office it was to purchase -for his master. - - -OPTĬO. [CENTURIO.] - - -OPTĬMĀTES. [NOBILES.] - - -ŌRĀCŬLUM (μαντεῖον, χρηστήριον) was used by the ancients to designate -both the revelations made by the deity to man, as well as the place -in which such revelations were made. The deity was in none of these -places believed to appear in person to man, and to communicate to him -his will or knowledge of the future, but all oracular revelations -were made through some kind of medium, which was different in the -different places where oracles existed. It may, at first sight, seem -strange that there were, comparatively speaking, so few oracles of -Zeus, the father and ruler of gods and men. But although, according -to the belief of the ancients, Zeus himself was the first source -of all oracular revelations, yet he was too far above men to enter -with them into any close relation; other gods therefore, especially -Apollo, and even heroes, acted as mediators between Zeus and men, -and were, as it were, the organs through which he communicated his -will. The ancients consulted the will of the gods on all important -occasions of public and private life, since they were unwilling to -undertake anything of importance without their sanction.--The most -celebrated oracle was that of Apollo at Delphi. Its ancient name was -Pytho. In the centre of the temple there was a small opening (χάσμα) -in the ground, from which, from time to time, an intoxicating smoke -arose, which was believed to come from the well of Cassotis, which -vanished into the ground close by the sanctuary. Over this chasm -there stood a high tripod, on which the Pythia, led into the temple -by the prophetes (προφήτης), took her seat whenever the oracle was -to be consulted. The smoke rising from under the tripod affected -her brain in such a manner that she fell into a state of delirious -intoxication, and the sounds which she uttered in this state were -believed to contain the revelations of Apollo. These sounds were -carefully written down by the prophetes, and afterwards communicated -to the persons who had come to consult the oracle. The Pythia (the -προφῆτις) was always a native of Delphi, and when she had once -entered the service of the god she never left it, and was never -allowed to marry. In early times she was always a young girl, but -subsequently no one was elected as prophetess who had not attained -the age of fifty years. The Delphians, or, more properly speaking, -the noble families of Delphi, had the superintendence of the oracle. -Among the Delphian aristocracy, however, there were five families -which traced their origin to Deucalion, and from each of these one of -the five priests, called _Hosioi_ (ὅσιοι), was taken. The _Hosioi_, -together with the high-priest or prophetes, held their offices for -life, and had the control of all the affairs of the sanctuary and of -the sacrifices. That these noble families had an immense influence -upon the oracle is manifest from numerous instances, and it is not -improbable that they were its very soul, and that it was they who -dictated the pretended revelations of the god. Most of the oracular -answers which are extant are in hexameters, and in the Ionic dialect. -Sometimes, however, Doric forms also were used.--No religious -institution in all antiquity obtained such a paramount influence in -Greece as the oracle of Delphi. When consulted on a subject of a -religious nature, the answer was invariably of a kind calculated not -only to protect and preserve religious institutions, but to command -new ones to be established, so that it was the preserver and promoter -of religion throughout the ancient world. Colonies were seldom or -never founded without having obtained the advice and the directions -of the Delphic god. The Delphic oracle had at all times a leaning in -favour of the Greeks of the Doric race, but the time when it began -to lose its influence must be dated from the period when Athens and -Sparta entered upon their struggle for the supremacy in Greece; for -at this time the partiality for Sparta became so manifest that the -Athenians and their party began to lose all reverence and esteem -for it, and the oracle became a mere instrument in the hands of a -political party. Of the other oracles, the most celebrated were that -of Apollo at Didyma, usually called the oracle of the Branchidae, in -the territory of Miletus; that of Zeus, at Dodona, where the oracle -was given from sounds produced by the wind; that of Zeus Ammon, in -an oasis in Libya, not far from the boundaries of Egypt; that of -Amphiaraus, between Potniae and Thebes, where the hero was said to -have been swallowed up by the earth; and that of Trophonius, at -Lebadeia in Boeotia. - - -ŌRĀRĬUM was a small handkerchief used for wiping the face, and -appears to have been employed for much the same purposes as our -pocket-handkerchief. It was made of silk or linen. Aurelian -introduced the practice of giving _Oraria_ to the Roman people to use -_ad favorem_, which appears to mean for the purpose of waving in the -public games in token of applause. - - -ŌRĀTOR. The profession of the Roman orator, who with reference to -his undertaking a client’s case is also called patronus, was quite -distinct from that of the Jurisconsultus [JURISCONSULTI], and also -from that of the Advocatus, at least in the time of Cicero, and even -later. An orator who possessed a competent knowledge of the Jus -Civile would, however, have an advantage. Some requisites of oratory, -such as voice and gesture, could only be acquired by discipline, -whereas a competent knowledge of the law of a case (_juris utilitas_) -could be got at any time from the jurisconsulti (_periti_) or from -books. Oratory was a serious study among the Romans. Cicero tells -us by what painful labour he attained to excellence. Roman oratory -reached its perfection in the century which preceded the Christian -aera. Its decline dates from the establishment of the Imperial power. -The old orators learned their art by constant attendance on some -eminent orator and by actual experience of business: the orators of -Messala’s time were formed in the schools of Rhetoric, and their -powers were developed in exercises on fictitious matters. But the -immediate causes of the former nourishing condition of eloquence -were the political power which oratory conferred on the orator under -the Republic, and the party struggles and even the violence that are -incident to such a state of society. - - -ORCHESTRA. [THEATRUM.] - - -ORCĪNUS SĔNĀTOR. [SENATUS.] - - -ORDO is applied to any body of men who form a distinct class in -the community, either by possessing distinct privileges, pursuing -certain trades or professions, or in any other way. Thus the whole -body of sacerdotes at Rome is spoken of as an ordo, and separate -ecclesiastical corporations are called by the same title. The -libertini and scribae also formed separate ordines. The senate and -the equites are also spoken of respectively as the ordo senatorius -and ordo equestris, but this name is never applied to the plebes. -Accordingly we find the expression, _uterque ordo_, used without -any further explanation to designate the senatorial and equestrian -ordines. The senatorial ordo, as the highest, is sometimes -distinguished as _amplissimus ordo_.--The senate in colonies and -municipia was called _ordo decurionum_ [COLONIA], and sometimes -simply _ordo_.--The term ordo is also applied to a company or troop -of soldiers, and is used as equivalent to centuria: thus centurions -are sometimes called _qui ordines duxerunt_, and the first centuries -in a legion _primi ordines_. Even the centurions of the first -centuries are occasionally called _primi ordines_. - - -ORGIA. [MYSTERIA.] - - -ORGYIA (ὀργυιά), a Greek measure of length, derived from the -human body, was the distance from extremity to extremity of the -outstretched arms, whence the name, from ὀρέγω. It was equal to 6 -feet or to 4 cubits, and was 1-100th of the stadium. - - -ŎRĬCHALCUM, a metallic compound, akin to copper and bronze, which -was highly prized by the ancients. It probably denotes _brass_, with -which the ancients became acquainted by fusing zinc ore (_cadmium_, -calamine) with copper, although they appear to have had scarcely -any knowledge of zinc as a metal. The word is derived from ὄρος and -χαλκός, that is, _mountain-bronze_. - - -OSCHOPHŎRIA (ὠσχοφόρια, ὀσχοφόρια), an Attic festival, which, -according to some writers, was celebrated in honour of Athena and -Dionysus, and according to others in honour of Dionysus and Ariadne. -It is said to have been instituted by Theseus. It was a vintage -festival, and its name is derived from ὦσχος, ὄσχος, or ὄσχη, a -branch of vines with grapes. - - -[Illustration: Oscillum. (From a Marble in the British Museum.)] - -OSCILLUM, a diminutive through _osculum_ from _os_, meaning “a little -face,” was the term applied to faces or heads of Bacchus, which -were suspended in the vineyards to be turned in every direction -by the wind. Whichsoever way they looked, they were supposed to -make the vines in that quarter fruitful. The first cut represents -the countenance of Bacchus with a beautiful, mild, and propitious -expression. The other cut represents a tree with four oscilla hung -upon its branches. A syrinx and a pedum are placed at the root of the -tree. - -[Illustration: Oscillum. (From an ancient Gem.)] - - -OSTĬĀRĬUM, a tax upon the doors of houses, which appears to have been -sometimes levied in the provinces. There was a similar tax, called -_columnarium_, imposed upon every pillar that supported a house. - - -OSTĬUM. [JANUA.] - - -ŎVĀTĬO, a lesser triumph. The circumstances by which it was -distinguished from the more imposing solemnity [TRIUMPHUS] were the -following:--The general did not enter the city in a chariot drawn -by four horses, but on foot: he was not arrayed in the gorgeous -gold-embroidered robe, but in the simple toga praetexta of a -magistrate; his brows were encircled with a wreath, not of laurel -but of myrtle; he bore no sceptre in his hand; the procession was -not heralded by trumpets, headed by the senate, and thronged with -victorious troops, but was enlivened by a crowd of flute players, -attended chiefly by knights and plebeians, frequently without -soldiers: the ceremonies were concluded by the sacrifice, not of a -bull but of a sheep. The word _ovatio_ seems clearly to be derived -from the kind of victim offered. An ovation was granted when the -advantage gained, although considerable, was not sufficient to -constitute a legitimate claim to the higher distinction of a triumph, -or when the victory had been achieved with little bloodshed; or when -hostilities had not been regularly proclaimed; or when the war had -not been completely terminated; or when the contest had been carried -on against base and unworthy foes; and hence when the servile bands -of Athenion and Spartacus were destroyed by Perperna and Crassus, -these leaders celebrated ovations only. - - -ŎVĪLE. [COMITIA.] - - - - -PAEAN (παιήων, παιάν, παιών), a hymn or song, which was originally -sung in honour of Apollo. It was always of a joyous nature, and -its tune and sounds expressed hope and confidence. It was a song -of thanksgiving, when danger was passed, and also a hymn to -propitiate the god. It was sung at the solemn festivals of Apollo, -and especially at the Hyacinthia. The paean was also sung as a -battle-song, both before an attack on the enemy and after the battle -was finished. It is certain that the paean was in later times sung to -the honour of other gods besides Apollo. Thus Xenophon relates that -the Greek army in Asia sung a paean to Zeus. - - -PAEDĂGŌGUS (παιδαγωγός), a tutor. The office of tutor in a Grecian -family of rank and opulence was assigned to one of the most -trustworthy of the slaves. The sons of his master were committed to -his care on attaining their sixth or seventh year, their previous -education having been conducted by females. They remained with the -tutor until they attained the age of puberty. His duty was rather to -guard them from evil, both physical and moral, than to communicate -instruction. He went with them to and from the school or the -GYMNASIUM; he accompanied them out of doors on all occasions; he was -responsible for their personal safety, and for their avoidance of bad -company. In the Roman empire the name _paedagogi_ or _paedagogia_ -was given to beautiful young slaves, who discharged in the imperial -palace the duties of the modern _page_, which is in fact a corruption -of the ancient name. - - -PAEDŎNŎMUS (παιδονόμος), a magistrate at Sparta, who had the general -superintendence of the education of the boys. - - -PAENŬLA, a thick cloak, chiefly used by the Romans in travelling, -instead of the toga, as a protection against the cold and rain. It -appears to have had no sleeves, and only an opening for the head, as -shown in the following figure. - -[Illustration: Paenula, travelling cloak. (From Bartholini.)] - - -PĀGĀNĀLĬA. [PAGI.] - - -PĀGĀNI. [PAGI.] - - -PĀGI were fortified places in the neighbourhood of Rome, to which -the country-people might retreat in case of a hostile inroad. Each -of the country tribes is said to have been divided by Numa into a -certain number of pagi; which name was given to the country adjoining -the fortified village, as well as to the village itself. There was -a magistrate at the head of each pagus, who kept a register of the -names and of the property of all persons in the pagus, raised the -taxes, and summoned the people, when necessary, to war. Each pagus -had its own sacred rites, and an annual festival called _Paganalia_. -The _pagani_, or inhabitants of the pagi, had their regular meetings, -at which they passed resolutions. The division of the country-people -into pagi continued to the latest times of the Roman empire. The term -Pagani is often used in opposition to milites, and is applied to all -who were not soldiers, even though they did not live in the country. -The Christian writers gave the name of pagani to those persons who -adhered to the old Roman religion, because the latter continued to be -generally believed by the country-people, after Christianity became -the prevailing religion of the inhabitants of the towns. - - -PĂLAESTRA (παλαίστρα), properly means a place for wrestling -(παλαίειν, πάλη), and appears to have originally formed a part of -the gymnasium. At Athens, however, there was a considerable number -of palaestrae, quite distinct from the gymnasia. It appears most -probable that the palaestrae were chiefly appropriated to the -exercises of wrestling and of the pancratium, and were principally -intended for the athletae, who, it must be recollected, were persons -that contended in the public games, and therefore needed special -training. The Romans had originally no places corresponding to the -Greek gymnasia and palaestrae; and when towards the close of the -republic wealthy Romans, in imitation of the Greeks, began to build -places for exercise in their villas, they called them indifferently -gymnasia and palaestrae. - - -PĂLĪLIA, a festival celebrated at Rome every year on the 21st of -April, in honour of Pales, the tutelary divinity of shepherds. The -21st of April was the day on which, according to the early traditions -of Rome, Romulus had commenced the building of the city, so that -the festival was at the same time solemnised as the dies natalitius -of Rome. It was originally a shepherd-festival, and continued to -be so among country people till the latest times, but in the city -it lost its original character, and was only regarded as the dies -natalitius of Rome. The first part of the solemnities was a public -purification by fire and smoke. The things burnt in order to produce -this purifying smoke were the blood of the _October-horse_, the ashes -of the calves sacrificed at the festival of Ceres, and the shells of -beans. The people were also sprinkled with water, they washed their -hands in spring-water, and drank milk mixed with must. As regards the -_October-horse_ (_equus October_) it must be observed that in early -times no bloody sacrifice was allowed to be offered at the palilia, -and the blood of the October-horse mentioned above, was the blood -which had dropped from the tail of the horse sacrificed in the month -of October to Mars in the Campus Martius. This blood was preserved by -the vestal virgins in the temple of Vesta for the purpose of being -used at the palilia. The sacrifices consisted of cakes, millet, milk, -and other kinds of eatables. The shepherds then offered a prayer to -Pales. After these solemn rites were over, the cheerful part of the -festival began: bonfires were made of heaps of hay and straw, and -the festival was concluded by a feast in the open air, at which the -people sat or lay upon benches of turf, and drank plentifully. - - -PALLĬUM, _dim._ PALLIŎLUM, _poet._ PALLA (ἱμάτιον, _dim._ ἱματίδιον; -_Ion._ and _poet._ φᾶρος), an outer garment. The English _cloak_, -though commonly adopted as the translation of these terms, conveys -no accurate conception of the form, material, or use of that which -they denoted. The article designated by them was always a rectangular -piece of cloth, exactly, or at least nearly square. It was indeed -used in the very form in which it was taken from the loom, being made -entirely by the weaver, without any aid from the tailor, except to -repair the injuries which it sustained by time. Whatever additional -richness and beauty it received from the art of the dyer, was -bestowed upon it before its materials were woven into cloth or even -spun into thread. Most commonly it was used without having undergone -any process of this kind. The raw material, such as wool, flax, or -cotton, was manufactured in its natural state, and hence pallia were -commonly white, although from the same cause brown, drab, and grey -were also prevailing colours. As the pallium was the most common -outer garment, we find it continually mentioned in conjunction with -the tunica, which constituted the indutus. Such phrases as “coat and -waistcoat,” or “shoes and stockings,” are not more common with us -than the following expressions, which constantly occur in ancient -authors: _tunica palliumque_, ἱμάτιον καὶ χιτών, τὸ ἱμάτιον καὶ ὁ -χιτωνίσκος, φᾶρος ἠδὲ χιτών, &c. To wear the pallium without the -underclothing indicated poverty or severity of manners, as in the -case of Socrates. One of the most common modes of wearing the pallium -was to fasten it with a brooch over the right shoulder, leaving the -right arm at liberty, and to pass the middle of it either under the -left arm so as to leave that arm at liberty also, or over the left -shoulder so as to cover the left arm. The figure in the preceding cut -is attired in the last-mentioned fashion. - -[Illustration: Pallium. (Museo Pio-Clement., vol. i. tav. 48.)] - - -PALMA. [PES.] - - -PALMĬPES, a Roman measure of length, equal to a foot and a palm. - - -PALMUS, properly the width of the open hand, or, more exactly, of the -four fingers, was used by the Romans for two different measures of -length, namely, as the translation of the Greek παλαιστή, or δῶρον in -old Greek, and σπιθαμή respectively. In the former sense it is equal -to 4 digits, or 3 inches, or 1-4th of a foot, or 1-6th of the cubit. -The larger palm of 9 inches only occurs in later Roman writers. From -this large _palmus_ the modern Roman _palmo_ is derived. - - -[Illustration: Paludamentum, Military Cloak. (Statue of a Roman -Emperor.)] - -PĂLŪDĀMENTUM, the cloak worn by a Roman general commanding an army, -his principal officers and personal attendants, in contradistinction -to the _sagum_ of the common soldiers, and the _toga_ or garb of -peace. It was the practice for a Roman magistrate, after he had -received the _imperium_ from the comitia curiata and offered up -his vows in the Capitol, to march out of the city arrayed in the -paludamentum (_exire paludatus_), attended by his lictors in similar -attire (_paludatis lictoribus_), nor could he again enter the gates -until he had formally divested himself of this emblem of military -power. The paludamentum was open in front, reached down to the -knees or a little lower, and hung loosely over the shoulders, being -fastened across the chest by a clasp. The colour of the paludamentum -was commonly white or purple, and hence it was marked and remembered -that Crassus on the morning of the fatal battle of Carrhae went forth -in a dark-coloured mantle. In the cut below, representing the head of -a warrior, we see the paludamentum flying back in the charge, and the -clasp nearly in front. - -[Illustration: Paludamentum, Military Cloak. (From a Mosaic at -Pompeii.)] - - -PAMBOEŌTĬA (παμβοιώτια), a festive panegyris of all the Boeotians, -like the Panathenaea of the Atticans, and the Panionia of the -Ionians. The principal object of the meeting was the common worship -of Athena Itonia, who had a temple in the neighbourhood of Coronea, -near which the panegyris was held. - - -PĂNĂTHĒNAEA (παναθήναια), the greatest and most splendid of the -festivals celebrated in Attica in honour of Athena, in the character -of Athena Polias, or the protectress of the city. It was said to -have been instituted by Erichthonius, and its original name, down -to the time of Theseus, was believed to have been Athenaea; but -when Theseus united all the Atticans into one body, this festival, -which then became the common festival of all the Attic tribes, -was called Panathenaea. There were two kinds of Panathenaea, the -greater and the lesser; the former were held every fourth year -(πενταετηρίς), the latter every year. The lesser Panathenaea were -probably celebrated on the 17th of the month Hecatombaeon; the -great Panathenaea in the third year of every Olympiad, and probably -commenced on the same day as the lesser Panathenaea. The principal -difference between the two festivals was, that the greater one was -more solemn, and that on this occasion the peplus of Athena was -carried to her temple in a most magnificent procession, which was -not held at the lesser Panathenaea. The solemnities, games, and -amusements of the Panathenaea were, rich sacrifices of bulls, foot, -horse, and chariot races, gymnastic and musical contests, and the -lampadephoria; rhapsodists recited the poems of Homer and other epic -poets, philosophers disputed, cock-fights were exhibited, and the -people indulged in a variety of other amusements and entertainments. -The prize in these contests was a vase filled with oil from the -ancient and sacred olive tree of Athena on the Acropolis. A great -many of such vases, called Panathenaic vases, have in late years -been found in Etruria, southern Italy, Sicily, and Greece. They -represent on one side the figure of Athena, and on the other the -various contests and games in which these vases were given as prizes -to the victors. Of the discussions of philosophers and orators at the -Panathenaea we still possess two specimens, the λόγος Παναθηναικός of -Isocrates, and that of Aristeides. Herodotus is said to have recited -his history to the Athenians at the Panathenaea. The management of -the games and contests was entrusted to persons called _Athlothetae_ -(ἀθλοθέται), whose number was ten, one being taken from every tribe. -Their office lasted from one great Panathenaic festival to the other. -The chief solemnity of the great Panathenaea was the magnificent -procession to the temple of Athena Polias, which probably took place -on the last day of the festive season. The whole of the procession -is represented in the frieze of the Parthenon, the work of Phidias -and his disciples, now deposited in the British Museum. The chief -object of the procession was to carry the peplus of the goddess -to her temple. This peplus was a crocus-coloured garment for the -goddess, and made by maidens, called ἐργαστῖναι. In it were woven -Enceladus and the giants, as they were conquered by the goddess. The -peplus was not carried to the temple by men, but suspended from the -mast of a ship. The procession proceeded from the Ceramicus, near a -monument called Leocorium, to the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, and -thence along the Pelasgic wall and the temple of Apollo Pythius to -the Pnyx, and thence to the Acropolis, where the statue of Minerva -Polias was adorned with the peplus. In this procession nearly the -whole population of Attica appears to have taken part, either on -foot, on horseback, or in chariots, as may be seen in the frieze -of the Parthenon. Aged men carried olive branches, and were called -_Thallophori_ (θαλλοφόροι); young men attended, at least in earlier -times, in armour, and maidens who belonged to the noblest families of -Athens carried baskets, containing offerings for the goddess, whence -they were called _Canephori_ (κανηφόροι). Respecting the part which -aliens took in this procession, and the duties they had to perform, -see HYDRIAPHORIA. Men who had deserved well of the republic were -rewarded with a gold crown at the great Panathenaea, and the herald -had to announce the event during the gymnastic contests. - -[Illustration: Pancratiastae. (Krause, Gymnastik und Agonistik der -Hellen, tav. 21.)] - - -PANCRĂTĬUM (παγκράτιον), is derived from πάν and κράτος, and -accordingly signifies an athletic game, in which all the powers of -the fighter were called into action. The pancratium was one of the -games or gymnastic contests which were exhibited at all the great -festivals of Greece; it consisted of boxing and wrestling (πυγμή and -πάλη), and was reckoned to be one of the heavy or hard exercises -(ἀγωνίσματα βαρέα or βαρύτερα), on account of the violent exertions -it required, and for this reason it was not much practised in the -gymnasia. In Homer we find neither the game nor the name of the -pancratium mentioned, and as it was not introduced at the Olympic -games until Ol. 33, we may presume that the game, though it may -have existed long before in a rude state, was not brought to any -degree of perfection until a short time before that event. The name -of the combatants was _Pancratiastae_ (παγκρατιασταί) or _Pammachi_ -(πάμμαχοι). They fought naked, and had their bodies anointed and -covered with sand, by which they were enabled to take hold of one -another. When the contest began, each of the fighters might commence -by boxing or by wrestling, accordingly as he thought he should be -more successful in the one than in the other. The victory was not -decided until one of the parties was killed, or lifted up a finger, -thereby declaring that he was unable to continue the contest either -from pain or fatigue. - - -PĂNĒGỸRIS (πανήγυρις), signifies a meeting or assembly of a whole -people for the purpose of worshipping at a common sanctuary. The word -is used in three significations:--1. For a meeting of the inhabitants -of one particular town and its vicinity; 2. For a meeting of the -inhabitants of a whole district, a province, or of the whole body -of people belonging to a particular tribe [DELIA; PANIONIA]; and 3. -For great national meetings, as the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and -Nemean games. Although in all panegyreis which we know, the religious -character forms the most prominent feature, other subjects, political -discussions and resolutions, as well as a variety of amusements, -were not excluded, though they were perhaps more a consequence of -the presence of many persons than objects of the meeting. Every -panegyris, moreover, was made by tradespeople a source of gain, and -it may be presumed that such a meeting was never held without a fair, -at which all sorts of things were exhibited for sale. - - -PĂNIŌNĬA (πανιώνια), the great national panegyris of the Ionians on -mount Mycalé, where the national god Poseidon Heliconius had his -sanctuary called the Panionium. One of the principal objects of this -national meeting was the common worship of Poseidon, to whom splendid -sacrifices were offered on the occasion. But religious worship was -not the only object for which they assembled at the Panionium; on -certain emergencies, especially in case of any danger threatening -their country, the Ionians discussed at their meetings political -questions, and passed resolutions which were binding upon all. - - -PĂNOPLĬA (πανοπλία), a panoply or suit of armour. The articles of -which it consisted both in the Greek and in the Roman army, are -enumerated under ARMA. - - -PANTŎMĪMUS, the name of a kind of actors peculiar to the Romans, who -very nearly resembled in their mode of acting the modern dancers in -the ballet. They did not speak on the stage, but merely acted by -gestures, movements, and attitudes. All movements, however, were -rhythmical like those in the ballet, whence the general term for them -is _saltatio_, _saltare_; the whole art was called _musica muta_; -and to represent Niobe or Leda was expressed by _saltare Nioben_ and -_saltare Ledam_. During the time of the republic the name pantomimus -does not occur, though the art itself was known to the Romans at an -early period; for the first histriones said to have been introduced -from Etruria were in fact nothing but pantomimic dancers [HISTRIO], -whence we find that under the empire the names histrio and pantomimus -were used as synonymous. The pantomimic art, however, was not carried -to any degree of perfection until the time of Augustus. The greatest -pantomimes of this time were Bathyllus, a freedman and favourite -of Maecenas, and Pylades and Hylas. Mythological love-stories were -from the first the favourite subjects of the pantomimes, which were -disgraced by the most licentious scenes. In Sicily pantomimic dances -were called _ballismi_ (βαλλισμοί), whence perhaps the modern words -ball and ballet. - - -PĂPȲRUS. [LIBER.] - - -PĂRĂDĪSUS (παράδεισος), the name given by the Greeks to the parks -or pleasure-grounds, which surrounded the country residences of the -Persian kings and satraps. They were generally stocked with animals -for the chase, were full of all kinds of trees, watered by numerous -streams, and enclosed with walls. - - -PĂRĂGRĂPHĒ (παραγραφή). This word does not exactly correspond with -any term in our language, but may without much impropriety be -called _a plea_. It is an objection raised by the defendant to the -admissibility of the plaintiff’s action. The _paragraphé_, like every -other answer (ἀντιγραφή) made by the defendant to the plaintiff’s -charge, was given in writing; as the word itself implies. If the -defendant merely denied the plaintiff’s allegations, a court was -at once held for the trial of the cause. If, however, he put in a -_paragraphé_, a court was to be held to try the preliminary question, -whether the cause could be brought into court or not. Upon this -previous trial the defendant was considered the _actor_. If he -succeeded, the whole cause was at an end; unless the objection was -only to the form of action, or some other such technicality, in which -case it might be recommenced in the proper manner. If, however, the -plaintiff succeeded, the original action, which in the mean time had -been suspended, was proceeded with. - - -PĂRĂLUS (πάραλος), and SĂLAMĪNĬA (σαλαμινία). The Athenians from very -early times kept for public purposes two sacred or state vessels, -the one of which was called _Paralus_ and the other _Salaminia_: -the crew of the one bore the name of παραλῖται or πάραλοι, and that -of the other σαλαμίνιοι. The Salaminia was also called Δηλία or -Θεωρίς, because it was used to convey the θεωροὶ to Delos, on which -occasion the ship was adorned with garlands by the priest of Apollo. -Both these vessels were quick-sailing triremes, and were used for a -variety of state purposes: they conveyed theories, despatches, &c. -from Athens, carried treasures from subject countries to Athens, -fetched state criminals from foreign parts to Athens, and the like. -In battles they were frequently used as the ships in which the -admirals sailed. These vessels and their crews were always kept in -readiness to act, in case of any necessity arising; and the crew, -although they could not for the greater part of the year be in -actual service, received their regular pay of four oboli per day all -the year round. The names of the two ships seem to point to a very -early period of the history of Attica, when there was no navigation -except between Attica and Salamis, for which the Salaminia was -used, and around the coast of Attica, for which purpose the Paralus -was destined. In later times the names were retained, although the -destination of the ships was principally to serve the purposes of -religion, whence they are frequently called the sacred ships. - - -PĂRĂNOIĀS GRĂPHĒ (παρανοίας γραφή). This proceeding may be compared -to our commission of lunacy, or writ _de lunatico inquirendo_. It -was a suit at Athens that might be instituted by a son or other -relation against one who, by reason of madness or mental imbecility, -had become incapable of managing his own affairs. If the complaint -was well grounded, the court decreed that the next heir should take -possession of the lunatic’s property, and probably also made some -provision for his being put in confinement, or under proper care and -guardianship. The celebrated tale of Iophon, the son of Sophocles, -accusing his father of lunacy, is related in the life of Sophocles in -the _Classical Dictionary_. - - -PĂRĂNŎMŌN GRĂPHĒ (παρανόμων γραφή), an indictment at Athens for -propounding an illegal, or rather unconstitutional measure or law. -In order to check rash and hasty legislation, the mover of any law -or decree, though he succeeded in causing it to be passed, was -still amenable to criminal justice, if his enactment was found to -be inconsistent with other laws that remained in force, or with -the public interest. Any person might institute against him the -γραφὴ παρανόμων within a year from the passing of the law. If he was -convicted, not only did the law become void, but any punishment -might be inflicted on him, at the discretion of the judges before -whom he was tried. A person thrice so convicted lost the right of -proposing laws in future. The cognizance of the cause belonged to the -Thesmothetae. - - -PĂRAPRESBEIA (παραπρεσβεία), signifies any corrupt conduct, -misfeasance, or neglect of duty on the part of an ambassador; for -which he was liable to be called to account and prosecuted on his -return home. Demosthenes accused Aeschines of _Parapresbeia_ on -account of his conduct in the embassy to Philip. - - -PĂRĂPHERNA. [DOS.] - - -PĂRĂSANGA (ὁ παρασάγγης), a Persian measure of length, frequently -mentioned by the Greek writers. It is still used by the Persians, who -call it _ferseng_. According to Herodotus the parasang was equal to -30 Greek stadia. Xenophon must also have calculated it at the same, -as he says that 16,050 stadia are equal to 535 parasangs. (16,050 -÷ 535 = 30.) Other ancient writers give a different length for the -parasang. Modern English travellers estimate it variously at from -3½ to 4 English miles, which nearly agrees with the calculation of -Herodotus. - - -PĂRĂSĪTI (παράσιτοι) properly denotes persons who dine with others. -In the early history of Greece the name had a very different -meaning, being given to distinguished persons, who were appointed as -assistants to certain priests and to the highest magistrates. Their -services appear to have been rewarded with a third of the victims -sacrificed to their respective gods. Such officers existed down to a -late period of Greek history. Solon in his legislation called the act -of giving public meals to certain magistrates and foreign ambassadors -in the prytaneum παρασιτεῖν, and it may be that the parasites were -connected with this institution. The class of persons whom we call -parasites was very numerous in ancient Greece, and appears to have -existed from early times. The characteristic features common to all -parasites are importunity, love of sensual pleasures, and above all -the desire of getting a good dinner without paying for it. During the -time of the Roman emperors a parasite seems to have been a constant -guest at the tables of the wealthy. - - -PĂRĔDRI (πάρεδροι). Each of the three superior archons was at liberty -to have two assessors (πάρεδροι) chosen by himself, to assist him by -advice and otherwise in the performance of his various duties. The -assessor, like the magistrate himself, had to undergo a _docimasia_ -(δοκιμασία) in the Senate of Five Hundred and before a judicial -tribunal, before he could be permitted to enter upon his labours. He -was also to render an account (εὐθύνη) at the end of the year. The -duties of the archons, magisterial and judicial, were so numerous, -that one of the principal objects of having assessors must have been -to enable them to get through their business. From the _paredri_ of -the archons we must distinguish those who assisted the _euthyni_ in -examining and auditing magistrates’ accounts. - - -PĂRENTĀLĬA. [FUNUS.] - - -PĂRĬES. [DOMUS.] - - -PARMA, _dim._ PARMŬLA, a round shield, three feet in diameter, -carried by the _velites_ in the Roman army. Though small, compared -with the CLIPEUS, it was so strongly made as to be a very effectual -protection. This was probably owing to the use of iron in its -frame-work. The parma was also worn by the cavalry. We find the term -_parma_ often applied to the target [CETRA], which was also a small -round shield, and therefore very similar to the parma. - -[Illustration: Parma. (From the Columna Trajana.)] - - -PĂROCHI, certain people paid by the state to supply the Roman -magistrates, ambassadors, and other official persons, when -travelling, with those necessaries which they could not conveniently -carry with them. They existed on all the principal stations on the -Roman roads in Italy and the provinces, where persons were accustomed -to pass the night. Of the things which the parochi were bound to -supply, hay, fire-wood, salt, and a certain number of beds appear to -have been the most important. - - -PĂROPSIS (παροψίς), any food eaten with the ὅψον as the μάζα, a kind -of frumenty or soft cake, broth, or any kind of condiment or sauce. -It was, likewise, the name of the dish or plate, on which such food -was served up, and it is in this latter signification that the Roman -writers use the word. - - -PARRĬCĪDA, PARRĬCĪDĬUM. A parricida signified originally a murderer -generally, and is hence defined to be a person who kills another -_dolo malo_. It afterwards signified the murderer of a parent, and by -an ancient law such a parricide was sewed up in a sack (_culleus_), -and thrown into a river. A law of the dictator Sulla contained some -provisions against parricide, and probably fixed the same punishment -for the parricide, as the Lex Pompeia de Parricidiis, passed in the -time of Cn. Pompeius. This law extended the crime of parricide to the -killing of a brother, sister, uncle, aunt, and many other relations, -and enacted that he who killed a father or mother, grandfather or -grandmother, should be punished (_more majorum_) by being whipped -till he bled, sewed up in a sack with a dog, cock, viper, and ape, -and thrown into the sea. Other parricides were simply put to death. - - -PASSUS, a measure of length, which consisted of five Roman feet. -[PES.] The passus was not the step, or distance from heel to heel, -when the feet were at their utmost ordinary extension, but the -distance from the point which the heel leaves to that in which it is -set down. The _mille passuum_, or thousand paces, was the common name -of the Roman mile. [MILLIARE.] - - -PĂTER FĂMĬLIAE. [FAMILIA; MATRIMONIUM.] - - -PĂTER PĂTRĀTUS. [FETIALES.] - - -PĂTĔRA, _dim._ PĂTELLA (φιάλη), a round plate or dish. The paterae -of the most common kind were small plates of the common red -earthenware, on which an ornamental pattern was drawn, and which were -sometimes entirely black. The more valuable paterae were metallic, -being chiefly of bronze; but every family, raised above poverty, -possessed one of silver, together with a silver salt-cellar. The -accompanying cut exhibits a highly ornamented patera, made of bronze. -The view of the upper surface is accompanied by a side-view, showing -the form and depth of the vessel. - -[Illustration: Patera. (From Pompeii.)] - - -PĂTĬBŬLUM. [FURCA.] - - -PĂTĬNA (λεκάνη), a basin or bowl of earthenware, rarely of bronze or -silver. The patina was of a form intermediate between the _patera_ -and the _olla_, not so flat as the former, nor so deep as the latter. -The most frequent use of the _patina_ was in cookery. - - -PATRES. [PATRICII.] - - -PĂTRĬA POTESTAS. Potestas signifies generally a power or faculty of -any kind by which we do anything. “Potestas,” says Paulus, a Roman -jurist, “has several significations: when applied to magistrates, -it is Imperium; in the case of children, it is the patria potestas; -in the case of slaves, it is Dominium.” According to Paulus then, -potestas, as applied to magistrates, is equivalent to imperium. -Thus we find potestas associated with the adjectives praetoria, -consularis. But potestas is applied to magistrates who had not the -imperium, as for instance to quaestors and tribuni plebis; and -potestas and imperium are often opposed in Cicero. [IMPERIUM.] Thus -it seems that this word potestas, like many other Roman terms, -had both a wider signification and a narrower one. In its wider -signification it might mean all the power that was delegated to any -person by the state, whatever might be the extent of that power. -In its narrower significations, it was on the one hand equivalent -to imperium; and on the other, it expressed the power of those -functionaries who had not the imperium. Sometimes it was used to -express a magistratus, as a person; and hence in the Italian language -the word podestà signifies a magistrate. Potestas is also one of -the words by which is expressed the power that one private person -has over another, the other two being manus and mancipium. The -potestas is either dominica, that is, ownership as exhibited in the -relation of master and slave [SERVUS]; or patria as exhibited in the -relation of father and child. The mancipium was framed after the -analogy of the potestas dominica. [MANCIPIUM.] Patria potestas then -signifies the power which a Roman father had over the persons of his -children, grandchildren, and other descendants (_filii-familias_, -_filiae-familias_), and generally all the rights which he had by -virtue of his paternity. The foundation of the patria potestas was -a legal marriage, and the birth of a child gave it full effect. -[MATRIMONIUM.] It does not seem that the patria potestas was ever -viewed among the Romans as absolutely equivalent to the dominica -potestas, or as involving ownership of the child; and yet the -original notion of the patria came very near to that of the dominica -potestas. Originally the father had the power of life and death over -his son as a member of his familia; and he could sell him, and so -bring him into the mancipii causa. He could also give his daughter in -marriage, or give a wife to his son, divorce his child, give him in -adoption, and emancipate him at his pleasure. - - -PATRĬCĬI. This word is evidently a derivative from _pater_, which -frequently occurs in the Roman writers as equivalent to senator. -_Patricii_ therefore signifies those who belonged to the _patres_, -but it is a mistake to suppose that the patricii were only the -offspring of the patres in the sense of senators. On the contrary, -the patricians were, in the early history of Rome, the whole body -of Roman citizens, the _populus Romanus_, and there were no real -citizens besides them. The other parts of the Roman population, -namely clients and slaves, did not belong to the populus Romanus, -and were not burghers or patricians. The senators or patres (in -the narrower sense of the word) were a select body of the populus -or patricians, which acted as their representatives. The burghers -or patricians consisted originally of three distinct tribes, which -afterwards became united into the sovereign populus. These tribes had -founded settlements upon several of the hills which were subsequently -included within the precincts of the city of Rome. Their names were -Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, or Ramnenses, Titienses, and Lucerenses. -Each of these tribes consisted of ten curiae, and each curia of ten -gentes, and of the same number of decuries, which were established -for representative and military purposes. [SENATUS.] The first -tribe, or the Ramnes, were a Latin colony on the Palatine hill, -said to have been founded by Romulus. As long as it stood alone, it -contained only one hundred gentes, and had a senate of one hundred -members. When the Tities, or Sabine settlers on the Quirinal and -Viminal hills, under king Tatius, became united with the Ramnes, -the number of gentes, as well as that of senators, was increased -to 200. These two tribes after their union continued probably for -a considerable time to be the patricians of Rome, until the third -tribe, the Luceres, which chiefly consisted of Etruscans, who had -settled on the Caelian hill, also became united with the other two as -a third tribe. The amalgamation of these three tribes did not take -place at once: the union between Latins and Sabines is ascribed to -the reign of Romulus, though it does not appear to have been quite -perfect, since the Latins on some occasions claimed a superiority -over the Sabines. The Luceres existed for a long time as a separate -tribe without enjoying the same rights as the two other tribes, until -Tarquinius Priscus, himself an Etruscan, caused them to be placed on -a footing of equality with the others. For this reason he is said to -have increased the number of senators to 300. The Luceres, however, -are, notwithstanding this equalisation, sometimes distinguished -from the other tribes by the name _patres_ or _patricii minorum -gentium_. During the time of the republic, distinguished strangers -and wealthy plebeians were occasionally made Roman patricians; for -instance, Appius Claudius and his gens, and Domitius Ahenobarbus. -When the plebeians became a distinct class of citizens [PLEBES], the -patricians, of course, ceased to be the only class of citizens, but -they still retained the exclusive possession of all the power in the -state. All civil and religious offices were in their possession, and -they continued as before to be the populus, the nation now consisting -of the populus and the plebes. In their relation to the plebeians -or the commonalty, the patricians were a real aristocracy of birth. -A person born of a patrician family was and remained a patrician, -whether he was rich or poor, whether he was a member of the senate, -or an eques, or held any of the great offices of the state, or not: -there was no power that could make a patrician a plebeian. As regards -the census, he might indeed not belong to the wealthy classes, but -his rank remained the same. The only way in which a patrician might -become a plebeian was when of his own accord he left his gens and -curia, gave up the sacra, &c. A plebeian, on the other hand, or even -a stranger, might be made a patrician by a lex curiata. But this -appears to have been done very seldom; and the consequence was, that -in the course of a few centuries the number of patrician families -became so rapidly diminished, that towards the close of the republic -there were not more than fifty such families. Although the patricians -throughout this whole period had the character of an aristocracy of -birth, yet their political rights were not the same at all times. -During the first centuries of the republic there was an almost -uninterrupted struggle between patricians and plebeians, in which -the former exerted every means to retain their exclusive rights, but -which ended in the establishment of the political equality of the -two orders. [PLEBES.] Only a few insignificant priestly offices, and -the performance of certain ancient religious rites and ceremonies, -remained the exclusive privilege of the patricians; of which they -were the prouder, as in former days their religious power and -significance were the basis of their political superiority. At the -time when the struggle between patricians and plebeians ceased, a new -kind of aristocracy began to arise at Rome, which was partly based -upon wealth, and partly upon the great offices of the republic, and -the term nobiles was given to all persons whose ancestors had held -any of the curule offices. (Compare NOBILES.) This aristocracy of -nobiles threw the old patricians as a body still more into the shade, -though both classes of aristocrats united as far as was possible to -monopolise all the great offices of the state. In their dress and -appearance the patricians were scarcely distinguished from the rest -of the citizens, unless they were senators, curule magistrates, or -equites, in which case they wore like others the ensigns peculiar -to these classes. The only thing by which they seem to have been -distinguished in their appearance from other citizens was a peculiar -kind of shoe, which covered the whole foot and part of the leg, -though it was not as high as the shoes of senators and curule -magistrates. These shoes were fastened with four strings (_corrigiae_ -or _lora patricia_) and adorned with a lunula on the top. - - -PĂTRĪMI ET MĀTRĪMI were children born of parents, who had been -married by the religious ceremony called confarreatio: they are -almost always mentioned in connection with religious rites and -ceremonies. - - -PĂTRŎNŎMI (πατρονόμοι), magistrates at Sparta, who exercised, as it -were, a paternal power over the whole state. They did not exist till -a late period, and they succeeded to the powers which the ephori -formerly possessed. - - -PĂTRŌNUS. The act of manumission created a new relation between -the manumissor and the slave, which was analogous to that between -father and son. The manumissor became with respect to the manumitted -person his patronus, and the manumitted person became the libertus -of the manumissor. The word patronus (from pater) indicates the -nature of the relation. If the manumissor was a woman, she became -patrona. The libertus adopted the gentile name of the manumissor. -Cicero’s freedman Tiro was called M. Tullius Tiro. The libertus owed -respect and gratitude to his patron, and in ancient times the patron -might punish him in a summary way for neglecting those duties. This -obligation extended to the children of the libertus, and the duty was -due to the children of the patron. It was the duty of the patron to -support his freedman in case of necessity, and if he did not, he lost -his patronal rights; the consequence was the same if he brought a -capital charge against him. The most important of the patronal rights -related to the property of liberti, as in certain cases the patronus -had a right to the whole or a part of the property of a libertus. - - -PAUPĔRĬES, the legal term for mischief done by an animal -(_quadrupes_) contrary to the nature of the animal, as if a man’s ox -gored another man. In such cases the law of the Twelve Tables gave -the injured person an action against the owner of the animal for the -amount of the damage sustained. The owner was bound either to pay the -full amount of damages or to give up the animal to the injured person -(_noxae dare_). - - -PĂVĪMENTUM. [DOMUS, p. 144, _b_.] - - -PECTEN (κτείς), a comb. The Greeks and Romans used combs made of -box-wood. The Egyptians had ivory combs, which also came into use by -degrees among the Romans. The wooden combs, found in Egyptian tombs, -are toothed on one side only; but the Greeks used them with teeth on -both sides. The principal use of the comb was for dressing the hair, -in doing which the Greeks of both sexes were remarkably careful and -diligent. To go with uncombed hair was a sign of affliction. - - -PĔCŬLĀTUS, is properly the misappropriation or theft of public -property. The person guilty of this offence was _peculator_. The -origin of the word appears to be _pecus_, a term which originally -denoted that kind of moveable property which was the chief sign of -wealth. Originally trials for _peculatus_ were before the populus or -the senate. In the time of Cicero matters of _peculatus_ had become -one of the quaestiones perpetuae. - - -PĔCŪLĬUM. [SERVUS.] - - -PĔCŪNĬA. [AES; ARGENTUM; AURUM.] - - -PĔDĀRĬI. [SENATUS.] - - -PĔDĬSĔQUI, a class of slaves, whose duty was to follow their master -when he went out of his house. There was a similar class of female -slaves, called _Pedisequae_. - - -PĔDUM (κορώνη), a shepherd’s crook. On account of its connection -with pastoral life, the crook is often seen in works of ancient art, -in the hands of Pan, Satyrs, Fauns, and shepherds. It was also the -usual attribute of Thalia, as the muse of pastoral poetry. - -[Illustration: Pedum, Shepherd’s Crook. (From a Painting found at -Civita Vecchia.)] - - -PEGMA (πῆγμα), a pageant, _i.e._ an edifice of wood, consisting of -two or more stages (_tabulata_), which were raised or depressed at -pleasure by means of balance weights. These great machines were used -in the Roman amphitheatres, the gladiators who fought upon them -being called _pegmares_. They were supported upon wheels so as to -be drawn into the circus, glittering with silver and a profusion of -wealth. When Vespasian and Titus celebrated their triumph over the -Jews, the procession included pageants of extraordinary magnitude -and splendour, consisting of three or four stages above one another, -hung with rich tapestry, and inlaid with ivory and gold. By the aid -of various contrivances they represented battles and their numerous -incidents, and the attack and defence of the cities of Judaea. The -pegma was also used in sacrifices. A bull having been slain in one of -the stages, the high priest placed himself below in a cavern, so as -to receive the blood upon his person and his garments, and in this -state he was produced by the flamines before the worshippers. - - -PĔLĂTAE (πελάται), were free labourers working for hire, like the -_thetes_, in contra-distinction to the helots and penestae, who were -bondsmen or serfs. In the later Greek writers, such as Dionysius of -Halicarnassus, and Plutarch, the word is used for the Latin cliens, -though the relations expressed by the two terms are by no means -similar. - - -PELTA (πέλτη), a small shield. Iphicrates, observing that the ancient -CLIPEUS was cumbrous and inconvenient, introduced among the Greeks a -much smaller and lighter shield, from which those who bore it took -the name of _peltastae_. It consisted principally of a frame of wood -or wicker-work, covered with skin or leather. - - -PĔNESTAE (πενέσται), a class of serfs in Thessaly, who stood in -nearly the same relation to their Thessalian lords as the helots of -Laconia did to the Dorian Spartans, although their condition seems -to have been on the whole superior. They were the descendants of the -old Pelasgic or Aeolian inhabitants of Thessaly Proper. They occupied -an intermediate position between freemen and purchased slaves, and -they cultivated the land for their masters, paying by way of rent -a portion of the produce of it. The Penestae sometimes accompanied -their masters to battle, and fought on horseback as their vassals: -a circumstance which need not excite surprise, as Thessaly was so -famous for cavalry. There were Penestae among the Macedonians also. - - -PĔNĔTRĀLE. [TEMPLUM.] - - -PĒNĬCILLUS. [PICTURA, p. 295 _a_.] - - -PENTĂCOSĬŎMĔDIMNI. [CENSUS.] - - -PENTATHLON (πένταθλον, _quinquertium_), was next to the pancratium -the most beautiful of all athletic performances. The persons engaged -in it were called _Pentathli_ (πένταθλοι). The pentathlon consisted -of five distinct kinds of games, viz. leaping (ἅλμα), the foot-race -(δρόμος), the throwing of the discus (δίσκος), the throwing of the -spear (σίγυννος or ἀκόντιον), and wrestling (πάλη), which were all -performed in one day and in a certain order, one after the other, by -the same athletae. The pentathlon was introduced in the Olympic games -in Ol. 18. - - -PENTĒCOSTĒ (πεντηκοστή), a duty of two per cent, levied upon all -exports and imports at Athens. The money was collected by persons -called πεντηκοστολόγοι. The merchant who paid the duty was said -πεντηκοντεύεσθαι. All the customs appear to have been let to farm, -and probably from year to year. They were let to the highest bidders -by the ten _Poletae_, acting under the authority of the senate. The -farmers were called τελῶναι, and were said ὠνεῖσθαι τὴν πεντηκοστήν. - - -PEPLUM or PEPLUS (πέπλος), an outer garment or shawl, strictly worn -by females, and thus corresponding to the himation or pallium, the -outer garment worn by men. Like all other pieces of cloth used for -the AMICTUS, it was often fastened by means of a brooch. It was, -however, frequently worn without a brooch. The shawl was also often -worn so as to cover the head while it enveloped the body, and more -especially on occasion of a funeral or of a marriage, when a very -splendid shawl (παστός) was worn by the bride. The following woodcut -may be supposed to represent the moment when the bride, so veiled, is -delivered to her husband at the door of the nuptial chamber. He wears -the PALLIUM only; she has a long shift beneath her shawl, and is -supported by the pronuba. Of all the productions of the loom, pepli -were those on which the greatest skill and labour were bestowed. -So various and tasteful were the subjects which they represented, -that poets delighted to describe them. The art of weaving them was -entirely oriental; and those of the most splendid dyes and curious -workmanship were imported from Tyre and Sidon. They often constituted -a very important part of the treasures of a temple, having been -presented to the divinity by suppliants and devotees. - -[Illustration: Peplum. (Bartoli, ‘Admir. Rom. Ant.,’ pl. 57.)] - - -PĒRA (πήρα), a wallet, made of leather, worn suspended at the side by -rustics and by travellers to carry their provisions, and adopted in -imitation of them by the Cynic philosophers. - - -PERDŬELLĬO was in the ancient times of the republic nearly the same -as the _Majestas_ of the later times. [MAJESTAS.] _Perduellis_ -originally signified _hostis_, and thus the offence was equivalent -to making war on the Roman state. Offenders were tried by two -judges called _Perduellionis Duumviri_. In the time of the kings -the duumviri perduellionis and the quaestores parricidii appear -to have been the same persons; but after the establishment of -the republic, the offices were distinct, for the quaestores were -appointed regularly every year, whereas the duumviri were appointed -very rarely, as had been the case during the kingly period. Livy -represents the duumviri perduellionis as being appointed by the -kings, but they were really proposed by the king and appointed by the -populus. During the early part of the republic they were appointed -by the comitia curiata, and afterwards by the comitia centuriata, -on the proposal of the consuls. In the case of Rabirius (B.C. 63), -however, this custom was violated, as the duumviri were appointed -by the praetor instead of by the comitia centuriata. The punishment -for those who were found guilty of perduellio was death; they were -either hanged on the _arbor infelix_, or thrown from the Tarpeian -rock. But when the duumviri found a person guilty, he might appeal -to the people (in early times the populus, afterwards the comitia -centuriata), as was done in the first case which is on record, that -of Horatius, and in the last, which is that of Rabirius, whom Cicero -defended before the people in the oration still extant. - - -PĔRĔGRĪNUS, a stranger or foreigner. In ancient times the word -_peregrinus_ was used as synonymous with _hostis_; but in the times -of which we have historical records, a peregrinus was any person who -was not a Roman citizen. In B.C. 247, a second praetor (_praetor -peregrinus_) was appointed for the purpose of administering justice -in matters between Romans and peregrini, and in matters between such -peregrini as had taken up their abode at Rome. [PRAETOR.] The number -of peregrini who lived in the city of Rome appears to have had an -injurious influence upon the poorer classes of Roman citizens, whence -on some occasions they were driven out of the city. The first example -of this kind was set in B.C. 127, by the tribune M. Junius Pennus. -They were expelled a second time by the tribune C. Papius, in B.C. -66. During the last period of the republic and the first centuries -of the empire, all the free inhabitants of the Roman world were, in -regard to their political rights, either Roman citizens, or Latins, -or peregrini, and the latter had, as before, neither commercium nor -connubium with the Romans. They were either free provincials, or -citizens who had forfeited their civitas, and were degraded to the -rank of peregrini, or a certain class of freedmen, called peregrini -dediticii. - - -PĔRĬOECI (περίοικοι). This word properly denotes the inhabitants of -a district lying around some particular locality, but is generally -used to describe a dependent population, living without the walls or -in the country provinces of a dominant city, and although personally -free, deprived of the enjoyment of citizenship, and the political -rights conferred by it. A political condition such as that of the -_perioeci_ of Greece, and like the vassalage of the Germanic nations, -could hardly have originated in anything else than foreign conquest, -and the _perioeci_ of Laconia furnish a striking illustration -of this. Their origin dates from the Dorian conquest of the -Peloponnesus, when the old inhabitants of the country, the Achaeans, -submitted to their conquerors on certain conditions, by which they -were left in possession of their private rights of citizenship. -They suffered indeed a partial deprivation of their lands, and were -obliged to submit to a king of foreign race, but still they remained -equal in law to their conquerors, and were eligible to all offices -of state except the sovereignty. But this state of things did not -last long: in the next generation after the conquest the relation -between the two parties was changed. The Achaeans were reduced from -citizens to vassals; they were made tributary to Sparta; their lands -were subjected to a tax; and they lost their rights of citizenship, -the right of voting in the general assembly, and their eligibility -to important offices in the state, such as that of a senator, &c. -It does not, however, appear that the _perioeci_ were generally an -oppressed people, though kept in a state of political inferiority -to their conquerors. On the contrary, the most distinguished among -them were admitted to offices of trust, and they sometimes served as -heavy-armed soldiers; as, for instance, at the battle of Plataea. The -Norman conquest of England presents a striking parallel to the Dorian -conquest of Laconia, both in its achievement and consequences. The -Saxons, like the old Achaeans, were deprived of their lands, excluded -from all offices of trust and dignity, and reduced, though personally -free, to a state of political slavery. The Normans, on the contrary, -of whatever rank in their own country, were all nobles and warriors, -compared with the conquered Saxons, and for a long time enjoyed -exclusively the civil and ecclesiastical administration of the land. - - -PĔRISCĔLIS (περισκελίς), an anklet or bangle, worn by the Orientals, -the Greeks, and the Roman ladies also. It decorated the leg in the -same manner as the bracelet adorns the wrist and the necklace the -throat. The word, however, is sometimes used in the same sense as the -Latin _feminalia_, that is, drawers reaching from the navel to the -knees. - -[Illustration: Periscelis, Anklet, worn by a Nereid. (Museo -Borbonico, vol. VI. tav. 34.)] - - -PĔRISTRŌMA, a coverlet large enough to hang round the sides of the -bed or couch. - - -PĔRISTȲLĬUM. [DOMUS.] - - -PĒRO (ἀρβύλη), a low boot of untanned hide worn by ploughmen -(_peronatus arator_), shepherds, and others employed in rural -occupations. The term ἀρβύλη is applied to an appendage to the Greek -chariot. It seems to have been a shoe fastened to the bottom of the -chariot, into which the driver inserted his foot, to assist him in -driving, and to prevent him from being thrown out. - - -[Illustration: Masks. (From a Tomb at Sidyma in Lycia.)] - -PERSŌNA (_larva_, πρόσωπον or προσωπεῖον), a mask. Masks were worn -by Greek and Roman actors in nearly all dramatic representations. -This custom arose undoubtedly from the practice of smearing the -face with certain juices and colours, and of appearing in disguise, -at the festivals of Dionysus. [DIONYSIA.] Now, as the Greek drama -arose out of these festivals, it is highly probable that some mode -of disguising the face was as old as the drama itself. Choerilus -of Samos, however, (about B.C. 500) is said to have been the first -who introduced regular masks. Other writers attribute the invention -of masks to Thespis or Aeschylus, though the latter had probably -only the merit of perfecting and completing the whole theatrical -apparatus and costume. Some masks covered, like the masks of modern -times, only the face, but they appear more generally to have covered -the whole head down to the shoulders, for we always find the hair -belonging to a mask described as being a part of it; and this must -have been the case in tragedy more especially, as it was necessary -to make the head correspond to the stature of an actor, which was -heightened by the cothurnus. - -[Illustration: Comic Mask. (Statue of Davus in British Museum.)] - - -PES (ποῦς), a foot, the standard measure of length among the Greeks -and Romans, as well as among nearly all other nations, both ancient -and modern. The Romans applied the uncial division [AS] to the foot, -which thus contained 12 _unciae_, whence our _inches_; and many of -the words used to express certain numbers of unciae are applied -to the parts of the foot. It was also divided into 16 _digiti_ -(finger-breadths): this mode of division was used especially by -architects and land-surveyors, and is found on all the foot-measures -that have come down to us. From the analogy of the as, we have -also _dupondium_ for 2 feet, and _pes sestertius_ for 2½ feet. The -probable value of the Roman foot is 11.6496 inches English. (See -Tables at the end.) - - -PESSI. [LATRUNCULI.] - - -PESSŬLUS. [JANUA.] - - -PĔTĂLISMUS. [EXSILIUM.] - - -PĔTĂSUS. [PILEUS.] - - -PĔTĪTOR. [ACTOR.] - - -PĔTAURISTAE. [PETAURUM.] - - -PĔTAURUM (πέταυρον, πέτευρον), used in the Roman games, seems to -have been a board moving up and down, with a person at each end, and -supported in the middle, something like our see-saw; only it appears -to have been much longer, and consequently went to a greater height -than is common amongst us. The persons who took part in this game, -were called _Petauristae_ or _Petauristarii_. - - -PĔTORRĬTUM, a four-wheeled carriage, which, like the ESSEDUM, was -adopted by the Romans in imitation of the Gauls. It differed from -the HARMAMAXA in being uncovered. Its name is compounded of _petor_, -four, and _rit_, a wheel. - - -PHĂLANX. [EXERCITUS.] - - -PHĂLĂRĬCA. [HASTA.] - - -PHĂLĔRAE (φάλαρον), a boss, disc, or crescent of metal, in many cases -of gold, and beautifully wrought so as to be highly prized. They were -usually worn in pairs; and we most commonly read of them as ornaments -attached to the harness of horses, especially about the head, and -often worn as pendants (_pensilia_), so as to produce a terrific -effect when shaken by the rapid motions of the horse. These ornaments -were often bestowed upon horsemen by the Roman generals, in the -same manner as the ARMILLA, the TORQUES, the hasta pura [HASTA], and -the crown of gold [CORONA], in order to make a public and permanent -acknowledgment of bravery and merit. - - -PHĂRETRA (φαρέτρα), a quiver, was principally made of hide or -leather, and was adorned with gold, painting, and braiding. It had -a lid (πῶμα), and was suspended from the right shoulder by a belt -passing over the breast and behind the back. Its most common position -was on the left hip, and is so seen in the annexed figures, the -right-hand one representing an Amazon, and the left-hand an Asiatic -archer. - -[Illustration: Pharetrae, Quivers. (Left-hand figure from the -Aeginetan Marbles; right-hand figure from a Greek Vase.)] - - -PHARMĂCŌN GRĂPHĒ (φαρμάκων or φαρμακείας γραφή), an indictment at -Athens against one who caused the death of another by poison, whether -given with intent to kill or to obtain undue influence. It was tried -by the court of Areiopagus. - - -PHĂROS or PHĂRUS (φάρος), a light-house. The most celebrated -light-house of antiquity was that situated at the entrance to the -port of Alexandria, on an island which bore the name of Pharos. It -contained many stories, and the upper stories had windows looking -seawards, and torches or fires were kept burning in them by night in -order to guide vessels into the harbour. The name of Pharos was given -to other light-houses, in allusion to that at Alexandria, which was -the model for their construction. - - -PHĂSĒLUS (φάσηλος), a vessel rather long and narrow, apparently -so called from its resemblance to the shape of a phaselus or -kidney-bean. It was chiefly used by the Egyptians, and was of various -sizes, from a mere boat to a vessel adapted for long voyages. The -phaselus was built for speed, to which more attention seems to have -been paid than to its strength: whence the epithet _fragilis_ is -given to it by Horace. These vessels were sometimes made of clay, to -which the epithet of Horace may perhaps also refer. - - -PHASIS (φάσις, from φαίνω), one of the various methods by which -public offenders at Athens might be prosecuted; but the word is -often used to denote any kind of information; and we do not know in -what respects the _Phasis_ was distinguished from other methods of -prosecution. The word _sycophantes_ (συκοφάντης) is derived from -the practice of laying information against those who exported figs. -[SYCOPHANTES.] - - -PHORMINX. [LYRA.] - - -PHRATRĬA. [TRIBUS.] - - -PHỸLARCHI (φύλαρχοι) were at Athens after the age of Cleisthenes ten -officers, one for each of the tribes, and were specially charged with -the command and superintendence of the cavalry. There can be but -little doubt that each of the phylarchs commanded the cavalry of his -own tribe, and they were themselves collectively and individually -under the control of the two hipparchs, just as the taxiarchs -were subject to the two strategi. Herodotus informs us that when -Cleisthenes increased the number of the tribes from four to ten, -he also made ten phylarchs instead of four. It has been thought, -however, that the historian should have said ten phylarchs in the -place of the old phylobasileis, who were four in number, one for each -of the old tribes. - - -PHỸLŎBĂSĬLEIS (φυλοβασιλεῖς) were four in number, representing -each one of the four ancient Athenian tribes, and probably elected -(but not for life) from and by them. They were nominated from the -Eupatridae, and during the continuance of royalty at Athens these -“kings of the tribes” were the constant assessors of the sovereign, -and rather as his colleagues than counsellors. Though they were -originally connected with the four ancient tribes, still they were -not abolished by Cleisthenes when he increased the number of tribes, -probably because their duties were mainly of a religious character. -They appear to have existed even after his time, and acted as judges, -but in unimportant or merely formal matters. - - -PICTŪRA (γραφή, γραφική, ζωγραφία), painting. I. _History of the -Art._ It is singular that the poems of Homer do not contain any -mention of painting as an imitative art. This is the more remarkable, -since Homer speaks of rich and elaborate embroidery as a thing not -uncommon. This embroidery is actual painting in principle, and is -a species of painting in practice, and it was considered such by -the Romans, who termed it “pictura textilis.” The various allusions -also to other arts, similar in nature to painting, are sufficient to -prove that painting must have existed in some degree in Homer’s time, -although the only kind of painting he notices is the “red-cheeked” -and “purple-cheeked ships,” and an ivory ornament for the faces -of horses, which a Maeonian or Carian woman colours with purple. -Painting seems to have made considerable progress in Asia Minor -while it was still in its infancy in Greece, for Candaules, king -of Lydia (B.C. 716), is said to have purchased at a high price a -painting of Bularchus, which represented a battle of the Magnetes. -The old Ionic painting probably flourished at the same time with the -Ionian architecture, and continued as an independent school until -the sixth century B.C., when the Ionians lost their liberty, and -with their liberty their art. Herodotus (i. 164) mentions that when -Harpagus besieged the town of Phocaea (B.C. 544), the inhabitants -collected all their valuables, their statues and votive offerings -from the temples, leaving only their _paintings_, and such works in -metal or of stone as could not easily be removed, and fled with them -to the island of Chios; from which we may conclude that paintings -were not only valued by the Phocaeans, but also common among them. -Herodotus (iv. 88) also informs us that Mandrocles of Samos, who -constructed for Darius Hystaspis the bridge of boats across the -Bosporus (B.C. 508), had a picture painted, representing the passage -of Darius’s army, and the king seated on a throne reviewing the -troops as they passed, which he dedicated in the temple of Hera at -Samos. After the conquest of Ionia, Samos became the seat of the -arts. The Heraeum at Samos, in which the picture of Mandrocles was -placed, was a general depository for works of art, and in the time -of Strabo appears to have been particularly rich in paintings, for -he terms it a “picture-gallery” (πινακοθήκη). The first painter in -Greece itself, whose name is recorded, is Cimon of Cleonae. His exact -period is uncertain, but he was probably a contemporary of Solon, and -lived at least a century before Polygnotus. It was with Polygnotus -of Thasos that painting reached its full development (about B.C. -463). Previous to this time the only cities that had paid any -considerable attention to painting were Aegina, Sicyon, Corinth, and -Athens. Sicyon and Corinth had long been famous for their paintings -upon vases and upon articles of furniture; the school of Athens had -attained no celebrity whatever until the arrival of Polygnotus from -Thasos raised it to that pre-eminence which it continued to maintain -for more than two centuries, although very few of the great painters -of Greece were natives of Athens. The principal contemporaries of -Polygnotus were Dionysius of Colophon, Plistaenetus and Panaenus of -Athens, brothers (or the latter perhaps a nephew) of Phidias, and -Micon, also of Athens. The works of Polygnotus and his contemporaries -were conspicuous for expression, character, and design; the more -minute discriminations of tone and local colour, united with -dramatic composition and effect, were accomplished in the succeeding -generation, about 420 B.C., through the efforts of Apollodorus of -Athens and Zeuxis of Heraclea. The contemporaries of Apollodorus and -Zeuxis, and those who carried out their principles, were Parrhasius -of Ephesus, Eupompus of Sicyon, and Timanthes of Cythnus, all -painters of the greatest fame. Athens and Sicyon were the principal -seats of the art at this period. Eupompus of Sicyon was the founder -of the celebrated Sicyonian school of painting which was afterwards -established by Pamphilus. The Alexandrian period was the last of -progression or acquisition; but it only added variety of effect to -the tones it could not improve, and was principally characterised -by the diversity of the styles of so many contemporary artists. The -most eminent painters of this period were Protogenes, Pamphilus, -Melanthius, Antiphilus, Theon of Samos, Apelles, Euphranor, Pausias, -Nicias, Nicomachus, and his brother Aristides. Of all these Apelles -was the greatest. The quality in which he surpassed all other -painters will scarcely bear a definition; it has been termed grace, -elegance, beauty, χάρις, _venustas_. His greatest work was perhaps -his Venus Anadyomene, Venus rising out of the waters. He excelled in -portrait, and indeed all his works appear to have been portraits in -an extended sense; for his pictures, both historical and allegorical, -consisted nearly all of single figures. He enjoyed the exclusive -privilege of painting the portraits of Alexander.--The works of Greek -art brought from Sicily by Marcellus were the first to inspire the -Romans with the desire of adorning their public edifices with statues -and paintings, which taste was converted into a passion when they -became acquainted with the great treasures and almost inexhaustible -resources of Greece, and their rapacity knew no bounds. Mummius, -after the destruction of Corinth, B.C. 146, carried off or destroyed -more works of art than all his predecessors put together. Scaurus, in -his aedileship, B.C. 58, had all the public pictures still remaining -in Sicyon transported to Rome, on account of the debts of the former -city, and he adorned the great temporary theatre which he erected -upon that occasion with 3000 bronze statues. Verres ransacked Asia -and Achaia, and plundered almost every temple and public edifice in -Sicily of whatever was valuable in it. Amongst the numerous robberies -of Verres, Cicero mentions particularly twenty-seven beautiful -pictures taken from the temple of Minerva at Syracuse, consisting of -portraits of the kings and tyrants of Sicily. Yet Rome was, about -the end of the republic, full of painters, who appear, however, to -have been chiefly occupied in portrait, or decorative and arabesque -painting. Among the Romans the earliest painter mentioned is a member -of the noble house of the Fabii, who received the surname of Pictor -through some paintings which he executed in the temple of Salus at -Rome, B.C. 304, which lasted till the time of the emperor Claudius, -when they were destroyed by the fire that consumed that temple. -Pacuvius also, the tragic poet, and nephew of Ennius, distinguished -himself by some paintings in the temple of Hercules in the Forum -Boarium, about 180 B.C. But generally speaking the artists at Rome -were Greeks. Julius Caesar, Agrippa, and Augustus were among the -earliest great patrons of artists. Caesar expended great sums in -the purchase of pictures by the old masters. He gave as much as 80 -talents for two pictures by his contemporary Timomachus of Byzantium, -one an Ajax, and the other a Medea meditating the murder of her -children. These pictures, which were painted in encaustic, were very -celebrated works; they are alluded to by Ovid (_Trist._ ii. 525), -and are mentioned by many other ancient writers.--There are three -distinct periods observable in the history of painting in Rome. The -first or great period of Graeco-Roman art may be dated from the -conquest of Greece until the time of Augustus, when the artists -were chiefly Greeks. The second, from the time of Augustus to the -so-called Thirty Tyrants and Diocletian, or from the beginning of the -Christian era until about the latter end of the third century, during -which time the great majority of Roman works of art were produced. -The third comprehends the state of the arts during the exarchate, -when Rome, in consequence of the foundation of Constantinople, and -the changes it involved, suffered similar spoliations to those which -it had previously inflicted upon Greece. This was the period of the -total decay of the imitative arts amongst the ancients. About the -beginning of the second period is the earliest age in which we have -any notice of portrait painters (_imaginum pictores_) as a distinct -class. Portraits must have been exceedingly numerous amongst the -Romans; Varro made a collection of the portraits of 700 eminent -men. The portraits or statues of men who had performed any public -service were placed in the temples and other public places; and -several edicts were passed by the emperors of Rome respecting the -placing of them. The portraits of authors also were placed in the -public libraries; they were apparently fixed above the cases which -contained their writings, below which chairs were placed for the -convenience of readers. They were painted also at the beginning of -manuscripts. Several of the most celebrated ancient artists were both -sculptors and painters; Phidias and Euphranor were both; Zeuxis and -Protogenes were both modellers; Polygnotus devoted some attention to -statuary; and Lysippus consulted Eupompus upon style in sculpture. -Moreover scene-painting shows that the Greeks were acquainted with -perspective at a very early period; for when Aeschylus was exhibiting -tragedies at Athens, Agatharchus made a scene, and left a treatise -upon it.--II. _Methods of Painting._ There were two distinct classes -of painting practised by the ancients--in water colours, and in -wax, both of which were practised in various ways. Of the former -the principal were fresco, al fresco; and the various kinds of -distemper (a tempera), with glue, with the white of egg, or with gums -(a guazzo); and with wax or resins when these were rendered by any -means vehicles that could be worked with water. Of the latter the -principal was through fire (διὰ πυρὸς), termed encaustic (ἐγκαυστική, -_encaustica_). The painting in wax (κηρογραφία), or ship painting -(_inceramenta navium_), was distinct from encaustic. It does not -appear that the Greeks or Romans ever painted in oil; the only -mention of oil in ancient writers in connection with painting is -the small quantity which entered into the composition of encaustic -varnish to temper it. They painted upon wood, clay, plaster, stone, -parchment, and canvas. The use of canvas must have been of late -introduction, as there is no mention of it having been employed -by the Greek painters of the best periods. They generally painted -upon panels or tablets (πίνακες, πινόκια, _tabulae_, _tabellae_), -which when finished were fixed into frames of various descriptions -and materials, and encased in walls. The style or cestrum used in -drawing, and for spreading the wax colours, pointed at one end -and broad and flat at the other, was termed γραφίς by the Greeks -and cestrum by the Romans; it was generally made of metal. The -hair pencil (_penicillus_, _penicillum_) was termed ὑπογραφίς, and -apparently also ῥαβδίον. The ancients used also a palette very -similar to that used by the moderns. Encaustic was a method very -frequently practised by the Roman and later Greek painters; but it -was in very little use by the earlier painters, and was not generally -adopted until after the time of Alexander. Pliny defines the term -thus: “ceris pingere ac picturam inurere,” to paint with wax or wax -colours, and to _burn in_ the picture afterwards with the cauterium; -it appears therefore to have been the simple addition of the -process of _burning in_ to the ordinary method of painting with wax -colours. Cerae (waxes) was the ordinary term for painters’ colours -amongst the Romans, but more especially encaustic colours, and they -kept them in partitioned boxes, as painters do at present.--III. -_Polychromy._ Ancient statues were often painted, and what is now -termed polychrome sculpture was very common in Greece. The practice -of colouring statues is undoubtedly as ancient as the art of statuary -itself; although they were perhaps originally coloured more from a -love of colour than from any design of improving the resemblance -of the representation. The Jupiter of the Capitol, placed by -Tarquinius Priscus, was coloured with minium. In later times the -custom seems to have been reduced to a system, and was practised -with more reserve. The practice also of colouring architecture -seems to have been universal amongst the Greeks, and very general -amongst the Romans.--IV. _Vase Painting._ The fictile-vase painting -of the Greeks was an art of itself, and was practised by a distinct -class of artists. The designs upon these vases (which the Greeks -termed λήκυθοι) have been variously interpreted, but they have been -generally considered to be in some way connected with the initiation -into the Eleusinian and other mysteries. They were given as prizes -to the victors at the Panathenaea and other games, and seem to have -been always buried with their owners at their death, for they have -been discovered only in tombs. Even in the time of the Roman empire -painted vases were termed “operis antiqui,” and were then sought for -in the ancient tombs of Campania and other parts of Magna Graecia. -We may form some idea of their immense value from the statement -of Pliny, that they were more valuable than the Murrhine vases. -[MURRHINA VASA.] The paintings on the vases, considered as works of -art, vary exceedingly in the detail of the execution, although in -style of design they may be arranged in two principal classes, the -black and the yellow; for those which do not come strictly under -either of these heads are either too few or vary too slightly to -require a distinct classification. The black are the most ancient, -the yellow the most common.--V. _Mosaic_, or _pictura de musivo_, -_opus musivum_, was very general in Rome in the time of the early -emperors. It was also common in Greece and Asia Minor at an earlier -period, but at the time of the Roman empire it began to a great -extent even to supersede painting. It was used chiefly for floors, -but walls and also ceilings were sometimes ornamented in the same -way. There are still many great mosaics of the ancients extant. The -most valuable is the one discovered in Pompeii a few years ago, -which is supposed to represent the battle of Issus. The composition -is simple, forcible, and beautiful, and the design exhibits in many -respects merits of the highest order. - - -PĪLA (σφαῖρα), a ball. The game at ball (σφαιριστική) was one of the -most favourite gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and Romans, from -the earliest times to the fall of the Roman empire. It is mentioned -in the Odyssey, where it is played by the Phaeacian damsels to the -sound of music, and also by two celebrated performers at the court -of Alcinous in a most artistic manner accompanied with dancing. The -various movements of the body required in the game of ball gave -elasticity and grace to the figure; whence it was highly esteemed -by the Greeks. The Athenians set so high a value on it, that they -conferred upon Aristonicus of Carystus the right of citizenship on -account of his skill in this game. It was equally esteemed by the -other states of Greece; the young Spartans, when they were leaving -the condition of ephebi, were called σφαιρεῖς, probably because -their chief exercise was the game at ball. Every complete gymnasium -had a room (σφαιριστήριον, σφαίριστρα) devoted to this exercise -[GYMNASIUM], where a special teacher (σφαιριστικός) gave instruction -in the art. Among the Romans the game at ball was generally played -at by persons before taking the bath, in a room (_sphaeristerium_) -attached to the baths for the purpose. _Pila_ was used in a general -sense for any kind of ball: but the balls among the Romans seem to -have been of three kinds; the _pila_ in its narrower sense, a small -ball; the _follis_, a great ball filled with air; and the _paganica_, -of which we know scarcely anything, but which appears to have been -smaller than the follis and larger than the pila. The _Harpastum_ -(from ἁρπάζω) seems to have been the name of a ball, which was thrown -among the players, each of whom endeavoured to catch it. - -[Illustration: Pila, Game at Ball. (From the Baths of Titus.)] - - -PĪLĀNI. [EXERCITUS, p. 168 _b_.] - - -PĪLENTUM, a splendid four-wheeled carriage, furnished with soft -cushions, which conveyed the Roman matrons in sacred processions and -in going to the Circensian and other games. The pilentum was probably -very like the HARMAMAXA and CARPENTUM, but open at the sides, so that -those who sat in it might both see and be seen. - - -PĪLĔUS or PĪLĔUM (πϊλος, πίλημα, πιλωτόν), any piece of felt; more -especially a skull-cap of felt, a hat. There seems no reason to doubt -that felting is a more ancient invention than weaving [TELA], nor -that both of these arts came into Europe from Asia. From the Greeks, -who were acquainted with this article as early as the age of Homer, -the use of felt passed together with its name to the Romans. Its -principal use was to make coverings of the head for the male sex, -and the most common one was a simple skull-cap.--Among the Romans -the cap of felt was the emblem of liberty. When a slave obtained -his freedom he had his head shaven, and wore instead of his hair an -undyed pileus. This change of attire took place in the temple of -Feronia, who was the goddess of freedmen. Hence the phrase _servos -ad pileum vocare_ is a summons to liberty, by which slaves were -frequently called upon to take up arms with a promise of liberty. -The figure of Liberty on some of the coins of Antoninus Pius, -struck A.D. 145, holds this cap in the right hand. The _Petasus_ -(πέτασος) differed from the pileus or simple skull-cap in having a -wide brim: the etymology of the word, from πετάννυμι, expresses the -distinctive shape of these hats. It was preferred to the skull-cap as -a protection from the sun. - -[Illustration: Petasus, Cap, worn by a Greek Soldier. (From a Greek -Vase.)] - - -PĪLUM. [HASTA.] - - -PISCĪNA. [BALNEUM.] - - -PISTOR (ἀρτοποιός), a baker, from _pinsere_, to pound, since corn was -pounded in mortars before the invention of mills. At Rome bread was -originally made at home by the women of the house; and there were -no persons at Rome who made baking a trade, or any slaves specially -kept for this purpose in private houses, till B.C. 173. The name was -also given to pastry-cooks and confectioners, in which case they -were usually called _pistores dulciarii_ or _candidarii_. Bread was -often baked in moulds called _artoptae_, and the loaves thus baked -were termed ARTOPTICII. Bread was not generally made at home at -Athens, but was sold in the market-place, chiefly by women, called -ἀρτοπώλιδες. These women seem to have been what the fish-women of -London are at present; they excelled in abuse. - - -PLĂGĬĀRĬUS. [PLAGIUM.] - - -PLĂGĬUM, the offence of kidnapping, concealing, and selling freemen -and other persons’ slaves was the subject of a Fabia Lex (B.C. 183). -The penalty of the lex was pecuniary; but this fell into disuse, -and persons who offended against the lex were punished according to -the nature of their offence; under the empire they were generally -condemned to the mines. The word _Plagium_ is said to come from the -Greek πλάγιος, oblique, indirect, dolosus. He who committed _plagium_ -was _plagiarius_, a word which Martial applies to a person who -falsely gave himself out as the author of a book; and in this sense -the word has come into common use in our language. - - -PLAUSTRUM or PLOSTRUM (ἅμαξα), a cart or waggon. It had commonly two -wheels, but sometimes four, and it was then called the _plaustrum -majus_. Besides the wheels and axle the plaustrum consisted of a -strong pole (_temo_), to the hinder part of which was fastened a -table of wooden planks. The blocks of stone, or other things to be -carried, were either laid upon this table without any other support, -or an additional security was obtained by the use either of boards -at the sides, or of a large wicker basket tied upon the cart. The -annexed cut exhibits a cart, the body of which is supplied by a -basket. The commonest kind of cart-wheel was that called _tympanum_, -“the drum,” from its resemblance to the musical instrument of the -same name. It was nearly a foot in thickness, and was made either by -sawing the trunk of a tree across in a horizontal direction, or by -nailing together boards of the requisite shape and size. (See the -cut.) These wheels advanced slowly, and made a loud creaking, which -was heard to a great distance. - -[Illustration: Plaustrum, Waggon. (From a Bas-Relief at Rome.)] - - -PLĒBES or PLEBS. PLĒBĒII. This word contains the same root as -_im-pleo_, _com-pleo_, &c., and is therefore etymologically -connected with πλῆθος, a term which was applied to the plebeians -by the more correct Greek writers on Roman history, while others -wrongly called them δῆμος or οἱ δημοτικοί. The plebeians were the -body of commons or the commonalty of Rome, and thus constituted -one of the two great elements of which the Roman nation consisted, -and which has given to the earlier periods of Roman history its -peculiar character and interest. The time when the plebeians first -appear as a distinct class of Roman citizens in contradistinction -to the patricians, is in the reign of Tullus Hostilius. Alba, the -head of the Latin confederacy, was in his reign taken by the Romans -and razed to the ground. The most distinguished of its inhabitants -were transplanted to Rome and received among the patricians; but -the great bulk of Alban citizens, who were likewise transferred to -Rome, received settlements on the Caelian hill, and were kept in -a state of submission to the populus Romanus or the patricians. -This new population of Rome, which in number is said to have been -equal to the old inhabitants of the city or the patricians, were -the plebeians. They were Latins, and consequently of the same -blood as the Ramnes, the noblest of the three patrician tribes. -After the conquest of Alba, Rome, in the reign of Ancus Martius, -acquired possession of a considerable extent of country, containing -a number of dependent Latin towns, as Medullia, Fidenae, Politorium, -Tellenae, and Ficana. Great numbers of the inhabitants of these -towns were again transplanted to Rome, and incorporated with the -plebeians already settled there, and the Aventine was assigned to -them as their habitation. Some portions of the land which these -new citizens had possessed were given back to them by the Romans, -so that they remained free land-owners as much as the conquerors -themselves, and thus were distinct from the clients.--The plebeians -were citizens, but not _optimo jure_; they were perfectly distinct -from the patricians, and were neither contained in the three tribes, -nor in the curiae, nor in the patrician gentes. The only point of -contact between the two estates was the army. The plebeians were -obliged to fight and shed their blood in the defence of their -new fellow-citizens, without being allowed to share any of their -rights or privileges, and without even the right of intermarriage -(_connubium_). In all judicial matters they were entirely at the -mercy of the patricians, and had no right of appeal against any -unjust sentence, though they were not, like the clients, bound to -have a patronus. They continued to have their own sacra, which -they had had before the conquest, but these were regulated by the -patrician pontiffs. Lastly, they were free land-owners, and had -their own gentes.--The population of the Roman state thus consisted -of two opposite elements; a ruling class or an aristocracy, and the -commonalty, which, though of the same stock as the noblest among -the rulers, and exceeding them in numbers, yet enjoyed none of the -rights which might enable them to take a part in the management of -public affairs, religious or civil. Their citizenship resembled the -relation of aliens to a state, in which they are merely tolerated on -condition of performing certain services, and they are, in fact, -sometimes called peregrini. That such a state of things could not -last, is a truth which must have been felt by every one who was not -blinded by his own selfishness and love of dominion. Tarquinius -Priscus was the first who conceived the idea of placing the plebeians -on a footing of equality with the old burghers, by dividing them -into three tribes, which he intended to call after his own name and -those of his friends. But this noble plan was frustrated by the -opposition of the augur Attus Navius, who probably acted the part -of a representative of the patricians. All that Tarquinius could do -was to effect the admission of the noblest plebeian families into -the three old tribes, who were distinguished from the old patrician -families by the names of Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres secundi, and -their gentes are sometimes distinguished by the epithet minores, -as they entered into the same relation in which the Luceres had -been to the first two tribes, before the time of Tarquinius. It -was reserved to his successor, Servius Tullius, to give to the -commonalty a regular internal organisation, and to determine their -relations to the patricians. He first divided the city into four, and -then the subject country around, which was inhabited by plebeians, -into twenty-six regions or local tribes, and in these regions he -assigned lots of land to those plebeians who were yet without landed -property. [TRIBUS.] Each tribe had its praefect, called tribunus. The -tribes had also their own sacra, festivals, and meetings (_comitia -tributa_), which were convoked by their tribunes. This division into -tribes with tribunes at their heads was no more than an internal -organisation of the plebeians, analogous to the division of the -patricians into thirty curiae, without conferring upon them the right -to interfere in any way in the management of public affairs, or in -the elections, which were left entirely to the senate and the curiae. -These rights, however, they obtained by another regulation of Servius -Tullius, which was made wholly independent of the thirty tribes. For -this purpose he instituted a census, and divided the whole body of -Roman citizens, plebeians as well as patricians, into five classes, -according to the amount of their property. Taxation and the military -duties were arranged according to these classes in such a manner, -that the heavier burdens fell upon the wealthier classes. The whole -body of citizens thus divided was formed into a great national -assembly called comitiatus maximus, or comitia centuriata. [COMITIA.] -In this assembly the plebeians now met the patricians apparently on -a footing of equality, but the votes were distributed in such a way -that it was always in the power of the wealthiest classes, to which -the patricians naturally belonged, to decide a question before it -was put to the vote of the poorer classes. A great number of such -noble plebeian families, as after the subjugation of the Latin towns -had not been admitted into the curies by Tarquinius Priscus, were -now constituted by Servius into a number of equites, with twelve -suffragia in the comitia centuriata. [EQUITES.] In this constitution, -the plebeians, as such, did not obtain admission to the senate, nor -to the highest magistracy, nor to any of the priestly offices. To -all these offices the patricians alone thought themselves entitled -by divine right. The plebeians also continued to be excluded from -occupying any portion of the public land, which as yet was possessed -only by the patricians, and they were only allowed to keep their -cattle upon the common pasture.--In the early times of the republic -there was a constant struggle between the two orders, the history -of which belongs to a history of Rome, and cannot be given here. -Eventually the plebeians gained access to all the civil and religious -offices, until at last the two hostile elements became united into -one great body of Roman citizens with equal rights, and a state of -things arose, totally different from what had existed before. After -the first secession, in B.C. 494, the plebeians gained several great -advantages. First, a law was passed to prevent the patricians from -taking usurious interest of money, which they frequently lent to -impoverished plebeians; secondly, tribunes were appointed for the -protection of the plebeians [TRIBUNI]; and lastly, plebeian aediles -were appointed. [AEDILES.] Shortly after, they gained the right to -summon before their own comitia tributa any one who had violated the -rights of their order, and to make decrees (_plebiscita_), which, -however, did not become binding upon the whole nation, free from -the control of the curies, until the year B.C. 286. In B.C. 445, -the tribune Canuleius established, by his rogations, the connubium -between patricians and plebeians. He also attempted to divide the -consulship between the two orders, but the patricians frustrated the -realisation of this plan by the appointment of six military tribunes, -who were to be elected from both orders. [TRIBUNI.] But that the -plebeians might have no share in the censorial power, with which the -consuls had been invested, the military tribunes did not obtain that -power, and a new curule dignity, the censorship, was established, -with which patricians alone were to be invested. [CENSOR.] In B.C. -421 the plebeians were admitted to the quaestorship, which opened -to them the way into the senate, where henceforth their number -continued to increase. [QUAESTOR; SENATUS.] In B.C. 367 the tribunes -L. Licinius Stolo and L. Sextius placed themselves at the head of the -commonalty, and resumed the contest against the patricians. After -a fierce struggle, which lasted for several years, they at length -carried a rogation, according to which decemvirs were to be appointed -for keeping the Sibylline books instead of duumvirs, of whom half -were to be plebeians. The next great step was the restoration of -the consulship, on condition that one consul should always be a -plebeian. A third rogation of Licinius, which was only intended to -afford momentary relief to the poor plebeians, regulated the rate -of interest. From this time forward the plebeians also appear in -the possession of the right to occupy parts of the ager publicus. -In B.C. 366, L. Sextius Lateranus was the first plebeian consul. -The patricians, however, who always contrived to yield no more than -what it was absolutely impossible for them to retain, stripped the -consulship of a considerable part of its power, and transferred -it to two new curule offices, viz. that of praetor and of curule -aedile. [AEDILES; PRAETOR.] But after such great advantages had -been once gained by the plebeians, it was impossible to stop them -in their progress towards a perfect equality of political rights -with the patricians. In B.C. 356, C. Marcius Rutilus was the first -plebeian dictator; in B.C. 351 the censorship was thrown open to -the plebeians, and in B.C. 336 the praetorship. The Ogulnian law, -in B.C. 300, also opened to them the offices of pontifex and augur. -These advantages were, as might be supposed, not gained without the -fiercest opposition of the patricians, and even after they were -gained and sanctioned by law, the patricians exerted every means to -obstruct the operation of the law. Such fraudulent attempts led, -in B.C. 286, to the last secession of the plebeians, after which, -however, the dictator Q. Hortensius successfully and permanently -reconciled the two orders, secured to the plebeians all the rights -they had acquired until then, and procured for their plebiscita the -full power of leges binding upon the whole nation. After the passing -of the Hortensian law, the political distinction between patricians -and plebeians ceased, and, with a few unimportant exceptions, both -orders were placed on a footing of perfect equality. Henceforth -the name populus is sometimes applied to the plebeians alone, and -sometimes to the whole body of Roman citizens, as assembled in the -comitia centuriata or tributa. The term plebs or plebecula, on -the other hand, was applied, in a loose manner of speaking, to the -multitude or populace, in opposition to the nobiles or the senatorial -party.--A person who was born a plebeian could only be raised to -the rank of a patrician by a lex curiata, as was sometimes done -during the kingly period, and in the early times of the republic. -It frequently occurs in the history of Rome that one and the same -gens contains plebeian as well as patrician families. In the gens -Cornelia, for instance, we find the plebeian families of the Balbi, -Mammulae, Merulae, &c., along with the patrician Scipiones, Sullae, -Lentuli, &c. The occurrence of this phenomenon may be accounted for -in different ways. It may have been, that one branch of a plebeian -family was made patrician while the others remained plebeians. It may -also have happened that two families had the same nomen gentilicium -without being actual members of the same gens. Again, a patrician -family might go over to the plebeians, and as such a family continued -to bear the name of its patrician gens, this gens apparently -contained a plebeian family. When a peregrinus obtained the civitas -through the influence of a patrician, or when a slave was emancipated -by his patrician master, they generally adopted the nomen gentilicium -of their benefactor, and thus appear to belong to the same gens with -him. - - -PLĒBISCĪTUM, a name properly applied to a law passed at the comitia -tributa on the rogation of a tribune. Originally, a plebiscitum -required confirmation by the comitia curiata and the senate; but a -Lex Hortensia was passed B.C. 286, to the effect that plebiscita -should bind all the populus (_universus populus_), and this lex -rendered confirmation unnecessary. The Lex Hortensia is always -referred to as the lex which put plebiscita as to their binding force -exactly on the same footing as leges. The principal plebiscita are -mentioned under the article LEX. - - -PLECTRUM. [LYRA.] - - -PLETHRON (πλέθρον), the fundamental land measure in the Greek system, -being the square of 100 feet, that is, 10,000 square feet. The later -Greek writers use it as the translation of the Roman _jugerum_, -probably because the latter was the standard land measure in the -Roman system; but, in size, the _plethron_ answered more nearly to -the Roman _actus_, or half-jugerum, which was the older unit of land -measures. As frequently happened with the ancient land measures, -the side of the _plethron_ was taken as a measure of length, with -the same name. This _plethron_ was equal to 100 feet (or about -101 English feet) = 66⅔ πήχεις = 10 ἄκαιναι or κάλαμοι. It was also -introduced into the system of itinerary measures, being 1-6th of the -_stadium_. - - -PLŬTĔUS, was applied in military affairs to two different objects. -(1) A kind of shed made of hurdles, and covered with raw hides, which -could be moved forward by small wheels attached to it, and under -which the besiegers of a town made their approaches. (2) Boards or -planks placed on the vallum of a camp, on moveable towers or other -military engines, as a kind of roof or covering for the protection of -the soldiers. - - -PLYNTĒRĬA (πλυντήρια, from πλύνειν, to wash), a festival celebrated -at Athens every year, on the 25th of Thargelion, in honour of Athena, -surnamed Aglauros, whose temple stood on the Acropolis. The day of -this festival was at Athens among the ἀποφράδες or _dies nefasti_; -for the temple of the goddess was surrounded by a rope to preclude -all communication with it; her statue was stripped of its garments -and ornaments for the purpose of cleaning them, and was in the -meanwhile covered over, to conceal it from the sight of man. The -city was therefore, so to speak, on this day without its protecting -divinity, and any undertaking commenced on it was believed to be -necessarily unsuccessful. - - -PNYX. [ECCLESIA.] - - -PŌCŬLUM, any kind of drinking-cup, to be distinguished from the -_Crater_ or vessel in which the wine was mixed [CRATER], and from the -_Cyathus_, a kind of ladle or small cup, used to convey the wine from -the Crater to the Poculum or drinking-cup. - - -PŎDĬUM. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] - - -POENA (ποινή), a general name for any punishment of any offence. -Multa is the penalty of a particular offence. A Poena was only -inflicted when it was imposed by some lex or some other legal -authority (_quo alio jure_). When no poena was imposed, then a multa -or penalty might be inflicted. - - -PŎLĔMARCHUS (πολέμαρχος). Respecting the polemarchus at Athens, -see ARCHON. We read also of polemarchs at Sparta, and in various -cities of Boeotia. As their name denotes, they were originally and -properly connected with military affairs, being entrusted either -with the command of armies abroad, or the superintendence of the war -department at home; sometimes with both. The polemarchs of Sparta -appear to have ranked next to the king, when on actual service -abroad, and were generally of the royal kindred or house (γένος). -They commanded single morae, so that they would appear to have been -six in number, and sometimes whole armies. They also formed part of -the king’s council in war, and of the royal escort called _damosia_. -At Thebes there appear to have been two polemarchs, perhaps elected, -annually; and in times of peace they seem to have been invested with -the chief executive power of the state, and the command of the city, -having its military force under their orders. They are not, however, -to be confounded with the Boeotarchs. - - -PŌLĒTAE (πωλῆται), a board of ten officers, or magistrates, whose -duty it was to grant leases of the public lands and mines, and also -to let the revenues arising from the customs, taxes, confiscations, -and forfeitures. Of such letting the word πωλεῖν (not μισθοῦν) was -generally used, and also the correlative words ὠνεῖσθαι and πρίασθαι. -One was chosen from each tribe. In the letting of the revenue they -were assisted by the managers of the theoric fund (τὸ θεωρικόν), and -they acted under the authority of the senate of Five Hundred, who -exercised a general control over the financial department of the -administration. Resident aliens, who did not pay their residence -tax (μετοίκιον), were summoned before them, and, if found to have -committed default, were sold. - - -POLLINCTŌRES. [FUNUS.] - - -PŌMOĒRĬUM. This word is compounded of _post_ and _moerium_ (_murus_), -in the same manner as _pomeridiem_ of _post_ and _meridiem_, and thus -signifies a line running by the walls of a town (_pone_ or _post -muros_). But the walls of a town here spoken of are not its actual -walls or fortifications, but symbolical walls, and the course of the -pomoerium itself was marked by stone pillars, erected at certain -intervals. The sacred line of the Roman pomoerium did not prevent the -inhabitants from building upon or taking into use any place beyond -it, but it was necessary to leave a certain space on each side of it -unoccupied, so as not to unhallow it by profane use. Thus we find -that the Aventine, although inhabited from early times, was for many -centuries not included within the pomoerium. The pomoerium was not -the same at all times; as the city increased the pomoerium also was -extended; but this extension could, according to ancient usage, only -be made by such men as had by their victories over foreign nations -increased the boundaries of the empire, and neither could a pomoerium -be formed nor altered without the augurs previously consulting the -will of the gods by augury: hence the _jus pomoerii_ of the augurs. - - -POMPA (πομπή), a solemn procession, as on the occasion of a funeral, -triumph, &c. It is, however, more particularly applied to the grand -procession with which the games of the circus commenced (_Pompa -Circensis_). [CIRCUS.] - - -PONS (γέφυρα), a bridge. As the rivers of Greece were small, and -the use of the arch known to them only to a limited extent, it is -probable that the Greek bridges were built entirely of wood, or, -at best, were nothing more than a wooden platform supported upon -stone piers at each extremity. Pliny mentions a bridge over the -Acheron 1000 feet in length; we also know that the island Euboea was -joined to Boeotia by a bridge; but the only existing specimen of a -Greek bridge is the one over a tributary of the Eurotas. The Romans -regularly applied the arch to the construction of bridges, by which -they were enabled to erect structures of great beauty and solidity, -as well as utility. The width of the passage-way in a Roman bridge -was commonly narrow, as compared with modern structures of the same -kind, and corresponded with the road (_via_) leading to and from -it. It was divided into three parts. The centre one, for horses -and carriages, was denominated _agger_ or _iter_; and the raised -footpaths on each side _decursoria_, which were enclosed by parapet -walls similar in use and appearance to the _pluteus_ in the basilica. -There were eight bridges across the Tiber. I. Of these the most -celebrated, as well as the most ancient, was the PONS SUBLICIUS, so -called because it was built of wood; _sublices_, in the language of -the Formiani, meaning wooden beams. It was built by Ancus Martius, -when he united the Janiculum to the city, and was situated at the -foot of the Aventine.--II. PONS PALATINUS formed the communication -between the Palatine and its vicinities and the Janiculum.--III. IV. -_Pons Fabricius_ and PONS CESTIUS were the two which connected the -Insula Tiberina with the opposite sides of the river; the first with -the city, and the latter with the Janiculum. - -[Illustration: Pons Cestius, and Pons Fabricius, at Rome, with the -buildings between restored.] - -Both are still remaining. They are represented in the preceding -woodcut: that on the right hand is the pons Fabricius, and that on -the left the pons Cestius.--V. PONS JANICULENSIS, which led direct to -the Janiculum.--VI. PONS VATICANUS, so called because it formed the -communication between the Campus Martius and Campus Vaticanus.-- - -[Illustration: Pons Aelius at Rome.] - -VII. PONS AELIUS, built by Hadrian, which led from the city to -the mausoleum of that emperor, now the bridge and castle of St. -Angelo.--VIII. PONS MILVIUS, on the Via Flaminia, now Ponte Molle, -was built by Aemilius Scaurus the censor.--The Roman bridges without -the city were too many to be enumerated here. - -[Illustration: Bridge at Arimmum.] - -They formed one of the chief embellishments in all the public roads; -and their frequent and stupendous remains, still existing in Italy, -Portugal, and Spain, attest, even to the present day, the scale of -grandeur with which the Roman works of national utility were always -carried on.--When the comitia were held, the voters, in order to -reach the enclosure called _septum_ and _ovile_, passed over a -wooden platform, elevated above the ground, which was called _pons -suffragiorum_, in order that they might be able to give their votes -without confusion or collusion. [COMITIA.] _Pons_ is also used to -signify the platform (ἐπιβάθρα, ἀποβάθρα), used for embarking in, or -disembarking from, a ship. - - -PONTĬFEX (ἱεροδιδάσκαλος, ἱερονόμος, ἱεροφύλαξ, ἱεροφάντης). The -origin of this word is explained in various ways; but it is probably -formed from _pons_ and _facere_ (in the signification of the Greek -ῥέζειν, to perform a sacrifice), and consequently signifies the -priests who offered sacrifices upon the bridge. The ancient sacrifice -to which the name thus alludes, is that of the Argei on the sacred -or sublician bridge. [ARGEI.] The Roman pontiffs formed the most -illustrious among the great colleges of priests. Their institution, -like that of all important matters of religion, was ascribed to -Numa. The number of pontiffs appointed by this king was four, and at -their head was the pontifex maximus, who is generally not included -when the number of pontiffs is mentioned. It is probable that the -original number of four pontiffs (not including the pontifex maximus) -had reference to the two earliest tribes of the Romans, the Ramnes -and Tities, so that each tribe was represented by two pontiffs. In -the year B.C. 300 the Ogulnian law raised the number of pontiffs to -eight, or, including the pontifex maximus, to nine, and four of them -were to be plebeians. The pontifex maximus, however, continued to -be a patrician down to the year B.C. 254, when Tib. Coruncanius was -the first plebeian who was invested with this dignity. This number -of pontiffs remained for a long time unaltered, until in B.C. 81 the -dictator Sulla increased it to fifteen, and J. Caesar to sixteen. In -both these changes the pontifex maximus is included in the number. -During the empire the number varied, though on the whole fifteen -appears to have been the regular number. The mode of appointing the -pontiffs was also different at different times. It appears that after -their institution by Numa, the college had the right of co-optation, -that is, if a member of the college died (for all the pontiffs held -their office for life), the members met and elected a successor, who, -after his election, was inaugurated by the augurs. This election was -sometimes called _captio_. In B.C. 104 a Lex Domitia was passed, -which transferred the right of electing the members of the great -colleges of priests to the people (probably in the comitia tributa); -that is, the people elected a candidate, who was then made a member -of the college by the co-optatio of the priests themselves, so that -the co-optatio, although still necessary, became a mere matter of -form. The Lex Domitia was repealed by Sulla in a Lex Cornelia de -Sacerdotiis (B.C. 81), which restored to the great priestly colleges -their full right of co-optatio. In B.C. 63 the law of Sulla was -abolished, and the Domitian law was restored, but not in its full -extent; for it was now determined, that in case of a vacancy the -college itself should nominate two candidates, and the people elect -one of them. M. Antonius again restored the right of co-optatio to -the college. The college of pontiffs had the supreme superintendence -of all matters of religion, and of things and persons connected with -public as well as private worship. They had the judicial decision -in all matters of religion, whether private persons, magistrates, -or priests were concerned, and in cases where the existing laws or -customs were found defective or insufficient, they made new laws and -regulations (_decreta pontificum_), in which they always followed -their own judgment as to what was consistent with the existing -customs and usages. The details of these duties and functions were -contained in books called _libri pontificii_ or _pontificales_, -_commentarii sacrorum_ or _sacrorum pontificalium_, which they were -said to have received from Numa, and which were sanctioned by Ancus -Martius. As to the rights and duties of the pontiffs, it must first -of all be borne in mind, that the pontiffs were not priests of any -particular divinity, but a college which stood above all other -priests, and superintended the whole external worship of the gods. -One of their principal duties was the regulation of the sacra, both -publica and privata, and to watch that they were observed at the -proper times (for which purpose the pontiffs had the whole regulation -of the calendar, see CALENDARIUM), and in their proper form. In the -management of the sacra publica they were in later times assisted in -certain duties by the Triumviri Epulones. [EPULONES.] The pontiffs -convoked the assembly of the curies (_comitia calata_ or _curiata_) -in cases where priests were to be appointed, and flamines or a -rex sacrorum were to be inaugurated; also when wills were to be -received, and when a detestatio sacrorum and adoption by adrogatio -took place. [ADOPTIO.] In most cases the sentence of the pontiffs -only inflicted a fine upon the offenders; but the person fined had -the right of appealing to the people, who might release him from the -fine. In regard to the vestal virgins, and the persons who committed -incest with them, the pontiffs had criminal jurisdiction, and might -pronounce sentence of death. A man who had violated a vestal virgin -was, according to an ancient law, scourged to death by the pontifex -maximus in the comitium, and it appears that originally neither the -vestal virgins nor the male offenders in such a case had any right -of appeal. In later times we find that, even when the pontiffs had -passed sentence upon vestal virgins, a tribune interfered, and -induced the people to appoint a quaestor for the purpose of making -a fresh inquiry into the case; and it sometimes happened that after -this new trial the sentence of the pontiffs was modified or annulled. -Such cases, however, seem to have been mere irregularities, founded -upon an abuse of the tribunitian power. In the early times the -pontiffs were in the exclusive possession of the civil as well as -religious law, until the former was made public by Cn. Flavius. The -regulations which served as a guide to the pontiffs in their judicial -proceedings, formed a large collection of laws, which was called -the _jus pontificium_, and formed part of the Libri Pontificii. The -meetings of the college of pontiffs, to which in some instances the -famines and the rex sacrorum were summoned, were held in the curia -regia on the Via Sacra, to which was attached the residence of the -pontifex maximus and of the rex sacrorum. As the chief pontiff was -obliged to live in a domus publica, Augustus, when he assumed this -dignity, changed part of his own house into a domus publica. All -the pontiffs were in their appearance distinguished by the conic -cap, called tutulus or galerus, with an apex upon it, and the toga -praetexta. The pontifex maximus was the president of the college, and -acted in its name, whence he alone is frequently mentioned in cases -in which he must be considered only as the organ of the college. He -was generally chosen from among the most distinguished persons, and -such as had held a curule magistracy, or were already members of -the college. Two of his especial duties were to appoint (_capere_) -the vestal virgins and the flamines [VESTALES; FLAMEN], and to be -present at every marriage by confarreatio. When festive games were -vowed, or a dedication made, the chief pontiff had to repeat over, -before the persons who made the vow or the dedication, the formula -in which it was to be performed (_praeire verba_). During the period -of the republic, when the people exercised sovereign power in every -respect, we find that if the pontiff, on constitutional or religious -grounds, refused to perform this solemnity, he might be compelled by -the people. The pontifex maximus wrote down what occurred in his year -on tablets, which were hung up in his dwelling for the information of -the people, and called _Annales Maximi_. A pontifex might, like all -the members of the great priestly colleges, hold any other military, -civil, or priestly office, provided the different offices did not -interfere with one another. Thus we find one and the same person -being pontiff, augur, and decemvir sacrorum; instances of a pontifex -maximus being at the same time consul are very numerous. But whatever -might be the civil or military office which a pontifex maximus held -beside his pontificate, he was not allowed originally to leave Italy. -The college of pontiffs continued to exist until the overthrow of -paganism. The emperors themselves were always chief pontiffs, and -as such the presidents of the college; hence the title of pontifex -maximus (P. M. or PON. M.) appears on several coins of the emperors. -If there were several emperors at a time, only one bore the title of -pontifex maximus; but in the year A.D. 238 we find that each of the -two emperors Maximus and Balbinus assumed this dignity. From the -time of Theodosius the emperors no longer appear with the dignity of -pontiff; but at last the title was assumed by the Christian bishop -of Rome.--There were other pontiffs at Rome, who were distinguished -by the epithet _Minores_. They appear to have been originally only -the secretaries of the pontiffs; and when the real pontiffs began to -neglect their duties, and to leave the principal business to be done -by their secretaries, it became customary to designate these scribes -by the name of Pontifices Minores. The number of these secretaries is -uncertain. - - -PŎPA. [SACRIFICIUM.] - - -PŎPĪNA. [CAUPONA.] - - -POPŬLĀRĬA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] - - -PŎPŬLUS. [PATRICII.] - - -PŎPŬLĬFŬGĬA or POPLĬFŬGĬA, the day of the people’s flight, was -celebrated on the nones of July, according to an ancient tradition, -in commemoration of the flight of the people, when the inhabitants -of Ficulae, Fidenae, and other places round about, appeared in arms -against Rome shortly after the departure of the Gauls, and produced -such a panic that the Romans suddenly fled before them. Other writers -say that the Populifugia was celebrated in commemoration of the -flight of the people before the Tuscans; while others again refer its -origin to the flight of the people on the death of Romulus. - - -PŎRISTAE (πορισταί), magistrates at Athens, who probably levied the -extraordinary supplies. - - -PORTA (πύλη, _dim._ πυλίς), the gate of a city, citadel, or other -open space inclosed by a wall, in contradistinction to JANUA, which -was the door of a house or any covered edifice. The terms _porta_ and -πύλη are often found in the plural, even when applied to a single -gate, because it consisted of two leaves. The gates of a city were of -course various in their number and position. Thus Megara had 5 gates; -Thebes, in Boeotia, had 7; Athens had 8; and Rome 20, or perhaps -even more. The jambs of the gate were surmounted, 1. by a lintel, -which was large and strong in proportion to the width of the gate. -2. By an arch, as we see exemplified at Pompeii, Paestum, Sepianum, -Volterra, Suza, Autun, Besançon, and Treves. 3. At Arpinum, one of -the gates now remaining is arched, whilst another is constructed with -the stones projecting one beyond another. Gates sometimes had two -passages close together, the one designed for carriages entering, and -the other for carriages leaving the city. In other instances we find -only one gate for carriages, but a smaller one on each side of it -(παραπυλίς) for foot-passengers. When there were no sideways, one of -the valves of the large gate sometimes contained a wicket (_portula_, -πυλίς: ῥινοπύλη), large enough to admit a single person. The gateway -had commonly a chamber (called πυλών) either on one side or on both, -which served as the residence of the porter or guard. Statues of -the gods were often placed near the gate, or even within it in the -barbican, so as to be ready to receive the adoration of those who -entered the city. - - -PORTĬCUS (στοά), a walk covered with a roof, and supported by -columns, at least on one side. Such shaded walks and places of -resort are almost indispensable in the southern countries of -Europe, where people live much in the open air, as a protection -from the heat of the sun and from rain. The porticoes attached to -the temples were either constructed only in front of them, or went -round the whole building, as is the case in the so-called Temple -of Theseus at Athens. They were originally intended as places for -those persons to assemble and converse in who visited the temple -for various purposes. As such temple-porticoes, however, were -found too small, or not suited for the various purposes of private -and public life, most Grecian towns had independent porticoes, -some of which were very extensive; and in most of these _stoae_, -seats (_exedrae_) were placed, that those who were tired might sit -down. They were frequented not only by idle loungers, but also by -philosophers, rhetoricians, and other persons fond of intellectual -conversation. The Stoic school of philosophy derived its name from -the circumstance, that the founder of it used to converse with his -disciples in a stoa. The Romans derived their great fondness for -such covered walks from the Greeks; and as luxuries among them were -carried in everything to a greater extent than in Greece, wealthy -Romans had their private porticoes, sometimes in the city itself, -and sometimes in their country-seats. In the public porticoes of -Rome, which were exceedingly numerous and very extensive (as those -around the Forum and the Campus Martius), a variety of business was -occasionally transacted: we find that law-suits were conducted here, -meetings of the senate held, goods exhibited for sale, &c. - - -PORTISCŬLUS (κελευστής), an officer in a ship, who gave the signal -to the rowers, that they might keep time in rowing. This officer is -sometimes called _Hortator_ or _Pausarius_. - - -PORTĬTŌRES. [PUBLICANI.] - - -PORTŌRĬUM, a branch of the regular revenues of the Roman state, -consisting of the duties paid on imported and exported goods. A -portorium, or duty upon imported goods, appears to have been paid at -a very early period, for it is said that Valerius Publicola exempted -the plebes from the portoria at the time when the republic was -threatened with an invasion by Porsena. The time of its introduction -is uncertain; but the abolition of it, ascribed to Publicola, can -only have been a temporary measure; and as the expenditure of the -republic increased, new portoria must have been introduced. In -conquered places, and in the provinces, the import and export duties, -which had been paid there before, were generally not only retained, -but increased, and appropriated to the aerarium. Sicily, and above -all, Asia, furnished to the Roman treasury large sums, which were -raised as portoria. In B.C. 60 all the portoria in the ports of Italy -were done away with by a Lex Caecilia, but were restored by Julius -Caesar and the subsequent emperors. Respecting the amount of the -import or export duties we have but little information. In the time -of Cicero the portorium in the ports of Sicily was one-twentieth -(_vicesima_) of the value of taxable articles; and it is probable -that this was the average sum raised in all the other provinces. -In the times of the emperors the ordinary rate of the portorium -appears to have been the fortieth part (_quadragesima_) of the value -of imported goods; and at a later period the exorbitant sum of -one-eighth (_octava_) is mentioned. The portorium was, like all other -vectigalia, farmed out by the censors to the publicani, who collected -it through the _portitores_. [VECTIGALIA; PUBLICANI.] - - -POSSESSĬO. [AGER PUBLICUS.] - - -POSTĪCUM. [JANUA.] - - -POSTLĪMĬNĬUM, POSTLĪMĬNII JUS. If a Roman citizen during war came -into the possession of an enemy, he sustained a _diminutio capitis -maxima_ [CAPUT], and all his civil rights were in abeyance. Being -captured by the enemy, he became a slave; but his rights over his -children, if he had any, were not destroyed, but were said to be in -abeyance (_pendere_) by virtue of the _Jus Postliminii_: when he -returned, his children were again in his power; and if he died in -captivity, they became sui juris. Sometimes by an act of the state -a man was given up bound to an enemy, and if the enemy would not -receive him, it was a question whether he had the Jus Postliminii. -This was the case with Sp. Postumius, who was given up to the -Samnites, and with C. Hostilius Mancinus, who was given up to the -Numantines; but the better opinion was, that they had no _Jus -Postliminii_, and Mancinus was restored to his civic rights by a lex. -It appears that the Jus Postliminii was founded on the fiction of the -captive having never been absent from home; a fiction which was of -easy application, for, as the captive during his absence could not -do any legal act, the interval of captivity was a period of legal -non-activity, which was terminated by his showing himself again. - - -PŎTESTAS. [PATRIA POTESTAS.] - - -PRACTŎRES (πράκτορες), subordinate officers at Athens, who collected -the fines and penalties (ἐπιβολάς and τιμήματα) imposed by -magistrates and courts of justice, and payable to the state. - - -PRAECINCTĬO. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] - - -PRAECŌNES, criers, were employed for various purposes: 1. In -sales by auction, they frequently advertised the time, place, and -conditions of sale: they seem also to have acted the part of the -modern auctioneer, so far as calling out the biddings and amusing -the company, though the property was knocked down by the _magister -auctionis_. [AUCTIO.] 2. In all public assemblies they ordered -silence. 3. In the comitia they called the centuries one by one to -give their votes, pronounced the vote of each century, and called -out the names of those who were elected. They also recited the laws -that were to be passed. 4. In trials, they summoned the accuser and -the accused, the plaintiff and defendant. 5. In the public games, -they invited the people to attend, and proclaimed the victors. 6. -In solemn funerals they also invited people to attend by a certain -form; hence these funerals were called _funera indictiva_. 7. When -things were lost, they cried them and searched for them. 8. In -the infliction of capital punishment, they sometimes conveyed the -commands of the magistrates to the lictors. Their office, called -_Praeconium_, appears to have been regarded as rather disreputable: -in the time of Cicero a law was passed preventing all persons who -had been praecones from becoming decuriones in the municipia. Under -the early emperors, however, it became very profitable, which was no -doubt partly owing to fees, to which they were entitled in the courts -of justice, and partly to the bribes which they received from the -suitors, &c. - - -PRAEDA signifies moveable things taken by an enemy in war. Such -things were either distributed by the Imperator among the soldiers or -sold by the quaestors, and the produce was brought into the Aerarium. -The difference between Praeda and Manubiae is this:--Praeda is the -things themselves that are taken in war, and Manubiae is the money -realized by their sale. It was the practice to set up a spear at -such sales, which was afterwards used at all sales of things by a -magistrates in the name of the people. [SECTIO.] - - -PRAEFECTŪRA. [COLONIA.] - - -PRAEFECTUS AERĀRĬI. [AERARIUM.] - - -PRAEFECTUS ANNŌNAE, the praefect of the provisions, especially of the -corn-market, was not a regular magistrate under the republic, but -was only appointed in cases of extraordinary scarcity, when he seems -to have regulated the prices at which corn was to be sold. Augustus -created an officer under the title of _Praefectus Annonae_, who had -jurisdiction over all matters appertaining to the corn-market, and, -like the _Praefectus Vigilum_, was chosen from the equites, and was -not reckoned among the ordinary magistrates. - - -PRAEFECTUS ĂQUĀRUM. [AQUAE DUCTUS.] - - -PRAEFECTUS CASTRŌRUM, praefect of the camp, is first mentioned in the -reign of Augustus. There was one to each legion. - - -PRAEFECTUS CLASSIS, the commander of a fleet. This title was -frequently given in the times of the republic to the commander of a -fleet; but Augustus appointed two permanent officers with this title, -one of whom was stationed at Ravenna on the Adriatic, and the other -at Misenum on the Tuscan sea, each having the command of a fleet. - - -PRAEFECTUS FABRUM. [FABRI.] - - -PRAEFECTUS JŪRI DĪCUNDO. [COLONIA.] - - -PRAEFECTUS LĔGĬŌNIS. [EXERCITUS.] - - -PRAEFECTUS PRAETŌRĬO, was the commander of the troops who guarded -the emperor’s person. [PRAETORIANI.] This office was instituted by -Augustus, and was at first only military, and had comparatively -small power attached to it; but under Tiberius, who made Sejanus -commander of the praetorian troops, it became of much greater -importance, till at length the power of these praefects became only -second to that of the emperors. From the reign of Severus to that -of Diocletian, the praefects, like the vizirs of the east, had the -superintendence of all departments of the state, the palace, the -army, the finances, and the law: they also had a court in which -they decided cases. The office of praefect of the praetorium was -not confined to military officers; it was filled by Ulpian and -Papinian, and other distinguished jurists. Originally there were two -praefects; afterwards sometimes one and sometimes two; from the time -of Commodus sometimes three, and even four. They were, as a regular -rule, chosen only from the equites; but from the time of Alexander -Severus the dignity of senator was always joined with their office. - - -PRAEFECTUS VĬGĬLUM. [EXERCITUS, p. 171, _a_.] - - -PRAEFECTUS URBI, praefect or warden of the city, was originally -called _Custos Urbis_. The name _praefectus urbi_ does not seem to -have been used till after the time of the decemvirs. The dignity of -_custos urbis_, being combined with that of _princeps senatus_, was -conferred by the king, as he had to appoint one of the decem primi as -princeps senatus. The functions of the _custos urbis_, however, were -not exercised except in the absence of the king from Rome; and then -he acted as the representative of the king: he convoked the senate, -held the comitia, if necessary, and on any emergency, might take -such measures as he thought proper; in short, he had the imperium in -the city. During the kingly period, the office of _custos urbis_ was -probably for life. Under the republic, the office, and its name of -_custos urbis_, remained unaltered; but in B.C. 487 it was elevated -into a magistracy, to be bestowed by election. The _custos urbis_ -was, in all probability, elected by the curiae. Persons of consular -rank were alone eligible. In the early period of the republic the -_custos urbis_ exercised within the city all the powers of the -consuls, if they were absent: he convoked the senate, held the -comitia, and, in times of war, even levied civic legions, which were -commanded by him. When the office of praetor urbanus was instituted, -the wardenship of the city was swallowed up in it; but as the Romans -were at all times averse to dropping altogether any of their old -institutions, a praefectus urbi, though a mere shadow of the former -office, was henceforth appointed every year, only for the time that -the consuls were absent from Rome for the purpose of celebrating the -Feriae Latinae. This praefectus had neither the power of convoking -the senate nor the right of speaking in it; in most cases he was a -person below the senatorial age, and was not appointed by the people, -but by the consuls. An office very different from this, though -bearing the same name, was instituted by Augustus on the suggestion -of Maecenas. This new praefectus urbi was a regular and permanent -magistrate, whom Augustus invested with all the powers necessary to -maintain peace and order in the city. He had the superintendence of -butchers, bankers, guardians, theatres, &c.; and to enable him to -exercise his power, he had distributed throughout the city a number -of milites stationarii, whom we may compare to a modern police. His -jurisdiction, however, became gradually extended; and as the powers -of the ancient republican praefectus urbi had been swallowed up by -the office of the praetor urbanus, so now the power of the praetor -urbanus was gradually absorbed by that of the praefectus urbi; and at -last there was no appeal from his sentence, except to the person of -the princeps himself, while any body might appeal from the sentence -of any other city magistrate, and, at a later period, even from that -of a governor of a province, to the tribunal of the praefectus urbi. - - -PRAEFĬCAE. [FUNUS.] - - -PRAEJŪDĬCĬUM is used both in the sense of a precedent, in which case -it is rather _exemplum_ than _praejudicium_ (_res ex paribus causis -judicatae_); and also in the sense of a preliminary inquiry and -determination about something which belongs to the matter in dispute -(_judiciis ad ipsam causam pertinentibus_), from whence also comes -the name Praejudicium. - - -PRAELŪSĬO. [GLADIATORES.] - - -PRAENŌMEN. [NOMEN.] - - -PRAERŎGĀTĪVA TRIBUS. [COMITIA, p. 109.] - - -PRAES, is a surety for one who buys of the state. The goods of a -Praes were called _Praedia_. The _Praediator_ was a person who bought -a _praedium_, that is, a thing given to the state as a security by a -praes. - - -PRAESCRIPTĬO, or rather TEMPŎRIS PRAESCRIPTĬO, signifies the Exceptio -or answer which a defendant has to the demand of a plaintiff, founded -on the circumstance of the lapse of time. The word has properly no -reference to the plaintiff’s loss of right, but to the defendant’s -acquisition of a right by which he excludes the plaintiff from -prosecuting his suit. This right of a defendant did not exist in the -old Roman law. - - -PRAESES. [PROVINCIA.] - - -PRAESUL. [SALII.] - - -PRAETEXTA. [TOGA.] - - -PRAETOR (στρατηγός), was originally a title which designated the -consuls as the leaders of the armies of the state. The period -and office of the command of the consuls might appropriately be -called _Praetorium_. Praetor was also a title of office among the -Latins. The first praetor specially so called was appointed in B.C. -366, and he was chosen only from the patricians, who had this new -office created as a kind of indemnification to themselves for being -compelled to share the consulship with the plebeians. No plebeian -praetor was appointed till the year B.C. 337. The praetor was called -_collega consulibus_, and was elected with the same auspices at the -comitia centuriata. The praetorship was originally a kind of third -consulship, and the chief functions of the praetor (_jus in urbe -dicere_, _jura reddere_) were a portion of the functions of the -consuls. The praetor sometimes commanded the armies of the state; and -while the consuls were absent with the armies, he exercised their -functions within the city. He was a magistratus curulis, and he had -the imperium, and consequently was one of the magistratus majores: -but he owed respect and obedience to the consuls. His insignia of -office were six lictors; but at a later period he had only two -lictors in Rome. The praetorship was at first given to a consul of -the preceding year.--In B.C. 246 another praetor was appointed, whose -business was to administer justice in matters in dispute between -peregrini, or peregrini and Roman citizens; and accordingly he was -called _praetor peregrinus_. The other praetor was then called -_praetor urbanus, qui jus inter cives dicit_, and sometimes simply -_praetor urbanus_ and _praetor urbis_. The two praetors determined by -lot which functions they should respectively exercise. If either of -them was at the head of the army, the other performed all the duties -of both within the city. Sometimes the military imperium of a praetor -was prolonged for a second year. When the territories of the state -were extended beyond the limits of Italy, new praetors were made. -Thus, two praetors were created B.C. 227, for the administration of -Sicily and Sardinia, and two more were added when the two Spanish -provinces were formed, B.C. 197. When there were six praetors, two -stayed in the city, and the other four went abroad. The senate -determined their provinces, which were distributed among them by -lot. After the discharge of his judicial functions in the city, a -praetor often had the administration of a province, with the title -of _propraetor_. Sulla increased the number of praetors to eight, -which Julius Caesar raised successively to ten, twelve, fourteen, -and sixteen. Augustus, after several changes, fixed the number -at twelve. Under Tiberius there were sixteen. Two praetors were -appointed by Claudius for matters relating to fideicommissa, when -the business in this department of the law had become considerable, -but Titus reduced the number to one; and Nerva added a praetor for -the decision of matters between the fiscus and individuals. Thus -there were eventually eighteen praetors, who administered justice -in the state.--The praetor urbanus was specially named praetor, and -he was the first in rank. His duties confined him to Rome, as is -implied by the name, and he could only leave the city for ten days at -a time. It was part of his duty to superintend the Ludi Apollinares. -He was also the chief magistrate for the administration of justice; -and to the edicta of the successive praetors the Roman law owes in -a great degree its development and improvement. Both the praetor -urbanus and the praetor peregrinus had the jus edicendi, and their -functions in this respect do not appear to have been limited on -the establishment of the imperial power, though it must have been -gradually restricted, as the practice of imperial constitutions and -rescripts became common. [EDICTUM.] The chief judicial functions of -the praetor in civil matters consisted in giving a judex. [JUDEX.] It -was only in the case of interdicts that he decided in a summary way. -[INTERDICTUM.] Proceedings before the praetor were technically said -to be _in jure_. The praetors also presided at trials of criminal -matters. These were the quaestiones perpetuae, or the trials for -repetundae, ambitus, majestas, and peculatus, which, when there were -six praetors, were assigned to four out of the number. Sulla added -to these quaestiones those of falsum, de sicariis et veneficis, and -de parricidis, and for this purpose he added two, or, according -to some accounts, four praetors. On these occasions the praetor -presided, but a body of judices determined by a majority of votes the -condemnation or acquittal of the accused. [JUDEX.] The praetor, when -he administered justice, sat on a sella curulis in a tribunal, which -was that part of the court which was appropriated to the praetor and -his assessors and friends, and is opposed to the subsellia, or part -occupied by the judices, and others who were present. - - -PRAETŌRĬA CŎHORS. [PRAETORIANI.] - - -PRAETŌRĬĀNI, sc. _milites_, or _praetoriae cohortes_, a body of -troops instituted by Augustus to protect his person and his power, -and called by that name in imitation of the _praetoria cohors_, or -select troops which attended the person of the praetor or general of -the Roman army. They originally consisted of nine or ten cohorts, -each comprising a thousand men, horse and foot. Augustus, in -accordance with his general policy of avoiding the appearance of -despotism, stationed only three of these cohorts in the capital, and -dispersed the remainder in the adjacent towns of Italy. Tiberius, -however, under pretence of introducing a stricter discipline among -them, assembled them all at Rome in a permanent camp, which was -strongly fortified. Their number was increased by Vitellius to -sixteen cohorts, or 16,000 men. The praetorians were distinguished -by double pay and especial privileges. Their term of service was -originally fixed by Augustus at twelve years, but was afterwards -increased to sixteen years; and when they had served their time, each -soldier received 20,000 sesterces. They soon became the most powerful -body in the state, and, like the janissaries at Constantinople, -frequently deposed and elevated emperors according to their pleasure. -Even the most powerful of the emperors were obliged to court their -favour; and they always obtained a liberal donation upon the -accession of each sovereign. After the death of Pertinax (A.D. 193) -they even offered the empire for sale, which was purchased by Didius -Julianus; but upon the accession of Severus in the same year they -were disbanded, on account of the part they had taken in the death -of Pertinax, and banished from the city. The emperors, however, -could not dispense with guards, and accordingly the praetorians were -restored on a new model by Severus, and increased to four times their -ancient number. Diocletian reduced their numbers and abolished their -privileges; they were still allowed to remain at Rome, but had no -longer the guard of the emperor’s person, as he never resided in the -capital. Their numbers were again increased by Maxentius; but after -his defeat by Constantine, A.D. 312, they were entirely suppressed -by the latter, their fortified camp destroyed, and those who had -not perished in the battle between Constantine and Maxentius were -dispersed among the legions. The commander of the praetorians was -called PRAEFECTUS PRAETORIO. - - -PRAETŌRĬUM, the name of the general’s tent in the camp, and so -called because the name of the chief Roman magistrate was originally -praetor, and not consul. [CASTRA.] The officers who attended on the -general in the _praetorium_, and formed his council of war, were -called by the same name. The word was also used in several other -significations, which were derived from the original one. Thus the -residence of a governor of a province was called the _praetorium_; -and the same name was also given to any large house or palace. The -camp of the praetorian troops at Rome, and frequently the praetorian -troops themselves, were called by this name. [PRAETORIANI.] - - -PRANDĬUM. [COENA, p. 96, _b_.] - - -PRĒLUM. [VINUM.] - - -PRĪMĬPĪLUS. [CENTURIO.] - - -PRINCEPS JŬVENTŪTIS. [EQUITES.] - - -PRINCEPS SĔNĀTUS. [SENATUS.] - - -PRINCĬPES. [EXERCITUS, p. 168, _b_.] - - -PRINCĬPĬA, PRINCĬPĀLIS VIA. [CASTRA.] - - -PRĪVĬLĒGĬUM. [LEX.] - - -PRŎBŎLĒ (προβολή), an accusation of a criminal nature, preferred -before the people of Athens in assembly, with a view to obtain their -sanction for bringing the charge before a judicial tribunal. The -_probolé_ was reserved for those cases where the public had sustained -an injury, or where, from the station, power, or influence of the -delinquent, the prosecutor might deem it hazardous to proceed in the -ordinary way without being authorised by a vote of the sovereign -assembly. In this point it differed from the _eisangelia_, that in -the latter the people were called upon either to pronounce final -judgment, or to direct some peculiar method of trial; whereas, in the -_probolé_ after the judgment of the assembly, the parties proceeded -to trial in the usual manner. The cases to which the _probolé_ was -applied were, complaints against magistrates for official misconduct -of oppression; against those public informers and mischief-makers who -were called _sycophantae_ (συκοφάνται); against those who outraged -public decency at the religious festivals; and against all such as by -evil practices exhibited disaffection to the state. - - -PRŎBOULEUMA. [BOULE.] - - -PRŎBOULI (πρόβουλοι), a name applicable to any persons who are -appointed to consult or take measures for the benefit of the -people. Ten _probouli_ were appointed at Athens, after the end of -the Sicilian war, to act as a committee of public safety. Their -authority did not last much longer than a year; for a year and a half -afterwards Pisander and his colleagues established the council of -Four Hundred, by which the democracy was overthrown. - - -PRŌCONSUL (ἀνθύπατος), an officer who acted in the place of a -consul, without holding the office of consul itself. The proconsul, -however, was generally one who had held the office of consul, so -that the proconsulship was a continuation, though a modified one, -of the consulship. The first time when the imperium of a consul -was prolonged, was in B.C. 327, in the case of Q. Publilius Philo, -whose return to Rome would have been followed by the loss of most of -the advantages that had been gained in his campaign. The power of -proconsul was conferred by a senatusconsultum and plebiscitum, and -was nearly equal to that of a regular consul, for he had the imperium -and jurisdictio, but it differed inasmuch as it did not extend over -the city and its immediate vicinity, and was conferred, without the -auspicia, by a mere decree of the senate and people, and not in the -comitia for elections. When the number of Roman provinces had become -great, it was customary for the consuls, who during the latter -period of the republic spent the year of their consulship at Rome, -to undertake at its close the conduct of a war in a province, or its -peaceful administration, with the title of proconsuls. There are some -extraordinary cases on record in which a man obtained a province with -the title of proconsul without having held the consulship before. The -first case of this kind occurred in B.C. 211, when young P. Cornelius -Scipio was created proconsul of Spain in the comitia centuriata. - - -PRŌCŪRĀTOR, a person who has the management of any business committed -to him by another. Thus it is applied to a person who maintains -or defends an action on behalf of another, or, as we should say, -an attorney [ACTIO]: to a steward in a family [CALCULATOR]: to an -officer in the provinces belonging to the Caesar, who attended to the -duties discharged by the quaestor in the other provinces [PROVINCIA]: -to an officer engaged in the administration of the fiscus [FISCUS]: -and to various other officers under the empire. - - -PRŌDĬGĬUM, in its widest acceptation, denotes any sign by which the -gods indicated to men a future event, whether good or evil, and thus -includes omens and auguries of every description. It is, however, -generally employed in a more restricted sense, to signify some -strange incident or wonderful appearance which was supposed to herald -the approach of misfortune, and happened under such circumstances as -to announce that the calamity was impending over a whole community -or nation rather than over private individuals. The word may be -considered synonymous with _ostentum_, _monstrum_, _portentum_. -Since prodigies were viewed as direct manifestations of the wrath of -heaven, it was believed that this wrath might be appeased by prayers -and sacrifices duly offered to the offended powers. This being a -matter which deeply concerned the public welfare, the necessary rites -were in ancient times regularly performed, under the direction of the -pontifices, by the consuls before they left the city, the solemnities -being called _procuratio prodigiorum_. - - -PRODŎSĬA (προδοσία) included not only every species of treason, -but also every such crime as (in the opinion of the Greeks) would -amount to a betraying or desertion of the interest of a man’s -country. The highest sort of treason was the attempt to establish a -despotism (τυραννίς), or to subvert the constitution (καταλύειν τὴν -πολιτείαν), and in democracies καταλύειν τὸν δῆμον or τὸ πλῆθος. -Other kinds of treason were a secret correspondence with a foreign -enemy; a betraying of an important trust, such, as a fleet, army, -or fortress, a desertion of post, a disobedience of orders, or any -other act of treachery, or breach of duty in the public service. But -not only would _overt acts_ of disobedience or treachery amount to -the crime of προδοσία, but also the neglect to perform those active -duties which the Greeks in general expected of every good citizen. -Cowardice in battle (δειλία) would be an instance of this kind; so -would any breach of the oath taken by the ἔφηβοι at Athens; or any -line of conduct for which a charge of disaffection to the people -(μισοδημία) might be successfully maintained. The regular punishment -appointed by the law for most kinds of treason appears to have been -death, which, no doubt, might be mitigated by decree of the people, -as in the case of Miltiades and many others. The goods of traitors, -who suffered death, were confiscated, and their houses razed to the -ground; nor were they permitted to be buried in the country, but had -their bodies cast out in some place on the confines of Attica and -Megara. Therefore it was that the bones of Themistocles, who had been -condemned for treason, were brought over and buried secretly by his -friends. The posterity of a traitor became ἄτιμοι, and those of a -tyrant were liable to share the fate of their ancestor. - - -PRŎĔDRI. [BOULE.] - - -PRŌFESTI DĬES. [DIES.] - - -PRŌLĒTĀRĬI. [CAPUT.] - - -PRŎMĒTHEIA (προμήθεια), a festival celebrated at Athens in honour -of Prometheus. It was one of the five Attic festivals, which were -held with a torch-race in the Ceramicus [comp. LAMPADEPHORIA], for -which the gymnasiarchs had to supply the youths from the gymnasia. -Prometheus himself was believed to have instituted this torch-race, -whence he was called the torch-bearer. - - -PRŌMULSIS. [COENA, p. 96, _b_.] - - -PRŌNŬBAE, PRŌNŬBI. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - -PROPRAETOR. [PRAETOR.] - - -PRŎPỸLAEA (προπύλαια), the entrance to a temple, or sacred enclosure, -consisted of a gateway flanked by buildings, whence the plural -form of the word. The Egyptian temples generally had magnificent -_propylaea_, consisting of a pair of oblong truncated pyramids of -solid masonry, the faces of which were sculptured with hieroglyphics. -In Greek, except when the Egyptian temples are spoken of, the word is -generally used to signify the entrance to the Acropolis of Athens, -which was executed under the administration of Pericles. - - -PRŌQUAESTOR. [QUAESTOR.] - - -PRŌRA. [NAVIS, p. 263.] - - -PRŌSCĒNĬUM. [THEATRUM.] - - -PRŌSCRIPTĬO. The verb _proscribere_ properly signifies to exhibit a -thing for sale by means of a bill or advertisement. But in the time -of Sulla it assumed a very different meaning, for he applied it to -a measure of his own invention (B.C. 82), namely, the sale of the -property of those who were put to death at his command, and who were -themselves called _proscripti_. After this example of a proscription -had once been set, it was readily adopted by those in power during -the civil commotions of subsequent years. In the proscription of -Antonius, Caesar, and Lepidus (B.C. 43), Cicero and some of the most -distinguished Romans were put to death. - - -PRŎSTĂTĒS (προστάτης). [LIBERTUS.] - - -PRŎSTĂTĒS TOU DĒMOU (προστάτης τοῦ δήμου), a leader of the people, -denoted at Athens and in other democratical states, a person who -by his character and eloquence placed himself at the head of the -people, and whose opinion had the greatest sway amongst them: such -was Pericles. It appears, however, that προστάτης τοῦ δήμου was also -the title of a public officer in those Dorian states in which the -government was democratical. - - -PRŎTHESMĬA (προθεσμία), the term limited for bringing actions and -prosecutions at Athens. The Athenian expression προθεσμίας νόμος -corresponds to our _statute of limitations_. The time for commencing -actions to recover debts, or compensation for injuries, appears to -have been limited to five years at Athens. - - -PRŌVINCĬA. This word is merely a shortened form of _providentia_, and -was frequently used in the sense of “a duty” or “matter entrusted -to a person.” But it is ordinarily employed to denote a part of -the Roman dominion beyond Italy, which had a regular organisation, -and was under Roman administration. Livy likewise uses the word -to denote a district or enemy’s country, which was assigned to a -general as the field of his operations, before the establishment -of any provincial governments.--The Roman state in its complete -development consisted of two parts with a distinct organisation, -_Italia_ and the _Provinciae_. There were no Provinciae in this -sense of the word till the Romans had extended their conquests -beyond Italy; and Sicily was the first country that was made a Roman -province: Sardinia was made a province B.C. 235. The Roman province -of Gallia Ulterior in the time of Caesar was sometimes designated -simply by the term Provincia, a name which has been perpetuated in -the modern Provence. A conquered country received its provincial -organisation either from the Roman commander, whose acts required -the approval of the senate; or the government was organised by the -commander and a body of commissioners appointed by the senate out -of their own number. The mode of dealing with a conquered country -was not uniform. When constituted a provincia, it did not become to -all purposes an integral part of the Roman state; it retained its -national existence, though it lost its sovereignty. The organisation -of Sicily was completed by P. Rupilius with the aid of ten legates. -The island was formed into two districts, with Syracuse for the -chief town of the eastern and Lilybaeum of the western district: -the whole island was administered by a governor annually sent from -Rome. He was assisted by two quaestors, and was accompanied by a -train of praecones, scribae, haruspices, and other persons, who -formed his cohors. The quaestors received from the Roman aerarium -the necessary sums for the administration of the island, and they -also collected the taxes, except those which were farmed by the -censors at Rome. One quaestor resided at Lilybaeum, and the other -with the governor or praetor at Syracuse. For the administration of -justice the island was divided into _Fora_ or _Conventus_, which -were territorial divisions. [CONVENTUS.] The island was bound to -furnish and maintain soldiers and sailors for the service of Rome, -and to pay tributum for the carrying on of wars. The governor could -take provisions for the use of himself and his cohors on condition -of paying for them. The Roman state had also the portoria which were -let to farm to Romans at Rome. The governor had complete jurisdictio -in the island, with the imperium and potestas. He could delegate -these powers to his quaestors, but there was always an appeal to -him, and for this and other purposes he made circuits through the -different conventus.--Such was the organisation of Sicilia as a -province, which may be taken as a sample of the general character -of Roman provincial government. The governor, upon entering on his -duties, published an edict, which was often framed upon the Edictum -Urbanum. Cicero, when proconsul of Cilicia, says that on some matters -he framed an edict of his own, and that as to others he referred to -the Edicta Urbana. There was one great distinction between Italy -and the provinces as to the nature of property in land. Provincial -land could not be an object of Quiritarian ownership, and it was -accordingly appropriately called Possessio. Provincial land could be -transferred without the forms required in the case of Italian land, -but it was subject to the payment of a land-tax (_vectigal_).--The -Roman provinces up to the battle of Actium are: Sicilia, Sardinia -et Corsica; Hispania Citerior et Ulterior; Gallia Citerior; Gallia -Narbonensis et Comata; Illyricum; Macedonia; Achaia; Asia; Cilicia; -Syria; Bithynia et Pontus; Cyprus; Africa; Cyrenaica et Creta; -Numidia; Mauritania. Those of a subsequent date, which were either -new or arose from division, are: Rhaetia; Noricum; Pannonia; Moesia; -Dacia; Britannia; Mauritania Caesariensis and Tingitana; Aegyptus; -Cappadocia; Galatia; Rhodus; Lycia; Commagene; Judaea; Arabia; -Mesopotamia; Armenia; Assyria.--At first praetors were appointed -as governors of provinces, but afterwards they were appointed to -the government of provinces, upon the expiration of their year of -office at Rome, and with the title of propraetores. In the later -times of the republic, the consuls also, after the expiration of -their year of office, received the government of a province, with -the title of proconsules: such provinces were called consulares. The -provinces were generally distributed by lot, but the distribution -was sometimes arranged by agreement among the persons entitled to -them. By a Sempronian Lex the proconsular provinces were annually -determined before the election of the consuls, the object of which -was to prevent all disputes. A senatus consultum of the year 55 B.C. -provided that no consul or praetor should have a province till after -the expiration of five years from the time of his consulship or -praetorship. A province was generally held for a year, but the time -was often prolonged. When a new governor arrived in his province, his -predecessor was required to leave it within thirty days. The governor -of a province had originally to account at Rome (_ad urbem_) for his -administration, from his own books and those of his quaestors; but -after the passing of a Lex Julia, B.C. 61, he was bound to deposit -two copies of his accounts (_rationes_) in the two chief cities of -his province, and to forward one (_totidem verbis_) to the aerarium. -If the governor misconducted himself in the administration of the -province, the provincials applied to the Roman senate, and to the -powerful Romans who were their patroni. The offences of repetundae -and peculatus were the usual grounds of complaint by the provincials; -and if a governor had betrayed the interests of the state, he was -also liable to the penalties attached to majestas. Quaestiones were -established for inquiries into these offences; yet it was not always -an easy matter to bring a guilty governor to the punishment that -he deserved.--With the establishment of the imperial power under -Augustus, a considerable change was made in the administration of -the provinces. Augustus took the charge of those provinces where a -large military force was required; the rest were left to the care of -the senate and the Roman people. Accordingly we find in the older -jurists the division of provinciae into those which were _propriae -populi Romani_, and those which were _propriae Caesaris_; and this -division, with some modifications, continued to the third century. -The senatorian provinces were distributed among consulares and those -who had filled the office of praetor, two provinces being given to -the consulares and the rest to the praetorii: these governors were -called _proconsules_, or _praesides_, which latter is the usual -term employed by the old jurists for a provincial governor. The -praesides had the jurisdictio of the praetor urbanus and the praetor -peregrinus: and their quaestors had the same jurisdiction that the -curule aediles had at Rome. The imperial provinces were governed -by _legati Caesaris_, with praetorian power, the proconsular power -being in the Caesar himself, and the legati being his deputies and -representatives. The legati were selected from those who had been -consuls or praetors, or from the senators. They held their office and -their power at the pleasure of the emperor; and he delegated to them -both military command and jurisdictio, just as a proconsul in the -republican period delegated these powers to his legati. These legati -had also legati under them. No quaestors were sent to the provinces -of the Caesar. In place of the quaestors, there were _procuratores -Caesaris_, who were either equites or freedmen of the Caesar. -Egypt was governed by an eques with the title of praefectus. The -procuratores looked after the taxes, paid the troops, and generally -were intrusted with the interests of the fiscus. Judaea, which was a -part of the province of Syria, was governed by a procurator, who had -the powers of a legatus. It appears that there were also procuratores -Caesaris in the senatorian provinces, who collected certain dues of -the fiscus, which were independent of what was due to the aerarium. -The regular taxes, as in the republican period, were the poll-tax -and land-tax. The taxation was founded on a census of persons and -property, which was established by Augustus. The portoria and other -dues were farmed by the publicani, as in the republican period. - - -PRŌVŎCĀTĬO. [APPELLATIO.] - - -PRŌVŎCĀTŌRES. [GLADIATORES.] - - -PROXĔNUS (πρόξενος). [HOSPITIUM.] - - -PRỸTĂNEIUM (πρυτανεῖον), the public hall or town-hall in a Greek -state. The _prytaneia_ of the ancient Greek states and cities were -to the communities living around them, what private houses were to -the families which occupied them. Just as the house of each family -was its home, so was the _prytaneium_ of every state or city the -common home of its members or inhabitants. This correspondence -between the _prytaneium_ or home of the city, and the private home of -a man’s family, was at Athens very remarkable. A perpetual fire was -kept burning on the public altar of the city in the prytaneium, just -as in private houses a fire was kept up on the domestic altar in the -inner court of the house. Moreover, the city of Athens exercised in -its prytaneium the duties of hospitality, both to its own citizens -and to strangers. Thus foreign ambassadors were entertained here, -as well as Athenian envoys, on their return home from a successful -or well-conducted mission. Here, too, were entertained from day to -day the successive prytanes or presidents of the senate, together -with those citizens who, whether from personal or ancestral services -to the state, were honoured with what was called the σίτησις ἐν -πρυτανείῳ, or the privilege of taking their meals there at the public -cost. This was granted sometimes for a limited period, sometimes -for life, in which latter case the parties enjoying it were called -ἀείσιτοι. Moreover, from the ever-burning fire of the prytaneium, or -home of a mother state, was carried the sacred fire which was to be -kept burning in the prytaneia of her colonies; and if it happened -that this was ever extinguished, the flame was rekindled from the -prytaneium of the parent city. Lastly, a prytaneium was also a -distinguishing mark of an independent state. The prytaneium of Athens -lay under the Acropolis on its northern side (near the ἀγορά), and -was, as its name denotes, originally the place of assembly of the -_prytanes_; in the earliest times it probably stood on the Acropolis. -Officers called _prytanes_ (πρυτανεῖς) were entrusted with the chief -magistracy in several states of Greece, as Corcyra, Corinth, Miletus. -At Athens they were in early times probably a magistracy of the -second rank in the state (next to the archon), acting as judges in -various cases (perhaps in conjunction with him), and sitting in the -prytaneium. That this was the case is rendered probable by the fact, -that even in after-times the fees paid into court by plaintiff and -defendant, before they could proceed to trial, and received by the -dicasts, were called _prytaneia_. - - -PRỸTĂNES. [PRYTANEIUM; BOULE.] - - -PSĒPHISMA. [BOULE; NOMOTHETES.] - - -PSĒPHUS (ψῆφος), a ball of stone, used by the Athenian dicasts in -giving their verdict. [CADISCUS.] Hence ψηφίζεσθαι and its various -derivatives are used so often to signify _voting_, _determining_, &c. - - -PSEUDENGRĂPHĒS GRĂPHĒ (ψευδεγγραφῆς γραφή). The name of every state -debtor at Athens was entered in a register by the praetores, whose -duty it was to collect the debts, and erase the name of the party -when he had paid it. If they made a false entry, either wilfully, -or upon the suggestion of another person, the aggrieved party might -institute a prosecution against them, or against the person upon -whose suggestion it was made. Such prosecution was called γραφὴ -ψευδεγγραφῆς. It would lie also, where a man was registered as debtor -for more than was really due from him. - - -PSEUDŎCLĒTEIAS GRĂPHĒ (ψευδοκλητείας γραφή), a prosecution against -one, who had appeared as a witness (κλητήρ or κλήτωρ) to prove that a -defendant had been duly summoned, and thereby enabled the plaintiff -to get a judgment by default. The false witness (κλητήρ) was liable -to be criminally prosecuted, and punished at the discretion of the -court. The γραφὴ ψευδοκλητείας came before the Thesmothetae, and the -question at the trial simply was, whether the defendant in the former -cause had been summoned or not. - - -PSĪLI (ψιλοί). [ARMA.] - - -PSYCTĒR (ψυκτήρ, _dim._ ψυκτηρίδιον), a wine-cooler, was sometimes -made of bronze or silver. One of earthenware is preserved in the -Museum of Antiquities at Copenhagen. It consists of one deep vessel -for holding ice, which is fixed within another for holding wine. The -wine was poured in at the top. It thus surrounded the vessel of ice -and was cooled by the contact. It was drawn off so as to fill the -drinking-cups by means of a cock at the bottom. - - -PŪBES, PŪBERTAS. [IMPUBES; INFANS.] - - -PUBLĬCĀNI, farmers of the public revenues of the Roman state -(_vectigalia_). Their name is formed from _publicum_, which signifies -all that belongs to the state, and is sometimes used by Roman writers -as synonymous with _vectigal_. The revenues which Rome derived from -conquered countries, consisting chiefly of tolls, tithes, harbour -duties, the scriptura, or the tax which was paid for the use of the -public pasture lands, and the duties paid for the use of mines and -salt-works (_salinae_), were let out, or, as the Romans expressed it, -were sold by the censors in Rome itself to the highest bidder. This -sale generally took place in the month of Quinctilis, and was made -for a lustrum. The terms on which the revenues were let, were fixed -by the censors in the so-called _leges censoriae_. The people or the -senate, however, sometimes modified the terms fixed by the censors, -in order to raise the credit of the publicani; and in some cases -even the tribunes of the people interfered in this branch of the -administration. The tithes raised in the province of Sicily alone, -with the exception of those of wine, oil, and garden produce, were -not sold at Rome, but in the districts of Sicily itself, according -to a practice established by Hiero. The persons who undertook the -farming of the public revenue of course belonged to the wealthiest -Romans, and during the latter period of the republic they belonged -almost exclusively to the equestrian order. Their wealth and -consequent influence may be seen from the fact, that as early as the -second Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, when the aerarium was -entirely exhausted, the publicani advanced large sums of money to the -state, on condition of repayment after the end of the war. The words -equites and publicani are sometimes used as synonymous. The publicani -had to give security to the state for the sum at which they bought -one or more branches of the revenue in a province; but as for this -reason the property of even the wealthiest individual must have been -inadequate, a number of equites generally united together, and formed -a company (_socii_, _societas_, or _corpus_), which was recognised -by the state, and by which they were enabled to carry on their -undertakings upon a large scale. Such companies appear as early as -the second Punic war. The shares which each partner of such a company -took in the business were called _partes_, and if they were small, -_particulae_. The responsible person in each company, and the one who -contracted with the state, was called _manceps_ [MANCEPS]; but there -was also a _magister_ to manage the business of each society, who -resided at Rome, and kept an extensive correspondence with the agents -in the provinces. He seems to have held his office only for one -year; his representative in the provinces was called _sub magistro_, -who had to travel about, and superintend the actual business of -collecting the revenues. Nobody but a Roman citizen was allowed to -become a member of a company of publicani; freedmen and slaves were -excluded. No Roman magistrate, however, or governor of a province, -was allowed to take any share whatever in a company of publicani, -a regulation which was chiefly intended as a protection against -the oppression of the provincials. The collection of the taxes in -the provinces was performed by an inferior class of men, who were -said _operas publicanis dare_, or _esse in operis societatis_. They -were engaged by the publicani, and consisted of freemen as well as -slaves, Romans as well as provincials. The separate branches of the -public revenue in the provinces (_decumae_, _portoria_, _scriptura_, -and the revenues from the mines and salt-works) were mostly leased -to separate companies of publicani; whence they were distinguished -by names derived from that particular branch which they had taken in -farm; _e.g._ _decumani_, _pecuarii_ or _scripturarii_, _salinarii_ or -_mancipes salinarum_, &c. [DECUMAE; PORTORIUM; SALINAS; SCRIPTURA.] -The _portitores_ were not publicani properly so called, but only -their servants engaged in examining the goods imported or exported, -and levying the custom-duties upon them. They belonged to the same -class as the publicans of the New Testament. - - -PUBLĬCUM. [PUBLICANI.] - - -PŬGĬLĀTUS (πύξ, πυγμή, πυγμαχία, πυγμοσύνη), boxing, was one of the -earliest athletic games among the Greeks, and is frequently mentioned -in Homer. In the earliest times boxers (_pugiles_, πύκται) fought -naked, with the exception of a girdle (ζῶμα) round their loins; but -this was not used when boxing was introduced at Olympia, as the -contests in wrestling and racing had been carried on there by persons -entirely naked ever since Ol. 15. Respecting the leathern thongs -with which pugilists surrounded their fists, see Cestus, where its -various forms are illustrated by woodcuts. The Ionians, especially -those of Samos, were at all times more distinguished pugilists than -the Dorians, and at Sparta boxing is said to have been forbidden by -the laws of Lycurgus. But the ancients generally considered boxing as -a useful training for military purposes, and a part of education no -less important than any other gymnastic exercise. - - -PŬGILLĀRES. [TABULAE.] - - -PŬGĬO (μάχαιρα), a dagger; a two-edged knife, commonly of bronze, -with the hand in many cases variously ornamented or enriched. - - -PULLĀRĬUS. [AUSPICIUM.] - - -PULPĬTUM. [THEATRUM.] - - -PULVĪNAR, a couch provided with cushions or pillows (_pulvini_), -on which the Romans placed the statues of the gods at the -_Lectisternia_. [EPULONES; LECTISTERNIUM.] There was also a -_pulvinar_, on which the images of the gods were laid, in the Circus. - - -PŪPILLA, PŪPILLUS, the name given to every _impubes_ not in the power -of their father, but subject to a guardian. [IMPUBES; TUTELA.] - - -PUPPIS. [NAVIS.] - - -PŬTĔAL, properly means the enclosure surrounding the opening of a -well, to protect persons from falling into it. It was either round -or square, and seems usually to have been of the height of three -or four feet from the ground. It was the practice in some cases to -surround a sacred place with an enclosure open at the top, and such -enclosures, from the great similarity they bore to _putealia_, were -called by this name. There were two such places in the Roman forum; -one of these was called _Puteal Libonis_ or _Scribonianum_, because -a chapel (_sacellum_) in that place had been struck by lightning, -and Scribonius Libo expiated it by proper ceremonies, and erected -a puteal around it, open at the top, to preserve the memory of the -place. The form of this puteal is preserved on several coins of the -Scribonian gens. This puteal seems to have been near the atrium of -Vesta, and was a common place of meeting for usurers. The other -puteal was in the comitium, on the left side of the senate-house, and -in it were deposited the whetstone and razor of ATTUS NAVIUS. - -[Illustration: Puteal on a Coin of the Scribonia Gens. (British -Museum.)] - - -PUTĬCŬLI. [FUNUS.] - - -PỸANEPSIA (πυανέψια), a festival celebrated at Athens every year on -the seventh of Pyanepsion, in honour of Apollo, said to have been -instituted by Theseus after his return from Crete. The festival, as -well as the month in which it took place, are said to have derived -their names from πύαμος, another form for κύαμος, _i.e._ pulse or -beans, which were cooked at this season and carried about. - - -PỸLĂGŎRAE. [AMPHICTYONES.] - - -PỸRA. [FUNUS.] - - -PYRRHĬCA. [SALTATIO.] - - -PȲTHĬA (πύθια), one of the four great national festivals of the -Greeks. It was celebrated in the neighbourhood of Delphi, anciently -called Pytho, in honour of Apollo, Artemis, and Leto. The place of -this solemnity was the Crissaean plain, which for this purpose -contained a hippodromus or race-course, a stadium of 1000 feet in -length, and a theatre, in which the musical contests took place. -The Pythian games were, according to most legends, instituted by -Apollo himself. They were originally perhaps nothing more than a -religious panegyris, occasioned by the oracle of Delphi, and the -sacred games are said to have been at first only a musical contest, -which consisted in singing a hymn to the honour of the Pythian god, -with the accompaniment of the cithara. They must, on account of the -celebrity of the Delphic oracle, have become a national festival -for all the Greeks at a very early period, and gradually all the -various contests were introduced which occur in the Olympic games. -[OLYMPIA.] Down to Ol. 48. the Delphians had been the agonothetae at -the Pythian games; but in the third year of this Olympiad, after the -Crissaean war, the Amphictyons took the management under their care, -and appointed certain persons, called _Epimeletae_ (ἐπιμεληταί), -to conduct them. Some of the ancients date the institution of the -Pythian games from this time. Previous to Ol. 48. the Pythian games -had been an ἐνναετηρίς, that is, they had been celebrated at the -end of every eighth year; but in Ol. 48. 3. they became, like the -Olympia, a πενταετηρίς, _i.e._ they were held at the end of every -fourth year; and a Pythiad, therefore, from the time that it was -used as an aera, comprehended a space of four years, commencing -with the third year of every Olympiad. They were in all probability -held in the spring, and took place in the month of Bucatius, which -corresponded to the Attic Munychion. - - -PȲTHĬI (πύθιοι), four persons appointed by the Spartan kings, two by -each, as messengers to the temple of Delphi. Their office was highly -honourable and important; they were always the messmates of the -Spartan kings. - - -PYXIS, _dim._ PYXĬDŬLA (πύξις, dim. πυξίδιον), a casket; a -jewel-box. The caskets in which the ladies of ancient times kept -their jewels and other ornaments, were made of gold, silver, ivory, -mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, &c. They were also much enriched -with sculpture. The annexed woodcut represents a very plain -jewel-box, out of which a dove is extracting a riband or fillet. - -[Illustration: Pyxis, jewel-box. (From a Painting at Herculaneum.)] - - - - -QUADRĀGĒSĬMA, the fortieth part of the imported goods, was the -ordinary rate of the Portorium under the empire. [PORTORIUM.] - - -QUADRANS. [AS.] - - -QUADRANTAL, or AMPHŎRA QUADRANTAL, or AMPHŎRA only, was the principal -Roman measure of capacity for fluids. A standard model of the -_Amphora_ was kept with great care in the temple of Jupiter in the -Capitol, and was called _amphora Capitolina_. It contained 5·77 -imperial gallons, or a little more than 5¾ gallons, or than 5 gallons -and 6 pints. - - -QUADRĪGA. [CURRUS.] - - -QUADRĪGĀTUS. [DENARIUS.] - - -QUADRŬPLĀTŌRES: public informers or accusers were so called, either -because they received a fourth part of the criminal’s property, or -because those who were convicted were condemned to pay fourfold -(_quadrupli damnari_), as in cases of violation of the laws -respecting gambling, usury, &c. - - -QUAESTIŌNES, QUAESTIŌNES PERPĔTUAE. [JUDEX: PRAETOR.] - - -QUAESTOR (ταμίας), a name given to two distinct classes of Roman -officers. It is derived from _quaero_, and Varro gives a definition -which embraces the principal functions of both classes of officers: -_Quaestores a quaerendo, qui conquirerent publicas pecunias et -maleficia_. The one class, therefore, had to do with the collecting -and keeping of the public revenues, and the others were a kind of -public accusers. The former bore the name of _Quaestores Classici_, -the latter of _Quaestores Parricidii_.--The _Quaestores Parricidii_ -were public accusers, two in number, who conducted the accusation of -persons guilty of murder or any other capital offence, and carried -the sentence into execution. In the early period of the republic -the quaestores parricidii appear to have become a standing office, -which, like others, was held only for one year. They were appointed -by the populus or the curies on the presentation of the consuls. -When these quaestores discovered that a capital offence had been -committed, they had to bring the charge before the comitia for trial. -When the sentence had been pronounced by the people, the quaestores -parricidii executed it; thus they threw Spurius Cassius from the -Tarpeian rock. They were mentioned in the laws of the Twelve Tables, -and after the time of the decemvirate they still continued to be -appointed, though probably no longer by the curies, but either in -the comitia centuriata or tribute, which they therefore must have had -the right of assembling in cases of emergency. From the year B.C. 366 -they are no longer mentioned in Roman history, as their functions -were gradually transferred to the triumviri capitales. [TRIUMVIRI -CAPITALES.]--The _Quaestores Classici_, usually called _Quaestores_ -simply, were officers entrusted with the care of the public money. -They were elected by the centuries, and the office is said to have -been first instituted by Valerius Publicola. They were at first -only two in number, and of course taken only from the patricians. -As the senate had the supreme administration of the finances, the -quaestors were in some measure only its agents or paymasters, for -they could not dispose of any part of the public money without being -directed by the senate. Their duties consequently consisted in making -the necessary payments from the aerarium, and receiving the public -revenues. Of both they had to keep correct accounts in their _tabulae -publicae_. Demands which any one might have on the aerarium, and -outstanding debts, were likewise registered by them. Fines to be paid -to the public treasury were registered and exacted by them. Another -branch of their duties, which, however, was likewise connected with -the treasury, was to provide the proper accommodation for foreign -ambassadors, and such persons as were connected with the republic -by ties of public hospitality.--In B.C. 421 the number of quaestors -was doubled, and the tribunes tried to effect, by an amendment of -the law, that a part (probably two) of the quaestores should be -plebeians. This attempt was indeed frustrated, but the interrex L. -Papirius effected a compromise, that the election should not be -restricted to either order. After this law was carried, eleven years -passed without any plebeian being elected to the office: at last, in -B.C. 409, three of the four quaestors were plebeians. A person who -had held the office of quaestor had undoubtedly, as in later times, -the right to take his seat in the senate, unless he was excluded as -unworthy by the next censors. And this was probably the reason why -the patricians so resolutely opposed the admission of plebeians to -this office. Henceforth the consuls, whenever they took the field -against an enemy, were accompanied by one quaestor each, who at -first had only to superintend the sale of the booty, the produce of -which was either divided among the legion, or was transferred to -the aerarium. Subsequently, however, we find that these quaestors -also kept the funds of the army, which they had received from the -treasury at Rome, and gave the soldiers their pay; they were in fact -the paymasters of the army. The two other quaestors, who remained -at Rome, continued to discharge the same duties as before, and -were distinguished from those who accompanied the consuls by the -epithet _urbani_. In B.C. 265, after the Romans had made themselves -masters of Italy, and when, in consequence, the administration of -the treasury and the raising of the revenues became more laborious -and important, the number of quaestors was again doubled to eight; -and it is probable that henceforth their number continued to be -increased in proportion as the empire became extended. One of the -eight quaestors was appointed by lot to the _Quaestura Ostiensis_, -a most laborious and important post, as he had to provide Rome with -corn. Besides the quaestor Ostiensis, who resided at Ostia, three -other quaestors were distributed in Italy, to raise those parts of -the revenue which were not farmed by the publicani, and to control -the latter. One of them resided at Cales, and the two others probably -in towns on the Upper Sea. The two remaining quaestors were sent to -Sicily.--Sulla, in his dictatorship, raised the number of quaestors -to twenty, that he might have a large number of candidates for the -senate, and J. Caesar even to forty. In the year B.C. 49 no quaestors -were elected, and Caesar transferred the keeping of the aerarium -to the aediles. From this time forward the treasury was sometimes -entrusted to the praetors, sometimes to the praetorii, and sometimes -again to quaestors. [AERARIUM.] Quaestors, however, both in the city -and in the provinces, occur down to the latest period of the empire. -The proconsul or praetor, who had the administration of a province, -was attended by a quaestor. This quaestor had undoubtedly to perform -the same functions as those who accompanied the armies into the -field; they were in fact the same officers, with the exception that -the former were stationary in their province during the time of -their office, and had consequently rights and duties which those who -accompanied the armies could not have. In the provinces the quaestors -had the same jurisdiction as the curule aediles at Rome. The relation -existing between a praetor or proconsul of a province and his -quaestor was, according to ancient custom, regarded as resembling -that between a father and his son. When a quaestor died in his -province, the praetors had the right of appointing a _proquaestor_ in -his stead; and when the praetor was absent, the quaestor supplied his -place, and was then attended by lictors. In what manner the provinces -were assigned to the quaestors after their election at Rome, is -not mentioned, though it was probably by lot, as in the case of the -quaestor Ostiensis. - - -QUAESTŌRĬUM. [CASTRA.] - - -QUĀLUS. [CALATHUS.] - - -QUARTĀRĬUS. [SEXTARIUS.] - - -QUĂSILLĀRĬAE. [CALATHUS.] - - -QUĂSILLUM. [CALATHUS.] - - -QUĂTŬORVĬRI JŪRI DĪCUNDO. [COLONIA.] - - -QUĂTŬORVĬRI VĬĀRUM CŪRANDĀRUM, four officers who had the -superintendence of the roads (_viae_), were first appointed after the -war with Pyrrhus, when so many public roads were made by the Romans. - - -QUĪNĀRĬUS. [DENARIUS.] - - -QUINCUNX. [AS.] - - -QUINDĔCIMVĬRI. [DECIMVIRI.] - - -QUINQUATRUS or QUINQUATRĬA, a festival sacred to Minerva, which was -celebrated on the 19th of March. Ovid says that it was celebrated -for five days, that on the first day no blood was shed, but that on -the last four there were contests of gladiators. It would appear, -however, that only the first day was the festival properly so called, -and that the last four were merely an addition made perhaps in the -time of Caesar, to gratify the people, who became so passionately -fond of gladiatorial combats. On the fifth day of the festival, -according to Ovid, the trumpets used in sacred rites were purified; -but this seems to have been originally a separate festival called -_Tubilustrium_, which was celebrated, as we know from the ancient -calendars, on the 23rd of March, and would of course, when the -Quinquatrus was extended to five days, fall on the last day of that -festival. There was also another festival of this name, called -_Quinquatrus Minusculae_ or _Quinquatrus Minores_, celebrated on -the Ides of June, on which the tibicines went through the city in -procession to the temple of Minerva. - - -QUINQUENNĀLĬA, were games instituted by Nero, A.D. 60, in imitation -of the Greek festivals, and celebrated like the Greek πενταετηρίδες, -at the end of every four years: they consisted of musical, gymnastic, -and equestrian contests. - - -QUINQUENNĀLIS. [COLONIA, p. 101, _a_.] - - -QUINQUĔRĒMIS. [NAVIS.] - - -QUINQUERTĬUM. [PENTATHLON.] - - -QUINQUĔVĬRI, or five commissioners, were frequently appointed under -the republic as extraordinary magistrates to carry any measure into -effect. - - -QUINTĀNA. [CASTRA.] - - -QUĬRĪNĀLĬA, a festival sacred to Quirinus, which was celebrated on -the 17th of February, on which day Romulus (Quirinus) was said -to have been carried up to heaven. This festival was also called -_Stultorum feriae_, respecting the meaning of which see FORNACALIA. - - -QUĬRĪTĬUM JUS. [JUS.] - - - - -RAMNES. [PATRICII.] - - -RĂPĪNA. [FURTUM.] - - -RĔCŬPĔRĀTŌRES. [JUDEX.] - - -RĔDEMPTOR, the general name for a contractor, who undertook the -building and repairing of public works, private houses, &c., and in -fact of any kind of work. The farmers of the public taxes were also -called _Redemptores_. - - -RĔDĬMĪCULUM (καθετήρ), a fillet attached to the _calautica_, -_diadema_, _mitra_, or other head-dress at the occiput, and passed -over the shoulders, so as to hang on each side over the breast. -_Redimicula_ were properly female ornaments. - - -RĒGĬFŬGĬUM or FŬGĀLIA, the king’s flight, a festival which was held -by the Romans every year on the 24th of February, and, according -to some ancient writers, in commemoration of the flight of king -Tarquinius Superbus from Rome. The day is marked in the Fasti as -nefastus. In some ancient calendars the 24th of May is likewise -called Regifugium. It is doubtful whether either of these days had -anything to do with the flight of king Tarquinius: they may have -derived their name from the symbolical flight of the Rex Sacrorum -from the comitium; for this king-priest was generally not allowed to -appear in the comitium, which was destined for the transaction of -political matters in which he could not take part. But on certain -days in the year, and certainly on the two days mentioned above, -he had to go to the comitium for the purpose of offering certain -sacrifices, and immediately after he had performed his functions -there, he hastily fled from it; and this symbolical flight was called -Regifugium. - - -RĔLĒGĀTĬO. [EXSILIUM.] - - -RĔMANCĬPĀTIO. [EMANCIPATIO.] - - -RĔMULCUM (ῥυμουλκηῖν τὰς ναῦς), a rope for towing a ship, and -likewise a tow-barge. - - -RĔMŪRĬA. [LEMURIA.] - - -RĒMUS. [NAVIS.] - - -RĔPĔTUNDAE, or PĔCŪNĬAE RĔPĔTUNDAE, was the term used to designate -such sums of money as the socii of the Roman state or individuals -claimed to recover from magistratus, judices, or publici curatores, -which they had improperly taken or received in the Provinciae, or -in the Urbs Roma, either in the discharge of their jurisdictio, -or in their capacity of judices, or in respect of any other public -function. Sometimes the word Repetundae was used to express the -illegal act for which compensation was sought, as in the phrase -_repetundarum insimulari, damnari_; and Pecuniae meant not only -money, but anything that had value. The first lex on the subject -was the Calpurnia, which was proposed and carried by the tribunus -plebis L. Calpurnius Piso (B.C. 149). By this lex a praetor was -appointed for trying persons charged with this crime. It seems that -the penalties of the Lex Calpurnia were merely pecuniary, and at -least did not comprise exsilium. Various leges de repetundis were -passed after the Lex Calpurnia, and the penalties were continually -made heavier. The Lex Junia was passed probably about B.C. 126, on -the proposal of M. Junius Pennus, tribunus plebis. The Lex Servilia -Glaucia was proposed and carried by C. Servilius Glaucia, praetor, -in the sixth consulship of Marius, B.C. 100. This lex applied to -any magistratus who had improperly taken or received money from -any private person; but a magistratus could not be accused during -the term of office. The lex enacted that the praetor peregrinus -should annually appoint 450 judices for the trial of this offence: -the judices were not to be senators. The penalties of the lex were -pecuniary and exsilium; the law allowed a comperendinatio. [JUDEX.] -Before the Lex Servilia, the pecuniary penalty was simply restitution -of what had been wrongfully taken; this lex seems to have raised -the penalty to double the amount of what had been wrongfully taken; -and subsequently it was made quadruple. Exsilium was only the -punishment in case a man did not abide his trial, but withdrew from -Rome. The lex gave the civitas to any person on whose complaint a -person was convicted of repetundae. The Lex Acilia, which seems -to be of uncertain date, was proposed and carried by M’. Acilius -Glabrio, a tribune of the plebs, and enacted that there should be -neither ampliatio nor comperendinatio. The Lex Cornelia was passed -in the dictatorship of Sulla, and continued in force to the time of -C. Julius Caesar. It extended the penalties of repetundae to other -illegal acts committed in the provinces, and to judices who received -bribes, to those to whose hands the money came, and to those who did -not give into the aerarium their proconsular accounts (_proconsulares -rationes_). The praetor who presided over this quaestio chose the -judges by lot from the senators, whence it appears that the Servilia -Lex was repealed by this lex, at least so far as related to the -constitution of the court. This lex also allowed ampliatio and -comperendinatio. The penalties were pecuniary (_litis aestimatio_) -and the _aquae et ignis interdictio_. Under this lex were tried -L. Dolabella, Cn. Piso, C. Verres, C. Macer, M. Fonteius, and L. -Flaccus, the two last of whom were defended by Cicero. In the Verrine -Orations Cicero complains of the comperendinatio or double hearing -of the cause, which the Lex Cornelia allowed, and refers to the -practice under the Lex Acilia, according to which the case for the -prosecution, the defence, and the evidence were only heard once, and -so the matter was decided. The last lex de repetundis was the Lex -Julia, passed in the first consulship of C. Julius Caesar, B.C. 59. -This lex repealed the penalty of exsilium, but in addition to the -litis aestimatio, it enacted that persons convicted under this lex -should lose their rank, and be disqualified from being witnesses, -judices, or senators. The lex had been passed when Cicero made his -oration against Piso, B.C. 55. A. Gabinius was convicted under this -lex. Under the empire the offence was punishable with exile. - - -RĔPŌTĬA. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - -RĔPŬDĬUM. [DIVORTIUM.] - -RĒTĬĀRĬI. [GLADIATORES.] - - -RĒTĬCŬLUM. [COMA.] - - -[Illustration: Retia, Nets (From a Bas-Relief at Ince-Blundell.)] - -RĒTIS and RĒTE; _dim._ RĒTĬCŬLUM (δίκτυον), a net. Nets were made -most commonly of flax or hemp, whence they are sometimes called -_lina_ (λίνα). The meshes (_maculae_, βρόχοι, _dim._ βροχίδες) were -great or small according to the purposes intended. By far the most -important application of net-work was to the three kindred arts -of fowling, hunting, and fishing. In fowling the use of nets was -comparatively limited. In hunting it was usual to extend nets in -a curved line of considerable length, so as in part to surround a -space into which the beasts of chace, such as the hare, the boar, -the deer, the lion, and the bear, were driven through the opening -left on one side. This range of nets was flanked by cords, to which -feathers dyed scarlet and of other bright colours were tied, so as to -flare and flutter in the wind. The hunters then sallied forth with -their dogs, dislodged the animals from their coverts, and by shouts -and barking drove them first within the _formido_, as the apparatus -of string and feathers was called, and then, as they were scared -with this appearance, within the circuit of the nets. In the drawing -below three servants with staves carry on their shoulders a large -net, which is intended to be set up as already described. In the -lower figure the net is set up. At each end of it stands a watchman -holding a staff. Being intended to take such large quadrupeds as -boars and deer (which are seen within it), the meshes are very wide -(_retia rara_). The net is supported by three stakes (στάλικες, -_ancones_, _vari_). To dispose the nets in this manner was called -_retia ponere_, or _retia tendere_. Comparing it with the stature of -the attendants, we perceive the net to be between five and six feet -high. The upper border of the net consists of a strong rope, which -was called σαρδών. Fishing-nets (ἁλιευτικὰ δίκτυα) were of different -kinds. Of these the most common were the ἀμφίβληστρον, or casting-net -(_funda_, _jaculum_, _retinaculum_) and the σαγήνη, _i.e._ the -drag-net, or sean (_tragum_, _tragula_, _verriculum_). - -[Illustration: Retia, Nets. (From the same.)] - - -RĔUS. [ACTOR.] - - -REX (βασιλεύς, ἄναξ), king.--(1) GREEK. In the heroic age, as -depicted in the poems of Homer, the kingly form of government was -universal. The authority of these kings and its limitations were -derived not from any definite scheme, or written code, but from -the force of traditionary usage, and the natural influence of the -circumstances in which the kings were placed, surrounded as they were -by a body of chiefs or nobles, whose power was but little inferior -to that of the kings themselves. Even the title βασιλῆες is applied -to them as well as to the king. The maintenance of regal authority -doubtless depended greatly on the possession of personal superiority -in bravery, military prowess, wisdom in council and eloquence in -debate. When old age had blunted his powers and activity, a king -ran a great chance of losing his influence. There was, however, an -undefined notion of a sort of divine right connected with the kingly -office, whence the epithet διοτρεφής, so commonly applied to kings -in Homer. The characteristic emblem of the kingly office was the -σκῆπτρον. [SCEPTRUM.] Our information respecting the Grecian kings -in the more historical age is not ample or minute enough to enable -us to draw out a detailed scheme of their functions. Respecting the -kings of Sparta the reader is referred to the article EPHORI. As -an illustration of the gradual limitation of the prerogatives of -the king or chief magistrate, the reader may consult the article -ARCHON. The title _Basileus_ was sometimes applied to an officer -who discharged the priestly functions of the more ancient kings, -as in Athens. [ARCHON.]--(2) ROMAN. Rome was originally governed -by kings. All the ancient writers agree in representing the king -as elected by the people for life, and as voluntarily entrusted by -them with the supreme power in the state. No reference is made to -the hereditary principle in the election of the first four kings; -and it is not until the fifth king Tarquinius Priscus obtained the -sovereignty, that anything is said about the children of the deceased -king. Since the people had conferred the regal power, it returned -to them upon the death of the king. But as a new king could not -be immediately appointed, an Interrex forthwith stepped into his -place. The necessity for an immediate successor to the king arose -from the circumstance that he alone had had the power of taking the -auspicia on behalf of the state; and as the auspicia devolved upon -the people at his death, it was imperative upon them to create a -magistrate, to whom they could delegate the auspicia, and who would -thus possess the power of mediating between the gods and the state. -Originally the people consisted only of the patres or patricii; -and accordingly on the death of the king, we read _res ad patres -redit_, or, what is nearly the same thing, _auspicia ad patres -redeunt_. [AUGUR.] The interrex was elected by the whole body of -the patricians, and he appointed (_prodebat_) his successor, as it -was a rule that the first interrex could not hold the comitia for -the election; but it frequently happened that the second interrex -appointed a third, the third a fourth, and so on, till the election -took place. The Interrex presided over the comitia curiata, which -were assembled for the election of the king. The person whom the -senate had selected was proposed by the interrex to the people in -a regular _rogatio_, which the people could only accept or reject, -for they had not the initiative and could not themselves propose -any name. If the people voted in favour of the rogation, they were -said _creare regem_, and their acceptance of him was called _jussus -populi_. But the king did not immediately enter upon his office. Two -other acts had still to take place before he was invested with the -full regal authority and power. First, his _inauguratio_ had to be -performed, as it was necessary to obtain the divine will respecting -his appointment by means of the auspices, since he was the high -priest of the people. This ceremony was performed by an augur, who -conducted the newly-elected king to the _arx_, or citadel, and there -placed him on a stone seat with his face turned to the south, while -the people waited below in anxious suspense until the augur announced -that the gods had sent the favourable tokens confirming the king -in his priestly character. The inauguratio did not confer upon him -the auspicia; for these he obtained by his election to the royalty, -as the comitia were held _auspicato_. The second act which had to -be performed was the conferring of the imperium upon the king. The -curiae had only determined by their previous vote who was to be -king, and had not by that act bestowed the necessary power upon him; -they had, therefore, to grant him the imperium by a distinct vote. -Accordingly the king himself proposed to the curiae a _lex curiata -de imperio_, and the curiae by voting in favour of it gave him the -imperium. Livy in his first book makes no mention of the _lex curiata -de imperio_, but he uses the expressions _patres auctores fierent_, -_patres auctores facti_; but these expressions are equivalent to the -_lex curiata de imperio_ in the kingly period.--The king possessed -the supreme power in the earliest times, and the senate and the -comitia of the curiae were very slight checks upon its exercise. In -the first place, the king alone possessed the right of taking the -auspices on behalf of the state; and as no public business of any -kind could be performed without the approbation of the gods expressed -by the auspices, the king stood as mediator between the gods and -the people, and in an early stage of society must necessarily have -been regarded with religious awe. [AUGUR.] Secondly, the people -surrendered to the king the supreme military and judicial authority -by conferring the _imperium_ upon him. The king was not only the -commander in war, but the supreme judge in peace. Seated on his -throne in the comitium, he administered justice to all comers, -and decided in all cases which were brought before him, civil as -well as criminal. Again, all the magistrates in the kingly period -appear to have been appointed by the king and not elected by the -curiae. Further, the king was not dependent upon the people for his -support; but a large portion of the ager publicus belonged to him, -which was cultivated at the expense of the state on his behalf. He -had also the absolute disposal of the booty taken in war and of -the conquered lands. It must not, however, be supposed that the -authority of the king was absolute. The senate and the assembly of -the people must have formed some check upon his power. But these were -not independent bodies possessing the right of meeting at certain -times and discussing questions of state. They could only be called -together when the king chose, and further could only determine upon -matters which the king submitted to them. The only public matter in -which the king could not dispense with the co-operation of the senate -and the curiae was in declarations of war. There is no trace of the -people having had anything to do with the conclusion of treaties -of peace.--The insignia of the king were the fasces with the axes -(_secures_), which twelve lictors carried before him as often as he -appeared in public, the _trabea_, the _sella curulis_, and the _toga -praetexta_ and _picta_. The _trabea_ appears to have been the most -ancient official dress, and is assigned especially to Romulus: it -was of Latin origin, and is therefore represented by Virgil as worn -by the Latin kings. The _toga praetexta_ and _picta_ were borrowed, -together with the _sella curulis_, from the Etruscans, and their -introduction is variously ascribed to Tullus Hostilius or Tarquinius -Priscus. - - -REX SACRĬFĬCŬLUS, REX SACRĬFĬCUS, or REX SACRORUM. When the civil -and military powers of the king were transferred to two praetors -or consuls, upon the establishment of the republican government at -Rome, these magistrates were not invested with that part of the royal -dignity by virtue of which the king had been the high priest of his -nation and had conducted several of the sacra publica, but this -priestly part of his office was transferred to a priest called Rex -Sacrificulus or Rex Sacrorum. The first rex sacrorum was designated, -at the command of the consuls, by the college of pontiffs, and -inaugurated by the augurs. He was always elected and inaugurated -in the comitia curiata under the presidency of the pontiffs, -and as long as a rex sacrificulus was appointed at Rome, he was -always a patrician, for as he had no influence upon the management -of political affairs, the plebeians never coveted this dignity. -Considering that this priest was the religious representative of -the kings, he ranked indeed higher than all other priests, and even -higher than the pontifex maximus, but in power and influence he was -far inferior to him. He held his office for life, was not allowed to -hold any civil or military dignity, and was at the same time exempted -from all military and civil duties. His principal functions were: 1. -To perform those sacra publica which had before been performed by the -kings; and his wife, who bore the title of _regina sacrorum_, had -also, like the queens of former days, to perform certain priestly -functions. These sacra publica he or his wife had to perform on -all the Calends, Ides, and the Nundines; he to Jupiter, and she to -Juno in the regia. 2. On the days called regifugium he had to offer -a sacrifice in the comitium. [REGIFUGIUM.] 3. When extraordinary -portenta seemed to announce some general calamity, it was his duty to -try to propitiate the anger of the gods. 4. On the nundines, when the -people assembled in the city, the rex sacrorum announced (_edicebat_) -to them the succession of the festivals for the month. This part -of his functions, however, must have ceased after the time of Cn. -Flavius. He lived in a domus publica on the via sacra, near the regia -and the house of the vestal virgins. - - -RHĒDA or RĒDA, a travelling carriage with four wheels. Like the -COVINUS and the ESSEDUM it was of Gallic origin, and may perhaps -contain the same root as the German _reiten_ and our _ride_. It -was the common carriage used by the Romans for travelling, and was -frequently made large enough not only to contain many persons, but -also baggage and utensils of various kinds. The word _Epirhedium_, -which was formed by the Romans from the Greek preposition ἐπι and -the Gallic _rheda_, is explained by the Scholiast on Juvenal as -“Ornamentum rhedarum aut plaustrum.” - - -RHĒTRAE (ῥῆτραι), specially the name of the ordinances of Lycurgus. -The word _Rhetra_ means a solemn compact, either originally emanating -from, or subsequently sanctioned by the gods, who are always parties -to such agreements. The Rhetra of Lycurgus emanated from the Delphian -god: but the kings, senators, and people all bound themselves, both -to each other and to the gods, to obey it. - - -RHYTON (ῥυτόν), a drinking-horn (κέρας). Its original form was -probably the horn of the ox, but one end of it was afterwards -ornamented with the heads of various animals and birds. The _rhyton_ -had a small opening at the bottom, which the person who drank put -into his mouth, and allowed the wine to run in: hence it derived its -name. - -[Illustration: Rhyton, drinking-horn. (Museo Borbonico.)] - - -RĪCA. [FLAMEN.] - - -RĪCĪNĬUM, an article of female dress, appears to have been a kind of -mantle, with a sort of cowl attached to it, in order to cover the -head. The _mavortium_, _mavorte_, or _mavors_ of later times was -thought to be only another name for what had formerly been called -ricinium. - - -RŌBĪGĀLĬA, a public festival in honour of the god Robigus, to -preserve the fields from mildew, is said to have been instituted by -Numa, and was celebrated April 25th. The sacrifices offered on this -occasion consisted of the entrails of a dog and a sheep, accompanied -with frankincense and wine: a prayer was presented by a flamen in the -grove of the ancient deity, whom Ovid and Columella make a goddess. A -god Robigus or a goddess Robigo is a mere invention from the name of -this festival, for the Romans paid no divine honours to evil deities. - - -RŎGĀTĬO. [LEX, p. 225.] - - -RŎGĀTŌRES. [COMITIA, p. 107.] - - -RŎGUS. [FUNUS, p. 188, _b_.] - - -ROMPHEA. [HASTA.] - - -RŌRĀRĬI. [EXERCITUS, p. 165.] - - -ROSTRA, or The Beaks, was the name applied to the stage (_suggestus_) -in the Forum, from which the orators addressed the people. This -stage was originally called _templum_, because it was consecrated by -the augurs, but obtained its name of _Rostra_ at the conclusion of -the great Latin war, when it was adorned with the beaks (_rostra_) -of the ships of the Antiates. The Greeks also mutilated galleys in -the same way for the purpose of trophies: this was called by them -ἀκρωτηριάζειν. [ACROTERIUM.] The rostra lay between the Comitium or -place of meeting for the curies, and the Forum or place of meeting -for the tribes, so that the speaker might turn either to the one or -the other; but down to the time of C. Gracchus, even the tribunes -in speaking used to front the Comitium; he first turned his back -to it and spoke with his face towards the forum. The rostra was a -circular building, raised on arches, with a stand or platform on the -top, bordered by a parapet, the access to it being by two flights of -steps, one on each side. It fronted towards the comitium, and the -rostra were affixed to the front of it, just under the arches. Its -form has been in all the main points preserved in the ambones or -circular pulpits of the most ancient churches, which also had two -flights of steps leading up to them, one on the east side, by which -the preacher ascended, and another on the west side, for his descent. -The speaker was thus enabled to walk to and fro, while addressing his -audience. The suggestus or rostra was transferred by Julius Caesar -to a corner of the Forum, but the spot where the ancient rostra had -stood still continued to be called _Rostra Vetera_, while the other -was called _Rostra Nova_ or _Rostra Julia_. Both the rostra contained -statues of illustrious men. - -[Illustration: Rostra on Coin of M. Lollius Palicanus. (British -Museum.)] - - -ROSTRUM. [NAVIS.] - - -RŎTA. [CURRUS.] - - -RŬDĬĀRĬI. [GLADIATORES.] - - -RŬDIS. [GLADIATORES.] - - - - -SACCUS (σάκκος) signified in general any kind of sack or bag made -of hair, cloth, or other materials. We have only to notice here its -meaning as--(1) A head-dress. [COMA.]--(2) A sieve for straining -wine. [COLUM.]--(3) A purse for holding money. Hence the phrase in -Plautus _ire ad saccum_, “to go a begging.” - - -SĂCELLUM is a diminutive of _sacer_, and signifies a small place -consecrated to a god, containing an altar, and sometimes also a -statue of the god to whom it was dedicated, but it was without a -roof. It was therefore a sacred inclosure surrounded by a fence or -wall, and thus answered to the Greek περίβολος. - - -SĂCERDOS, SĂCERDŌTĬUM. As all the different kinds of priests are -treated of separately in this work, it is only necessary here to -make some general remarks. In comparison with the civil magistrates, -all priests at Rome were regarded as _homines privati_, though all -of them, as priests, were sacerdotes publici, in as far as their -office (_sacerdotium_) was connected with any worship recognised -by the state. The appellation of _sacerdos publicus_ was, however, -given principally to the chief pontiff and the flamen dialis, who -were at the same time the only priests who were members of the senate -by virtue of their office. All priestly offices or sacerdotia were -held for life, without responsibility to any civil magistrate. A -priest was generally allowed to hold any other civil or military -office besides his priestly dignity; some priests, however, formed an -exception, for the duumviri, the rex sacrorum, and the flamen dialis -were not allowed to hold any state office, and were also exempt -from service in the armies. Their priestly character was, generally -speaking, inseparable from their person as long as they lived: hence -the augurs and fratres arvales retained their character even when -sent into exile, or when they were taken prisoners. It also occurs -that one and the same person held two or three priestly offices at a -time. Thus we find the three dignities of pontifex maximus, augur, -and decemvir sacrorum united in one individual. Bodily defects -incapacitated a person at Rome, as among all ancient nations, from -holding any priestly office. All priests were originally patricians, -but from the year B.C. 367 the plebeians also began to take part -in the sacerdotia [PLEBES]; and those priestly offices which down -to the latest times remained in the hands of the patricians alone, -such as that of the rex sacrorum, the flamines, salii, and others, -had no influence upon the affairs of the state. As regards the -appointment of priests, the ancients unanimously state, that at first -they were appointed by the kings, but after the sacerdotia were -once instituted, each college of priests--for nearly all priests -constituted certain corporations called collegia--had the right of -filling up, by cooptatio, the vacancies which occurred. [PONTIFEX.] -Other priests, on the contrary, such as the vestal virgins and the -flamines, were appointed (_capiebantur_) by the pontifex maximus, a -rule which appears to have been observed down to the latest times; -others again, such as the duumviri sacrorum, were elected by the -people, or by the curiae, as the curiones. But in whatever manner -they were appointed, all priests after their appointment required -to be inaugurated by the pontiffs and the augurs, or by the latter -alone. Those priests who formed colleges had originally, as we have -already observed, the right of cooptatio; but in the course of -time they were deprived of this right, or at least the cooptatio -was reduced to a mere form, by several leges, called leges de -sacerdotiis, such as the Lex Domitia, Cornelia, and Julia; their -nature is described in the article PONTIFEX, and what is there said -in regard to the appointment of pontiffs applies equally to all the -other colleges. All priests had some external distinction, as the -apex, tutulus, or galerus, the toga praetexta, as well as honorary -seats in the theatres, circuses, and amphitheatres. Most of the -priestly colleges possessed landed property, and some priests had -also a regular annual salary (_stipendium_), which was paid to them -from the public treasury. This is expressly stated in regard to the -vestal virgins, the augurs, and the curiones, and may therefore be -supposed to have been the case with other priests also. The pontifex -maximus, the rex sacrorum, and the vestal virgins had moreover a -domus publica as their place of residence. - - -SACRA. This word, in its widest sense, expresses what we call -divine worship. In ancient times, the state, as well as all its -subdivisions, had their own peculiar forms of worship, whence at -Rome we find sacra of the whole Roman people, of the curies, gentes, -families, and even of private individuals. All these sacra, however, -were divided into two great classes, the public and private sacra -(_sacra publica et privata_), that is, they were performed either on -behalf of the whole nation, and at the expense of the state, or on -behalf of individuals, families, or gentes, which had also to defray -their expenses. This division is ascribed to Numa. All sacra, publica -as well as privata, were superintended and regulated by the pontiffs. - - -SACRĀMENTUM, the military oath, which was administered in the -following manner:--Each tribunus militum assembled his legion, and -picked out one of the men, to whom he put the oath, that he would -obey the commands of his generals, and execute them punctually. The -other men then came forward, one after another, and repeated the same -oath, saying that they would do like the first. - - -SACRĀRĬUM was any place in which sacred things were deposited and -kept, whether this place was a part of a temple or of a private house. - - -SACRIFĬCĬUM (ἱερεῖον), a sacrifice. Sacrifices or offerings formed -the chief part of the worship of the ancients. They were partly -signs of gratitude, partly a means of propitiating the gods, and -partly also intended to induce the deity to bestow some favour -upon the sacrificer, or upon those on whose behalf the sacrifice -was offered. Sacrifices in a wider sense would also embrace the -DONARIA; in a narrower sense sacrificia were things offered to the -gods, which merely afforded momentary gratification, and which -were burnt upon their altars, or were believed to be consumed by -the gods. All sacrifices may be divided into bloody sacrifices and -unbloody sacrifices.--_Bloody sacrifices._ In the early times of -Greece we find mention of human sacrifices, but with a few exceptions -these had ceased in the historical ages. Owing to the influence -of civilisation, in many cases animals were substituted for human -beings; in others, a few drops of human blood were thought sufficient -to propitiate the gods. The custom of sacrificing human life to the -gods arose from the belief that the nobler the sacrifice and the -dearer to its possessor, the more pleasing it would be to the gods. -Hence the frequent instances in Grecian story of persons sacrificing -their own children, or of persons devoting themselves to the gods of -the lower world. That the Romans also believed human sacrifices to -be pleasing to the gods, might be inferred from the story of Curtius -and from the self-sacrifice of the Decii. The symbolic sacrifice -of human figures made of rushes at the Lemuralia [LEMURALIA] also -shows that in the early history of Italy human sacrifices were not -uncommon. For another proof of this practice, see VER SACRUM. A -second kind of bloody sacrifices were those of animals of various -kinds, according to the nature and character of the divinity. The -sacrifices of animals were the most common among the Greeks and -Romans. The victim was called ἱερεῖον, and in Latin _hostia_ or -_victima_. In the early times it appears to have been the general -custom to burn the whole victim (ὁλοκαυτεῖν) upon the altars of the -gods, and the same was in some cases also observed in later times. -But as early as the time of Homer it was the almost general practice -to burn only the legs (μηροί, μηρία, μῆρα) enclosed in fat, and -certain parts of the intestines, while the remaining parts of the -victim were consumed by men at a festive meal. The gods delighted -chiefly in the smoke arising from the burning victims, and the -greater the number of victims, the more pleasing was the sacrifice. -Hence it was not uncommon to offer a sacrifice of one hundred bulls -(ἑκατόμβη) at once, though it must not be supposed that a hecatomb -always signifies a sacrifice of a hundred bulls, for the name was -used in a general way to designate any great sacrifice. Such great -sacrifices were not less pleasing to men than to the gods, for in -regard to the former they were in reality a donation of meat. Hence -at Athens the partiality for such sacrifices rose to the highest -degree. The animals which were sacrificed were mostly of the domestic -kind, as bulls, cows, sheep, rams, lambs, goats, pigs, dogs, and -horses; and each god had his favourite animals which he liked best -as sacrifices. The head of the victim, before it was killed, was in -most cases strewed with roasted barley meal (οὐλόχυτα or οὐλοχύται) -mixed with salt (_mola salsa_). The persons who offered the sacrifice -wore generally garlands round their heads, and sometimes also carried -them in their hands, and before they touched anything belonging to -the sacrifice they washed their hands in water. The victim itself -was likewise adorned with garlands, and its horns were sometimes -gilt. Before the animal was killed, a bunch of hair was cut from its -forehead, and thrown into the fire as primitiae (κατάρχεσθαι). In the -heroic ages the princes, as the high priests of their people, killed -the victim; in later times this was done by the priests themselves. -When the sacrifice was to be offered to the Olympic gods, the head -of the animal was drawn heavenward; when to the gods of the lower -world, to heroes, or to the dead, it was drawn downwards. While the -flesh was burning upon the altar, wine and incense were thrown upon -it, and prayers and music accompanied the solemnity. The most common -animal sacrifices at Rome were the _suovetaurilia_ or _solitaurilia_, -consisting of a pig, a sheep, and an ox. They were performed in all -cases of a lustration, and the victims were carried around the thing -to be lustrated, whether it was a city, a people, or a piece of land. -[LUSTRATIO.] The Greek _trittya_ (τριττύα), which likewise consisted -of an ox, a sheep, and a pig, was the same sacrifice as the Roman -suovetaurilia. The customs observed before and during the sacrifice -of an animal were on the whole the same as those observed in Greece. -But the victim was in most cases not killed by the priests who -conducted the sacrifice, but by a person called _popa_, who struck -the animal with a hammer before the knife was used. The better parts -of the intestines (_exta_) were strewed with barley meal, wine, and -incense, and were burnt upon the altar. Those parts of the animal -which were burnt were called _prosecta_, _prosiciae_, or _ablegmina_. -When a sacrifice was offered to gods of rivers, or of the sea, these -parts were not burnt, but thrown into the water. Respecting the use -which the ancients made of sacrifices to learn the will of the gods, -see HARUSPEX and DIVINATIO.--_Unbloody sacrifices._ Among these we -may first mention the libations (_libationes_, λοιβαί or σπονδαί). -Bloody sacrifices were usually accompanied by libations, as wine was -poured upon them. The wine was usually poured out in three separate -streams. Libations always accompanied a sacrifice which was offered -in concluding a treaty with a foreign nation, and that here they -formed a prominent part of the solemnity, is clear from the fact that -the treaty itself was called σπονδαί. But libations were also made -independent of any other sacrifice, as in solemn prayers, and on -many other occasions of public and private life, as before drinking -at meals, and the like. Libations usually consisted of unmixed wine -(ἔνσπονδος, _merum_), but sometimes also of milk, honey, and other -fluids, either pure or diluted with water. The libations offered -to the Furies were always without wine. Incense was likewise an -offering which usually accompanied bloody sacrifices, but it was -also burned as an offering for itself. A third class of unbloody -sacrifices consisted of fruit and cakes. The former were mostly -offered to the gods as primitiae or tithes of the harvest, and as -a sign of gratitude. They were sometimes offered in their natural -state, sometimes also adorned or prepared in various ways. Cakes were -peculiar to the worship of certain deities, as to that of Apollo. -They were either simple cakes of flour, sometimes also of wax, or -they were made in the shape of some animal, and were then offered as -symbolical sacrifices in the place of real animals, either because -they could not easily be procured, or were too expensive for the -sacrificer. - - -SACRĬLĔGĬUM, the crime of stealing things consecrated to the gods, -or things deposited in a consecrated place. A Lex Julia appears to -have placed the crime of sacrilegium on an equality with peculatus. -[PECULATUS.] - - -SAECŬLUM was, according to the calculation of the Etruscans, which -was adopted by the Romans, a space of time containing 110 lunar -years. The return of each saeculum at Rome was announced by the -pontiffs, who also made the necessary intercalations in such a -manner, that at the commencement of a new saeculum the beginning of -the ten months’ year, of the twelve months’ year, and of the solar -year coincided. But in these arrangements the greatest caprice and -irregularity appear to have prevailed at Rome, as may be seen from -the unequal intervals at which the ludi saeculares were celebrated. -[LUDI SAECULARES.] This also accounts for the various ways in which a -saeculum was defined by the ancients; some believed that it contained -thirty, and others that it contained a hundred years: the latter -opinion appears to have been the most common in later times, so that -saeculum answered to our century. - - -SĂGITTĀRĬI. [ARCUS.] - - -SAGMĬNA, were the same as the _verbenae_, namely, herbs torn up by -their roots from within the inclosure of the Capitoline, which were -always carried by the Fetiales or ambassadors, when they went to a -foreign people to demand restitution for wrongs committed against -the Romans, or to make a treaty. [FETIALES.] They served to mark the -sacred character of the ambassadors, and answered the same purpose as -the Greek κηρύκεια. - - -SĂGUM, the cloak worn by the Roman soldiers and inferior officers, -in contradistinction to the paludamentum of the general and superior -officers. [PALUDAMENTUM.] It is used in opposition to the toga or -garb of peace, and we accordingly find, that when there was a war -in Italy, all citizens put on the sagum even in the city, with the -exception of those of consular rank (_saga sumere_, _ad saga ire_, -_in sagis esse_). The sagum was open in the front, and usually -fastened across the shoulders by a clasp: it resembled in form the -paludamentum (see cut, p. 281). The cloak worn by the general and -superior officers is sometimes called _sagum_, but the diminutive -_sagulum_ is more commonly used in such cases. The cloak worn by the -northern nations of Europe is also called sagum. The German sagum is -mentioned by Tacitus: that worn by the Gauls seems to have been a -species of plaid (_versicolor sagum_). - - -SĂLĂMINĬA. [PARALUS.] - - -SĂLĬI, priests of Mars Gradivus, said to have been instituted by -Numa. They were twelve in number, chosen from the patricians even -in the latest times, and formed an ecclesiastical corporation. They -had the care of the twelve Ancilia, which were kept in the temple of -Mars on the Palatine hill, whence these priests were sometimes called -Salii Palatini, to distinguish them from the other Salii mentioned -below. The distinguishing dress of the Salii was an embroidered tunic -bound with a brazen belt, the trabea, and the apex, also worn by the -Flamines. [APEX.] Each had a sword by his side, and in his right hand -a spear or staff. The festival of Mars was celebrated by the Salii on -the 1st of March and for several successive days; on which occasion -they were accustomed to go through the city in their official dress, -carrying the ancilia in their left hands or suspended from their -shoulders, and at the same time singing and dancing, whence comes -their name. The songs or hymns which they sang on this occasion were -called _Asamenta, ssamenta_, or _Axamenta_, and were chiefly in -praise of Mamurius Veturius, generally said to be the armourer, who -made eleven ancilia like the one that was sent from heaven (ancile), -though some modern writers suppose it to be merely another name of -Mars. The praises of the gods were also celebrated in the songs -of the Salii. In later times these songs were scarcely understood -even by the priests themselves. At the conclusion of the festival -the Salii were accustomed to partake of a splendid entertainment in -the temple of Mars, which was proverbial for its excellence. The -members of the collegium were elected by co-optation. We read of the -dignities of praesul, vates, and magister in the collegium. The shape -of the ancile is exhibited in the annexed cut, which illustrates the -accounts of the ancient writers that its form was oval, but with the -two sides receding inwards with an even curvature, and so as to make -it broader at the ends than in the middle. The persons engaged in -carrying these ancilia on their shoulders, suspended from a pole, are -probably servants of the Salii. At the top of the cut is represented -one of the rods with which the Salii were accustomed to beat the -shield in their dance, as already described. - -[Illustration: Salii carrying the Ancilia. (From an ancient Gem.)] - -Tullus Hostilius established another collegium of Salii, in -fulfilment of a vow which he made in a war with the Sabines. These -Salii were also twelve in number, chosen from the patricians, and -appear to have been dedicated to the service of Quirinus. They were -called the Salii Collini, Agonales or Agonenses. It is supposed that -the oldest and most illustrious college, the Palatine Salii, were -chosen originally from the oldest tribe, the Ramnes, and the one -instituted by Tullus Hostilius, or the Quirinalian, from the Tities -alone: a third college for the Luceres was never established. - - -SĂLĪNAE (ἁλαὶ, ἁλοπήγιον), a salt-work. Throughout the Roman empire -the salt-works were commonly public property, and were let by the -government to the highest bidder. The first salt-works are said to -have been established by Ancus Marcius at Ostia. The publicani who -farmed these works appear to have sold this most necessary of all -commodities at a very high price, whence the censors M. Livius and -C. Claudius (B.C. 204) fixed the price at which those who took the -lease of them were obliged to sell the salt to the people. At Rome -the medius was, according to this regulation, sold for a sextans, -while in other parts of Italy the price was higher and varied. The -salt-works in Italy and in the provinces were very numerous. - - -SĂLĪNUM, a salt-cellar. All Romans who were raised above poverty -had one of silver, which descended from father to son, and was -accompanied by a silver plate, which was used together with the -salt-cellar in the domestic sacrifices. [PATERA.] These two articles -of silver were alone compatible with the simplicity of Roman manners -in the early times of the republic. - - -[Illustration: A Dance. (Lamberti, Villa Borghese.)] - -SALTĀTĬO (ὄρχησις, ὀρχηστύς), dancing. The dancing of the Greeks as -well as of the Romans had very little in common with the exercise -which goes by that name in modern times. It may be divided into two -kinds, gymnastic and mimetic; that is, it was intended either to -represent bodily activity, or to express by gestures, movements, -and attitudes certain ideas or feelings, and also single events, or -a series of events, as in the modern ballet. All these movements, -however, were accompanied by music; but the terms ὄρχησις and -_saltatio_ were used in so much wider a sense than our word dancing, -that they were applied to designate gestures, even when the body did -not move at all. We find dancing prevalent among the Greeks from the -earliest times. It was originally closely connected with religion. -In all the public festivals, which were so numerous among the Greeks, -dancing formed a very prominent part. We find from the earliest times -that the worship of Apollo was connected with a religious dance, -called _Hyporchema_ (ὑπόρχημα). All the religious dances, with the -exception of the Bacchic and the Corybantian, were very simple, and -consisted of gentle movements of the body, with various turnings and -windings around the altar: such a dance was the _Geranus_ (γέρανος), -which Theseus is said to have performed at Delos on his return from -Crete. The Dionysiac or Bacchic, and the Corybantian, were of a very -different nature. - -[Illustration: Corybantian Dance. (Visconti, Mus. Pio Clem., vol. iv. -tav. 9.)] - -In the former the life and adventures of the god were represented -by mimetic dancing. [DIONYSIA.] The Corybantian was of a very wild -character: it was chiefly danced in Phrygia and in Crete; the dancers -were armed, struck their swords against their shields, and displayed -the most extravagant fury; it was accompanied chiefly by the flute. -Respecting the dances in the theatre, see CHORUS. Dancing was applied -to gymnastic purposes and to training for war, especially in the -Doric states, and was believed to have contributed very much to the -success of the Dorians in war, as it enabled them to perform their -evolutions simultaneously and in order. There were various dances -in early times, which served as a preparation for war: hence Homer -calls the Hoplites πρυλέες, a war-dance having been called πρύλις by -the Cretans. Of such dances the most celebrated was the Pyrrhic (ἡ -πυῤῥίχη), of which the πρύλις was probably only another name. It was -danced to the sound of the flute, and its time was very quick and -light, as is shown by the name of the Pyrrhic foot (˘˘), which must -be connected with this dance. In the non-Doric states it was probably -not practised as a training for war, but only as a mimetic dance: -thus we read of its being danced by women to entertain a company. It -was also performed at Athens at the greater and lesser Panathenaea -by ephebi, who were called Pyrrhichists (πυῤῥιχισταί), and were -trained at the expense of the choragus. In the mountainous parts of -Thessaly and Macedon dances are performed at the present day by men -armed with muskets and swords. The Pyrrhic dance was introduced in -the public games at Rome by Julius Caesar, when it was danced by the -children of the leading men in Asia and Bithynia. There were other -dances, besides the PYRRHIC, in which the performers had arms; but -these seem to have been entirely mimetic, and not practised with any -view to training for war. Such was the _Carpaea_ (καρπαία), peculiar -to the Aenianians and Magnetes, and described by Xenophon in the -Anabasis. Such dances were frequently performed at banquets for the -entertainment of the guests, where also the tumblers (κυβιστῆρες) -were often introduced, who in the course of their dance flung -themselves on their head and alighted again upon their feet. These -tumblers were also accustomed to make their somersets over knives and -swords, which was called κυβιστάν εἰς μαχαίρας. We learn from Tacitus -that the German youths also used to dance among swords and spears -pointed at them. Other kinds of dances were frequently performed at -entertainments, in Rome as well as in Greece, by courtezans, many of -which were of a very indecent and lascivious nature. Among the dances -performed without arms one of the most important was the _Hormos_ -(ὅρμος), which was danced at Sparta by youths and maidens together: -the youth danced first some movements suited to his age, and of a -military nature; the maiden followed in measured steps and with -feminine gestures. Another common dance at Sparta was the _bibasis_ -(βίβασις), in which the dancer sprang rapidly from the ground and -struck the feet behind.--Dancing was common among the Romans in -ancient times, in connection with religious festivals and rites, -because the ancients thought that no part of the body should be free -from the influence of religion. The dances of the Salii, which were -performed by men of patrician families, are described elsewhere. -[ANCILE.] Dancing, however, was not performed by any Roman citizens -except in connection with religion, and it was considered disgraceful -for any freeman to dance. The mimetic dances of the Romans, which -were carried to such perfection under the empire, are described under -PANTOMIMUS. The dancers on the tight-rope (_funambuli_) under the -empire were as skilful as they are in the present day. - -[Illustration: Tumbler. (Museo Borbonico, vol. VII. tav. 58.)] - - -SĂLŪTATŌRES, the name given in the later times of the republic, and -under the empire, to a class of men who obtained their living by -visiting the houses of the wealthy early in the morning, to pay their -respects to them (_salutare_), and to accompany them when they went -abroad. This arose from the visits which the clients were accustomed -to pay to their patrons, and degenerated in later times into the -above-mentioned practice: such persons seem to have obtained a good -living among the great number of wealthy and vain persons at Rome, -who were gratified by this attention. [SPORTULA.] - - -SAMBŪCA (σαμβύκη), a harp, was of oriental origin. The performances -of _sambucistriae_ (σαμβυκίστριαι) were only known to the early -Romans as luxuries brought over from Asia. _Sambuca_ was also the -name of a military engine, used to scale the walls and towers of -besieged cities. It was called by this name on account of its general -resemblance to the form of a harp. - - -SAMNĪTES. [GLADIATORES.] - - -SANDĂLĬUM (σανδάλιον or σάνδαλον), a kind of shoe worn only by women. -The sandalium must be distinguished from the _hypodema_ (ὑπόδημα), -which was a simple sole bound under the foot, whereas the sandalium -was a sole with a piece of leather covering the toes, so that it -formed the transition from the _hypodema_ to real shoes. The piece of -leather over the toes was called ζυγός or ζυγόν. - - -SANDĂPĬLA. [FUNUS.] - - -SARCŎPHĂGUS. [FUNUS.] - - -SARISSA. [HASTA.] - - -SARRĀCUM, a kind of common cart or waggon, which was used by the -country-people of Italy for conveying the produce of their fields, -trees, and the like, from one place to another. - - -SĂTŬRA, the root of which is _sat_, literally means a mixture of -all sorts of things. The name was accordingly applied by the Romans -in many ways, but always to things consisting of various parts or -ingredients, _e.g._ _lanx satura_, an offering consisting of various -fruits, such as were offered at harvest festivals and to Ceres; _lex -per saturam lata_, a law which contained several distinct regulations -at once, and to a species of poetry, afterwards called _Satira_. - - -SĀTURNĀLĬA, the festival of Saturnus, to whom the inhabitants of -Latium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the arts of -civilized life. Falling towards the end of December, at the season -when the agricultural labours of the year were fully completed, it -was celebrated in ancient times by the rustic population as a sort -of joyous harvest-home, and in every age was viewed by all classes -of the community as a period of absolute relaxation and unrestrained -merriment. During its continuance no public business could be -transacted, the law courts were closed, the schools kept holiday, -to commence a war was impious, to punish a malefactor involved -pollution. Special indulgences were granted to the slaves of each -domestic establishment; they were relieved from all ordinary toils, -were permitted to wear the _pileus_, the badge of freedom, were -granted full freedom of speech, and partook of a banquet attired in -the clothes of their masters, and were waited upon by them at table. -All ranks devoted themselves to feasting and mirth, presents were -interchanged among friends, _cerei_ or wax tapers being the common -offering of the more humble to their superiors, and crowds thronged -the streets, shouting, _Io Saturnalia_ (this was termed _clamare -Saturnalia_), while sacrifices were offered with uncovered head, -from a conviction that no ill-omened sight would interrupt the rites -of such a happy day. Many of the peculiar customs of this festival -exhibit a remarkable resemblance to the sports of our own Christmas -and of the Italian Carnival. Thus on the Saturnalia public gambling -was allowed by the aediles, just as in the days of our ancestors the -most rigid were wont to countenance card-playing on Christmas-eve; -the whole population threw off the toga, wore a loose gown, called -_synthesis_, and walked about with the pileus on their heads, which -reminds us of the dominos, the peaked caps, and other disguises worn -by masques and mummers; the _cerei_ were probably employed as the -_moccoli_ now are on the last night of the Carnival; and lastly, -one of the amusements in private society was the election of a mock -king, which at once calls to recollection the characteristic ceremony -of Twelfth-night. During the republic, although the whole month of -December was considered as dedicated to Saturn, only one day, the -XIV. Kal. Jan., was set apart for the sacred rites of the divinity. -When the month was lengthened by the addition of two days upon the -adoption of the Julian Calendar, the Saturnalia fell on the XVI. -Kal. Jan., which gave rise to confusion and mistakes among the more -ignorant portion of the people. To obviate this inconvenience, and -allay all religious scruples, Augustus enacted that three whole days, -the 17th, 18th, and 19th of December, should in all time coming be -hallowed, thus embracing both the old and new style. Under the empire -the merry-making lasted for seven days, and three different festivals -were celebrated during this period. First came the _Saturnalia_ -proper, commencing on XVI. Kal. Dec., followed by the _Opalia_, -anciently coincident with the Saturnalia, on XIV. Kal. Jan.; these -two together lasted for five days, and the sixth and seventh were -occupied with the _Sigillaria_, so called from little earthenware -figures (_sigilla_, _oscilla_) exposed for sale at this season, and -given as toys to children. - - -SCALPTŪRA or SCULPTŪRA, originally signified cutting figures out of -a solid material, but was more particularly applied to the art of -cutting figures into the material (intaglios), which was chiefly -applied to producing seals and matrices for the mints; and 2. the -art of producing raised figures (cameos), which served for the most -part as ornaments. _Sculpture_ in our sense of the word was usually -designated by the term STATUARIA. The first artist who is mentioned -as an engraver of stones is Theodoras, the son of Telecles, the -Samian, who engraved the stone in the ring of Polycrates. The most -celebrated among them was Pyrgoteles, who engraved the seal-rings -for Alexander the Great. Several of the successors of Alexander and -other wealthy persons adopted the custom of adorning their gold and -silver vessels, craters, candelabras, and the like, with precious -stones on which raised figures (cameos) were worked. The art was -in a particularly flourishing state at Rome under Augustus and his -successors, in the hands of Dioscurides and other artists, many of -whose works are still preserved. Numerous specimens of intaglios and -cameos are still preserved in the various museums of Europe. - - -SCAMNUM, _dim._ SCĂBELLTUM, a step which was placed before the beds -of the ancients in order to assist persons in getting into them, as -some were very high: others which were lower required also lower -steps, which were called _scabella_. A scamnum was also used as a -footstool. A scamnum extended in length becomes a bench, and in -this sense the word is frequently used. The benches in ships were -sometimes called scamna. - - -SCĒNA. [THEATRUM.] - - -SCEPTRUM (σκῆπτρον), which originally denoted a simple staff or -walking-stick, was emblematic of station and authority. In ancient -authors the sceptre is represented as belonging more especially -to kings, princes, and leaders of tribes: but it is also borne by -judges, by heralds, and by priests and seers. The sceptre descended -from father to son, and might be committed to any one in order to -express the transfer of authority. Those who bore the sceptre swore -by it, solemnly taking it in the right hand and raising it towards -heaven. The ivory sceptre of the kings of Rome, which descended to -the consuls, was surmounted by an eagle. - - -SCHOENUS (ὁ, ἡ, σχοῖνος), an Egyptian and Persian measure, the length -of which is stated by Herodotus at 60 stadia, or 2 parasangs. It was -used especially for measuring land. - - -SCORPĬO. [TORMENTUM.] - - -SCRĪBAE, public notaries or clerks, in the pay of the Roman state. -They were chiefly employed in making up the public accounts, -copying out laws, and recording the proceedings of the different -functionaries of the state. The phrase _scriptum facere_ was used -to denote their occupation. Being very numerous, they were divided -into companies or classes (_decuriae_), and were assigned by lot to -different magistrates, whence they were named Quaestorii, Aedilicii, -or Praetorii, from the officers of state to whom they were attached. -The appointment to the office of a “scriba” seems to have been -either made on the nomination of a magistrate, or purchased. Horace, -for instance, bought for himself a “patent place as clerk in the -treasury” (_scriptum quaestorium comparavit_). In Cicero’s time, -indeed, it seems that any one might become a scriba or public clerk -by purchase, and consequently, as freedmen and their sons were -eligible, and constituted a great portion of the public clerks at -Rome, the office was not highly esteemed, though frequently held by -ingenui or free-born citizens. Very few instances are recorded of -the scribae being raised to the higher dignities of the state. Cn. -Flavius, the scribe of Appius Claudius, was raised to the office of -curule aedile in gratitude for his making public the various forms -of actions, which had previously been the exclusive property of the -patricians [ACTIO]; but the returning officer refused to acquiesce in -his election till he had given up his books and left his profession. - - -SCRĪNĬUM. [CAPSA.] - - -SCRIPTA DUŎDĔCIM. [LATRUNCULI.] - - -SCRIPTŪRA, that part of the revenue of the Roman Republic which was -derived from letting out, as pasture land, those portions of the -ager publicus which were not taken into cultivation. The names for -such parts of the ager publicus were, _pascua publica_, _saltus_, -or _silvae_. They were let by the censors to the publicani, like -all other vectigalia; and the persons who sent their cattle to -graze on such public pastures had to pay a certain tax or duty to -the publicani, which of course varied according to the number and -quality of the cattle which they kept upon them. The publicani had -to keep the lists of persons who sent their cattle upon the public -pastures, together with the number and quality of the cattle. From -this registering (_scribere_) the duty itself was called _scriptura_, -the public pasture land _ager scripturarius_, and the publicani, or -their agents who raised the tax, _scripturarii_. The Lex Thoria (B.C. -111) did away with the scriptura in Italy, where the public pastures -were very numerous and extensive, especially in Apulia, and the lands -themselves were now sold or distributed. In the provinces, where the -public pastures were also let out in the same manner, the practice -continued until the time of the empire; but afterwards the scriptura -is no longer mentioned. - - -SCRŪPŬLUM, or more properly SCRIPULUM or SCRIPLUM (γράμμα), the -smallest denomination of weight among the Romans. It was the 24th -part of the UNCIA, or the 288th of the LIBRA, and therefore = 18·06 -grains English, which is about the average weight of the scrupular -aurei still in existence. [AURUM.] As a square measure, it was the -smallest division of the jugerum, which contained 288 scrupula. -[JUGERUM.] - - -SCŪTUM (θυρεός), the Roman shield worn by the heavy-armed infantry, -instead of being round, like the Greek CLIPEUS, was adapted to the -form of the human body, by being made either oval or of the shape -of a door, (θύρα), which it also resembled in being made of wood or -wicker-work, and from which consequently its Greek name was derived. -Polybius says that the dimensions of the scutum were 4 feet by 2½. - -[Illustration: Scuta, shields. (Bartoli, Arcus Triumph.)] - - -SCỸTĂLĒ (σκυτάλη) is the name applied to a secret mode of writing, by -which the Spartan ephors communicated with their kings and generals -when abroad. When a king or general left Sparta, the ephors gave to -him a staff of a definite length and thickness, and retained for -themselves another of precisely the same size. When they had any -communications to make to him, they cut the material upon which they -intended to write into the shape of a narrow riband, wound it round -their staff, and then wrote upon it the message which they had to -send to him. When the strip of writing material was taken from the -staff, nothing but single letters appeared, and in this state the -strip was sent to the general, who, after having wound it round his -staff, was able to read the communication. - - -SCỸTHAE (Σκύθαι). [DEMOSII.] - - -SĔCESPĬTA, an instrument used by the Roman priests in killing the -victims at sacrifices, probably an axe. In the annexed coin, the -reverse represents a culter, a simpuvium, and a secespita. - -[Illustration: Secespita, Culter, and Simpuvium. (Coin of Sulpicia -Gens.)] - - -SECTĬO, the sale of a man’s property by the state (_publice_). This -was done in consequence of a condemnatio, and for the purpose of -repayment to the state of such sums of money as the condemned person -had improperly appropriated; or in consequence of a proscriptio. -Sometimes the things sold were called _sectio_. Those who bought the -property were called _sectores_. The property was sold _sub hasta_. - - -SECTOR. [SECTIO.] - - -SĔCŪRIS (ἀξινη, πέλεκυς), an axe or hatchet. The axe was either made -with a single edge, or with a blade or head on each side of the haft, -the latter kind being denominated _bipennis_. The axe was used as a -weapon of war chiefly by the Asiatic nations. It was a part of the -Roman fasces. [FASCES.] - - -SĔCŪTŌRES. [GLADIATORES.] - - -[Illustration: Sellae Curules. (The top figure from the Vatican -collection; the two bottom figures from the Museum at Naples.)] - -SELLA, the general term for a seat or chair of any description.--(1) -SELLA CURULIS, the chair of state. _Curulis_ is derived by the -ancient writers from _currus_, but it more probably contains the -same root as _curia_. The sella curulis is said to have been used at -Rome from a very remote period as an emblem of kingly power, having -been imported, along with various other insignia of royalty, from -Etruria. Under the republic the right of sitting upon this chair -belonged to the consuls, praetors, curule aediles, and censors; to -the flamen dialis; to the dictator, and to those whom he deputed to -act under himself, as the _magister equitum_, since he might be said -to comprehend all magistracies within himself. After the downfall of -the constitution, it was assigned to the emperors also, or to their -statues in their absence; to the augustales, and perhaps, to the -praefectus urbi. It was displayed upon all great public occasions, -especially in the circus and theatre; and it was the seat of the -praetor when he administered justice. In the provinces it was -assumed by inferior magistrates, when they exercised proconsular or -propraetorian authority. We find it occasionally exhibited on the -medals of foreign monarchs likewise, as on those of Ariobarzanes -II. of Cappadocia, for it was the practice of the Romans to present -a curule chair, an ivory sceptre, a toga praetexta, and such-like -ornaments, as tokens of respect and confidence to those rulers whose -friendship they desired to cultivate. The sella curulis appears -from the first to have been ornamented with ivory; and at a later -period it was overlaid with gold. In shape it was extremely plain, -closely resembling a common folding camp-stool with crooked legs. The -sella curulis is frequently represented upon the denarii of Roman -families. In the following cut are represented two pair of bronze -legs, belonging to a sella curulis, and likewise a sella curulis -itself.--(2) SELLA GESTATORIA, or FERTORIA, a sedan used both in -town and country, and by men as well as by women. It is expressly -distinguished from the LECTICA, a portable bed or sofa, in which the -person carried lay in a recumbent position, while the _sella_ was -a portable chair, in which the occupant sat upright. It differed -from the _cathedra_ also, but in what the difference consisted, -it is not easy to determine. [CATHEDRA.] It appears not to have -been introduced until long after the lectica was common, since we -scarcely, if ever, find any allusion to it until the period of the -empire. The sella was sometimes entirely open, but more frequently -shut in. It was made sometimes of plain leather, and sometimes -ornamented with bone, ivory, silver, or gold, according to the -fortune of the proprietor. It was furnished with a pillow to support -the head and neck (_cervical_); the motion was so easy that one might -study without inconvenience, while at the same time it afforded a -healthful exercise.--(3) Chairs for ordinary domestic purposes have -been discovered in excavations, or are seen represented in ancient -frescoes, many displaying great taste. - -[Illustration: Sellae, Chairs. (The right-hand figure from the -Vatican collection; the left-hand figure from a Painting at Pompeii.)] - - -SĒMIS, SĒMISSIS. [AS.] - - -SĒMUNCĬA. [UNCIA.] - - -SĒMUNCIĀRĬUM FĒNUS. [FENUS.] - - -SĔNĀTUS. In all the republics of antiquity the government was divided -between a senate and a popular assembly; and in cases where a king -stood at the head of affairs, as at Sparta and in early Rome, the -king had little more than the executive. A senate in the early times -was always regarded as an assembly of elders, which is in fact the -meaning of the Roman senatus, as of the Spartan (γερουσία), and its -members were elected from among the nobles of the nation. The number -of senators in the ancient republics always bore a distinct relation -to the number of tribes of which the nation was composed. [BOULE; -GEROUSIA.] Hence in the earliest times, when Rome consisted of only -one tribe, its senate consisted of one hundred members (_senatores_ -or _patres_; compare PATRICII), and when the Sabine tribe or the -Tities became united with the Latin tribe or the Ramnes, the number -of senators was increased to two hundred. This number was again -augmented to three hundred by Tarquinius Priscus, when the third -tribe or the Luceres became incorporated with the Roman state. The -new senators added by Tarquinius Priscus were distinguished from -those belonging to the two older tribes by the appellation _patres -minorum gentium_, as previously those who represented the Tities had -been distinguished, by the same name, from those who represented -the Ramnes. Under Tarquinius Superbus the number of senators is -said to have become very much diminished, as he is reported to have -put many to death and sent others into exile. This account however -appears to be greatly exaggerated, and it is probable that several -vacancies in the senate arose from many of the senators accompanying -the tyrant into his exile. The vacancies which had thus arisen were -filled up immediately after the establishment of the republic, when -several noble plebeians of equestrian rank were made senators. These -new senators were distinguished from the old ones by the name of -_Conscripti_; and hence the customary mode of addressing the whole -senate henceforth always was: _Patres Conscripti_, that is, _Patres -et Conscripti_.--The number of 300 senators appears to have remained -unaltered for several centuries. The first permanent increase to -their number was made by Sulla, and the senate seems henceforth -to have consisted of between five and six hundred. Julius Caesar -augmented the number to 900, and raised to this dignity even common -soldiers, freedmen, and peregrini. Augustus cleared the senate of -the unworthy members, who were contemptuously called by the people -_Orcini senatores_, and reduced its number to 600.--In the time -of the kings the senate was probably elected by the gentes, each -gens appointing one member as its representative; and as there -were 300 gentes, there were consequently 300 senators. The whole -senate was divided into decuries, each of which corresponded to a -curia. When the senate consisted of only one hundred members, there -were accordingly only ten decuries of senators; and ten senators, -one being taken from each decury, formed the _Decem Primi_, who -represented the ten curies. When subsequently the representatives -of the two other tribes were admitted into the senate, the Ramnes -with their decem primi retained for a time their superiority over -the two other tribes, and gave their votes first. The first among -the decem primi was the _princeps senatus_, who was appointed by -the king, and was at the same time custos urbis. [PRAEFECTUS URBI.] -Respecting the age at which a person might be elected into the senate -during the kingly period, we know no more than what is indicated -by the name senator itself, that is, that they were persons of -advanced age.--Soon after the establishment of the republic, though -at what time is uncertain, the right of appointing senators passed -from the gentes into the hands of the consuls, consular tribunes, -and subsequently of the censors. At the same time, the right which -the magistrates possessed of electing senators was by no means an -arbitrary power, for the senators were usually taken from among -those whom the people had previously invested with a magistracy, -so that in reality the people themselves always nominated the -candidates for the senate, which on this account remained, as before, -a representative assembly. After the institution of the censorship, -the censors alone had the right of introducing new members into -the senate from among the ex-magistrates, and of excluding such -as they deemed unworthy. [CENSOR.] The exclusion was effected by -simply passing over the names, and not entering them on the lists of -senators, whence such men were called _Praeteriti Senatores_. On one -extraordinary occasion the eldest among the ex-censors was invested -with dictatorial power for the purpose of filling up vacancies in -the senate.--As all curule magistrates, and also the quaestors, had -by virtue of their office a seat in the senate, even if they had not -been elected senators, we must distinguish between two classes of -senators, viz., real senators, or such as had been regularly raised -to their dignity by the magistrates or the censors, and such as had, -by virtue of the office which they held or had held, a right to -take their seats in the senate and to speak (_sententiam dicere_, -_jus sententiae_), but not to vote. To this ordo senatorius also -belonged the pontifex maximus and the flamen dialis. Though these -senators had no right to vote, they might, when the real senators -had voted, step over or join the one or the other party, whence they -were called _Senatores Pedarii_, an appellation which had in former -times been applied to those juniores who were not consulars. When at -length all the state offices had become equally accessible to the -plebeians and the patricians, and when the majority of offices were -held by the former, their number in the senate naturally increased in -proportion. The senate had gradually become an assembly representing -the people, as formerly it had represented the populus, and down to -the last century of the republic the senatorial dignity was only -regarded as one conferred by the people. But notwithstanding this -apparently popular character of the senate, it was never a popular -or democratic assembly, for now its members belonged to the nobiles, -who were as aristocratic as the patricians. [NOBILES.] The office of -princeps senatus, which had become independent of that of praetor -urbanus, was now given by the censors, and at first always to the -eldest among the ex-censors, but afterwards to any other senator -whom they thought most worthy; and unless there was any charge to -be made against him, he was re-elected at the next lustrum. This -distinction, however, great as it was, afforded neither power nor -advantages, and did not even confer the privilege of presiding at the -meetings of the senate, which only belonged to those magistrates who -had the right of convoking the senate.--During the republican period -no senatorial census existed, although senators naturally always -belonged to the wealthiest classes. The institution of a census for -senators belongs to the time of the empire. Augustus first fixed -it at 400,000 sesterces, afterwards increased it to double this -sum, and at last even to 1,200,000 sesterces. Those senators whose -property did not amount to this sum received grants from the emperor -to make it up. As regards the age at which a person might become a -senator, we have no express statement for the time of the republic, -although it appears to have been fixed by some custom or law, as -the aetas senatoria is frequently mentioned, especially during the -latter period of the republic. But we may by induction discover the -probable age. We know that, according to the lex annalis of the -tribune Villius, the age fixed for the quaestorship was 31. Now as -it might happen that a quaestor was made a senator immediately after -the expiration of his office, we may presume that the earliest age -at which a man could become a senator was 32. Augustus at last fixed -the senatorial age at 25, which appears to have remained unaltered -throughout the time of the empire.--No senator was allowed to carry -on any mercantile business. About the commencement of the second -Punic war, some senators appear to have violated this law or custom, -and in order to prevent its recurrence a law was passed, with the -vehement opposition of the senate, that none of its members should -be permitted to possess a ship of more than 300 amphorae in tonnage, -as this was thought sufficiently large to convey to Rome the produce -of their estates abroad. It is clear, however, that this law was -frequently violated.--Regular meetings of the senate (_senatus -legitimus_) took place during the republic, and probably during the -kingly period also, on the calends, nones, and ides of every month: -extraordinary meetings (_senatus indictus_) might be convoked on any -other day, with the exception of those which were atri, and those on -which comitia were held. The right of convoking the senate during the -kingly period belonged to the king, or to his vicegerent, the custos -urbis. This right was during the republic transferred to the curule -magistrates, and at last to the tribunes also. If a senator did not -appear on a day of meeting, he was liable to a fine, for which a -pledge was taken (_pignoris captio_) until it was paid. Towards the -end of the republic it was decreed, that during the whole month of -February the senate should give audience to foreign ambassadors on -all days on which the senate could lawfully meet, and that no other -matters should be discussed until these affairs were settled.--The -places where the meetings of the senate were held (_curiae_, -_senacula_) were always inaugurated by the augurs. [TEMPLUM.] The -most ancient place was the Curia Hostilia, in which alone originally -a senatus-consultum could be made. Afterwards, however, several -temples were used for this purpose, such as the temple of Concordia, -a place near the temple of Bellona [LEGATUS], and one near the porta -Capena. Under the emperors the senate also met in other places: under -Caesar, the Curia Julia, a building of extraordinary splendour, was -commenced; but subsequently meetings of the senate were frequently -held in the house of a consul.--The subjects laid before the senate -belonged partly to the internal affairs of the state, partly to -legislation, and partly to finance; and no measure could be brought -before the populus without having previously been discussed and -prepared by the senate. The senate was thus the medium through which -all affairs of the whole government had to pass: it considered and -discussed whatever measures the king thought proper to introduce, -and had, on the other hand, a perfect control over the assembly -of the populus, which could only accept or reject what the senate -brought before it. When a king died, the royal dignity, until a -successor was elected, was transferred to the Decem Primi, each of -whom in rotation held this dignity for five days. Under the republic, -the senate had at first the right of proposing to the comitia the -candidates for magistracies, but this right was subsequently lost: -the comitia centuriata became quite free in regard to elections, and -were no longer dependent upon the proposal of the senate. The curies -only still possessed the right of sanctioning the election; but in -the year B.C. 299 they were compelled to sanction any election of -magistrates which the comitia might make, before it took place, and -this soon after became law by the Lex Maenia. When at last the curies -no longer assembled for this empty show of power, the senate stepped -into their place, and henceforth in elections, and soon after also -in matters of legislation, the senate had previously to sanction -whatever the comitia might decide. After the Lex Hortensia a decree -of the comitia tributa became law, even without the sanction of -the senate. The original state of things had thus gradually become -reversed, and the senate had lost very important branches of its -power, which had all been gained by the comitia tributa. In its -relation to the comitia centuriata, however, the ancient rules were -still in force, as laws, declarations of war, conclusions of peace, -treaties, &c., were brought before them, and decided by them on the -proposal of the senate.--The powers of the senate, after both orders -were placed upon a perfect equality, may be thus briefly summed up. -The senate continued to have the supreme superintendence in all -matters of religion; it determined upon the manner in which a war was -to be conducted, what legions were to be placed at the disposal of a -commander, and whether new ones were to be levied; it decreed into -what provinces the consuls and praetors were to be sent [PROVINCIA], -and whose imperium was to be prolonged. The commissioners who were -generally sent out to settle the administration of a newly-conquered -country, were always appointed by the senate. All embassies for the -conclusion of peace or treaties with foreign states were sent out by -the senate, and such ambassadors were generally senators themselves, -and ten in number. The senate alone carried on the negotiations with -foreign ambassadors, and received the complaints of subject or allied -nations, who always regarded the senate as their common protector. -By virtue of this office of protector it also settled all disputes -which might arise among the municipia and colonies of Italy, and -punished all heavy crimes committed in Italy, which might endanger -the public peace and security. Even in Rome itself, the judices to -whom the praetor referred important cases, both public and private, -were taken from among the senators, and in extraordinary cases the -senate appointed especial commissions to investigate them; but -such a commission, if the case in question was a capital offence -committed by a citizen, required the sanction of the people. When -the republic was in danger, the senate might confer unlimited power -upon the magistrates by the formula, _Videant consules, ne quid -respublica detrimenti capiat_, which was equivalent to a declaration -of martial law within the city. This general care for the internal -and external welfare of the republic included, as before, the right -of disposing of the finances requisite for these purposes. Hence all -the revenue and expenditure of the republic were under the direct -administration of the senate, and the censors and quaestors were -only its ministers or agents. [CENSOR; QUAESTOR.] All the expenses -necessary for the maintenance of the armies required the sanction -of the senate, before anything could be done, and it might even -prevent the triumph of a returning general, by refusing to assign the -money necessary for it. There are, however, instances of a general -triumphing without the consent of the senate.--How many members were -required to be present in order to constitute a legal assembly, is -uncertain, though it appears that there existed some regulations on -this point, and there is one instance on record, in which at least -one hundred senators were required to be present. The presiding -magistrate opened the business with the words _Quod bonum, faustum, -felix fortunatumque sit populo Romano Quiritibus_, and then laid -before the assembly (_referre_, _relatio_) what he had to propose. -Towards the end of the republic the order in which the question was -put to the senators appears to have depended upon the discretion of -the presiding consul, who called upon each member by pronouncing his -name; but he usually began with the princeps senatus, or if consules -designati were present, with them. The consul generally observed -all the year round the same order in which he had commenced on the -first of January. A senator when called upon to speak might do so -at full length, and even introduce subjects not directly connected -with the point at issue. It depended upon the president which of the -opinions expressed he would put to the vote, and which he would pass -over. The majority of votes always decided a question. The majority -was ascertained either by _numeratio_ or _discessio_; that is, the -president either counted the votes, or the members who voted on the -same side separated from those who voted otherwise. The latter mode -seems to have been the usual one. What the senate determined was -called _senatus consultum_, because the consul, who introduced the -business, was said _senatum consulere_. In the enacting part of a -lex the populus were said _jubere_, and in a plebiscitum _scire_; -in a senatusconsultum the senate was said _censere_. Certain forms -were observed in drawing up a senatusconsultum, of which there is an -example in Cicero: “S. C. Auctoritates Pridie Kal. Octob. in Aede -Apollinis, scribendo adfuerunt L. Domitius Cn. Filius Ahenobarbus, -&c. Quod M. Marcellus Consul V. F. (_verba fecit_) de prov. Cons. D. -E. R. I. C. (_de ea re ita censuerunt Uti, &c._)” The names of the -persons who were witnesses to the drawing up of the senatusconsultum -were called the _auctoritates_, and these auctoritates were cited -as evidence of the fact of the persons named in them having been -present at the drawing up of the S.C. There can be no doubt that -certain persons were required to be present _scribendo_, but others -might assist if they chose, and a person in this way might testify -his regard for another on behalf of whom or with reference to whom -the S. C. was made. Besides the phrase _scribendo adesse_, there are -_esse ad scribendum_ and _poni ad scribendum_. When a S. C. was made -on the motion of a person, it was said to be made _in sententiam -ejus_. If the S. C. was carried, it was written on tablets, and -placed in the Aerarium. Senatusconsulta were, properly speaking, -laws, for it is clear that the senate had legislative power even -in the republican period; but it is difficult to determine how far -their legislative power extended. A _decretum_ of the senate was a -rule made by the senate as to some matter which was strictly within -its competence, and thus differed from a _senatusconsultum_, which -was a law; but these words are often used indiscriminately and with -little precision. Many of the senatusconsulta of the republican -period were only determinations of the senate, which became leges -by being carried in the comitia. One instance of this kind occurred -on the occasion of the trial of Clodius for violating the mysteries -of the Bona Dea. A rogatio on the subject of the trial was proposed -to the comitia ex senatusconsulto, which is also spoken of as the -_auctoritas_ of the senate. A senate was not allowed to be held -before sunrise or to be prolonged after sunset: on extraordinary -emergencies, however, this regulation was set aside.--During the -latter part of the republic the senate was degraded in various ways -by Sulla, Caesar, and others, and on many occasions it was only an -instrument in the hands of the men in power. In this way it became -prepared for the despotic government of the emperors, when it was -altogether the creature and obedient instrument of the princeps. The -emperor himself was generally also princeps senatus, and had the -power of convoking both ordinary and extraordinary meetings, although -the consuls, praetors and tribunes continued to have the same right. -The ordinary meetings, according to a regulation of Augustus, were -held twice in every month. In the reign of Tiberius the election of -magistrates was transferred from the people to the senate, which, -however, was enjoined to take especial notice of those candidates who -were recommended to it by the emperor. At the demise of an emperor -the senate had the right of appointing his successor, in case no one -had been nominated by the emperor himself; but the senate very rarely -had an opportunity of exercising this right, as it was usurped by the -soldiers. The aerarium at first still continued nominally to be under -the control of the senate, but the emperors gradually took it under -their own exclusive management, and the senate retained nothing but -the administration of the funds of the city (_arca publica_), which -were distinct both from the aerarium and from the fiscus. Augustus -ordained that no accusations should any longer be brought before the -comitia, and instead of them he raised the senate to a high court -of justice, upon which he conferred the right of taking cognisance -of capital offences committed by senators, of crimes against the -state and the person of the emperors, and of crimes committed by the -provincial magistrates in the administration of their provinces. -Respecting the provinces of the senate, see PROVINCIA. Under the -empire, senatusconsulta began to take the place of leges, properly so -called, and as the senate was, with the exception of the emperor, the -only legislating body, such senatusconsulta are frequently designated -by the name of the consuls in whose year of office they were -passed.--The distinctions and privileges enjoyed by senators were: -1. The tunica with a broad purple stripe (_latus clavus_) in front, -which was woven in it, and not, as is commonly believed, sewed upon -it. 2. A kind of short boot, with the letter C. on the front of the -foot. This C. is generally supposed to mean _centum_, and to refer -to the original number of 100 (_centum_) senators. 3. The right of -sitting in the orchestra in the theatres and amphitheatres. This -distinction was first procured for the senators by Scipio Africanus -Major, 194 B.C. 4. On a certain day in the year a sacrifice was -offered to Jupiter in the Capitol, and on this occasion the senators -alone had a feast in the Capitol; the right was called the _jus -publice epulandi_. 5. The _jus liberae legationis_. [LEGATUS, p. 224.] - - -SĔNĬŌRES. [COMITIA.] - - -SEPTEMVĬRI ĔPŬLŌNES. [EPULONES.] - - -SEPTĬMONTĬUM, a Roman festival which was held in the month of -December. It was celebrated by the montani, or the inhabitants of the -seven ancient hills or rather districts of Rome, who offered on this -day sacrifices to the gods in their respective districts. These sacra -were, like the Paganalia, not sacra publica, but privata. They were -believed to have been instituted to commemorate the enclosure of the -seven hills of Rome within the walls of the city, and must certainly -be referred to a time when the Capitoline, Quirinal, and Viminal were -not yet incorporated with Rome. - - -SEPTUM. [COMITIA, p. 107.] - - -SEPTUNX. [AS.] - - -SĔPULCRUM. [FUNUS.] - - -SĔRA. [JANUA.] - - -SĒRĬCUM (σηρικόν), silk, also called _bombycinum_. Raw silk was -brought from the interior of Asia, and manufactured in Cos, as early -as the fourth century B.C. From this island it appears that the Roman -ladies obtained their most splendid garments [COA VESTIS], which -were remarkably thin, sometimes of a fine purple dye, and variegated -with transverse stripes of gold. Silk was supposed to come from -the country of the Seres in Asia, whence a silk garment is usually -called _Serica vestis_. Under the empire the rage for such garments -was constantly on the increase. Even men aspired to be adorned with -silk, and hence the senate, early in the reign of Tiberius, enacted -_ne vestis Serica viros fœdaret_. The eggs of the silkworm were first -brought into Europe in the age of Justinian, A.D. 530, in the hollow -stem of a plant from “Serinda,” which was probably Khotan in Little -Bucharia, by some monks who had learnt the method of hatching and -rearing them. - - -SERTA. [CORONA.] - - -SERVUS (δοῦλος), a slave. (1) GREEK. Slavery existed almost -throughout the whole of Greece; and Aristotle says that a complete -household is that which consists of slaves and freemen, and he -defines a slave to be a living working-tool and possession. None of -the Greek philosophers ever seem to have objected to slavery as a -thing morally wrong; Plato in his perfect state only desires that -no Greeks should be made slaves by Greeks, and Aristotle defends -the justice of the institution on the ground of a diversity of -race, and divides mankind into the free and those who are slaves by -nature; under the latter description he appears to have regarded -all barbarians in the Greek sense of the word, and therefore -considers their slavery justifiable. In the most ancient times -there are said to have been no slaves in Greece, but we find them -in the Homeric poems, though by no means so generally as in later -times. They are usually prisoners taken in war, who serve their -conquerors: but we also read as well of the purchase and sale of -slaves. They were, however, at that time mostly confined to the -houses of the wealthy. There were two kinds of slavery among the -Greeks. One species arose when the inhabitants of a country were -subdued by an invading tribe, and reduced to the condition of serfs -or bondsmen. They lived upon and cultivated the land which their -masters had appropriated to themselves, and paid them a certain -rent. They also attended their masters in war. They could not be -sold out of the country or separated from their families, and could -acquire property. Such were the Helots of Sparta [HELOTES], and -the Penestae of Thessaly [PENESTAE]. The other species of slavery -consisted of domestic slaves acquired by purchase, who were entirely -the property of their masters, and could be disposed of like any -other goods and chattels: these were the δοῦλοι properly so called, -and were the kind of slaves that existed at Athens and Corinth. In -commercial cities slaves were very numerous, as they performed the -work of the artisans and manufacturers of modern towns. In poorer -republics, which had little or no capital, and which subsisted -wholly by agriculture, they would be few: thus in Phocis and Locris -there are said to have been originally no domestic slaves. The -majority of slaves was purchased; few comparatively were born in the -family of the master, partly because the number of female slaves -was very small in comparison with the male, and partly because the -cohabitation of slaves was discouraged, as it was considered cheaper -to purchase than to rear slaves. It was a recognised rule of Greek -national law that the persons of those who were taken prisoners in -war became the property of the conqueror, but it was the practice -for Greeks to give liberty to those of their own nation on payment -of a ransom. Consequently almost all slaves in Greece, with the -exception of the serfs above-mentioned, were barbarians. The chief -supply seems to have come from the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, -which had abundant opportunities of obtaining them from their own -neighbourhood and the interior of Asia. A considerable number of -slaves also came from Thrace, where the parents frequently sold -their children.--At Athens, as well as in other states, there was a -regular slave-market, called the κύκλος, because the slaves stood -round in a circle. They were also sometimes sold by auction, and were -then placed on a stone, as is now done when slaves are sold in the -United States of North America: the same was also the practice in -Rome, whence the phrase _homo de lapide emtus_. [AUCTIO.] At Athens -the number of slaves was far greater than the free population. Even -the poorest citizen had a slave for the care of his household, and -in every moderate establishment many were employed for all possible -occupations, as bakers, cooks, tailors, &c.--Slaves either worked on -their masters’ account or their own (in the latter case they paid -their masters a certain sum a day); or they were let out by their -master on hire, either for the mines or any other kind of labour, -or as hired servants for wages. The rowers on board the ships were -usually slaves, who either belonged to the state or to private -persons, who let them out to the state on payment of a certain sum. -It appears that a considerable number of persons kept large gangs -of slaves merely for the purpose of letting out, and found this -a profitable mode of investing their capital. Great numbers were -required for the mines, and in most cases the mine-lessees would -be obliged to hire some, as they would not have sufficient capital -to purchase as many as they wanted. The rights of possession with -regard to slaves differed in no respect from any other property; -they could be given or taken as pledges. The condition, however, of -Greek slaves was upon the whole better than that of Roman ones, with -the exception perhaps of Sparta, where, according to Plutarch, it is -the best place in the world to be a freeman, and the worst to be a -slave. At Athens especially the slaves seem to have been allowed a -degree of liberty and indulgence which was never granted to them at -Rome. The life and person of a slave at Athens were also protected -by the law: a person who struck or maltreated a slave was liable -to an action; a slave too could not be put to death without legal -sentence. He could even take shelter from the cruelty of his master -in the temple of Theseus, and there claim the privilege of being -sold by him. The person of a slave was, of course, not considered -so sacred as that of a freeman: his offences were punished with -corporal chastisement, which was the last mode of punishment -inflicted on a freeman; he was not believed upon his oath, but -his evidence in courts of justice was always taken with torture. -Notwithstanding the generally mild treatment of slaves in Greece, -their insurrection was not unfrequent: but these insurrections in -Attica were usually confined to the mining slaves, who were treated -with more severity than the others. Slaves were sometimes manumitted -at Athens, though not so frequently as at Rome. Those who were -manumitted (ἀπελεύθεροι) did not become citizens, as they might at -Rome, but passed into the condition of _metoici_. They were obliged -to honour their former master as their patron (προστάτης), and to -fulfil certain duties towards him, the neglect of which rendered them -liable to the δίκη ἀποστασίου, by which they might again be sold -into slavery. Respecting the public slaves at Athens, see DEMOSII. -It appears that there was a tax upon slaves at Athens, which was -probably three oboli a year for each slave.--(2) ROMAN. The Romans -viewed liberty as the natural state, and slavery as a condition which -was contrary to the natural state. The mutual relation of slave and -master among the Romans was expressed by the terms _Servus_ and -_Dominus_; and the power and interest which the dominus had over and -in the slave was expressed by _Dominium_. Slaves existed at Rome -in the earliest times of which we have any record; but they do not -appear to have been numerous under the kings and in the earliest -ages of the republic. The different trades and the mechanical arts -were chiefly carried on by the clients of the patricians, and the -small farms in the country were cultivated for the most part by -the labours of the proprietor and of his own family. But as the -territories of the Roman state were extended, the patricians obtained -possession of large estates out of the ager publicus, since it was -the practice of the Romans to deprive a conquered people of part -of their land. These estates probably required a larger number of -hands for their cultivation than could readily be obtained among the -free population, and since the freemen were constantly liable to be -called away from their work to serve in the armies, the lands began -to be cultivated almost entirely by slave labour. Through war and -commerce slaves could easily be obtained, and at a cheap rate, and -their number soon became so great, that the poorer class of freemen -was thrown almost entirely out of employment. This state of things -was one of the chief arguments used by Licinius and the Gracchi for -limiting the quantity of public land which a person might possess. -In Sicily, which supplied Rome with so great a quantity of corn, -the number of agricultural slaves was immense: the oppressions to -which they were exposed drove them twice to open rebellion, and -their numbers enabled them to defy for a time the Roman power. The -first of these servile wars began in B.C. 134 and ended in B.C. 132, -and the second commenced in B.C. 102 and lasted almost four years. -Long, however, after it had become the custom to employ large gangs -of slaves in the cultivation of the land, the number of those who -served as personal attendants still continued to be small. Persons -in good circumstances seem usually to have had one only to wait upon -them, who was generally called by the name of his master with the -word _por_ (that is, _puer_) affixed to it, as _Caipor_, _Lucipor_, -_Marcipor_, _Publipor_, _Quintipor_, &c. But during the latter times -of the republic and under the empire the number of domestic slaves -greatly increased, and in every family of importance there were -separate slaves to attend to all the necessities of domestic life. It -was considered a reproach to a man not to keep a considerable number -of slaves. The first question asked respecting a person’s fortune -was _Quot pascit servos_, “How many slaves does he keep?” Ten slaves -seem to have been the lowest number which a person could keep in the -age of Augustus, with a proper regard to respectability in society. -The immense number of prisoners taken in the constant wars of the -republic, and the increase of wealth and luxury, augmented the number -of slaves to a prodigious extent. A freedman under Augustus, who had -lost much property in the civil wars, left at his death as many as -4,116. Two hundred was no uncommon number for one person to keep. The -mechanical arts, which were formerly in the hands of the clients, -were now entirely exercised by slaves: a natural growth of things, -for where slaves perform certain duties or practise certain arts, -such duties or arts are thought degrading to a freeman. It must not -be forgotten, that the games of the amphitheatre required an immense -number of slaves trained for the purpose. [GLADIATORES.] Like the -slaves in Sicily, the gladiators in Italy rose in B.C. 73 against -their oppressors, and under the able generalship of Spartacus, -defeated a Roman consular army, and were not subdued till B.C. 71, -when 60,000 of them are said to have fallen in battle.--A slave -could not contract a marriage. His cohabitation with a woman was -_contubernium_; and no legal relation between him and his children -was recognized. A slave could have no property. He was not incapable -of acquiring property, but his acquisitions belonged to his master. -Slaves were not only employed in the usual domestic offices and in -the labours of the field, but also as factors or agents for their -masters in the management of business, and as mechanics, artisans, -and in every branch of industry. It may easily be conceived that, -under these circumstances, especially as they were often entrusted -with property to a large amount, there must have arisen a practice -of allowing the slave to consider part of his gains as his own; this -was his _Peculium_, a term also applicable to such acquisitions of -a filius-familias as his father allowed him to consider as his own. -[PATRIA POTESTAS.] According to strict law, the _peculium_ was the -property of the master, but according to usage, it was considered -to be the property of the slave. Sometimes it was agreed between -master and slave, that the slave should purchase his freedom with -his _peculium_ when it amounted to a certain sum. A runaway slave -(_fugitivus_) could not lawfully be received or harboured. The master -was entitled to pursue him wherever he pleased; and it was the duty -of all authorities to give him aid in recovering the slave. It was -the object of various laws to check the running away of slaves in -every way, and accordingly a runaway slave could not legally be an -object of sale. A class of persons called _Fugitivarii_ made it their -business to recover runaway slaves. A person was a slave either -jure gentium or jure civili. Under the republic, the chief supply -of slaves arose from prisoners taken in war, who were sold by the -quaestors with a crown on their heads (_sub corona venire, vendere_), -and usually on the spot where they were taken, as the care of a large -number of captives was inconvenient. Consequently slave-dealers -usually accompanied an army, and frequently after a great battle had -been gained many thousands were sold at once, when the slave-dealers -obtained them for a mere nothing. The slave trade was also carried -on to a great extent, and after the fall of Corinth and Carthage, -Delos was the chief mart for this traffic. When the Cilician pirates -had possession of the Mediterranean, as many as 10,000 slaves are -said to have been imported and sold there in one day. A large number -came from Thrace and the countries in the north of Europe, but the -chief supply was from Africa, and more especially Asia, whence we -frequently read of Phrygians, Lycians, Cappadocians, &c. as slaves. -The trade of slave-dealers (_mangones_) was considered disreputable; -but it was very lucrative, and great fortunes were frequently -realised from it. Slaves were usually sold by auction at Rome. They -were placed either on a raised stone (hence _de lapide emtus_), or a -raised platform (_catasta_), so that every one might see and handle -them, even if they did not wish to purchase them. Purchasers usually -took care to have them stripped naked, for slave-dealers had recourse -to as many tricks to conceal personal defects as the horse-jockeys of -modern times: sometimes purchasers called in the advice of medical -men. Newly imported slaves had their feet whitened with chalk, and -those that came from the East had their ears bored, which we know was -a sign of slavery among many eastern nations. The slave-market, like -all other markets, was under the jurisdiction of the aediles, who -made many regulations by edicts respecting the sale of slaves. The -character of the slave was set forth in a scroll (_titulus_) hanging -around his neck, which was a warranty to the purchaser: the vendor -was bound to announce fairly all his defects, and if he gave a false -account had to take him back within six months from the time of his -sale, or make up to the purchaser what the latter had lost through -obtaining an inferior kind of slave to what had been warranted. The -chief points which the vendor had to warrant, were the health of -the slave, especially freedom from epilepsy, and that he had not a -tendency to thievery, running away, or committing suicide. Slaves -sold without any warranty wore at the time of sale a cap (_pileus_) -upon their head. Slaves newly imported were generally preferred -for common work: those who had served long were considered artful -(_veteratores_); and the pertness and impudence of those born in -their master’s house, called _vernae_, were proverbial. The value -of slaves depended of course upon their qualifications; but under -the empire the increase of luxury and the corruption of morals led -purchasers to pay immense sums for beautiful slaves, or such as -ministered to the caprice or whim of the purchaser. Eunuchs always -fetched a very high price, and Martial speaks of beautiful boys who -sold for as much as 100,000 or 200,000 sesterces each (885_l._ 8_s._ -4_d._ and 1770_l._ 16_s._ 8_d._). Slaves who possessed a knowledge -of any art which might bring profit to their owners, also sold for a -large sum. Thus literary men and doctors frequently fetched a high -price, and also slaves fitted for the stage.--Slaves were divided -into many various classes: the first division was into public or -private. The former belonged to the state and public bodies, and -their condition was preferable to that of the common slaves. They -were less liable to be sold, and under less control, than ordinary -slaves: they also possessed the privilege of the testamenti factio -to the amount of one half of their property, which shows that they -were regarded in a different light from other slaves. Public slaves -were employed to take care of the public buildings, and to attend -upon magistrates and priests. A body of slaves belonging to one -person was called _familia_, but two were not considered sufficient -to constitute a _familia_. Private slaves were divided into urban -(_familia urbana_) and rustic (_familia rustica_); but the name of -urban was given to those slaves who served in the villa or country -residence as well as in the town house; so that the words urban and -rustic rather characterised the nature of their occupations than -the place where they served. Slaves were also arranged in certain -classes, which held a higher or a lower rank according to the nature -of their occupation. These classes are _ordinarii_, _vulgares_, -and _mediastini_.--_Ordinarii_ seem to have been those slaves who -had the superintendence of certain parts of the housekeeping. They -were always chosen from those who had the confidence of their -master, and they generally had certain slaves under them. To this -class the _actores_, _procuratores_, and _dispensatores_ belong, -who occur in the familia rustica as well as the familia urbana, -but in the former are almost the same as the _villici_. They were -stewards or bailiffs. To the same class also belong the slaves who -had the charge of the different stores, and who correspond to our -house-keepers and butlers: they are called _cellarii_, _promi_, -_condi_, _procuratores peni_, &c.--_Vulgares_ included the great -body of slaves in a house who had to attend to any particular duty -in the house, and to minister to the domestic wants of their master. -As there were distinct slaves or a distinct slave for almost every -department of household economy, as bakers (_pistores_), cooks -(_coqui_), confectioners (_dulciarii_), picklers (_salmentarii_), -&c., it is unnecessary to mention these more particularly. This -class also included the porters (_ostiarii_), the bed-chamber slaves -(_cubicularii_), the litter-bearers (_lecticarii_), and all personal -attendants of any kind.--_Mediastini_, the name given to slaves -used for any common purpose, was chiefly applied to certain slaves -belonging to the familia rustica.--The treatment of slaves of course -varied greatly, according to the disposition of their masters, but -they were upon the whole, as has been already remarked, treated with -greater severity and cruelty than among the Athenians. Originally the -master could use the slave as he pleased; under the republic the law -does not seem to have protected the person or life of the slave at -all; but the cruelty of masters was to some extent restrained under -the empire by various enactments. In early times, when the number of -slaves was small, they were treated with more indulgence, and more -like members of the family: they joined their masters in offering up -prayers and thanksgivings to the gods, and partook of their meals in -common with their masters, though not at the same table with them, -but upon benches (_subsellia_) placed at the foot of the lectus. -But with the increase of numbers and of luxury among masters, the -ancient simplicity of manners was changed: a certain quantity of -food was allowed them (_dimensum_ or _demensum_), which was granted -to them either monthly (_menstruum_) or daily (_diarium_). Their -chief food was the corn called _far_, of which either four or five -modii were granted them a month, or one Roman pound (_libra_) a -day. They also obtained an allowance of salt and oil: Cato allowed -his slaves a sextarius of oil a month and a modius of salt a year. -They also got a small quantity of wine, with an additional allowance -on the Saturnalia and Compitalia, and sometimes fruit, but seldom -vegetables. Butcher’s meat seems to have been hardly ever given -them. Under the republic they were not allowed to serve in the army, -though after the battle of Cannae, when the state was in imminent -danger, 8000 slaves were purchased by the state for the army, and -subsequently manumitted on account of their bravery. The offences -of slaves were punished with severity, and frequently with the -utmost barbarity. One of the mildest punishments was the removal -from the familia urbana to the rustica, where they were obliged to -work in chains or fetters. They were frequently beaten with sticks -or scourged with the whip. Runaway slaves (_fugitivi_) and thieves -(_fures_) were branded on the forehead with a mark (_stigma_), -whence they are said to be _notati_ or _inscripti_. Slaves were also -punished by being hung up by their hands with weights suspended to -their feet, or by being sent to work in the Ergastulum or Pistrinum. -[ERGASTULUM.] The carrying of the furca was a very common mode of -punishment. [FURCA.] The toilet of the Roman ladies was a dreadful -ordeal to the female slaves, who were often barbarously punished by -their mistresses for the slightest mistake in the arrangement of -the hair or a part of the dress. Masters might work their slaves -as many hours in the day as they pleased, but they usually allowed -them holidays on the public festivals. At the festival of Saturnus, -in particular, special indulgences were granted to all slaves, of -which an account is given under SATURNALIA. There was no distinctive -dress for slaves. It was once proposed in the senate to give slaves -a distinctive costume, but it was rejected, since it was considered -dangerous to show them their number. Male slaves were not allowed -to wear the toga or bulla, nor females the stola, but otherwise -they were dressed nearly in the same way as poor people, in clothes -of a dark colour (_pullati_) and slippers (_crepidae_). The rights -of burial, however, were not denied to slaves, for, as the Romans -regarded slavery as an institution of society, death was considered -to put an end to the distinction between slaves and freemen. Slaves -were sometimes even buried with their masters, and we find funeral -inscriptions addressed to the Dii Manes of slaves (_Dis Manibus_). - - -SESCUNX. [AS.] - - -SESTERTĬUS, a Roman coin, which properly belonged to the silver -coinage, in which it was one-fourth of the denarius, and therefore -equal to 2½ asses. Hence the name, which is an abbreviation of -_semis tertius_ (sc. _nummus_), the Roman mode of expressing 2½. -The word _nummus_ is often expressed with _sestertius_, and often -it stands alone, meaning _sestertius_. Hence the symbol HS or IIS, -which is used to designate the sestertius. It stands either for LLS -(_Libra Libra et Semis_), or for IIS, the two I’s merely forming -the numeral two (sc. _asses_ or _librae_), and the whole being in -either case equivalent to _dupondius et semis_. When the as was -reduced to half an ounce, and the number of asses in the denarius -was made sixteen instead of ten [AS, DENARIUS], the sestertius was -still ¼ of the denarius, and therefore contained no longer 2½, but -4 asses. The old reckoning of 10 asses to the denarius was kept, -however, in paying the troops. After this change the sestertius was -coined in brass as well as in silver; the metal used for it was that -called _aurichalcum_, which was much finer than the common _aes_, of -which the asses were made. The sum of 1000 _sestertii_ was called -_sestertium_. This was also denoted by the symbol HS, the obvious -explanation of which is “IIS (2½ millia).” The _sestertium_ was -always a sum of money, never a _coin_; the _coin_ used in the payment -of large sums was the denarius. According to the value we have -assigned to the DENARIUS, up to the time of Augustus, we have-- - - _£. s. d. farth._ - the sestertius = 0 0 2 ·5 - the sestertium = 8 17 1 - After the reign of Augustus-- - the sestertius = 0 0 1 3·5 - the sestertium = 7 16 3 - -The sestertius was the denomination of money almost always used in -reckoning considerable amounts. There are a very few examples of the -use of the denarius for this purpose. The mode of reckoning was as -follows:--_Sestertius_ = _sestertius nummus_ = _nummus_. Sums below -1000 _sestertii_ were expressed by the numeral adjectives joined with -either of these forms. The sum of 1000 sestertii = _mille sestertii_ -= M _sestertium_ (for _sestertiorum_) = M _nummi_ = M _nummum_ -(for _nummorum_) = M _sestertii nummi_ = M _sestertium nummum_ = -_sestertium_. These forms are used with the numeral adjectives below -1000: sometimes _millia_ is used instead of _sestertia_: sometimes -both words are omitted: sometimes _nummum_ or _sestertium_ is added. -For example, 600,000 sestertii = _sescenta sestertia_ = _sescenta -millia_ = _sescenta_ = _sescenta sestertia nummum_. For sums of a -thousand _sestertia_ (_i.e._ a million _sestertii_) and upwards, -the numeral adverbs in _ies_ (_decies, undecies, vicies, &c._) are -used, with which the words _centena millia_ (a hundred thousand) must -be understood. With these adverbs the neuter singular _sestertium_ -is joined in the case required by the construction. Thus, _decies -sestertium_ = _decies centena millia sestertium_ = _ten times a -hundred thousand sestertii_ = 1,000,000 sestertii = 1000 _sestertia_: -_millies_ HS = _millies centena millia sestertium_ = a thousand times -one hundred thousand sestertii = 100,000,000 _sestertii_ = 100,000 -_sestertia_. When the numbers are written in cypher, it is often -difficult to know whether _sestertii_ or _sestertia_ are meant. A -distinction is sometimes made by a line placed over the numeral when -_sestertia_ are intended, or in other words, when the numeral is an -adverb in _ies_. Thus - - HS. M.C. = 1100 sestertii, but - HS. M̄.C̄. = HS millies centies - = 110,000 sestertia - = 110,000,000 sestertii. - -_Sesterce_ is sometimes used as an English word. If so, it ought -to be used only as the translation of _sestertius_, never of -_sestertium_. - - -SĒVIR. [EQUITES.] - - -SEX SUFFRĀGĬA. [EQUITES.] - - -SEXTANS. [AS.] - - -SEXTĀRĬUS, a Roman dry and liquid measure. It was one-sixth of the -congius, and hence its name. It was divided, in the same manner as -the As, into parts named _uncia, sextans, quadrans, triens, quincunx, -semissis, &c._ The uncia, or twelfth part of the sextarius, was the -CYATHUS; its _sextans_ was therefore two cyathi, its _quadrans_ -three, its _triens_ four, its _quincunx_ five, &c. (See Tables.) - - -SĬBYLLĪNI LIBRI. These books are said to have been obtained in the -reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or according to other accounts in -that of Tarquinius Superbus, when a Sibyl (Σίβυλλα), or prophetic -woman, presented herself before the king, and offered nine books -for sale. Upon the king refusing to purchase them, she went and -burnt three, and then returned and demanded the same price for the -remaining six as she had done for the nine. The king again refused -to purchase them, whereupon she burnt three more, and demanded the -same sum for the remaining three as she had done at first for the -nine; the king’s curiosity now became excited, so that he purchased -the books, and then the Sibyl vanished. These books were probably -written in Greek, as the later ones undoubtedly were. They were kept -in a stone chest under ground in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, -under the custody of certain officers, at first only two in number, -but afterwards increased successively to ten and fifteen, of whom -an account is given under DECEMVIRI. The public were not allowed to -inspect the books, and they were only consulted by the officers, who -had the charge of them, at the special command of the senate. They -were not consulted, as the Greek oracles were, for the purpose of -getting light concerning future events; but to learn what worship -was required by the gods, when they had manifested their wrath by -national calamities or prodigies. Accordingly we find that the -instruction they give is in the same spirit; prescribing what honour -was to be paid to the deities already recognised, or what new -ones were to be imported from abroad. When the temple of Jupiter -Capitolinus was burnt in B.C. 82, the Sibylline books perished in the -fire; and in order to restore them, ambassadors were sent to various -towns in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, to make fresh collections, -which on the rebuilding of the temple were deposited in the same -place that the former had occupied. The Sibylline books were also -called _Fata Sibyllina_ and _Libri Fatales_. Along with the Sibylline -books were preserved, under the guard of the same officers, the books -of the two prophetic brothers, the Marcii, the Etruscan prophecies of -the nymph Bygoe, and those of Albuna or Albunea of Tibur. Those of -the Marcii, which had not been placed there at the time of the battle -of Cannae, were written in Latin. - - -SĪCA, _dim._ SĪCĪLA, whence the English _sickle_, a curved dagger, -adapted by its form to be concealed under the clothes, and therefore -carried by robbers and murderers. _Sica_ may be translated _a -scimitar_, to distinguish it from PUGIO, which denoted a dagger of -the common kind. _Sicarius_, though properly meaning one who murdered -with the sica, was applied to murderers in general. Hence the forms -_de sicariis_ and _inter sicarios_ were used in the criminal courts -in reference to murder. Thus _judicium inter sicarios_, “a trial for -murder;” _defendere inter sicarios_, “to defend against a charge of -murder.” - - -SĬGILLĀRĬA. [SATURNALIA.] - - -SIGNA MĪLĬTĀRĬA (σημεῖα, σημαίαι), military ensigns or standards. -The most ancient standard employed by the Romans is said to have -been a handful of straw fixed to the top of a spear or pole. Hence -the company of soldiers belonging to it was called _Manipulus_. The -bundle of hay or fern was soon succeeded by the figures of animals, -viz. the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, and the boar. -These appear to have corresponded to the five divisions of the Roman -army as shown on p. 165. The eagle (_aquila_) was carried by the -_aquilifer_ in the midst of the _hastati_, and we may suppose the -wolf to have been carried among the _principes_, and so on. In the -second consulship of Marius, B.C. 104, the four quadrupeds were -entirely laid aside as standards, the eagle being alone retained. -It was made of silver, or bronze, and with expanded wings, but was -probably of a small size, since a standard-bearer (_signifer_) under -Julius Caesar is said in circumstances of danger to have wrenched the -eagle from its staff, and concealed it in the folds of his girdle. -Under the later emperors the eagle was carried, as it had been for -many centuries, with the legion, a legion being on that account -sometimes called _aquila_, and at the same time each cohort had -for its own ensign the serpent or dragon (_draco_, δράκων), which -was woven on a square piece of cloth, elevated on a gilt staff, -to which a cross-bar was adapted for the purpose, and carried by -the _draconarius_. Another figure used in the standards was a ball -(_pila_), supposed to have been emblematic of the dominion of Rome -over the world; and for the same reason a bronze figure of Victory -was sometimes fixed at the top of the staff. Under the eagle or other -emblem was often placed a head of the reigning emperor, which was to -the army the object of idolatrous adoration. The minor divisions of a -cohort, called _centuries_, had also each an ensign, inscribed with -the number both of the cohort and of the century. By this provision -every soldier was enabled with the greatest ease to take his place. -The standard of the cavalry, properly called _vexillum_, was a -square piece of cloth expanded upon a cross in the manner already -indicated, and perhaps surmounted by some figure. The following cut, -containing several standards, represents the performance of the -sacrifice called _suovetaurilia_. The imperial standard from the time -of Constantine was called _labarum_; on it a figure or emblem of -Christ was woven in gold upon purple cloth, and this was substituted -for the head of the emperor. Since the movements of a body of troops -and of every portion of it were regulated by the standards, all the -evolutions, acts, and incidents of the Roman army were expressed by -phrases derived from this circumstance. Thus _signa inferre_ meant -to advance, _referre_ to retreat, and _convertere_ to face about; -_efferre_, or _castris vellere_, to march out of the camp; _ad signa -convenire_, to re-assemble. Notwithstanding some obscurity in the -use of terms, it appears that, whilst the standard of the legion was -properly called _aquila_, those of the cohorts were in a special -sense of the term called _signa_, their bearers being _signiferi_, -and that those of the manipuli or smaller divisions of the cohort -were denominated _vexilla_, their bearers being _vexillarii_. In time -of peace the standards were kept in the AERARIUM, under the care of -the QUAESTOR. - -[Illustration: Military Standards. (Bellori, Vet. Arc. Aug.)] - - -SĬLĬCERNĬUM. [FUNUS.] - - -SIMPŬLUM or SIMPŬVĬUM, the name of a small cup used in sacrifices, by -which libations of wine were offered to the gods. It is represented -on the coin figured under SECESPITA. There was a proverbial -expression _excitare fluctus in simpulo_, “to make much ado about -nothing.” - - -SĪPĂRĬUM, a piece of tapestry stretched on a frame, which rose before -the stage of the theatre, and consequently answered the purpose of -the drop-scene with us, although, contrary to our practice, it was -depressed when the play began, so as to go below the level of the -stage (_aulaea premuntur_), and was raised again when the performance -was concluded (_tolluntur_). It appears that human figures were -represented upon it, whose feet seemed to rest upon the stage when -this screen was drawn up. These figures were sometimes those of -Britons woven in the canvass, and raising their arms in the attitude -of lifting up a purple curtain, so as to be introduced in the same -manner as Atlantes, Persae, and Caryatides. [CARYATIDES.] In a more -general sense, _siparium_ denoted any piece of cloth or canvass -stretched upon a frame. - - -SISTRUM (σεῖστρον), a mystical instrument of music, used by the -ancient Egyptians in their ceremonies, and especially in the worship -of Isis. It was held in the right hand (see cut), and shaken, from -which circumstance it derived its name. The introduction of the -worship of Isis into Italy shortly before the commencement of the -Christian aera made the Romans familiar with this instrument. - -[Illustration: Sistra. (The two figures on the left hand from -paintings found at Portici; the right-hand figure represents a -Sistrum formerly belonging to the library of St. Genovefa at Paris.)] - - -SĬTELLA. [SITULA.] - - -SĪTŎPHỸLĂCES (σιτοφύλακες), a board of officers, chosen by lot, at -Athens. They were at first three, afterwards increased to fifteen, of -whom ten were for the city, five for the Peiraeus. Their business was -partly to watch the arrival of the corn ships, take account of the -quantity imported, and see that the import laws were duly observed; -partly to watch the sales of corn in the market, and take care that -the prices were fair and reasonable, and none but legal weights and -measures used by the factors; in which respect their duties were much -the same as those of the Agoranomi and Metronomi with regard to other -saleable articles. - - -SĪTOS (σῖτος), corn. The soil of Attica, though favourable to the -production of figs, olives, and grapes, was not so favourable for -corn; and accordingly a large quantity of corn was annually imported. -Exportation was entirely prohibited, nor was any Athenian or resident -alien allowed to carry corn to any other place than Athens. Whoever -did so, was punishable with death. Of the corn brought into the -Athenian port two-thirds was to be brought into the city and sold -there. No one might lend money on a ship that did not sail with -an express condition to bring a return cargo, part of it corn, to -Athens. Strict regulations were made with respect to the sale of -corn in the market. Conspiracies among the corn-dealers (σιτοπῶλαι) -to buy up the corn (συνωνεῖσθαι), or raise the price (συνιστάναι τὰς -τιμὰς), were punished with death. The sale of corn was placed under -the supervision of a special board of officers called _Sitophylaces_ -(σιτοφύλακες), while that of all other marketable commodities -was superintended by the agoranomi. It was their business to see -that meal and bread were of the proper quality, and sold at the -legal weight and price. Notwithstanding these careful provisions, -scarcities (σιτοδεῖαι) frequently occurred at Athens. The state then -made great efforts to supply the wants of the people by importing -large quantities of corn, and selling it at a low price. Public -granaries were kept in the Odeum, Pompeum, Long Porch, and naval -storehouse near the sea. _Sitonae_ (σιτῶναι) were appointed to -get in the supply and manage the sale. Persons called _apodectae_ -(ἀποδέκται) received the corn, measured it out, and distributed it in -certain quantities. - - -SĪTOU DĬCĒ (σίτου δίκη). If anything happened to sever a marriage -contract, the husband or his representative was bound to repay the -marriage portion (προῖξ); or, if he failed to do so, he was liable -to pay interest upon it at the rate of eighteen per cent. per annum. -A woman’s fortune was usually secured by a mortgage of the husband’s -property; but whether this was so or not, her guardian might bring an -action against the party who unjustly withheld it; δίκη προικὸς, to -recover the principal, δίκη σίτου, for the interest. The interest was -called σῖτος (alimony or maintenance), because it was the income out -of which the woman had to be maintained. The word σῖτος is often used -generally for provisions, just as we use the word _bread_. - - -SĬTŬLA, _dim._ SĬTELLA (ὑδρία), was probably a bucket or pail -for drawing and carrying water, but was more usually applied to -the vessel from which lots were drawn. The diminutive _sitella_, -however, was more commonly used in this signification. It appears -that the vessel was filled with water (as among the Greeks, whence -the word ὑδρία), and that the lots (_sortes_) were made of wood; -and as, though increasing in size below, it had a narrow neck, only -one lot could come to the top of the water at the same time, when -it was shaken. The vessel used for drawing lots was also called -_urna_ or _orca_ as well as _Situla_ or _Sitella_. It is important -to understand the difference in meaning, between Sitella and Cista, -in their use in the comitia and courts of justice, since they have -been frequently confounded. The _Sitella_ was the urn, from which -the names of the tribes or centuries were drawn out by lot, so that -each might have its proper place in voting, and the _Cista_ was the -ballot-box into which the tabellae were cast in voting. The Cista -seems to have been made of wicker or similar work. - -[Illustration: Cista. Sitella.] - - -SOCCUS, _dim._ SOCCŬLUS, was nearly if not altogether equivalent in -meaning to CREPIDA, and denoted a slipper or low shoe, which did not -fit closely, and was not fastened by any tie. The Soccus was worn by -comic actors, and was in this respect opposed to the COTHURNUS. - -[Illustration: Socci, slippers, worn by a Mimus or Buffoon. (From an -ancient Painting.)] - - -SŎCĬI (σύμμαχοι). In the early times, when Rome formed equal -alliances with any of the surrounding nations, these nations were -called _Socii_. After the dissolution of the Latin league, when the -name _Latini_, or _Nomen Latinum_, was artificially applied to a -great number of Italians, only a few of whom were real inhabitants -of the old Latin towns, and the majority of whom had been made -Latins by the will and the law of Rome, there necessarily arose a -difference between these Latins and the Socii, and the expression -_Socii Nomen Latinum_ is one of the old asyndeta, instead of _Socii -et Nomen Latinum_. The Italian allies again must be distinguished -from foreign allies. The Italian allies consisted, for the most part, -of such nations as had either been conquered by the Romans, or had -come under their dominion through other circumstances. When such -nations formed an alliance with Rome, they generally retained their -own laws; or if they were not allowed this privilege at first, they -usually obtained it subsequently. The condition of the Italian allies -varied, and mainly depended upon the manner in which they had come -under the Roman dominion; but in reality they were always dependent -upon Rome. The following are the principal duties which the Italian -Socii had to perform towards Rome: they had to send subsidies in -troops, money, corn, ships, and other things, whenever Rome demanded -them. The number of troops requisite for completing or increasing the -Roman armies was decreed every year by the senate, and the consuls -fixed the amount which each allied nation had to send; in proportion -to its population capable of bearing arms, of which each nation was -obliged to draw up accurate lists, called _formulae_. The consul -also appointed the place and time at which the troops of the socii, -each part under its own leader, had to meet him and his legions. -The infantry of the allies in a consular army was usually equal in -numbers to that of the Romans; the cavalry was generally three times -the number of the Romans: but these numerical proportions were not -always observed. The consuls appointed twelve praefects as commanders -of the socii, and their power answered to that of the twelve military -tribunes in the consular legions. These praefects, who were probably -taken from the allies themselves, and not from the Romans, selected -a third of the cavalry, and a fifth of the infantry of the socii, -who formed a select detachment for extraordinary cases, and who were -called the _extraordinarii_. The remaining body of the socii was -then divided into two parts, called the right and the left wing. The -infantry of the wings was, as usual, divided into cohorts, and the -cavalry into turmae. In some cases also legions were formed of the -socii. Pay and clothing were given to the allied troops by the states -or towns to which they belonged, and which appointed quaestors or -paymasters for this purpose: but Rome furnished them with provisions -at the expense of the republic: the infantry received the same as -the Roman infantry, but the cavalry only received two-thirds of what -was given to the Roman cavalry. In the distribution of the spoil and -of conquered lands they frequently received the same share as the -Romans. They were never allowed to take up arms of their own accord, -and disputes among them were settled by the senate. Notwithstanding -all this, the socii fell gradually under the arbitrary rule of the -senate and the magistrates of Rome; and after the year B.C. 173, it -even became customary for magistrates, when they travelled through -Italy, to demand of the authorities of allied towns to pay homage -to them, to provide them with a residence, and to furnish them -with beasts of burden when they continued their journey. The only -way for the allies to obtain any protection against such arbitrary -proceedings, was to enter into a kind of clientela with some -influential and powerful Roman. Socii who revolted against Rome were -frequently punished with the loss of their freedom, or of the honour -of serving in the Roman armies. Such punishments however varied -according to circumstances. After the civitas had been granted to all -the Italians by the Lex Julia de Civitate (B.C. 90), the relation of -the Italian socii to Rome ceased. But Rome had long before this event -applied the name Socii to foreign nations also which were allied -with Rome, though the meaning of the word in this case differed -from that of the Socii Italici. There were two principal kinds of -alliances with foreign nations: 1. _foedus aequum_, such as might -be concluded either after a war in which neither party had gained a -decisive victory, or with a nation with which Rome had never been at -war; 2. a _foedus iniquum_, when a foreign nation conquered by the -Romans was obliged to form the alliance on any terms proposed by the -conquerors. In the latter case the foreign nation was to some extent -subject to Rome, and obliged to comply with anything that Rome might -demand. But all foreign socii, whether they had an equal or unequal -alliance, were obliged to send subsidies in troops when Rome demanded -them; these troops, however, did not, like those of the Italian -socii, serve in the line, but were employed as light-armed soldiers, -and were called _milites auxiliares_, _auxiliarii_, _auxilia_, or -sometimes _auxilia externa_. Towards the end of the republic all the -Roman allies, whether they were nations or kings, sank down to the -condition of mere subjects or vassals of Rome, whose freedom and -independence consisted in nothing but a name. [Compare FOEDERATAE -CIVITATES.] - - -SŎDĀLĬTĬUM. [AMBITUS.] - - -SŌLĀRIUM. [HOROLOGIUM.] - - -SŎLĔA was the simplest kind of sandal [SANDALIUM], consisting of a -sole with little more to fasten it to the foot than a strap across -the instep. - - -SŎLĬDUS. [AURUM.] - - -SOLĬTAURĪLĬA. [SACRIFICIUM; LUSTRATIO; and woodcut on p. 343.] - - -SOPHRŌNISTAE. [GYMNASIUM.] - - -SORTES, lots. It was a frequent practice among the Italian nations -to endeavour to ascertain a knowledge of future events by drawing -lots (_sortes_): in many of the ancient Italian temples the will -of the gods was consulted in this way, as at Praeneste, Caere, &c. -These sortes or lots were usually little tablets or counters, made -of wood or other materials, and were commonly thrown into a sitella -or urn, filled with water, as is explained under SITULA. The lots -were sometimes thrown like dice. The name of sortes was in fact given -to anything used to determine chances, and was also applied to any -verbal response of an oracle. Various things were written upon the -lots according to circumstances, as for instance the names of the -persons using them, &c.: it seems to have been a favourite practice -in later times to write the verses of illustrious poets upon little -tablets, and to draw them out of the urn like other lots, the verses -which a person thus obtained being supposed to be applicable to him. - - -SPĔCŬLĀRĬA. [DOMUS.] - - -SPĔCŬLĀTŌRES, or EXPLŌRĀTŌRES, were scouts or spies sent before -an army, to reconnoitre the ground and observe the movements of -the enemy. Under the emperors there was a body of troops called -Speculatores, who formed part of the praetorian cohorts, and had the -especial care of the emperor’s person. - - -SPĔCŬLUM (κάτοπτρον, ἔσοπτρον, ἔνοπτρον), a mirror, a looking-glass. -The looking-glasses of the ancients were usually made of metal, -at first of a composition of tin and copper, but afterwards more -frequently of silver. The ancients seem to have had glass mirrors -also like ours, consisting of a glass plate covered at the back with -a thin leaf of metal. They were manufactured as early as the time of -Pliny at the celebrated glass-houses of Sidon, but they must have -been inferior to those of metal, since they never came into general -use, and are never mentioned by ancient writers among costly pieces -of furniture, whereas metal mirrors frequently are. Looking-glasses -were generally small, and such as could be carried in the hand. -Instead of their being fixed so as to be hung against the wall or to -stand upon the table or floor, they were generally held by female -slaves before their mistresses when dressing. - -[Illustration: Looking-glass held by a Nymph. (From a Painting at -Herculaneum.)] - - -SPĔCUS. [AQUAE DUCTUS.] - - -SPHAERISTĒRIUM. [GYMNASIUM.] - - -SPĪCŬLUM. [HASTA.] - - -SPĪRA (σπεῖρα), _dim._ SPĪRŬLA, the base of a column. This member did -not exist in the Doric order of Greek architecture, but was always -present in the Ionic and Corinthian, and, besides the bases properly -belonging to those orders, there was one called the Attic, which may -be regarded as a variety of the Ionic [ATTICURGES]. In the Ionic -and Attic the base commonly consisted of two tori (_torus superior_ -and _torus inferior_) divided by a _scotia_ (τρόχιλος), and in the -Corinthian of two tori divided by two scotiae. The upper torus was -often fluted (ῥαβδωτός), and surmounted by an astragal [ASTRAGALUS], -as in the left-hand figure of the annexed woodcut, which shows the -form of the base in the Ionic temple of Panops on the Ilissus. The -right-hand figure in the same woodcut shows the corresponding part -in the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens. In this the upper torus -is wrought with a plaited ornament, perhaps designed to represent a -rope or cable. In these two temples the spira rests not upon a plinth -(_plinthus_, πλίνθος), but on a podium. - -[Illustration: Spirae (bases) of Columns. (From ancient Columns.)] - - -SPŎLĬA. Four words are commonly employed to denote booty taken in -war, _Praeda, anubiae_, _Exuviae_, _Spolia_. Of these _Praeda_ bears -the most comprehensive meaning, being used for plunder of every -description. _Manubiae_ would seem strictly to signify that portion -of the spoil which fell to the share of the commander-in-chief, -the proceeds of which were frequently applied to the erection of -some public building. _Exuviae_ indicates anything stripped from -the person of a foe, while _Spolia_, properly speaking, ought to -be confined to armour and weapons, although both words are applied -loosely to trophies, such as chariots, standards, beaks of ships -and the like, which might be preserved and displayed. Spoils -collected on the battlefield after an engagement, or found in a -captured town, were employed to decorate the temples of the gods, -triumphal arches, porticoes, and other places of public resort, and -sometimes in the hour of extreme need served to arm the people; but -those which were gained by individual prowess were considered the -undoubted property of the successful combatant, and were exhibited -in the most conspicuous part of his dwelling, being hung up in the -atrium, suspended from the door-posts, or arranged in the vestibulum, -with appropriate inscriptions. They were regarded as peculiarly -sacred, so that even if the house was sold the new possessor was not -permitted to remove them. But while on the one hand it was unlawful -to remove spoils, so it was forbidden to _replace_ or _repair_ them -when they had fallen down or become decayed through age; the object -of this regulation being doubtless to guard against the frauds of -false pretenders. Of all spoils the most important were the _spolia -opima_, a term applied to those only which the commander-in-chief of -a Roman army stripped in a field of battle from the leader of the -foe. Plutarch expressly asserts that Roman history up to his own time -afforded but three examples of the _spolia opima_. The first were -said to have been won by Romulus from Acro, king of the Caeninenses, -the second by Aulus Cornelius Cossus from Lar Tolumnius, king of the -Veientes, the third by M. Claudius Marcellus from Viridomarus, king -of the Gaesatae. In all these cases, in accordance with the original -institution, the spoils were dedicated to Jupiter Feretrius. - - -SPONSA, SPONSUS, SPONSĀLĬA. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - -SPORTŬLA. In the days of Roman freedom, clients were in the habit -of testifying respect for their patron by thronging his atrium at -an early hour, and escorting him to places of public resort when he -went abroad. As an acknowledgment of these courtesies, some of the -number were usually invited to partake of the evening meal. After -the extinction of liberty, the presence of such guests, who had -now lost all political importance, was soon regarded as an irksome -restraint, while at the same time many of the noble and wealthy -were unwilling to sacrifice the pompous display of a numerous body -of retainers. Hence the practice was introduced under the empire of -bestowing on each client, when he presented himself for his morning -visit, a certain portion of food as a substitute and compensation -for the occasional invitation to a regular supper (_coena recta_), -and this dole, being carried off in a little basket provided for the -purpose, received the name of _sportula_. For the sake of convenience -it soon became common to give an equivalent in money, the sum -established by general usage being a hundred quadrantes. The donation -in money, however, did not entirely supersede the sportula given in -kind, for we find in Juvenal a lively description of a great man’s -vestibule crowded with dependents, each attended by a slave bearing -a portable kitchen to receive the viands and keep them hot while -they were carried home. Under the empire great numbers of the lower -orders derived their whole sustenance, and the funds for ordinary -expenditure, exclusively from this source, while even the highborn -did not scruple to increase their incomes by taking advantage of the -ostentatious profusion of the rich and vain. - - -STĂDĬUM (ὁ στάδιος and τὸ στάδιον), a Greek measure of length, and -the chief one used for itinerary distances. It was equal to 600 -Greek or 625 Roman feet, or to 125 Roman paces; and the Roman mile -contained 8 stadia. Hence the stadium contained 606 feet 9 inches -English. This standard prevailed throughout Greece, under the name -of the Olympic stadium, so called because it was the exact length -of the stadium or foot-race course at Olympia, measured between the -pillars at the two extremities of the course. The first use of the -measure seems to be contemporaneous with the formation of the stadium -at Olympia when the Olympic games were revived by Iphitus (B.C. 884 -or 828). This distance doubled formed the δίαυλος, the ἱππικον was 4 -stadia, and the δόλιχος is differently stated at 6, 7, 8, 12, 20, and -24 stadia. A day’s journey by land was reckoned at 200 or 180 stadia, -or for an army 150 stadia. The stadium at Olympia was used not only -for the foot-race, but also for the other contests which were added -to the games from time to time [OLYMPIA], except the horse-races, -for which a place was set apart, of a similar form with the stadium, -but larger; this was called the Hippodrome (ἱππόδρομος). The name -stadium was also given to all other places throughout Greece wherever -games were celebrated. The stadium was an oblong area terminated at -one end by a straight line, at the other by a semicircle having the -breadth of the stadium for its base. Round this area were ranges of -seats rising above one another in steps. - - -STĀTĒR (στατῆρ), which means simply _a standard_ (in this case -both of weight and more particularly of money), was the name of -the principal gold coin of Greece, which was also called _Chrysus_ -(χρυσοῦς). The stater is said to have been first coined in Lydia by -Croesus, and probably did not differ materially from the stater which -was afterwards current in Greece, and which was equal _in weight_ to -_two_ drachmae, and _in value_ to _twenty_. The Macedonian stater, -which was the one most in use after the time of Philip and his son -Alexander the Great, was of the value of about 1_l._ 3_s._ 6_d._ In -calculating the value of the stater in our money the ratio of gold to -silver must not be overlooked. Thus the stater of Alexander, which we -have valued, according to the present worth of gold, at 1_l._ 3_s._ -6_d._, passed for twenty drachmae, which, according to the present -value of silver, were worth only 16_s._ 3_d._ But the former is the -true worth of the stater, the difference arising from the greater -value of silver in ancient times than now. - - -STĂTĬŌNES. [CASTRA.] - - -STĂTOR, a public servant, who attended on the Roman magistrates in -the provinces. The Statores seem to have derived their name from -standing by the side of the magistrate, and thus being at hand to -execute all his commands; they appear to have been chiefly employed -in carrying letters and messages. - - -STĀTŬĀRĬA ARS is in its proper sense the art of making statues or -busts, whether they consist of stone or metal or other materials, and -includes the art of making the various kinds of reliefs (alto, basso, -and mezzo relievo). These arts in their infant state existed among -the Greeks from time immemorial. There is no material applicable to -statuary which was not used by the Greeks. As _soft clay_ is capable -of being shaped without difficulty into any form, and is easily -dried, either by being exposed to the sun or by being baked, we may -consider this substance to have been the earliest material of which -figures were made. The name plastic art (ἡ πλαστική), by which the -ancients sometimes designate the art of statuary, properly signifies -to form or shape a thing of clay. The second material was _wood_, -and figures made of wood were called ξόανα, from ξέω, “polish” or -“carve.” It was chiefly used for making images of the gods, and -probably more on account of the facility of working in it, than for -any other reason. _Stone_ was little used in statuary during the -early ages of Greece, though it was not altogether unknown, as we -may infer from the relief on the Lion-gate of Mycenae. In Italy, -where the soft peperino afforded an easy material for working, stone -appears to have been used at an earlier period and more commonly -than in Greece. But in the historical times the Greeks used all the -principal varieties of marble for their statues. Different kinds of -marble and of different colours were sometimes used in one and the -same statue, in which case the work is called Polylithic statuary. -_Bronze_ (χάλκος, _aes_), _silver_, and _gold_ were used profusely in -the state of society described in the Homeric poems. At that period, -however, and long after, the works executed in metal were made by -means of the hammer, and the different pieces were joined together by -pins, rivets, cramps, or other mechanical fastenings, and, as the art -advanced, by a kind of glue, cement, or solder. Iron came into use -much later, and the art of casting both bronze and iron is ascribed -to Rhoecus and to Theodoras of Samos. _Ivory_ was employed at a later -period than any of the before-mentioned materials, and then was -highly valued both for its beauty and rarity. In its application to -statuary, ivory was generally combined with gold, and was used for -the parts representing the flesh. The history of ancient art, and of -statuary in particular, may be divided into five periods. - -I. _First Period, from the earliest times till about 580_ B.C.--Three -kinds of artists may be distinguished in the mythical period. The -first consists of gods and daemons; such as Athena, Hephaestus, the -Phrygian or Dardanian Dactyli, and the Cabiri. The second contains -whole tribes of men distinguished from others by the mysterious -possession of superior skill in the practice of the arts, such as -the Telchines and the Cyclopes. The third consists of individuals -who are indeed described as human beings, but yet are nothing -more than personifications of particular branches of art, or the -representatives of families of artists. Of the latter the most -celebrated is _Daedalus_, whose name indicates nothing but a smith, -or an artist in general, and who is himself the mythical ancestor -of a numerous family of artists (_Daedalids_), which can be traced -from the time of Homer to that of Plato, for even Socrates is said -to have been a descendant of this family. _Smilis_ (from σμίλη, a -carving-knife) exercised his art in Samos, Aegina, and other places, -and some remarkable works were attributed to him. _Endoeus_ of -Athens is called a disciple of Daedalus. According to the popular -traditions of Greece, there was no period in which the gods were not -represented in some form or other, and there is no doubt that for -a long time there existed no other statues in Greece than those of -the gods. The earliest representations of the gods, however, were -only symbolic. The presence of a god was indicated by the simplest -and most shapeless symbols, such as unhewn blocks of stone (λίθοι -ἀργοί), and by simple pillars or pieces of wood. The general name -for a representation of a god not consisting of such a rude symbol -was ἄγαλμα. In the Homeric poems there are sufficient traces of the -existence of statues of the gods; but they probably did not display -any artistic beauty. The only work of art which has come down to us -from the heroic age is the relief above the ancient gate of Mycenae, -representing two lions standing on their hind legs, with a sort of -pillar between them (woodcut under MURUS). The time which elapsed -between the composition of the Homeric poems and the beginning of the -fifth century before our aera may be termed the age of discovery; -for nearly all the inventions, upon the application of which the -development of the arts is dependent, are assigned to this period. -Glaucus of Chios or Samos is said to have invented the art of -soldering metal (σιδήρου κόλλησις). The two artists most celebrated -for their discoveries were the two brothers Telecles and Theodoras of -Samos, about the time of Polycrates. They invented the art of casting -figures of metal. During the whole of this period, though marble and -bronze began to be extensively applied, yet wood was more generally -used for representations of the gods. These statues were painted -[PICTURA], and in most cases dressed in the most gorgeous attire. -The style in which they are executed is called the _archaic_ or the -_hieratic_ style. The figures are stiff and clumsy, the countenances -have little or no individuality, the eyes long and small, and the -outer angles turned a little upwards; the mouth, which is likewise -drawn upwards at the two corners, has a smiling appearance. The hair -is carefully worked, but looks stiff and wiry, and hangs generally -down in straight lines, which are curled at the ends. The arms hang -down the sides of the body, unless the figure carries something in -its hands. The drapery is likewise stiff, and the folds are very -symmetrical and worked with little regard to nature. - -II. _Second Period, from 580 to 480_ B.C.--The number of artists who -flourished during this period is truly astonishing. The Ionians of -Asia Minor and the islanders of the Aegean, who had previously been -in advance of the other Greeks in the exercise of the fine arts, had -their last flourishing period from 560 to 528 B.C. Works in metal -were produced in high perfection in Samos, in Aegina and Argos, while -Chios gained the greatest reputation from its possessing the earliest -great school of sculptors in marble, in which Bupalus and Anthermus -were the most distinguished about 540 B.C. Their works were scattered -over various parts of Greece, and their value may be inferred from -the fact that Augustus adorned with them the pediment of the temple -of Apollo on the Palatine. Sicyon also possessed a celebrated school -of sculptors in marble, and about 580 B.C. Dipoenus and Scyllis, who -had come from Crete, were at the head of it, and executed several -marble statues of gods. Respecting Magna Graecia and Sicily we -know few particulars, though it appears that the arts here went on -improving and continued to be in advance of the mother-country. The -most celebrated artists in southern Italy were Dameas of Croton, -and Pythagoras of Rhegium. In Athens the arts made great progress -under the patronage of the Pisistratids. The most celebrated among -the Athenian sculptors of this period were Critias and Hegias, or -Hegesias, both distinguished for their works in bronze. The former -of them made in 477 B.C. the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton. -Argos also distinguished itself, and it is a curious circumstance, -that the greatest Attic artists with whom the third period opens, and -who brought the Attic art to its culminating point, are disciples -of the Argive Ageladas (about 516 B.C.) In the statues of the gods -(ἀγάλματα), which were made for temples as objects of worship, the -hieratic style was more or less conscientiously retained, and it is -therefore not in these statues that we have to seek for proofs of -the progress of art. But even in temple-statues wood began to give -way to other and better materials. Besides bronze, marble also, and -ivory and gold were now applied to statues of the gods, and it was -not uncommon to form the body of a statue of wood, and to make its -head, arms, and feet of stone (ἀκρόλιθοι), or to cover the whole of -such a wooden figure with ivory and gold. From the statues of the -gods erected for worship we must distinguish those statues which were -dedicated in temples as ἀναθήματα, and which now became customary -instead of craters, tripods, &c. In these the artists were not only -not bound to any traditional or conventional forms, but were, like -the poets, allowed to make free use of mythological subjects, to -add, and to omit, or to modify the stories, so as to render them -more adapted for their artistic purposes. A third class of statues, -which were erected during this period in great numbers, were those -of the victors in the national games, and, though more rarely, -of other distinguished persons (ἀνδριάντες). Those of the latter -kind appear generally to have been portraits (εἰκόνες, _statuae -iconicae_). The first iconic statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton -were made by Antenor in 509 B.C., and in 477 B.C. new statues of the -same persons were made by _Critias_. It was also at the period we -are now describing that it became customary to adorn the pediments, -friezes, and other parts of temples with reliefs or groups of statues -of marble. We still possess two great works of this kind which are -sufficient to show their general character during this period. 1. -The _Selinuntine Marbles_, or the metopes of two temples on the -acropolis of Selinus in Sicily, which were discovered in 1823, and -are at present in the Museum of Palermo. 2. The _Aeginetan Marbles_, -which were discovered in 1812 in the island of Aegina, and are now at -Munich. They consist of eleven statues, which adorned two pediments -of a temple of Athena, and represent the goddess leading the Aeacids -against Troy, and contain manifest allusions to the war of the Greeks -with the Persians. - -III. _Third Period, from 480 to 336_ B.C.--During this period Athens -was the centre of the fine arts in Greece. Statuary went hand in -hand with the other arts and with literature: it became emancipated -from its ancient fetters, from the stiffness and conventional forms -of former times, and reached its culminating point in the sublime -and mighty works of Phidias. His career begins about 452 B.C. The -genius of this artist was so great and so generally recognised, -that all the great works which were executed in the age of Pericles -were placed under his direction, and thus the whole host of artists -who were at that time assembled at Athens were engaged in working -out his designs and ideas. Of these we have still some remains:--1. -Parts of the eighteen sculptured metopes, together with the frieze -of the small sides of the cella of the temple of Theseus. Ten of the -metopes represent the exploits of Hercules, and the eight others -those of Theseus. The figures in the frieze are manifestly gods, but -their meaning is uncertain. Casts of these figures are in the British -Museum. 2. A considerable number of the metopes of the Parthenon, -which are all adorned with reliefs in marble, a great part of the -frieze of the cella, some colossal figures, and a number of fragments -of the two pediments of this temple. The greater part of these works -is now in the British Museum, where they are collected under the name -of the Elgin Marbles. Besides the sculptures of these temples, there -are also similar ornaments of other temples extant, which show the -influence which the school of Phidias exercised in various parts of -Greece. Of these the most important are, the Phigalian marbles, which -belonged to the temple of Apollo Epicurius, built about 436 B.C., by -Ictinus. They were discovered in 1812, and consist of twenty-three -plates of marble belonging to the inner frieze of the cella. They -are now in the British Museum. The subjects represented in them -are fights with Centaurs and Amazons, and one plate shows Apollo -and Artemis drawn in a chariot by stags. About the same time that -the Attic school rose to its highest perfection under Phidias, the -school of Argos was likewise raised to its summit by Polycletus. The -art of making bronze statues of athletes was carried by him to the -greatest perfection: ideal youthful and manly beauty was the sphere -in which he excelled. One of his statues, a youthful Doryphorus, -was made with such accurate observation of the proportions of the -parts of the body, that it was looked upon by the ancient artists -as a canon of rules on this point. Myron of Eleutherae, about 432 -B.C., adhered to a closer imitation of nature than Polycletus, and -as far as the impression upon the senses was concerned, his works -were most pleasing. The cow of Myron in bronze was celebrated in all -antiquity. The change which took place after the Peloponnesian war -in the public mind at Athens could not fail to show its influence -upon the arts also. It was especially Scopas of Paros and Praxiteles -of Athens, about one generation after Myron and Polycletus, who gave -the reflex of their time in their productions. Their works expressed -the softer feelings and an excited state of mind, such as would make -a strong impression upon and captivate the senses of the beholders. -Both were distinguished as sculptors in marble, and both worked in -the same style; the legendary circles to which most of their ideal -productions belong are those of Dionysus and Aphrodite, a fact which -also shows the character of the age. Cephissodorus and Timarchus were -sons of Praxiteles. There were several works of the former at Rome -in the time of Pliny; he made his art subservient to passions and -sensual desires. Most of the above-mentioned artists, however widely -their works differed from those of the school of Phidias, may yet be -regarded as having only continued and developed its principles of art -in a certain direction; but towards the end of this period Euphranor -and Lysippus of Sicyon carried out the principles of the Argive -school of Polycletus. Their principal object was to represent the -highest possible degree of physical beauty and of athletic and heroic -power. The chief characteristic of Lysippus and his school is a close -imitation of nature, which even contrived to represent bodily defects -in some interesting manner, as in his statues of Alexander. - -IV. _Fourth Period, from 336 to 146_ B.C.--During the first fifty -years of this period the schools of Praxiteles and Lysippus continued -to flourish, especially in works of bronze; but after this time -bronze statues were seldom made, until the art was carried on with -new vigour at Athens about the end of the period. The school of -Lysippus gave rise to that of Rhodes, where his disciple Chares -formed the most celebrated among the hundred colossal statues of -the sun. It was seventy cubits high, and partly of metal. It stood -near the harbour, and was thrown down by an earthquake about 225 -B.C. Antiquarians assign to this part of the fourth period several -very beautiful works still extant, as the magnificent group of -Laocoon and his sons, which was discovered in 1506 near the baths of -Titus, and is at present at Rome. This is, next to the Niobe, the -most beautiful group among the extant works of ancient art; it was -according to Pliny the work of three Rhodian artists: Agesander, -Polydorus, and Athenodorus. The celebrated Farnesian bull is likewise -the work of two Rhodian artists, Apollonius and Tauriscus. In the -various kingdoms which arose out of the conquests of Alexander -the arts were more or less cultivated. Not only were the great -master-works of former times copied to adorn the new capitals, but -new schools of artists sprang up in several of them. At Pergamus -the celebrated groups were composed which represented the victories -of Attalus and Eumenes over the Gauls. It is believed by some that -the so-called dying gladiator at Rome is a statue of a Gaul, which -originally belonged to one of these groups. The Borghese gladiator -in the Louvre is supposed to be the work of an Ephesian Agasias, -and to have originally formed a part of such a battle-scene. About -the close of this period, and for more than a century afterwards, -the Romans, in the conquest of the countries where the arts had -flourished, made it a regular practice to carry away the works of -art. The triumphs over Philip, Antiochus, the Aetolians, the Gauls in -Asia, Perseus, Pseudo-Philip, and above all the taking of Corinth, -and subsequently the victories over Mithridates and Cleopatra, filled -the Roman temples and porticoes with the greatest variety of works -of art. The sacrilegious plunder of temples and the carrying away -of the sacred statues from the public sanctuaries became afterwards -a common practice. The manner in which Verres acted in Sicily is -but one of many instances of the extent to which these robberies -were carried on. The emperors, especially Augustus, Caligula, and -Nero, followed these examples, and the immense number of statues -which, notwithstanding all this, remained at Rhodes, Delphi, Athens, -and Olympia, is truly astonishing.--We can only briefly advert to -the history of statuary among the Etruscans and Romans down to the -year 146 B.C. The Etruscans were on the whole an industrious and -enterprising people. With the works of Grecian art they must have -become acquainted at an early time through their intercourse with -the Greeks of southern Italy, whose influence upon the art of the -Etruscans is evident in numerous cases. The whole range of the fine -arts was cultivated by the Etruscans at an early period. Statuary in -clay (which here supplied the place of wood, ξόανα, used in Greece) -and in bronze appears to have acquired a high degree of perfection. -In 267 B.C. no fewer than 2000 bronze statues are said to have -existed at Volsinii, and numerous works of Etruscan art are still -extant, which show great vigour and life, though they do not possess -a very high degree of beauty. Some of their statues are worked in -a Greek style; others are of a character peculiar to themselves, -and entirely different from works of Grecian art, being stiff and -ugly: others again are exaggerated and forced in their movements -and attitudes, and resemble the figures which we meet with in the -representations of Asiatic nations. The Romans previously to the -time of the first Tarquin are said to have had no images of the -gods; and for a long time afterwards their statues of gods in clay -or wood were made by Etruscan artists. During the early part of the -republic the works executed at Rome were altogether of a useful and -practical, and not of an ornamental character; and statuary was in -consequence little cultivated. But in the course of time the senate -and the people, as well as foreign states which desired to show -their gratitude to some Roman, began to erect bronze statues to -distinguished persons in the Forum and other places. - -V. _Fifth Period, from_ B.C. _146 to the fall of the Western -Empire._--During this period Rome was the capital of nearly the whole -of the ancient world, not through its intellectual superiority, but -by its military and political power. But it nevertheless became the -centre of art and literature, as the artists resorted thither from -all parts of the empire for the purpose of seeking employment in the -houses of the great. The mass of the people, however, had as little -taste for and were as little concerned about the arts as ever. In -the time of Nero, who did much for the arts, we meet with Zenodorus, -a founder of metal statues, who was commissioned by the emperor to -execute a colossal statue of 110 feet high, representing Nero as -the Sun. In the reign of Hadrian the arts seem to begin a new aera. -He himself was undoubtedly a real lover of art, and encouraged it -not only at Rome, but in Greece and Asia Minor. The great Villa of -Hadrian below Tivoli, the ruins of which cover an extent of ten -Roman miles in circumference, was richer in works of art than any -other place in Italy. Here more works of art have been dug out of -the ground than anywhere else within the same compass. Some statues -executed at this time are worthy of the highest admiration. Foremost -among these stand the statues and busts of Antinous, for whom the -emperor entertained a passionate partiality, and who was represented -in innumerable works of art. The colossal bust of Antinous in the -Louvre is reckoned one of the finest works of ancient art, and is -placed by some critics on an equality with the best works that Greece -has produced. There are also some very good works in red marble which -are referred to this period, as that material is not known to have -been used before the age of Hadrian. As the arts had received such -encouragement and brought forth such fruits in the reign of Hadrian, -the effects remained visible for some time during the reigns of the -Antonines. The frieze of a temple, which the senate caused to be -erected to Antoninus Pius and Faustina, is adorned with griffins -and vessels of very exquisite workmanship. The best among the -extant works of this time are the equestrian statue of M. Aurelius -of gilt bronze, which stands on the Capitol, and the column of M. -Aurelius with reliefs representing scenes of his war against the -Marcomanni. After the time of the Antonines the symptoms of decline -in the arts became more and more visible. The most numerous works -continued to be busts and statues of the emperors, but the best -among them are not free from affectation and mannerism. In the time -of Caracalla many statues were made, especially of Alexander the -Great. Alexander Severus was a great admirer of statues, not from a -genuine love of art, but because he delighted in the representations -of great and good men. The reliefs on the triumphal arch of Septimius -Severus, representing his victories over the Parthians, Arabs, and -Adiabenians, have scarcely any artistic merits. Art now declined -with great rapidity: busts and statues were more seldom made than -before, and are awkward and poor; the hair is frequently indicated -by nothing else but holes bored in the stone. The reliefs on the -sarcophagi gradually become monotonous and lifeless. The reliefs on -the arch of Constantine, which are not taken from that of Trajan, are -perfectly rude and worthless, and those on the column of Theodosius -were not better. Before concluding, it remains to say a few words on -the destruction of ancient works of art. During the latter part of -the reign of Constantine many statues of the gods were destroyed, -and not long after his time a systematic destruction began, which -under Theodosius spread to all parts of the empire. The spirit of -destruction, however, was not directed against works of art in -general and as such, but only against the pagan idols. The opinion, -therefore, which is entertained by some, that the losses we have -sustained in works of ancient art, are mainly attributable to the -introduction of Christianity, is too sweeping and general. Of the -same character is another opinion, according to which the final decay -of ancient art was a consequence of the spiritual nature of the new -religion. The coincidence of the general introduction of Christianity -with the decay of the arts is merely accidental. That the early -Christians did not despise the arts as such, is clear from several -facts. We know that they erected statues to their martyrs, of which -we have a specimen in that of St. Hippolytus in the Vatican library. -The numerous works, lastly, which have been found in the Christian -catacombs at Rome, might alone be a sufficient proof that the early -Christians were not hostile towards the representation of the heroes -of their religion in works of art. In fact, Christianity during the -middle ages became as much the mother of the arts of modern times, as -the religion of Greece was the mother of ancient art. Another very -general and yet incorrect notion is, that the northern barbarians -after the conquest of Rome intentionally destroyed works of art. -This opinion is not supported by any of the contemporary historians, -nor is it at all probable. The barbarians were only anxious to carry -with them the most precious treasures in order to enrich themselves; -a statue must have been an object of indifference to them. What -perished, perished naturally by the circumstances and calamities of -the times. In times of need bronze statues were melted down and the -material used for other purposes; marble statues were frequently -broken to pieces and used for building materials. If we consider -the history of Rome during the first centuries after the conquest of -Italy by the Germans, we have every reason to wonder that so many -specimens of ancient art have come down to our times. The greatest -destruction, at one time, of ancient works of art is supposed to have -occurred at the taking of Constantinople, in the beginning of the -thirteenth century. Among the few works saved from this devastation -are the celebrated bronze horses which now decorate the exterior of -St. Mark’s church at Venice. They have been ascribed, but without -sufficient authority, to Lysippus. - - -STĬLUS or STỸLUS is in all probability the same word with the Greek -στύλος, and conveys the general idea of an object tapering like -an architectural column. It signifies, (1) An iron instrument, -resembling a pencil in size and shape, used for writing upon waxed -tablets. At one end it was sharpened to a point for scratching -the characters upon the wax, while the other end, being flat and -circular, served to render the surface of the tablets smooth again, -and so to obliterate what had been written. Thus, _vertere stilum_ -means _to erase_, and hence _to correct_. The stylus was also termed -_graphium_, and the case in which it was kept _graphiarium_.--(2) A -sharp stake or spike placed in pitfalls before an entrenchment, to -embarrass the progress of an attacking enemy. - -[Illustration: Stilus. (Museo Borbonico, vol. vi. tav. 35.)] - - -STIPENDĬĀRĬI. The stipendiariae urbes of the Roman provinces -were so denominated, as being subject to the payment of a fixed -money-tribute, _stipendium_, in contradistinction to the vectigales, -who paid a certain portion as a tenth or twentieth of the produce -of their lands, their cattle, or customs. The word _stipendium_ -was used to signify the tribute paid, as it was originally imposed -for and afterwards appropriated to the purpose of furnishing the -Roman soldiers with pay. The condition of the urbes stipendiariae -is generally thought to have been more honourable than that of the -vectigales, but the distinction between the two terms was not always -observed. The word stipendiarius is also applied to a person who -receives a fixed salary or pay, as a _stipendiarius miles_. - - -STĪPENDĬUM, a pension or pay, from _stipem_ and _pendo_, because -before silver was coined at Rome the copper-money in use was paid by -weight and not by tale. According to Livy, the practice of giving -pay to the Roman soldiers was not introduced till B.C. 405, on -the occasion of the taking of Tarracina or Anxur. It is probable, -however, that they received pay before this time, but, since it was -not paid regularly, its first institution was referred to this year. -In B.C. 403 a certain amount of pay was assigned to the knights -also, or EQUITES, p. 156, _b_. This, however, had reference to the -citizens who possessed an equestrian fortune, but had no horse -(_equus publicus_) assigned to them by the state, for it had always -been customary for the knights of the 18 centuries to receive pay out -of the common treasury, in the shape of an allowance for the purchase -of a horse, and a yearly pension of 2000 asses for its keep. [AES -EQUESTRE; AES HORDEARIUM.] In the time of the republic the pay of a -legionary soldier amounted to two oboli, or 3⅓ asses; a centurion -received double, and an eques or horseman triple. Polybius states -that foot soldiers also received in corn every month an allowance -(_demensum_) of ⅔ of an Attic medimnus, or about 2 bushels of wheat: -the horsemen 7 medimni of barley and 2 of wheat. The infantry of the -allies received the same allowance as the Roman: the horsemen 1⅓ -medimni of wheat and 5 of barley. But there was this difference, that -the allied forces received their allowances as a gratuity; the Roman -soldiers, on the contrary, had deducted from their pay the money -value of whatever they received in corn, armour, or clothes. There -was indeed a law passed by C. Gracchus, which provided that besides -their pay the soldiers should receive from the treasury an allowance -for clothes; but this law seems either to have been repealed or to -have fallen into disuse. The pay was doubled for the legionaries by -Julius Caesar before the civil war. He also gave them corn whenever -he had the means, without any restrictions. Under Augustus it appears -to have been raised to 10 asses a day (three times the original sum). -It was still further increased by Domitian. The praetorian cohorts -received twice as much as the legionaries. - - -STŎLA, a female dress worn over the tunic; it came as low as the -ankles or feet, and was fastened round the body by a girdle, leaving -above the breast broad folds. The tunic did not reach much below -the knee, but the essential distinction between the tunic and stola -seems to have been that the latter always had an _instita_ or flounce -sewed to the bottom and reaching to the instep. Over the stola the -palla or pallium was worn [PALLIUM], as we see in the cut annexed. -The stola was the characteristic dress of the Roman matrons, as the -toga was of the Roman men. Hence the meretrices were not allowed to -wear it, but only a dark-coloured toga; and accordingly Horace speaks -of the _matrona_ in contradistinction to the _togata_. For the same -reason, women who had been divorced from their husbands on account of -adultery, were not allowed to wear the stola, but only the toga. - -[Illustration: Stola, female dress. (Museo Borbonico, vol. iii. tav. -37.)] - - -STRĂTĒGUS (στρατηγός), general. This office and title seems to -have been more especially peculiar to the democratic states of -ancient Greece: we read of them, for instance, at Athens, Tarentum, -Syracuse, Argos, and Thurii; and when the tyrants of the Ionian -cities in Asia Minor were deposed by Aristagoras, he established -strategi in their room, to act as chief magistrates. The strategi -at Athens were instituted after the remodelling of the constitution -by Clisthenes, to discharge the duties which had in former times -been performed either by the king or the archon polemarchus. They -were ten in number, one for each of the ten tribes, and chosen by -the suffrages (χειροτονία) of the people. Before entering on their -duties they were required to submit to a _docimasia_, or examination -of their character; and no one was eligible to the office unless -he had legitimate children, and was possessed of landed property -in Attica. They were, as their name denotes, entrusted with the -command on military expeditions, with the superintendence of all -warlike preparations, and with the regulation of all matters in any -way connected with the war department of the state. They levied and -enlisted the soldiers, either personally or with the assistance of -the taxiarchs. They were entrusted with the collection and management -of the property-taxes (εἰσφοραί) raised for the purposes of war; -and also presided over the courts of justice in which any disputes -connected with this subject or the trierarchy were decided. They -nominated from year to year persons to serve as trierarchs. They had -the power of convening extraordinary assemblies of the people in -cases of emergency. But their most important trust was the command -in war, and it depended upon circumstances to how many of the number -it was given. At Marathon all the ten were present, and the chief -command came to each of them in turn. The archon polemarchus also was -there associated with them, and, according to the ancient custom, his -vote in a council of war was equal to that of any of the generals. -Usually, however, three only were sent out; one of these (τρίτος -αὐτός) was considered as the commander-in-chief, but his colleagues -had an equal voice in a council of war. The military chiefs of the -Aetolian and Achaean leagues were also called _strategi_. The Achaean -_strategi_ had the power of convening a general assembly of the -league on extraordinary occasions. Greek writers on Roman affairs -give the name of _strategi_ to the praetors. - - -STRĒNA, a present given on a festive day, and for the sake of good -omen. It was chiefly applied to a new year’s gift, to a present made -on the calends of January. In accordance with a senatusconsultum, new -year’s gifts had to be presented to Augustus in the Capitol, even -when he was absent. - - -STRĬGIL. [BALNEUM.] - - -STRŎPHĬUM (ταινία, ταινίδιον, ἀπόδεσμος), a girdle or belt worn -by women round the breast and over the inner tunic or chemise. It -appears to have been usually made of leather. - - -STUPRUM. [ADULTERIUM.] - - -SUBSIGNĀNI, privileged soldiers in the time of the empire, who fought -under a standard by themselves, and did not form part of the legion. -They seem to have been the same as the _vexillarii_. - - -SUFFRĀGĬA SEX. [EQUITES.] - - -SUFFRĀGĬUM, a vote. At Athens the voting in the popular assemblies -and the courts of justice was either by show of hands (χειροτονία) -or by ballot (ψῆφος). Respecting the mode of voting at Rome, see -COMITIA, p. 107, and LEGES TABELLARIAE. - - -SUGGESTUS, means in general any elevated place made of materials -heaped up (_sub_ and _gero_), and is specially applied: (1) To the -stage or pulpit from which the orators addressed the people in -the comitia. [ROSTRA.]--(2) To the elevation from which a general -addressed the soldiers.--(3) To the elevated seat from which the -emperor beheld the public games, also called _cubiculum_. [CUBICULUM.] - - -SUOVĔTAURĪLĬA. [SACRIFICIUM, p. 325; LUSTRATIO; and woodcut on p. -343.] - - -SUPPĂRUM. [NAVIS, p. 267, _b_.] - - -SUPPLĬCĀTĬO, a solemn thanksgiving or supplication to the gods, -decreed by the senate, when all the temples were opened, and the -statues of the gods frequently placed in public upon couches -(_pulvinaria_), to which the people offered up their thanksgivings -and prayers. [LECTISTERNIUM.] A _supplicatio_ was decreed for two -different reasons. 1. As a thanksgiving, when a great victory had -been gained: it was usually decreed as soon as official intelligence -of the victory had been received by a letter from the general -in command. The number of days during which it was to last was -proportioned to the importance of the victory. Sometimes it was -decreed for only one day, but more commonly for three or five days. A -supplication of ten days was first decreed in honour of Pompey at the -conclusion of the war with Mithridates, and one of fifteen days after -the victory over the Belgae by Caesar, an honour which had never been -granted to any one before. Subsequently a supplicatio of twenty days -was decreed after his conquest of Vercingetorix. A supplicatio was -usually regarded as a prelude to a triumph, but it was not always -followed by one. This honour was conferred upon Cicero on account -of his suppression of the conspiracy of Catiline, which had never -been decreed to any one before in a civil capacity (_togatus_).--2. -A _supplicatio_, a solemn supplication and humiliation, was also -decreed in times of public danger and distress, and on account of -prodigies, to avert the anger of the gods. - - -SȲCŎPHANTĒS (συκοφάντης). At an early period in Attic history a law -was made prohibiting the exportation of figs. Whether it was made -in a time of dearth, or through the foolish policy of preserving to -the natives the most valuable of their productions, we cannot say. -It appears, however, that the law continued in force long after the -cause of its enactment, or the general belief of its utility, had -ceased to exist; and Attic fig-growers exported their fruit in -spite of prohibitions and penalties. To inform against a man for -so doing was considered harsh and vexatious; as all people are apt -to think that obsolete statutes may be infringed with impunity. -Hence the term συκοφαντεῖν, which originally signified _to lay an -information against another for exporting figs_, came to be applied -to all ill-natured, malicious, groundless, and vexatious accusations. -_Sycophantes_ in the time of Aristophanes and Demosthenes designated -a person of a peculiar class, not capable of being described by any -single word in our language, but well understood and appreciated by -an Athenian. He had not much in common with our _sycophant_, but was -a happy compound of the _common barrator, informer, pettifogger, -busybody, rogue, liar, and slanderer_. The Athenian law permitted -any citizen (τὸν βουλόμενον) to give information against public -offenders, and prosecute them in courts of justice. It was the -policy of the legislator to encourage the detection of crime, and -a reward (such as half the penalty) was frequently given to the -successful accuser. Such a power, with such a temptation, was likely -to be abused, unless checked by the force of public opinion, or the -vigilance of the judicial tribunals. Unfortunately, the character -of the Athenian democracy and the temper of the judges furnished -additional incentives to the informer. Eminent statesmen, orators, -generals, magistrates, and all persons of wealth and influence -were regarded with jealousy by the people. The more causes came -into court, the more fees accrued to the judges, and fines and -confiscations enriched the public treasury. The prosecutor therefore -in public causes, as well as the plaintiff in civil, was looked -on with a more favourable eye than the defendant, and the chances -of success made the employment a lucrative one. It was not always -necessary to go to trial, or even to commence legal proceedings. The -timid defendant was glad to compromise the cause, and the conscious -delinquent to avert the threat of a prosecution, by paying a sum of -money to his opponent. Thriving informers found it not very difficult -to procure witnesses, and the profits were divided between them. - - -SȲLAE (σῦλαι). When a Greek state, or any of its members, had -received an injury or insult from some other state or some of its -members, and the former was unwilling, or not in a condition, to -declare open war, it was not unusual to give a commission, or grant -public authority to individuals to make reprisals. This was called -σύλας, or σῦλα, διδόναι. This ancient practice may be compared with -the modern one of granting letters of marque and reprisal. - - -SYLLOGEIS (συλλογεῖς), usually called Συλλογεῖς τοῦ δήμου, or the -Collectors of the People, were special commissioners at Athens, who -made out a list of the property of the oligarchs previously to its -confiscation. - - -SYMBOLAEON, SỸNALLAGMA, SYNTHĒCĒ (συμβόλαιον, συνάλλαγμα, συνθήκη), -are all words used to signify a contract, but are distinguishable -from one another. Συμβόλαιον is used of contracts and bargains between -private persons, and peculiarly of loans of money. Thus, συμβαλεῖν -εἰς ἀνδράποδον is, to lend upon the security of a slave. Συνάλλαγμα -signifies any matter negotiated or transacted between two or more -persons, whether a contract or anything else. Συνθήκη is used of -more solemn and important contracts, not only of those made between -private individuals, but also of treaties and conventions between -kings and states. - - -SYMPŎSĬUM (συμπόσιον, _comissatio_, _convivium_), a drinking-party. -The _symposium_ must be distinguished from the _deipnon_ (δεῖπνον), -for though drinking almost always followed a dinner-party, yet -the former was regarded as entirely distinct from the latter, was -regulated by different customs, and frequently received the addition -of many guests, who were not present at the dinner. For the Greeks -did not usually drink at their dinner, and it was not till the -conclusion of the meal that wine was introduced. Symposia were very -frequent at Athens. Their enjoyment was heightened by agreeable -conversation, by the introduction of music and dancing, and by games -and amusements of various kinds: sometimes, too, philosophical -subjects were discussed at them. The symposia of Plato and Xenophon -give us a lively idea of such entertainments at Athens. The name -itself shows, that the enjoyment of drinking was the main object of -the symposia: wine from the juice of the grape (οἴνος ἀμπέλινος) -was the only drink partaken of by the Greeks, with the exception -of water. The wine was almost invariably mixed with water, and -to drink it unmixed (ἄκρατον) was considered a characteristic of -barbarians. The mixture was made in a large vessel called the CRATER, -from which it was conveyed into the drinking-cups. The guests at a -symposium reclined on couches, and were crowned with garlands of -flowers. A master of the revels (ἄρχων τῆς πόσεως, συμποσίαρχος, -or βασιλεύς) was usually chosen to conduct the symposium, whose -commands the whole company had to obey, and who regulated the whole -order of the entertainment, proposed the amusements, &c. The same -practice prevailed among the Romans, and their symposiarch was -called _Magister_, or _Rex Convivii_, or the _Arbiter Bibendi_. -The choice was generally determined by the throwing of astragali -or tali. The proportion in which the wine and water were mixed was -fixed by him, and also how much each of the company was to drink, -for it was not usually left to the option of each of the company -to drink as much or as little as he pleased. The cups were always -carried round from right to left (ἐπὶ δεξιά), and the same order -was observed in the conversation, and in everything that took place -in the entertainment. The company frequently drank to the health -of one another, and each did it especially to the one to whom he -handed the same cup. Respecting the games and amusements by which -the symposia were enlivened, it is unnecessary to say much here, -as most of them are described in separate articles in this work. -Enigmas or riddles (αἰνίγματα or γρῖφοι) were among the most usual and -favourite modes of diversion. Each of the company proposed one in -turn to his right-hand neighbour; if he solved it, he was rewarded -with a crown, a garland, a cake, or something of a similar kind, and -sometimes with a kiss; if he failed, he had to drink a cup of unmixed -wine, or of wine mixed with salt water, at one draught. The cottabos -was also another favourite game at symposia, and was played at in -various ways. [COTTABUS.] Representations of symposia are very common -on ancient vases. Two guests usually reclined on each couch (κλίνη), -as is explained on p. 95, but sometimes there were five persons on -one couch. A drinking-party among the Romans was sometimes called -_convivium_, but the word _comissatio_ more nearly corresponds to the -Greek symposium. [COMISSATIO.] The Romans, however, usually drank -during their dinner (_coena_), which they frequently prolonged during -many hours, in the later times of the republic and under the empire. -Their customs connected with drinking differed little from those of -the Greeks, and have been incidentally noticed above. - -[Illustration: Symposium (From a Painting on a Vase.)] - - -SYNDĬCUS (σύνδικος), _an advocate_, is frequently used as synonymous -with the word _synegorus_ (συνήγορος), to denote any one who pleads -the cause of another, whether in a court of justice or elsewhere, -but was peculiarly applied to those orators who were sent by the -state to plead the cause of their countrymen before a foreign -tribunal. Aeschines, for example, was appointed to plead before -the Amphictyonic council on the subject of the Delian temple; but -a certain discovery having been made, not very creditable to his -patriotism, the court of Arciopagus took upon themselves to remove -him, and appoint Hyperides in his stead. There were other _syndici_, -who acted rather as magistrates or judges than as advocates, though -they probably derived their name from the circumstance of their -being appointed to protect the interests of the state. These were -extraordinary functionaries, created from time to time to exercise a -jurisdiction in disputes concerning confiscated property. - - -SỸNĔDRI (σύνεδροι), a name given to the members of any council, -or any body of men who sat together to consult or deliberate. The -congress of Greeks at Salamis is called συνέδριον. Frequent reference -is made to the general assembly of the Greeks, τὸ κοινὸν τῶν Ἑλλήνων -συνέδριον, at Corinth, Thermopylae, or elsewhere. The congress of -the states belonging to the new Athenian alliance, formed after B.C. -377, was called συνέδριον, and the deputies σύνεδροι, and the sums -furnished by the allies συντάξεις, in order to avoid the old and -hateful name of φόρος or tribute. The name of συνέδριον was given -at Athens to any magisterial or official body, as to the court of -Areiopagus, or to the place where they transacted business, their -board or council-room. - - -SỸNĒGŎRUS (συνήγορος). In causes of importance, wherein the state was -materially interested, more especially in those which were brought -before the court upon an εἰσαγγελία, it was usual to appoint public -advocates (called συνήγοροι, σύνδικοι, or κατήγοροι) to manage the -prosecution. In ordinary cases however the accuser or prosecutor -(κατήγορος) was a distinct person from the συνήγορος, who acted -only as auxiliary to him. It might be, indeed, that the συνήγορος -performed the most important part at the trial, or it might be that -he performed a subordinate part, making only a short speech in -support of the prosecution, which was called ἐπίλογος. But however -this might be, he was in point of law an auxiliary only, and was -neither entitled to a share of the reward (if any) given by the law -to a successful accuser, nor liable, on the other hand, to a penalty -of a thousand drachms, or the ἀτιμία consequent upon a failure to -get a fifth part of the votes. The fee of a drachm (τὸ συνηγορικόν) -mentioned by Aristophanes was probably the sum paid to the public -advocate whenever he was employed on behalf of the state. There -appears to have been (at least at one period) a regular appointment -of συνήγοροι, ten in number. For what purpose they were appointed, is -a matter about which we have no certain information: but it is not -unreasonable to suppose that these ten συνήγοροι were no other than -the public advocates who were employed to conduct state prosecutions. - - -SYNGRĂPHĒ (συγγραφή), signifies a written contract: whereas συνθήκη -and συμβόλαιον do not necessarily import that the contract is in -writing; and ὁμολογία is, strictly speaking, a verbal agreement. At -Athens important contracts were usually reduced to writing; such as -leases (μισθώσεις), loans of money, and all executory agreements, -where certain conditions were to be performed. The whole was -contained in a little tablet of wax or wood (βιβλίον or γραμματεῖον, -sometimes double, δίπτυχον), which was sealed, and deposited with -some third person, mutually agreed on between the parties. - - -SỸNOIKĬA (συνοίκια).--(1) A festival celebrated every year at Athens -on the 16th of Hecatombaeon in honour of Athena. It was believed to -have been instituted by Theseus to commemorate the concentration of -the government of the various towns of Attica at Athens.--(2) A house -adapted to hold several families, a lodging-house, _insula_, as the -Romans would say. The lodging-houses were let mostly to foreigners -who came to Athens on business, and especially to the μέτοικοι, whom -the law did not allow to acquire real property, and who therefore -could not purchase houses of their own. The rent was commonly paid -by the month. Lodging-houses were frequently taken on speculation -by persons called ναύκληροι or σταθμοῦχοι, who made a profit by -underletting them. - - -SYNTHĔSIS, a garment frequently worn at dinner, and sometimes also on -other occasions. As it was inconvenient to wear the toga at table, -on account of its many folds, it was customary to have dresses -especially appropriated to this purpose, called _vestes coenatoriae_, -or _coenatoria_, _accubitoria_, or _syntheses_. The synthesis -appears to have been a kind of tunic, an _indumentum_ rather than an -_amictus_. [AMICTUS.] That it was, however, an easy and comfortable -kind of dress, as we should say, seems to be evident from its use at -table above mentioned, and also from its being worn by all classes at -the SATURNALIA, a season of universal relaxation and enjoyment. More -than this respecting its form we cannot say; it was usually dyed with -some colour, and was not white, like the toga. - - -SȲRINX (σύριγξ), the Pan’s pipe, or Pandean pipe, was the appropriate -musical instrument of the Arcadian and other Grecian shepherds, and -was regarded by them as the invention of Pan, their tutelary god. -When the Roman poets had occasion to mention it, they called it -_fistula_. It was formed in general of seven hollow stems of cane or -reed, fitted together by means of wax, having been previously cut -to the proper lengths, and adjusted so as to form an octave; but -sometimes nine were admitted, giving an equal number of notes. A -syrinx of eight reeds is represented on p. 278. - -[Illustration: Pan with a Syrinx. (Mus. Worsleyanum, pl. 9.)] - - -SYRMA (σύρμα), which properly means that which is drawn or dragged -(from σύρω), is applied to a dress with a train. It was more -especially the name of the dress worn by the tragic actors, which had -a train to it trailing upon the ground. Hence we find _syrma_ used -metaphorically for tragedy itself. - - -SYSSĪTĬA (συσσίτια). The custom of taking the principal meal of the -day in public prevailed extensively amongst the Greeks from very -early ages, but more particularly in Crete and at Sparta. The Cretan -name for the syssitia was _Andreia_ (ἀνδρεῖα), the singular of which -is used to denote the building or public hall where they were given. -This title affords of itself a sufficient indication that they were -confined to men and youths only. All the adult citizens partook of -the public meals amongst the Cretans, and were divided into companies -or “messes,” called _hetaeriae_ (ἑταιρίαι), or sometimes _andreia_. -The syssitia of the Cretans were distinguished by simplicity and -temperance. They always _sat_ at their tables, even in later times, -when the custom of reclining had been introduced at Sparta. In most -of the Cretan cities, the expenses of the syssitia were defrayed -out of the revenues of the public lands, and the tribute paid by -the perioeci, the money arising from which was applied partly to -the service of the gods, and partly to the maintenance of all the -citizens, both male and female; so that in this respect there might -be no difference between the rich and the poor. The Spartan syssitia -were in the main so similar to those of Crete, that one was said to -be borrowed from the other. They differed from the Cretan in the -following respects. The expenses of the tables at Sparta were not -defrayed out of the public revenues, but every head of a family was -obliged to contribute a certain portion at his own cost and charge; -those who were not able to do so were excluded from the public -tables. The guests were divided into companies, generally of fifteen -persons each, and all vacancies were filled up by ballot, in which -unanimous consent was indispensable for election. No persons, not -even the kings, were excused from attendance at the public tables, -except for some satisfactory reason, as when engaged in a sacrifice, -or a chase, in which latter case the individual was required to send -a present to his table. Each person was supplied with a cup of mixed -wine, which was filled again when required: but drinking to excess -was prohibited at Sparta as well as in Crete. The repast was of a -plain and simple character, and the contribution of each member of -a mess (φειδίτης) was settled by law. The principal dish was the -black broth (μέλας ζωμός), with pork. Moreover, the entertainment -was enlivened by cheerful conversation, though on public matters. -Singing also was frequently introduced. The arrangements were under -the superintendence of the polemarchs. - - - - -TĂBELLA, _dim._ of TĂBŬLA, a billet or tablet, with which each -citizen and judex voted in the comitia and courts of justice. For -details see pp. 107, 236. - - -TĂBELLĀRĬUS, a letter-carrier. As the Romans had no public post, -they were obliged to employ special messengers, who were called -_tabellarii_, to convey their letters (_tabellae_, _literae_), when -they had not an opportunity of sending them otherwise. - - -TĂBERNĀCŬLUM. [TEMPLUM.] - - -TABLĪNUM. [DOMUS.] - - -TĂBŬLAE. This word properly means planks or boards, whence it is -applied to several objects, as gaming-tables, pictures, but more -especially to tablets used for writing. Generally, _tabulae_ and -_tabellae_ signify waxen tablets (_tabulae ceratae_), which were -thin pieces of wood, usually of an oblong shape, covered over with -wax (_cera_). The wax was written on by means of the stilus. These -tabulae were sometimes made of ivory and citron-wood, but generally -of the wood of a more common tree, as the beech, fir, &c. The outer -sides of the tablets consisted merely of the wood; it was only the -inner sides that were covered over with wax. They were fastened -together at the back by means of wires, which answered the purpose of -hinges, so that they opened and shut like our books; and to prevent -the wax of one tablet nibbing against the wax of the other, there -was a raised margin around each, as is clearly seen in the woodcut -on p. 354. There were sometimes two, three, four, five, or even -more, tablets fastened together in the above-mentioned manner. Two -such tablets were called _diptycha_ (δίπτυχα), which merely means -“twice-folded” (from πτύσσω, “to fold”), whence we have πτυκτίον, or -with the τ omitted, πυκτίον. The Latin word _pugillares_, which is -the name frequently given to tablets covered with wax, may perhaps -be connected with the same root, though it is usually derived from -_pugillus_, because they were small enough to be held in the hand. -Three tablets fastened together were called _triptycha_; in the -same way we also read of _pentaptycha_, and of _polyptycha_ or -_multiplices_ (_cerae_). The pages of these tablets were frequently -called by the name of cerae alone; thus we read of _prima cera_, -_altera cera_, “first page,” “second page.” In tablets containing -important legal documents, especially wills, the outer edges were -pierced through with holes (_foramina_), through which a triple -thread (_linum_) was passed, and upon which a seal was then placed. -This was intended to guard against forgery, and if it was not done -such documents were null and void. Waxen tablets were used among the -Romans for almost every species of writing, where great length was -not required. Thus letters were frequently written upon them, which -were secured by being fastened together with packthread and sealed -with wax. Legal documents, and especially wills, were almost always -written on waxen tablets. Such tablets were also used for accounts, -in which a person entered what he received and expended (_tabulae_ or -_codex accepti et expensi_), whence _novae tabulae_ mean an abolition -of debts either wholly or in part. The tablets used in voting in the -comitia and the courts of justice were also called tabulae, as well -as tabellae. [TABELLA.] - - -TĂBŬLĀRĬI were notaries or accountants, who are first mentioned under -this name in the time of the empire. Public notaries, who had the -charge of public documents, were also called tabularii. They were -first established by M. Antoninus in the provinces, who ordained that -the births of all children were to be announced to the tabularii -within thirty days from the birth. - - -TĂBŬLĀRĬUM, a place where the public records (_tabulae publicae_) -were kept. These records were of various kinds, as for instance -senatusconsulta, tabulae censoriae, registers of births, deaths, -of the names of those who assumed the toga virilis, &c. There were -various tabularia at Rome, all of which were in temples; we find -mention made of tabularia in the temples of the Nymphs, of Lucina, -of Juventus, of Libitina, of Ceres, and more especially in that of -Saturn, which was also the public treasury. - - -TAGUS (ταγός), a leader or general, was more especially the name of -the military leader of the Thessalians. He is sometimes called _king_ -(βασιλεύς). His command was of a military rather than of a civil -nature, and he seems only to have been appointed when there was a war -or one was apprehended. We do not know the extent of the power which -the Tagus possessed constitutionally, nor the time for which he held -the office; probably neither was precisely fixed, and depended on the -circumstances of the times and the character of the individual. - - -TĀLĀRĬA, small wings, fixed to the ancles of Hermes and reckoned -among his attributes (πέδιλα, πτηνοπέδιλος). In many works of ancient -art they are represented growing from his ancles (see cut, p. 63); -but more frequently he is represented with sandals, which have wings -fastened to them on each side over the ancles. - -[Illustration: Talaria. (From a Statue of Hermes at Naples.)] - - -TĂLASSĬO. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - -TĂLENTUM (τάλαντον) meant originally _a balance_ [LIBRA], then -the substance weighed, and lastly and commonly a certain weight, -_the talent_. The Greek system of money, as well as the Roman -[AS], was founded on a reference to weight. A certain weight of -silver among the Greeks, as of copper among the Romans, was used -as a representative of a value, which was originally and generally -that of the metal itself. The talent therefore and its divisions -are denominations of money as well as of weight. The Greek system -of weights contained four principal denominations, which, though -different in different times and places, and even at the same place -for different substances, always bore the same relation _to each -other_. These were the talent (τάλαντον), which was the largest, -then the mina (μνᾶ), the drachma (δραχμή), and the obolus (ὀβολός). -[See Tables.] The Attic and Aeginetan were the two standards of -money most in use in Greece. The Attic mina was 4_l._ 1_s._ 3_d._, -and the talent 243_l._ 15_s._ The Aeginetan mina was 5_l._ 14_s._ -7_d._, and the talent 343_l._ 15_s._ The Euboic talent was of nearly -the same weight as the Attic. A much smaller talent was in use for -gold. It was equal to six Attic drachmae, or about ¾ oz. and 71 grs. -It was called the _gold talent_, or the _Sicilian talent_, from -its being much used by the Greeks of Italy and Sicily. This is the -talent always meant when the word occurs in Homer. This small talent -explains the use of the term _great talent_ (_magnum talentum_), -which we find in Latin authors, for the silver Attic talent was -_great_ in comparison with this. But the use of the word by the -Romans is altogether very inexact. Where talents are mentioned in the -classical writers without any specification of the standard, we must -generally understand the Attic. - - -TĀLĬO, from Talis, signifies an equivalent, but it is used only in -the sense of a punishment or penalty the same in kind and degree as -the mischief which the guilty person has done to the body of another. -Talio, as a punishment, was a part of the Mosaic law. - - -TĀLUS (ἀστράγαλος), a huckle-bone. The huckle-bones of sheep and -goats were used to play with from the earliest times, principally by -women and children, occasionally by old men. To play at this game was -sometimes called πενταλιθίζειν, because five bones or other objects -of a similar kind were employed; and this number is retained among -ourselves. When the sides of the bone were marked with different -values, the game became one of chance. [ALEA; TESSERA.] The two ends -were left blank, because the bone could not rest upon either of them -on account of its curvature. The four remaining sides were marked -with the numbers 1, 3, 4, 6; 1 and 6 being on two opposite sides, and -3 and 4 on the other two opposite sides. The Greek and Latin names -of the numbers were as follows:--1. Μονάς, εἶς, κύων, Χῖος; Ion. -Οἴνη: _Unio_, _Vulturius_, _canis_: 3. Τρίας, _Ternio_; 4. Τετράς, -_Quaternio_; 6. Ἑξάς, ἑξίτης, Κῷος; _Senio_. Two persons played -together at this game, using four bones, which they threw up into -the air, or emptied out of a dice-box, and observing the numbers on -the uppermost sides. The numbers on the four sides of the four bones -admitted of thirty-five different combinations. The lowest throw of -all was four aces (_jacere vultorios quatuor_). But the value of a -throw was not in all cases the sum of the four numbers turned up. -The highest in value was that called _Venus_, or _jactus Venereus_, -in which the numbers cast up were all different, the sum of them -being only fourteen. It was by obtaining this throw that the king -of the feast was appointed among the Romans [SYMPOSIUM], and hence -it was also called _Basilicus_. Certain other throws were called by -particular names, taken from gods, illustrious men and women, and -heroes. Thus the throw, consisting of two aces and two trays, making -eight, which number, like the jactus Venereus, could be obtained only -once, was denominated _Stesichorus_. - -[Illustration: Game of Tali. (From an ancient Painting.)] - - -TĂMĬAE (ταμίαι), the treasurers of the temples and the revenue at -Athens. The wealthiest of all the temples at Athens was that of -Athena on the Acropolis, the treasures of which were under the -guardianship of ten _tamiae_, who were chosen annually by lot from -the class of pentacosiomedimni, and afterwards, when the distinction -of classes had ceased to exist, from among the wealthiest of Athenian -citizens. The treasurers of the other gods were chosen in like -manner; but they, about the 90th Olympiad, were all united into one -board, while those of Athena remained distinct. Their treasury, -however, was transferred to the same place as that of Athena, viz., -to the opisthodomus of the Parthenon, where were kept not only all -the treasures belonging to the temples, but also the state treasure -(ὅσια χρήματα, as contra-distinguished from ἱερά), under the -care of the treasurers of Athena. All the funds of the state were -considered as being in a manner consecrated to Athena; while on the -other hand the people reserved to themselves the right of making -use of the sacred monies, as well as the other property of the -temples, if the safety of the state should require it. Payments -made to the temples were received by the treasurers in the presence -of some members of the senate, just as public monies were by the -Apodectae; and then the treasurers became responsible for their -safe custody.--The treasurer of the revenue (ταμίας or ἐπιμελητής -τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου) was a more important personage than those last -mentioned. He was not a mere keeper of monies, like them, nor a mere -receiver, like the apodectae; but a general paymaster, who received -through the apodectae all money which was to be disbursed for the -purposes of the administration (except the property-taxes, which were -paid into the war-office, and the tribute from the allies, which was -paid to the hellenotamiae [HELLENOTAMIAE]), and then distributed -it in such manner as he was required to do by the law; the surplus -(if any) he paid into the war-office or the theoric fund. As this -person knew all the channels in which the public money had to flow, -and exercised a general superintendence over the expenditure, he -was competent to give advice to the people upon financial measures, -with a view to improve the revenue, introduce economy, and prevent -abuses; he is sometimes called ταμίας τῆς διοικήσεως, or ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς -διοικήσεως, and may be regarded as a sort of minister of finance. -He was elected by vote (χειροτονία), and held his office for four -years, but was capable of being re-elected. A law, however, was -passed during the administration of Lycurgus, the orator, prohibiting -re-election; so that Lycurgus, who is reported to have continued -in office for twelve years, must have held it for the last eight -years under fictitious names. The power of this officer was by no -means free from control; inasmuch as any individual was at liberty -to propose financial measures, or institute criminal proceedings -for malversation or waste of the public funds; and there was an -ἀντιγραφεὺς τῆς διοικήσεως appointed to check the accounts of his -superior. Anciently there were persons called _Poristae_ (πορίσται), -who appear to have assisted the tamiae in some part of their duties. -The money disbursed by the treasurer of the revenue was sometimes -paid directly to the various persons in the employ of the government, -sometimes through subordinate pay offices. Many public functionaries -had their own paymasters, who were dependent on the treasurer of -the revenue, receiving their funds from him, and then distributing -them in their respective departments. Such were the τριηροποιοί, -τειχοποιοί, ὁδοποιοί, ταφροποιοί, ἐπεμεληταὶ νεωρίων, who received -through their own tamiae such sums as they required from time to time -for the prosecution of their works. The payment of the judicial fees -was made by the _Colacretae_ (κωλακρέται), which, and the providing -for the meals in the Prytaneium, were the only duties that remained -to them after the establishment of the apodectae by Cleisthenes. The -tamiae of the sacred vessels (τῆς Παράλου and τῆς Σαλαμινίας) acted -not only as treasurers, but as trierarchs, the expenses (amounting -for the two ships together to about sixteen talents) being provided -by the state. They were elected by vote. Other trierarchs had their -own private tamiae.--The war fund at Athens (independently of the -tribute) was provided from two sources: first, the property-tax -(εἰσφορά), and secondly, the surplus of the yearly revenue, which -remained after defraying the expenses of the civil administration. -Of the ten strategi, who were annually elected to preside over the -war department, one was called στρατηγὸς ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς διοικήσεως, to -whom the management of the war fund was entrusted. He had under him -a treasurer, called the ταμίας τῶν στρατιωτικῶν, who gave out the -pay of the troops, and defrayed all other expenses incident to the -service. So much of the surplus revenue as was not required for the -purposes of war, was to be paid by the treasurer of the revenue into -the theoric fund; of which, after the archonship of Euclides, special -managers were created. [THEORICA.]--Lastly, we have to notice the -treasurers of the demi (δήμων ταμίαι), and those of the tribes (φυλῶν -ταμίαι), who had the care of the funds belonging to their respective -communities, and performed duties analogous to those of the state -treasurers. The demi, as well as the tribes, had their common lands, -which were usually let to farm. The rents of these formed the -principal part of their revenue. - - -TAXIARCHI (ταξίαρχοι), military officers at Athens, next in rank -to the strategi. They were ten in number, like the strategi, one -for each tribe, and were elected by vote (χειροτονία). In war each -commanded the infantry of his own tribe, and they were frequently -called to assist the strategi with their advice at the war-council. -In peace they assisted the strategi in levying and enlisting -soldiers, and seem to have also assisted the _strategi_ in the -discharge of many of their other duties. The taxiarchs were so called -from their commanding _taxeis_ (τάξεις), which were the principal -divisions of the hoplites in the Athenian army. Each tribe (φυλή) -formed a _taxis_. As there were ten tribes, there were consequently -in a complete Athenian army ten _taxeis_, but the number of men -contained in each would of course vary according to the importance of -the war. Among the other Greeks, the _taxis_ was the name of a much -smaller division of troops. The _lochus_ (λόχος) among the Athenians -was a subdivision of the _taxis_, and the _lochagi_ (λοχαγοί) were -probably appointed by the taxiarchs. - - -TĒGŬLA (κέραμος, _dim._ κεραμίς), a roofing-tile. Roofing-tiles were -originally made, like bricks, of baked clay (γῆς ὀπτῆς). Byzes of -Naxos first introduced tiles of marble about the year 620 B.C. A -still more expensive and magnificent method of roofing consisted in -the use of tiles made of bronze and gilt. At Rome the houses were -originally roofed with shingles, and continued to be so down to the -time of the war with Pyrrhus, when tiles began to supersede the old -roofing material. - - -TEICHŎPOII (τειχοποιοί), magistrates at Athens, whose business it was -to build and keep in repair the public walls. They appear to have -been elected by vote (χειροτονία), one from each tribe, and probably -for a year. Funds were put at their disposal, for which they had -their treasurer (ταμίας) dependent on the treasurer of the revenue. -They were liable to render an account (εὐθύνη) of their management -of these funds, and also of their general conduct, like other -magistrates. This office has been invested with peculiar interest in -modern times, on account of its having been held by Demosthenes, and -its having given occasion to the famous prosecution of Ctesiphon, who -proposed that Demosthenes should receive the honour of a crown before -he had rendered his account according to law. - - -TĒLA (ἱστός), a loom. Although weaving was among the Greeks and -Romans a distinct trade, carried on by a separate class of persons -(ὑφάνται, _textores_ and _textrices_, _linteones_), yet every -considerable domestic establishment, especially in the country, -contained a loom, together with the whole apparatus necessary for the -working of wool (_lanificium_, ταλασία, ταλασιουργία). [CALATHUS.] -These occupations were all supposed to be carried on under the -protection of Athena or Minerva, specially denominated _Ergane_ -(Ἐργάνη). When the farm or the palace was sufficiently large to admit -of it, a portion of it called the _histon_ (ἱστῶν) or _textrinum_ -was devoted to this purpose. The work was there principally carried -on by female slaves (_quasillariae_), under the superintendence -of the mistress of the house. Every thing woven consists of two -essential parts, the warp and the woof, called in Latin _stamen_ and -_subtegmen_, _subtemen_, or _trama_; in Greek στήμων and κροκή. The -warp was called _stamen_ in Latin (from _stare_) on account of its -erect posture in the loom. The corresponding Greek term στήμων, and -likewise ἱστός, have evidently the same derivation. For the same -reason, the very first operation in weaving was to set up the loom -(ἱστὸν στήσασθαι); and the web or cloth, before it was cut down or -“descended” from the loom, was called _vestis pendens_ or _pendula -tela_, because it hung from the transverse beam, or _jugum_. These -particulars are all clearly exhibited in the picture of Circe’s -loom given in the annexed cut. We observe in the preceding woodcut, -about the middle of the apparatus, a transverse rod passing through -the warp. A straight cane was well adapted to be so used, and its -application is clearly expressed by Ovid in the words _stamen -secernit arundo_. In plain weaving it was inserted between the -threads of the warp so as to divide them into two portions, the -threads on one side of the rod alternating with those on the other -side throughout the whole breadth of the warp. In a very ancient -form of the loom there was a roller underneath the jugum, turned -by a handle, and on which the web was wound as the work advanced. -The threads of the warp, besides being separated by a transverse -rod or plank, were divided into thirty or forty parcels, to each of -which a stone was suspended for the purpose of keeping the warp in -a perpendicular position, and allowing the necessary play to the -strokes of the spatha. Whilst the comparatively coarse, strong, -and much-twisted thread designed for the warp was thus arranged in -parallel lines, the woof remained upon the spindle [FUSUS], forming a -_spool_, _bobbin_, or _pen_ (πήνη). This was either conveyed through -the warp without any additional contrivance, or it was made to -revolve in a shuttle (_radius_). This was made of box brought from -the shores of the Euxine, and was pointed at its extremities, that -it might easily force its way through the warp. All that is effected -by the shuttle is the conveyance of the woof across the warp. To -keep every thread of the woof in its proper place, it is necessary -that the threads of the warp should be decussated. This was done by -the leashes, called in Latin _licia_, in Greek μίτοι. By a leash we -are to understand a thread having at one end a loop, through which -a thread of the warp was passed, the other end being fastened to a -straight rod called _liciatorium_, and in Greek κανών. The warp, -having been divided by the arundo, as already mentioned, into two -sets of threads, all those of the same set were passed through the -loops of the corresponding set of leashes, and all these leashes were -fastened at their other end to the same wooden rod. At least one set -of leashes was necessary to decussate the warp, even in the plainest -and simplest weaving. The number of sets was increased according to -the complexity of the pattern, which was called _bilix_ or _trilix_, -δίμιτος, τρίμιτος, or πολύμιτος, according as the number was two, -three, or more. The process of annexing the leashes to the warp was -called _ordiri telam_, also _licia telae addere_, or _adnectere_. -It occupied two women at the same time, one of whom took in regular -succession each separate thread of the warp, and handed it over to -the other (παραφέρειν, παραδίδοναι, or προσφωρεῖσθαι); the other, -as she received each thread, passed it through the loop in proper -order; an act which we call “entering,” in Greek διάζεσθαι. Supposing -the warp to have been thus adjusted, and the pen or the shuttle to -have been carried through it, it was then decussated by drawing -forwards the proper rod, so as to carry one set of the threads of -the warp across the rest, after which the woof was shot back again, -and by the continual repetition of this process the warp and woof -were interlaced. Two staves were occasionally used to fix the rods -in such a position as was most convenient to assist the weaver in -drawing her woof across her warp. After the woof had been conveyed -by the shuttle through the warp, it was driven sometimes downwards, -as is represented in the woodcut, but more commonly upwards. Two -different instruments were used in this part of the process. The -simplest, and probably the most ancient, was in the form of a large -wooden sword (_spatha_, σπάθη). The spatha was, however, in a -great degree superseded by the comb (_pecten_, κερκίς), the teeth -of which were inserted between the threads of the warp, and thus -made by a forcible impulse to drive the threads of the woof close -together.--The lyre, the favourite musical instrument of the Greeks, -was only known to the Romans as a foreign invention. Hence they -appear to have described its parts by a comparison with the loom, -with which they were familiar. The terms _jugum_ and _stamina_ were -transferred by an obvious resemblance from the latter to the former -object; and, although they adopted into their own language the Greek -word _plectrum_, they used the Latin _pecten_ to denote the same -thing, not because the instrument used in striking the lyre was at -all like a comb in shape and appearance, but because it was held in -the right hand, and inserted between the stamina of the lyre, as the -comb was between the stamina of the loom. - -[Illustration: Tela, Loom. (From the Vatican MS. of Virgil.)] - - -TĔLAMŌNES. [ATLANTES.] - - -TĔLŌNES (τελώνης), a farmer of the public taxes at Athens. The taxes -were let by auction to the highest bidder. Companies often took them -in the name of one person, who was called ἀρχώνης or τελωνάρχης, and -was their representative to the state. Sureties were required of -the farmer for the payment of his dues. The office was frequently -undertaken by resident aliens, citizens not liking it, on account of -the vexatious proceedings to which it often led. The farmer was armed -with considerable powers: he carried with him his books, searched -for contraband or uncustomed goods, watched the harbour, markets, -and other places, to prevent smuggling, or unlawful and clandestine -sales; brought a _phasis_ (φάσις) or other legal process against -those whom he suspected of defrauding the revenue; or even seized -their persons on some occasions, and took them before the magistrate. -To enable him to perform these duties, he was exempted from military -service. Collectors (ἐκλογεῖς) were sometimes employed by the -farmers; but frequently the farmer and the collector were the same -person. The taxes were let by the commissioners (πωλῆται), acting -under the authority of the senate. The payments were made by the -farmer on stated prytaneias in the senate-house. There was usually -one payment made in advance, προκαταβολή, and one or more afterwards, -called προσκατάβλημα. Upon any default of payment, the farmer became -_atimus_, if a citizen, and he was liable to be imprisoned at the -discretion of the court, upon an information laid against him. If the -debt was not paid by the expiration of the ninth prytaneia, it was -doubled; and if not then paid, his property became forfeited to the -state, and proceedings to confiscation might be taken forthwith. Upon -this subject, see the speech of Demosthenes against Timocrates. - - -TĔLOS (τέλος), a tax. The taxes imposed by the Athenians, and -collected at home, were either ordinary or extraordinary. The -former constituted a regular or permanent source of income; the -latter were only raised in time of war or other emergency. The -ordinary taxes were laid mostly upon _property_, and upon citizens -_indirectly_, in the shape of toll or customs; though the resident -aliens paid a poll-tax (called μετοίκιον), for the liberty of -residing at Athens under protection of the state. There was a duty -of two per cent. (πεντηκοστή), levied upon all exports and imports. -An excise was paid on all sales in the market (called ἐπωνία), -though we know not what the amount was. Slave-owners paid a duty -of three obols for every slave they kept; and slaves who had been -emancipated paid the same. This was a very productive tax before -the fortification of Deceleia by the Lacedaemonians. The justice -fees (πρυτανεῖα, παραστασις, &c.) were a lucrative tax in time -of peace. The extraordinary taxes were the property-tax, and the -compulsory services called _liturgies_ (λειτουργίαι). Some of these -last were regular, and recurred annually; the most important, the -_trierarchia_, was a war-service, and performed as occasion required. -As these services were all performed, wholly or partly, at the -expense of the individual, they may be regarded as a species of tax. -[EISPHORA; LEITOURGIA; TRIERARCHIA.] The tribute (φόρος) paid by the -allied states to the Athenians formed, in the flourishing period of -the republic, a regular and most important source of revenue. In -Olymp. 91 2, the Athenians substituted for the tribute a duty of -five per cent. (εἰκοστή) on all commodities exported or imported by -the subject states, thinking to raise by this means a larger income -than by direct taxation. This was terminated by the issue of the -Peloponnesian war, though the tribute was afterwards revived, on more -equitable principles, under the name of σύνταξις. Other sources of -revenue were derived by the Athenians from their mines and public -lands, fines, and confiscations. The public demesne lands, whether -pasture or arable, houses or other buildings, were usually let by -auction to private persons. The conditions of the lease were engraven -on stone. The rent was payable by prytaneias. These various sources -of revenue produced, according to Aristophanes, an annual income -of two thousand talents in the most flourishing period of Athenian -empire. Τελεῖν signifies “to settle, complete, or perfect,” and hence -“to settle an account,” and generally “to pay.” Thus Τέλος comes -to mean any payment in the nature of a tax or duty. The words are -connected with _zahlen_ in German, and the old sense of _tale_ in -English, and the modern word _toll_. Though τέλος may signify any -payment in the nature of a tax or duty, it is more commonly used of -the ordinary taxes, as customs, &c. Ἰσοτέλεια signifies the right of -being taxed on the same footing, and having other privileges, the -same as the citizens; a right sometimes granted to resident aliens. -Ἀτέλεια signifies an exemption from taxes, or other duties and -services; an honour very rarely granted by the Athenians. As to the -farming of the taxes, see TELONES. - - -TEMPLUM is the same word as the Greek _Temenos_ (τέμενος, from τέμνω, -to cut off); for _templum_ was any place which was circumscribed -and separated by the augurs from the rest of the land by a certain -solemn formula. The technical terms for this act of the augurs are -_liberare_ and _effari_, and hence a templum itself is a _locus -liberatus et effatus_. A place thus set apart and hallowed by the -augurs was always intended to serve religious purposes, but chiefly -for taking the auguries. The place in the heavens within which the -observations were to be made was likewise called templum, as it was -marked out and separated from the rest by the staff of the augur. -When the augur had defined the templum within which he intended -to make his observations, he fixed his tent in it (_tabernaculum -capere_), and this tent was likewise called _templum_, or, more -accurately, _templum minus_. The place chosen for a templum was -generally an eminence, and in the city it was the _arx_, where the -fixing of a tent does not appear to have been necessary, because here -a place called _auguraculum_ was once for all consecrated for this -purpose. Besides this meaning of the word templum in the language of -the augurs, it also had that of a temple in the common acceptation. -In this case, however, the sacred precinct within which a temple -was built, was always a _locus liberatus et effatus_ by the augurs, -that is, a _templum_ or a _fanum_; the consecration was completed -by the pontiffs, and not until inauguration and consecration had -taken place, could sacra be performed or meetings of the senate be -held in it. It was necessary then for a temple to be sanctioned -by the gods, whose will was ascertained by the augurs, and to be -consecrated or dedicated by the will of man (pontiffs). Where the -sanction of the gods had not been obtained, and where the mere act -of man had consecrated a place to the gods, such a place was only -a _sacrum_, _sacrarium_, or _sacellum_. The ceremony performed -by the augurs was essential to a temple, as the consecration by -the pontiffs took place also in other sanctuaries which were not -templa, but mere _sacra_ or _aedes sacrae_. Thus the sanctuary of -Vesta was not a templum, but an aedes sacra, and the various curiae -(Hostilia, Pompeia, Julia) required to be made templa by the augurs -before senatusconsulta could be made in them. It is impossible to -determine with certainty in what respects a templum differed from -a _delubrum_.--Temples appear to have existed in Greece from the -earliest times. They were separated from the profane land around them -(τόπος βέβηλος or τὰ βέβηλα), because every one was allowed to walk -in the latter. This separation was in early times indicated by very -simple means, such as a string or a rope. Subsequently, however, -they were surrounded by more efficient fences, or even by a wall -(ἕρκος, περίβολος). The whole space enclosed in such a περίβολος -was called τέμενος, or sometimes ἱερόν; and contained, besides the -temple itself, other sacred buildings, and sacred ground planted with -groves, &c. Within the precincts of the sacred enclosure no dead were -generally allowed to be buried, though there were some exceptions -to this rule, and we have instances of persons being buried in or -at least near certain temples. The religious laws of the island of -Delos did not allow any corpses to be buried within the whole extent -of the island, and when this law had been violated, a part of the -island was first purified by Pisistratus, and subsequently the whole -island by the Athenian people. The temple itself was called ναός -or νεώς, and at its entrance fonts (περιῤῥαντήρια) were generally -placed, that those who entered the sanctuary to pray or to offer -sacrifices might first purify themselves. The act of consecration, -by which a temple was dedicated to a god, was called ἵδρυσις. The -character of the early Greek temples was dark and mysterious, for -they had no windows, and they received light only through the door, -which was very large, or from lamps burning in them. Architecture -in the construction of magnificent temples, however, made great -progress even at an earlier time than either painting or statuary, -and long before the Persian wars we hear of temples of extraordinary -grandeur and beauty. All temples were built either in an oblong or -round form, and were mostly adorned with columns. Those of an oblong -form had columns either in the front alone, in the fore and back -fronts, or on all the four sides. Respecting the original use of -these porticoes see PORTICUS. The friezes and metopes were adorned -with various sculptures, and no expense was spared in embellishing -the abodes of the gods. The light, which was formerly let in at the -door, was now frequently let in from above through an opening in the -middle. Most of the great temples consisted of three parts: 1. the -πρόναος or πρόδομος, the vestibule; 2. the cella (ναός, σηκός); and -3. the ὀπισθόδομος. The cella was the most important part, as it was, -properly speaking, the temple or the habitation of the deity whose -statue it contained. In one and the same cella there were sometimes -the statues of two or more divinities, as in the Erechtheum at -Athens, the statues of Poseidon, Hephaestus, and Butas. The statues -always faced the entrance, which was in the centre of the prostylus. -The place where the statue stood was called ἕδος, and was surrounded -by a balustrade or railings. Some temples also had more than one -cella, in which case the one was generally behind the other, as in -the temple of Athena Polias at Athens. In temples where oracles -were given, or where the worship was connected with mysteries, the -cella was called ἄδυτον, μέγαρον, or ἀνάκτορον, and to it only the -priests and the initiated had access. The ὀπισθόδομος was a building -which was sometimes attached to the back front of a temple, and -served as a place in which the treasures of the temple were kept, -and thus supplied the place of θησαυροί, which were attached to some -temples.--_Quadrangular Temples_ were described by the following -terms, according to the number and arrangement of the columns on -the fronts and sides. 1. Ἄστυλος, _astyle_, without any columns. -2. Ἐν παραστάσι, _in antis_, with two columns in front between the -antae. 3. Πρόστυλος, _prostyle_, with four columns in front. 4. -Ἀμφιπρόστυλος, _amphiprostyle_, with four columns at each end. 5. -Περίπτερος or ἀμφικίων, _peripteral_, with columns at each end and -along each side. 6. Δίπτερος, _dipteral_, with two ranges of columns -(πτερά) all round, the one within the other. 7. Ψευδοδίπτερος, -_pseudodipteral_, with one range only, but at the same distance -from the walls of the _cella_ as the outer range of a δίπτερος. To -these must be added a sort of sham invented by the Roman architects, -namely: 8. Ψευδοπερίπτερος, _pseudoperipteral_, where the sides had -only half-columns (at the angles three-quarter columns), attached to -the walls of the _cella_, the object being to have the _cella_ large -without enlarging the whole building, and yet to keep up something -of the splendour of a peripteral temple. Names were also applied to -the temples, as well as to the porticoes themselves, according to -the number of columns in the portico at either end of the temple: -namely, τετράστυλος, _tetrastyle_, when there were _four_ columns in -front, ἑξάστυλος, _hexastyle_, when there were _six_, ὀκτάστυλος, -_octastyle_, when there were _eight_, δεκάστυλος, _decastyle_, when -there were _ten_. There were never more than ten columns in the end -portico of a temple; and when there were only two, they were always -arranged in that peculiar form called _in antis_ (ἐν παραστάσι). -The number of columns in the end porticoes was never uneven, but -the number along the sides of a temple was generally uneven. The -number of the side columns varied: where the end portico was -tetrastyle, there were never any columns at the sides, except false -ones, attached to the walls: where it was hexastyle or octastyle, -there were generally 13 or 17 columns at the sides, counting in -the corner columns: sometimes a hexastyle temple had only eleven -columns on the sides. The last arrangement resulted from the rule -adopted by the Roman architects, who counted by intercolumniations -(the spaces between the columns), and whose rule was to have _twice -as many intercolumniations along the sides of the building as in -front_. The Greek architects on the contrary, counted by columns, -and their rule was to have _twice as many columns along the sides -as in front, and one more_, counting the corner columns in each -case. Another set of terms, applied to temples and other buildings -having porticoes, as well as to the porticoes themselves, was derived -from the distances between the columns as compared with the lower -diameters of the columns. They were the following:--1. Πυκνόστυλος, -_pycnostyle_, the distance between the columns a diameter of a column -and half a diameter. 2. Σύστυλος, _systyle_, the distance between -the columns two diameters of a column. 3. Εὔστυλος, _eustyle_, the -distance between the columns two diameters and a quarter, except -in the centre of the front and back of the building, where each -intercolumniation (_intercolumnium_) was three diameters; called -eustyle, because it was best adapted both for beauty and convenience. -4. Διάστυλος, _diastyle_, the intercolumniation, or distance between -the columns, three diameters. 5. Ἀραιόστυλος, _araeostyle_, the -distances excessive, so that it was necessary to make the epistyle -(ἐπιστύλιον), or architrave, not of stone, but of timber. These five -kinds of intercolumniation are illustrated by the following diagram. - - ⬤ 1½ ⬤ - ⬤ 2 ⬤ - ⬤ 2¼ ⬤ - ⬤ 3 ⬤ - ⬤ { 4 } ⬤ - {or more } - -Independently of the immense treasures contained in many of the -Greek temples, which were either utensils or ornaments, and of -the tithes of spoils, &c., the property of temples, from which -they derived a regular income, consisted of lands (τεμένη), either -fields, pastures, or forests. These lands were generally let out to -farm, unless they were, by some curse which lay on them, prevented -from being taken into cultivation. Respecting the persons entrusted -with the superintendence, keeping, cleaning, &c., see AEDITUI. In -the earliest times there appear to have been very few temples at -Rome, and on many spots the worship of a certain divinity had been -established from time immemorial, while we hear of the building of -a temple for the same divinity at a comparatively late period. Thus -the foundation of a temple to the old Italian divinity Saturnus, on -the Capitoline, did not take place till B.C. 498. In the same manner, -Quirinus and Mars had temples built to them at a late period. Jupiter -also had no temple till the time of Ancus Martius, and the one then -built was certainly very insignificant. We may therefore suppose -that the places of worship among the earliest Romans were in most -cases simple altars or sacella. The Roman temples of later times were -constructed in the Greek style. As regards the property of temples, -it is stated that in early times lands were assigned to each temple, -but these lands were probably intended for the maintenance of the -priests alone. [SACERDOS.] The supreme superintendence of the temples -of Rome, and of all things connected with them, belonged to the -college of pontiffs. Those persons who had the immediate care of the -temples were the AEDITUI. - - -TĔPĬDĀRĬUM. [BALNEUM, p. 56.] - - -TERMĬNĀLĬA, a festival in honour of the god Terminus, who presided -over boundaries. His statue was merely a stone or post stuck in the -ground to distinguish between properties. On the festival the two -owners of adjacent property crowned the statue with garlands, and -raised a rude altar, on which they offered up some corn, honeycombs, -and wine, and sacrificed a lamb or a sucking-pig. They concluded with -singing the praises of the god. The public festival in honour of -this god was celebrated at the sixth mile-stone on the road towards -Laurentum, doubtless because this was originally the extent of the -Roman territory in that direction. The festival of the Terminalia was -celebrated on the 23rd of February, on the day before the Regifugium. -The Terminalia was celebrated on the last day of the old Roman -year, whence some derive its name. We know that February was the -last month of the Roman year, and that when the intercalary month -Mercedonius was added, the last five days of February were added to -the intercalary month, making the 23rd of February the last day of -the year. - - -TĔRUNCĬUS. [AS.] - - -TESSĔRA (κύβος), a square or cube; a die; a token. The dice used -in games of chance were tesserae, small squares or cubes, and were -commonly made of ivory, bone, or wood. They were numbered on all -the six sides, like the dice still in use; and in this respect -as well as in their form they differed from the _tali_. [TALUS.] -Whilst four tali were used in playing, only three tesserae were -anciently employed. Objects of the same materials with dice, and -either formed like them, or of an oblong shape, were used as tokens -for different purposes. The _tessera hospitalis_ was the token of -mutual hospitality, and is spoken of under HOSPITIUM. This token was -probably in many cases of earthenware, having the head of Jupiter -Hospitalis stamped upon it. _Tesserae frumentariae_ and _nummariae_ -were tokens given at certain times by the Roman magistrates to the -poor, in exchange for which they received a fixed amount of corn or -money. From the application of this term to tokens of various kinds, -it was transferred to _the word_ used as a token among soldiers. -This was the _tessera militaris_, the σύνθημα of the Greeks. Before -joining battle it was given out and passed through the ranks, as a -method by which the soldiers might be able to distinguish friends -from foes. - - -TESTĀMENTUM, a will. In order to be able to make a valid Roman will, -the Testator must have the Testamentifactio, which term expresses -the legal capacity to make a valid will. The testamentifactio was -the privilege only of Roman citizens who were patresfamilias. The -following persons consequently had not the testamentifactio: those -who were in the Potestas or Manus of another, or in Mancipii causa, -as sons and daughters, wives In manu and slaves: Latini Juniani, -Dediticii: Peregrini could not dispose of their property according -to the form of a Roman will: an Impubes could not dispose of his -property by will even with the consent of his Tutor; when a male was -fourteen years of age, he obtained the testamentifactio, and a female -obtained the power, subject to certain restraints, on the completion -of her twelfth year: muti, surdi, furiosi, and prodigi “quibus lege -bonis interdictum est” had not the testamentifactio. In order to -constitute a valid will, it was necessary that a heres should be -instituted, which might be done in such terms as follow:--Titius -heres esto, Titium heredem esse jubeo. [HERES (ROMAN.)] Originally -there were two modes of making wills; either at Calata Comitia, which -were appointed twice a year for that purpose; or _in procinctu_, that -is, when a man was going to battle. A third mode of making wills was -introduced, which was effected _per aes et libram_, whence the name -of Testamentum per aes et libram. If a man had neither made his will -at Calata Comitia nor In procinctu, and was in imminent danger of -death, he would mancipate (_mancipio dabat_) his Familia, that is, -his Patrimonium to a friend and would tell him what he wished to -be given to each after his death. There seems to have been no rule -of law that a testament must be written. The heres might either be -made by oral declaration (_nuncupatio_) or by writing. Written wills -however were the common form among the Romans at least in the later -republican and in the imperial periods. They were written on tablets -of wood or wax, whence the word “cera” is often used as equivalent to -“tabella;” and the expressions prima, secunda cera are equivalent to -prima, secunda pagina. The will must have been in some way so marked -as to be recognized, and the practice of the witnesses (_testes_) -sealing and signing the will at last became common. It was necessary -for the witnesses both to seal (_signare_), that is, to make a mark -with a ring (_annulus_) or something else on the wax and to add their -names (_adscribere_). Wills were to be tied with a triple thread -(_linum_) on the upper part of the margin which was to be perforated -at the middle part, and the wax was to be put over the thread and -sealed. Tabulae which were produced in any other way had no validity. -A man might make several copies of his will, which was often done for -the sake of caution. When sealed, it was deposited with some friend, -or in a temple, or with the Vestal Virgins; and after the testator’s -death it was opened (_resignare_) in due form. The witnesses or the -major part were present, and after they had acknowledged their seals, -the thread (_linum_) was broken and the will was opened and read, and -a copy was made; the original was then sealed with the public seal -and placed in the archium, whence a fresh copy might be got, if the -first copy should ever be lost. - - -TESTIS, a witness.--(1) GREEK. [MARTYRIA.]--(2) ROMAN. [JUSJURANDUM.] - - -TESTŪDO (χελώνη), a tortoise, was the name given to several other -objects.--(1) To the Lyra, because it was sometimes made of a -tortoise-shell.--(2) To an arched or vaulted roof.--(3) To a military -machine moving upon wheels and roofed over, used in besieging -cities, under which the soldiers worked in undermining the walls -or otherwise destroying them. It was usually covered with raw -hides, or other materials which could not easily be set on fire. -The battering-ram [ARIES] was frequently placed under a testudo of -this kind, which was then called _Testudo Arietaria_.--(4) The name -of testudo was also applied to the covering made by a close body -of soldiers who placed their shields over their heads to secure -themselves against the darts of the enemy. The shields fitted so -closely together as to present one unbroken surface without any -interstices between them, and were also so firm that men could walk -upon them, and even horses and chariots be driven over them. A -testudo was formed (_testudinem facere_) either in battle to ward -off the arrows and other missiles of the enemy, or, which was more -frequently the case, to form a protection to the soldiers when they -advanced to the walls or gates of a town for the purpose of attacking -them. Sometimes the shields were disposed in such a way as to make -the testudo slope. The soldiers in the first line stood upright, -those in the second stooped a little, and each line successively -was a little lower than the preceding down to the last, where the -soldiers rested on one knee. Such a disposition of the shields was -called _fastigata testudo_, on account of their sloping like the roof -of a building. The advantages of this plan were obvious: the stones -and missiles thrown upon the shields rolled off them like water from -a roof; besides which, other soldiers frequently advanced upon them -to attack the enemy upon the walls. The Romans were accustomed to -form this kind of testudo, as an exercise, in the games of the circus. - -[Illustration: Testudo. (From the Antonine Column.)] - - -TĔTRARCHĒS or TĔTRARCHA (τετράρχης). This word was originally used, -according to its etymological meaning, to signify the governor of -the fourth part of a country (τετραρχία or τετραδαρχία). We have an -example in the ancient division of Thessaly into four tetrarchies, -which was revived by Philip. Each of the three Gallic tribes which -settled in Galatia was divided into four tetrarchies, each ruled by -a tetrarch. Some of the tribes of Syria were ruled by tetrarchs, and -several of the princes of the house of Herod ruled in Palestine with -this title. In the later period of the republic and under the empire, -the Romans seem to have used the title (as also those of _ethnarch_ -and _phylarch_) to designate those tributary princes who were not of -sufficient importance to be called kings. - - -TETTĂRĂKONTA, HOI (οἱ τετταράκοντα), _the Forty_, were certain -officers chosen by lot, who made regular circuits through the demi of -Attica, whence they are called δικασταὶ κατὰ δήμους, to decide all -cases of αἰκία and τὰ περὶ τῶν βιαίων, and also all other private -causes, where the matter in dispute was not above the value of ten -drachmae. Their number was originally thirty, but was increased to -forty after the expulsion of the thirty tyrants, and the restoration -of the democracy by Thrasybulus, in consequence, it is said, of the -hatred of the Athenians to the number of thirty. - - -THARGĒLĬA (θαργήλια), a festival celebrated at Athens on the 6th -and 7th of Thargelion, in honour of Apollo and Artemis. The real -festival, or the Thargelia in a narrower sense of the word, appears -to have taken place on the 7th; and on the preceding day, the city -of Athens or rather its inhabitants were purified. The manner in -which this purification was effected is very extraordinary, and is -certainly a remnant of very ancient rites, for two persons were -put to death on that day, and the one died on behalf of the men -and the other on behalf of the women of Athens. The name by which -these victims were designated was _pharmaci_ (φαρμακοί). It appears -probable, however, that this sacrifice did not take place annually, -but only in case of a heavy calamity having befallen the city, -such as the plague, a famine, &c. The victims appear to have been -criminals sentenced to death. The second day of the thargelia was -solemnized with a procession and an agon, which consisted of a cyclic -chorus, performed by men at the expense of a choragus. The prize of -the victor in this agon was a tripod, which he had to dedicate in -the temple of Apollo which had been built by Pisistratus. On this -day it was customary for persons who were adopted into a family to -be solemnly registered, and received into the genos and the phratria -of the adoptive parents. This solemnity was the same as that of -registering one’s own children at the Apaturia. - - -[Illustration: Plan of Greek Theatre.] - -THĔĀTRUM (θέατρον), a theatre. The Athenians before the time of -Aeschylus had only a wooden scaffolding on which their dramas were -performed. Such a wooden theatre was only erected for the time of -the Dionysiac festivals, and was afterwards pulled down. The first -drama that Aeschylus brought upon the stage was performed upon such -a wooden scaffold, and it is recorded as a singular and ominous -coincidence that on that occasion (500 B.C.) the scaffolding broke -down. To prevent the recurrence of such an accident, the building -of a stone theatre was forthwith commenced on the south-eastern -descent of the Acropolis, in the Lenaea; for it should be observed, -that throughout Greece theatres were always built upon eminences, or -on the sloping side of a hill. The new Athenian theatre was built -on a very large scale, and appears to have been constructed with -great skill in regard to its acoustic and perspective arrangements. -Subsequently theatres were erected in all parts of Greece and Asia -Minor, although Athens was the centre of the Greek drama, and the -only place which produced great masterworks in this department -of literature. All the theatres, however, which were constructed -in Greece were probably built after the model of that of Athens, -and, with slight deviations and modifications, they all resembled -one another in the main points, as is seen in the numerous ruins -of theatres in various parts of Greece, Asia Minor, and Sicily. -The Attic theatre was, like all the Greek theatres, placed in -such a manner that the place for the spectators formed the upper -or north-western, and the stage with all that belonged to it the -south-eastern part, and between these two parts lay the orchestra. -The annexed plan has been made from the remains of Greek theatres -still extant, and from a careful examination of the passages in -ancient writers which describe the whole or parts of a theatre.--1. -The place for the spectators was in a narrower sense of the word -called _theatrum_. The seats for the spectators, which were in -most cases cut out of the rock, consisted of rows of benches rising -one above another; the rows themselves (_a_) formed parts (nearly -three-fourths) of concentric circles, and were at intervals divided -into compartments by one or more broad passages (_b_) running -between them, and parallel with the benches. These passages were -called διαζώματα, or κατατομαί, Lat. _praecinctiones_, and when -the concourse of people was very great in a theatre, many persons -might stand in them. Across the rows of benches ran stairs, by which -persons might ascend from the lowest to the highest. But these stairs -ran in straight lines only from one praecinctio to another; and the -stairs in the next series of rows were just between the two stairs of -the lower series of benches. By this course of the stairs the seats -were divided into a number of compartments, resembling cones from -which the tops are cut off; hence they were termed κεοκίδες, and in -Latin _cunei_. The whole of the place for the spectators (θέατρον) -was sometimes designated by the name κοῖλον, Latin _cavea_, it being -in most cases a real excavation of the rock. Above the highest row -of benches there rose a covered portico (_c_), which of course far -exceeded in height the opposite buildings by which the stage was -surrounded, and appears to have also contributed to increase the -acoustic effect. The entrances to the seats of the spectators were -partly underground, and led to the lowest rows of benches, while the -upper rows must have been accessible from above.--2. The orchestra -(ὀρχήστρα) was a circular level space extending in front of the -spectators, and somewhat below the lowest row of benches. But it was -not a complete circle, one segment of it being appropriated to the -stage. The orchestra was the place for the chorus, where it performed -its evolutions and dances, for which purpose it was covered with -boards. As the chorus was the element out of which the drama arose, -so the orchestra was originally the most important part of a theatre: -it formed the centre around which all the other parts of the building -were grouped. In the centre of the circle of the orchestra was the -_thymele_ (θυμέλη), that is, the altar of Dionysus (_d_), which was -of coarse nearer to the stage than to the seats of the spectators, -the distance from which was precisely the length of a radius of the -circle. In a wider sense the orchestra also comprised the broad -passages (πάροδοι, _e_) on each side, between the projecting wings of -the stage and the seats of the spectators, through which the chorus -entered the orchestra. The chorus generally arranged itself in the -space between the thymele and the stage. The thymele itself was of -a square form, and was used for various purposes, according to the -nature of the different plays, such as a funeral monument, an altar, -&c. It was made of boards, and surrounded on all sides with steps. -It thus stood upon a raised platform, which was sometimes occupied -by the leader of the chorus, the flute-player, and the rhabdophori. -The orchestra as well as the _theatrum_ lay under the open sky; a -roof is nowhere mentioned.--3. The stage. Steps led from each side -of the orchestra to the stage, and by them the chorus probably -ascended the stage whenever it took a real part in the action itself. -The back side of the stage was closed by a wall called the _scena_ -(σκηνή), from which on each side a wing projected which was called -the _parascenium_ (παρασκήνιον). The whole depth of the stage was -not very great, as it only comprised a segment of the circle of the -orchestra. The whole space from the scena to the orchestra was termed -the _proscenium_ (προσκήνιον), and was what we should call the real -stage. That part of it which was nearest to the orchestra, and where -the actors stood when they spoke, was the _logeium_ (λογείον), also -called _ocribas_ (ὀκρίβας), in Latin _pulpitum_, which was of course -raised above the orchestra, and probably on a level with the thymele. -The _scena_ was, as we have already stated, the wall which closed -the stage (_proscenium_ and _logeium_) from behind. It represented a -suitable background, or the locality in which the action was going -on. Before the play began it was covered with a curtain (παραπέτασμα, -προσκήνιον, αὐλαίαι), Latin _aulaea_ or _siparium_. When the play -began this curtain was let down, and was rolled up on a roller -underneath the stage. The proscenium and logeium were never concealed -from the spectators. As regards the scenery represented on the -_scena_, it was different for tragedy, comedy, and the satyric drama, -and for each of these kinds of poetry the scenery must have been -capable of various modifications, according to the character of each -individual play; at least that this was the case with the various -tragedies, is evident from the scenes described in the tragedies -still extant. In the latter however the back-ground (_scena_) in -most cases represented the front of a palace with a door in the -centre (_i_) which was called the _royal door_. This palace generally -consisted of two stories, and upon its flat roof there appears to -have been some elevated place from which persons might observe -what was going on at a distance. The palace presented on each side -a projecting wing, each of which had its separate entrance. These -wings generally represented the habitations of guests and visitors. -All the three doors must have been visible to the spectators. The -protagonistes always entered the stage through the middle or royal -door, the deuteragonistes and tritagonistes through those on the -right and left wings. In tragedies like the Prometheus, the Persians, -Philoctetes, Oedipus in Colonus, and others, the back-ground did -not represent a palace. There are other pieces again in which the -scena must have been changed in the course of the performance, as in -the Eumenides of Aeschylus and the Ajax of Sophocles. The dramas of -Euripides required a great variety of scenery; and if in addition -to this we recollect that several pieces were played in one day, -it is manifest that the mechanical parts of stage performance, at -least in the days of Euripides, must have been brought to great -perfection. The scena in the satyric drama appears to have always -represented a woody district with hills and grottos; in comedy the -scena represented, at least in later times, the fronts of private -dwellings or the habitations of slaves. The art of scene-painting -must have been applied long before the time of Sophocles, although -Aristotle ascribes its introduction to him. The whole of the cavea -in the Attic theatre must have contained about 50,000 spectators. -The places for generals, the archons, priests, foreign ambassadors, -and other distinguished persons, were in the lowest rows of benches, -and nearest to the orchestra, and they appear to have been sometimes -covered with a sort of canopy. The rows of benches above these were -occupied by the senate of 500, those next in succession by the -ephebi, and the rest by the people of Athens. But it would seem that -they did not sit indiscriminately, but that the better places were -let at a higher price than the others, and that no one had a right to -take a place for which he had not paid. The usual fee for a place was -two obols, which was subsequently given to the poorer classes by a -law of Pericles. [THEORICA.] Women were allowed to be present during -the performance of tragedies, but not of comedies.--The Romans must -have become acquainted with the theatres of the Italian Greeks at -an early period, whence they erected their own theatres in similar -positions upon the sides of hills. This is still clear from the -ruins of very ancient theatres at Tusculum and Faesulae. The Romans -themselves, however, did not possess a regular stone theatre until -a very late period, and although dramatic representations were very -popular in earlier times, it appears that a wooden stage was erected -when necessary, and was afterwards pulled down again, and the plays -of Plautus and Terence were performed on such temporary scaffoldings. -In the mean while, many of the neighbouring towns of Rome had their -stone theatres, as the introduction of Greek customs and manners -was less strongly opposed in them than in the city of Rome itself. -Wooden theatres, adorned with the most profuse magnificence, were -erected at Rome even during the last period of the republic. In -B.C. 55 Cn. Pompey built the first stone theatre at Rome, near the -Campus Martius. It was of great beauty, and is said to have been -built after the model of that of Mytilene; it contained 40,000 -spectators. The construction of a Roman theatre resembled, on the -whole, that of a Greek one. The principal differences are, that the -seats of the spectators, which rose in the form of an amphitheatre -around the orchestra, did not form more than a semicircle; and -that the whole of the orchestra likewise formed only a semicircle, -the diameter of which formed the front line of the stage. The Roman -orchestra contained no thymele, and was not destined for a chorus, -but contained the seats for senators and other distinguished persons, -such as foreign ambassadors, which are called _primus subselliorum -ordo_. In B.C. 68 the tribune L. Roscius Otho carried a law which -regulated the places in the theatre to be occupied by the different -classes of Roman citizens: it enacted that fourteen ordines of -benches were to be assigned as seats to the equites. Hence these -quatuordecim ordines are sometimes mentioned without any further -addition, as the honorary seats of the equites. They were undoubtedly -close behind the seats of the senators and magistrates, and thus -consisted of the rows of benches immediately behind the orchestra. - -[Illustration: Plan of Roman Theatre.] - - -THENSAE or TENSAE, highly ornamented sacred vehicles, which, in the -solemn pomp of the Circensian games, conveyed the statues of certain -deities with all their decorations to the pulvinaria, and after the -sports were over bore them back to their shrines. We are ignorant -of their precise form. We know that they were drawn by horses, and -escorted (_deducere_) by the chief senators in robes of state, -who, along with pueri patrimi [PATRIMI], laid hold of the bridles -and traces, or perhaps assisted to drag the carriage by means of -thongs attached for the purpose (and hence the proposed derivation -from _tendo_). So sacred was this duty considered, that Augustus, -when labouring under sickness, deemed it necessary to accompany the -tensae in a litter. If one of the horses knocked up, or the driver -took the reins in his left hand, it was necessary to recommence the -procession, and for one of the attendant boys to let go the thong, -or to stumble, was profanation. The only gods distinctly named as -carried in tensae are Jupiter and Minerva, though others appear to -have had the same honour paid them. - - -THĔŎPHĂNĬA (θεοφάνια), a festival celebrated at Delphi, on the -occasion of which the Delphians filled the huge silver crater which -had been presented to the Delphic god by Croesus. - - -THĔŌRĬA. [THEORI.] - - -THĔŌRĬCA (θεωρικά). Under this name at Athens were comprised the -monies expended on festivals, sacrifices, and public entertainments -of various kinds; and also monies distributed among the people in -the shape of largesses from the state. There were, according to -Xenophon, more festivals at Athens than in all the rest of Greece. -At the most important of the public festivals, such as the Dionysia, -Panathenaea, Eleusinia, Thargelia, and some others, there were not -only sacrifices, but processions, theatrical exhibitions, gymnastic -contests, and games, celebrated with great splendour and at a great -expense. A portion of the expense was defrayed by the individuals -upon whom the burden of the liturgies devolved; but a considerable, -and perhaps the larger, part was defrayed by the public treasury. -Demosthenes complains, that more money was spent on a single -Panathenaic or Dionysiac festival than on any military expedition. -The religious embassies to Delos and other places, and especially -those to the Olympian, Nemean, Isthmian, and Pythian games, drew -largely upon the public exchequer, though a part of the cost fell -upon the wealthier citizens who conducted them. The largesses -distributed among the people had their origin at an early period, -and in a measure apparently harmless, though from a small beginning -they afterwards rose to a height most injurious to the commonwealth. -The Attic drama used to be performed in a wooden theatre, and the -entrance was free to all citizens who chose to go. It was found, -however, that the crushing to get in led to much confusion and even -danger. On one occasion, about B.C. 500, the wooden scaffolding of -the theatre fell down, and caused great alarm. It was then determined -that the entrance should no longer be gratuitous. The fee for a place -was fixed at two obols, which was paid to the lessee of the theatre, -(called θεατρώνης, θεατροπώλης, or ἀρχιτέκτων), who undertook to -keep it in repair, and constantly ready for use, on condition of -being allowed to receive the profits. This payment continued to be -exacted after the stone theatre was built. Pericles, to relieve the -poorer classes, passed a law which enabled them to receive the price -of admission from the state; after which all those citizens who were -too poor to pay for their places applied for the money in the public -assembly, which was then frequently held in the theatre. In process -of time this donation was extended to other entertainments besides -theatrical ones; the sum of two oboli being given to each citizen who -attended; if the festival lasted two days, four oboli; and if three, -six oboli; but not beyond. Hence all theoric largesses received the -name of _diobelia_ (διωβελία). It is calculated that from 25 to 30 -talents were spent upon them annually. So large an expenditure of the -public funds upon shows and amusements absorbed the resources, which -were demanded for services of a more important nature. By the ancient -law, the whole surplus of the annual revenue which remained after -the expense of the civil administration (τὰ περίοντα χρήματα τῆς -διοικήσεως) was to be carried to the military fund, and applied to -the defence of the commonwealth. Since the time of Pericles various -demagogues had sprung up, who induced the people to divert all that -could be spared from the other branches of civil expenditure into the -theoric fund, which at length swallowed up the whole surplus, and the -supplies needed for the purpose of war or defence were left to depend -upon the extraordinary contributions, or property-tax (εἰσφοραί). An -attempt was made by the demagogue Eubulus to perpetuate this system. -He passed a law, which made it a capital offence to propose that -the theoric fund should be applied to military service. The law of -Eubulus was a source of great embarrassment to Demosthenes, in the -prosecution of his schemes for the national defence; and he seems at -last, but not before B.C. 339, to have succeeded in repealing it. In -the earlier times there was no person, or board of persons, expressly -appointed to manage the theoric fund. The money thus appropriated -was disbursed by the Hellenotamiae. After the anarchy, the largess -system having been restored by Agyrrhius, a board of managers was -appointed. They were elected by show of hands at the period of the -great Dionysia, one from each tribe. - -THĔŌRI (θεωροί), persons sent on special missions (θεωρίαι) to -perform some religious duty, as to consult an oracle, or to offer -a sacrifice, on behalf of the state. There were among some of the -Dorian states, as the Aeginetans, Troezenians, Messenians, and -Mantineans, official priests called _Theori_, whose duty it was to -consult oracles, interpret the responses, &c., as among the Spartans -there were men called _Pythii_, chosen by the kings to consult -the oracle at Delphi. At Athens there were no official persons -called _Theori_, but the name was given to those citizens who were -appointed from time to time to conduct religious embassies to various -places; of which the most important were those that were sent to the -Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games, those that went to -consult the God at Delphi, and those that led the solemn procession -to Delos, where the Athenians established a quadriennial festival, in -revival of the ancient Ionian one, of which Homer speaks. The expense -of these embassies was defrayed partly by the state, and partly by -wealthy citizens, to whom the management of them was entrusted, -called _Architheori_ (ἀρχιθέωροι), chiefs of the embassy. This was -a sort of liturgy, and frequently a very costly one; as the chief -conductor represented the state, and was expected to appear with a -suitable degree of splendour; for instance, to wear a golden crown, -to drive into the city with a handsome chariot, retinue, &c. The -Salaminian, or Delian, ship was also called θεωρὶς ναῦς, and was -principally used for conveying embassies to Delos, though, like the -Paralus, it was employed on other expeditions besides. - - -THERMAE. [BALNEUM.] - - -THĒSAURUS (θησαυρός), a treasure-house. Tradition points to -subterranean buildings in Greece, of unknown antiquity and of -peculiar formation, as having been erected during the heroic period, -for the purpose of preserving precious metals, arms, and other -property (κειμήλια). Such are the treasury of Minyas, at Orchomenus, -of which some remains still exist, and those of Atreus and his -sons at Mycenae, the chief one of which, the so-called Treasury of -Atreus, still exists almost in a perfect state. It is, however, -very questionable whether these edifices were treasuries at all: -some of the best archaeologists maintain that they were tombs. In -the historical times, the public treasury was either in a building -attached to the _agora_, or in the _opisthodomus_ of some temple. -Respecting the public treasury at Rome, see AERARIUM. - - -THĒSEIA (θησεῖα), a festival celebrated by the Athenians in honour -of their national hero Theseus, whom they believed to have been the -author of their democratical form of government. In consequence of -this belief donations of bread and meat were given to the poor people -at the Theseia, which was thus for them a feast at which they felt no -want, and might fancy themselves equal to the wealthiest citizens. -The day on which this festival was held was the eighth of every -month (ὀγδόαι), but more especially the eighth of Pyanepsion, whence -the festival was sometimes called ὀγδόδιον. It is probable that the -festival of the Theseia was not instituted till B.C. 469, when Cimon -brought the remains of Theseus from Scyrus to Athens. - - -THESMŎPHŎRĬA (θεσμοφόρια), a great festival and mysteries, celebrated -in honour of Demeter in various parts of Greece, and only by women, -though some ceremonies were also performed by maidens. It was -intended to commemorate the introduction of the laws and regulations -of civilised life, which was universally ascribed to Demeter. The -Attic thesmophoria probably lasted only three days, and began on -the 11th of Pyanepsion, which day was called ἄνοδος or κάθοδος, -because the solemnities were opened by the women with a procession -from Athens to Eleusis. In this procession they carried on their -heads sacred laws (νόμιμοι βίβλοι or θεσμοί), the introduction of -which was ascribed to Demeter (Θεσμοφόρος), and other symbols of -civilised life. The women spent the night at Eleusis in celebrating -the mysteries of the goddess. The second day, called νηστεία, was a -day of mourning, during which the women sat on the ground around the -statue of Demeter, and took no other food than cakes made of sesame -and honey. On this day no meetings either of the senate or the people -were held. It was probably in the afternoon of this day that the -women held a procession at Athens, in which they walked barefooted -behind a waggon, upon which baskets with mystical symbols were -conveyed to the thesmophorion. The third day, called καλλιγένεια, -from the circumstance that Demeter was invoked under this name, -was a day of merriment and raillery among the women themselves, in -commemoration of Iambe, who was said to have made the goddess smile -during her grief. - - -THESMŎTHĔTAE. [ARCHON.] - - -THĒTES. [CENSUS.] - - -THOLOS (θόλος, also called σκιάς), a name given to any round building -which terminated at the top in a point, whatever might be the purpose -for which it was used. At Athens the name was in particular applied -to the new round prytaneium near the senate-house, which should not -be confounded with the old prytaneium at the foot of the acropolis. -It was therefore the place in which the prytanes took their common -meals and offered their sacrifices. It was adorned with some small -silver statues, and near it stood the ten statues of the Attic -Eponymi. - - -THŌRAX. [LORICA.] - - -THRĀCES. [GLADIATORES.] - - -THRANĪTAE. [NAVIS.] - - -THRŎNUS (θρόνος), a throne, is a Greek word, for which the proper -Latin term is _Solium_. This did not differ from a chair (καθέδρα) -[CATHEDRA; SELLA] except in being higher, larger, and in all -respects more magnificent. On account of its elevation it was always -necessarily accompanied by a foot-stool (_subsellium_, ὑποπόδιον, -θράνιον). The accompanying cut shows two gilded thrones with cushions -and drapery, intended to be the thrones of Mars and Venus, which is -expressed by the helmet on the one and the dove on the other. - -[Illustration: Throni. (From an ancient Painting.)] - - -THỸMĔLĒ. [THEATRUM.] - - -THỸRSUS (θύρσος), a pole carried by Bacchus, and by Satyrs, Maenades, -and others who engaged in Bacchic festivities and rites. [DIONYSIA.] -It was sometimes terminated by the apple of the pine, or fir-cone, -that tree (πεύκη) being dedicated to Bacchus in consequence of the -use of the turpentine which flowed from it, and also of its cones, -in making wine. The monuments of ancient art, however, most commonly -exhibit, instead of the pine-apple, a bunch of vine or ivy-leaves, -with grapes or berries, arranged into the form of a cone. The -fabulous history of Bacchus relates that he converted the thyrsi -carried by himself and his followers into dangerous weapons, by -concealing an iron point in the head of the leaves. Hence his thyrsus -is called “a spear enveloped in vine-leaves,” and its point was -thought to incite to madness. - - -[Illustration: Tiara. (From a Coin in the British Museum.)] - -TĬĀRA or TĬĀRAS (τιάρα or τιάρας: _Att._ κυρβασία), a hat with a -large high crown. This was the head-dress which characterised the -north-western Asiatics, and more especially the Armenians, Parthians, -and Persians, as distinguished from the Greeks and Romans, whose hats -fitted the head, or had only a low crown. The king of Persia wore an -erect tiara, whilst those of his subjects were soft and flexible, -falling on one side. The Persian name for this regal head-dress was -_cidaris_. - -[Illustration: Tiara. (From a Coin in the British Museum.)] - - -TĪBĬA (αὐλός), a pipe, the commonest musical instrument of the Greeks -and Romans. It was very frequently a hollow cane, perforated with -holes in the proper places. In other instances it was made of some -kind of wood, especially box, and was bored with a gimblet. When a -single pipe was used by itself, the performer upon it, as well as -the instrument, was called _monaulos_. Among the varieties of the -single pipe the most remarkable were the bagpipe, the performer on -which was called _utricularius_ or ἀσκαύλης; and the ἀυλὸς πλάγιος or -πλαγίαυλος, which, as its name implies, had a mouth-piece inserted -into it at right angles. Pan was the reputed inventor of this kind of -tibia as well as of the _fistula_ or _syrinx_ [SYRINX]. But among -the Greeks and Romans it was much more usual to play on two pipes at -the same time. Hence a performance on this instrument (_tibicinium_), -even when executed by a single person, was called _canere_ or -_cantare tibiis_. This act is exhibited in very numerous works of -ancient art, and often in such a way as to make it manifest that the -two pipes were perfectly distinct, and not connected, as some have -supposed, by a common mouth-piece. The mouth-pieces of the two pipes -often passed through a capistrum. Three different kinds of pipes were -originally used to produce music in the Dorian, Phrygian, and Lydian -modes. It appears, also, that to produce the Phrygian mode the pipe -had only two holes above, and that it terminated in a horn bending -upwards. It thus approached to the nature of a trumpet, and produced -slow, grave, and solemn tunes. The Lydian mode was much quicker, -and more varied and animating. Horace mentions “Lydian pipes” as a -proper accompaniment, when he is celebrating the praise of ancient -heroes. The Lydians themselves used this instrument in leading -their troops to battle; and the pipes employed for the purpose are -distinguished by Herodotus as “male and female,” i.e. probably bass -and treble, corresponding to the ordinary sexual difference in the -human voice. The corresponding Latin terms are _tibia dextra_ and -_sinistra_: the respective instruments are supposed to have been so -called, because the former was more properly held in the right hand -and the latter in the left. The “tibia _dextra_” was used to lead -or commence a piece of music, and the “sinistra” followed it as an -accompaniment. The comedies of Terence having been accompanied by -the pipe, the following notices are prefixed to explain the kind of -music appropriate to each: _tibiis paribus_, i.e. with pipes in the -same mode; _tib. imparibus_, pipes in different modes; _tib. duabus -dextris_, two pipes of low pitch; _tib. par. dextris et sinistris_, -pipes in the same mode, and of both low and high pitch. The use -of the pipe among the Greeks and Romans was three-fold, viz. at -sacrifices (_tibiae sacrificae_), entertainments (_ludicrae_), and -funerals. The pipe was not confined anciently, as it is with us, to -the male sex, but αὐλητρίδες, or female tibicines were very common. - -[Illustration: Woman Playing on two Pipes, Tibiae. (From a Vase in -the British Museum.)] - - -TIMĒMA (τίμημα). The penalty imposed in a court of criminal justice -at Athens, and also the damages awarded in a civil action, received -the name of Τίμημα, because they were _estimated_ or _assessed_ -according to the injury which the public or the individual might -respectively have sustained. The penalty was either fixed by the -judge, or merely declared by him according to some estimate made -before the cause came into court. In the first case the trial was -called ἀγὼν τιμητὸς, in the second case ἀγὼν ἀτίμητος, a distinction -which applies to civil as well as to criminal trials. Where a man -sought to recover an estate in land, or a house, or any specific -thing, as a ring, a horse, a slave, nothing further was required, -than to determine to whom the estate, the house, or the thing -demanded, of right belonged. The same would be the case in an action -of debt, χρέους δίκη, where a sum certain was demanded. In these -and many other similar cases the trial was ἀτίμητος. On the other -hand, wherever the damages were in their nature _unliquidated_, and -no provision had been made concerning them either by the law or -by the agreement of the parties, they were to be assessed by the -dicasts. The following was the course of proceeding in the τιμητοὶ -ἀγῶνες. The bill of indictment (ἔγκλημα) was always superscribed -with some penalty by the person who preferred it. He was said -ἐπιγράφεσθαι τίμημα, and the penalty proposed is called ἐπίγραμμα. -If the defendant was found guilty, the prosecutor was called upon to -support the allegation in the indictment, and for that purpose to -mount the platform and address the dicasts (ἀναβαίνειν εἰς τίμημα). -If the accused submitted to the punishment proposed on the other -side, there was no further dispute; if he thought it too severe, -he made a counter proposition. He was then said ἀντιτιμᾶσθαι, or -ἑαυτῷ τιμᾶσθαι. He was allowed to address the court in mitigation -of punishment. After both parties had been heard, the dicasts were -called upon to give their verdict. Sometimes the law expressly -empowered the jury to impose an additional penalty (προστίμημα) -besides the ordinary one. Here the proposition emanated from the jury -themselves, any one of whom might move that the punishment allowed by -the law should be awarded. He was said προστιμᾶσθαι, and the whole -dicasts, if (upon a division) they adopted his proposal, were said -προστιμᾷν. - - -TINTINNĀBŬLUM (κώδων), a bell. Bells were of various forms among the -Greeks and Romans, as among us. - - -TĪRO, the name given by the Romans to a newly enlisted soldier, as -opposed to _veteranus_, one who had had experience in war. The mode -of levying troops is described under EXERCITUS. The age at which the -liability to military service commenced was 17. From their first -enrolment the Roman soldiers, when not actually serving against an -enemy, were perpetually occupied in military exercises. They were -exercised every day, the tirones twice, in the morning and afternoon, -and the veterani once. The state of a tiro was called _tirocinium_; -and a soldier who had attained skill in his profession was then -said _tirocinium ponere_, or _deponere_. In civil life the terms -_tiro_ and _tirocinium_ were applied to the assumption of the toga -virilis, which was called _tirocinium fori_ [TOGA], and to the first -appearance of an orator at the rostrum, _tirocinum eloquentiae_. - - -TĪRŌCĬNĬUM. [TIRO.] - - -TĬTĬI SODĀLES, a sodalitas or college of priests at Rome, who -represented the second tribe of the Romans, or the Tities, that -is, the Sabines, who, after their union with the Ramnes or Latins, -continued to perform their own ancient Sabine sacra. To superintend -and preserve these, T. Tatius is said to have instituted the Titii -sodales. During the time of the republic the Titii sodales are no -longer mentioned, as the sacra of the three tribes became gradually -united into one common religion. Under the empire we again meet with -a college of priests bearing the name of Sodales Titii or Titienses, -or Sacerdotes Titiales Flaviales; but they had nothing to do with the -sacra of the ancient tribe of the Tities, but were priests instituted -to conduct the worship of an emperor, like the Augustales. - - -TĬTĬES or TĬTĬENSES. [PATRICII.] - - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Form of the Toga spread out.] - -TŎGA (τήβεννος), a gown, the name of the principal outer garment -worn by the Romans, seems to have been received by them from the -Etruscans. The toga was the peculiar distinction of the Romans, who -were thence called _togati_ or _gens togata_. It was originally worn -only in Rome itself, and the use of it was forbidden alike to exiles -and to foreigners. Gradually, however, it went out of common use, -and was supplanted by the pallium and lacerna, or else it was worn -in public under the lacerna. [LACERNA.] But it was still used by -the upper classes, who regarded it as an honourable distinction, in -the courts of justice, by clients when they received the SPORTULA, -and in the theatre or at the games, at least when the emperor was -present. The exact form of the toga, and the manner of wearing it, -have occasioned much dispute; but the following account, for which -the writer is indebted to his friend Mr. George Scharf, jun., will -set these matters in a clearer light than has hitherto been the case. -The complete arrangement of this dress may be seen in many antique -statues, but especially in that of Didius Julianus, in the Louvre, -and a bronze figure of the elder Drusus discovered at Herculaneum. -(See figs. 2, 3.) - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Statue of Didius Julianus. (From the Louvre.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Bronze of the elder Drusus. (From -Herculaneum.)] - -The letters upon particular parts of the illustrations correspond -with each other, and refer to the same places upon the general form -of the toga given above. The method of adjusting the toga is simply -this: the straight edge (_a b g d_) being kept towards the neck, and -the rounded towards the hand, the first part of the toga hangs in -front over the left shoulder to the ground (_a_, fig. 4), so as to -cover that entire half of the figure viewed in front. The remainder -falling behind is wrapped round the body, being carried _under_ -the right arm, and brought upwards, like a belt, across the chest, -covering the left arm and shoulder for a second time. It again falls -behind, and terminates in the point _d_ (fig. 5), somewhat higher -than the front portion (_a_). - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. Fig. 5. - -Mode of putting on the Toga.] - -So far any mantle of sufficient length might be folded, but two -distinctive features of Roman dress, the umbo (_f_) and the sinus -(_c e_), have yet to be considered. The sinus (_c e_) is that -upper hanging portion with the curved edge downwards which shows -conspicuously upon the right thigh. When the toga has been brought -round to the front of the right leg, it has attained its greatest -width (_e c e_), although on the figure less space is required for -it. It is therefore folded over at the top, the upper part falling -forward, down almost to the knee. It may be easily raised (see fig. -5) and used as a lap--hence the name sinus--to carry fruits and -flowers, so often represented in ancient art. The fold at _c_ thus -becomes the upper edge, and forms the balteus, which may be made -still more effective by being rolled round and slightly twisted, as -in figs. 2 and 5. A variety again was sometimes produced by lifting -the hanging edge (_e_) of this sinus up on to the shoulder, so as to -cover the right arm with that alone, and Quintilian hints that it -is not ungraceful to throw back the extreme edge of that again, an -effect still to be admired in some of the ancient sculptures. Fig. -5 is in the act of raising the edge. The umbo (_f_), a projecting -mass of folds in front of the body, like the boss of a shield, was -formed _after_ the rest of the dress had been put on in a very simple -manner: a part of the front upright line (_a b_), almost covered up -by the adjustment of the upper shoulder portion (_g_), was pulled out -and made to hang down over the balteus or belt-like part (fig. 6). It -is clearly traceable in both statues here given (figs. 2 and 3), and -fig. 4 is intended to show the formation of the umbo more clearly by -the right hand holding the edge, which falls over the fingers instead -of the balteus. In proportion as the umbo (_f_) projects, so of -course the end (_a_) is raised from the ground. The smaller figures -(4 and 5) are both drawn without under-garments in order to avoid -confusion. During sacrifice, when necessary to cover the head, the -edge (_b_) nearest the neck was pulled up and made to cover the head, -as in fig. 3, where the entire length of the edge, passing from the -umbo into the sinus, is very clearly visible. The dress here is very -ample, and can spare an extra length, but in the statue of a priest -in the Louvre the head is covered at the expense of the umbo, which -has entirely disappeared. Fig. 6 is intended to show the interlacing -and arrangement of the toga by following the course of the straight -edge alone from _a_ to _d_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.] - -In many ancient statues the sleeves and folds of the tunic, being -very full, are apt to be confounded with the rest, but in the best -style of art this is not the case. Quintilian cautions his orators -against these incumbrances. A difference in size and fulness of the -toga, modified according to the rank of the wearer, may be detected -in coins and sculpture, but in all cases the mode of adjustment -appears to be the same.--One mode of wearing the toga was the Cinctus -Gabinus. It consisted in forming a part of the toga itself into a -girdle, by drawing its outer edge round the body and tying it in a -knot in front, and at the same time covering the head with another -portion of the garment. It was worn by persons offering sacrifices, -by the consul when he declared war, and by devoted persons, as in the -case of Decius. Its origin was Etruscan, as its name implies. Persons -wearing this dress were said to be _procincti_ (or _incincti_) -_cinctu_ (or _ritu_) _Gabino_.--The colour of the toga worn by men -(_toga virilis_) was generally white, that is, the natural colour of -white wool. Hence it was called _pura_ or _vestimentum purum_, in -opposition to the _praetexta_ mentioned below. A brighter white was -given to the toga of candidates for offices (_candidati_ from their -_toga candida_) by rubbing it with chalk. There is an allusion to -this custom in the phrase _cretata ambitio_. White togas are often -mentioned as worn at festivals, which does not imply that they were -not worn commonly, but that new or fresh-cleaned togas were first put -on at festivals. The toga was kept white and clean by the fuller. -When this was neglected, the toga was called _sordida_, and those who -wore such garments _sordidati_. This dress (with disarranged hair -and other marks of disorder about the person) was worn by accused -persons, as in the case of Cicero. The _toga pulla_, which was of -the natural colour of black wool, was worn in private mourning, and -sometimes also by artificers and others of the lower orders.--The -_toga picta_, which was ornamented with Phrygian embroidery, was -worn by generals in triumphs [TRIUMPHUS], and under the emperors by -the consuls, and by the praetors when they celebrated the games. -It was also called _Capitolina_. The _toga palmata_ was a kind of -toga picta.--The _toga praetexta_ had a broad purple border. It was -worn with the BULLA, by children of both sexes. It was also worn -by magistrates, both those of Rome, and those of the colonies and -municipia; by the sacerdotes, and by persons engaged in sacred rites -or paying vows. Among those who possessed the _jus togae praetextae -habendae_, the following may be more particularly mentioned: the -dictator, the consuls, the praetors (who laid aside the praetexta -when about to condemn a Roman citizen to death), the augurs (who, -however, are supposed by some to have worn the trabea), the decemviri -sacris faciundis, the aediles, the triumviri epulones, the senators -on festival days, the magistri collegii, and the magistri vicorum -when celebrating games. In the case of the tribuni plebis, censors, -and quaestors, there is some doubt upon the subject. The toga -praetexta is said to have been derived from the Etruscans, and to -have been first adopted, with the latus clavus [CLAVUS LATUS], by -Tullus Hostilius as the royal robe, whence its use by the magistrates -in the republic. The toga praetexta and the bulla aurea were first -given to boys in the case of the son of Tarquinius Priscus, who, -at the age of fourteen, in the Sabine war, slew an enemy with his -own hand. Respecting the leaving off of the toga praetexta, and the -assumption of the toga virilis, see IMPUBES and CLAVUS LATUS. The -occasion was celebrated with great rejoicings by the friends of the -youth, who attended him in a solemn procession to the Forum and -Capitol. This assumption of the toga virilis was called _tirocinium -fori_, as being the young man’s introduction to public life. Girls -wore the praetexta till their marriage.--The _trabea_ was a toga -ornamented with purple horizontal stripes. There were three kinds -of trabeae; one wholly of purple, which was sacred to the gods, -another of purple and white, and another of purple and saffron, -which belonged to augurs. The purple and white trabea was a royal -robe, and is assigned to the Latin and early Roman kings, especially -to Romulus. It was worn by the consuls in public solemnities, -such as opening the temple of Janus. The equites wore it at the -_transvectio_, and in other public solemnities. Hence the _trabea_ -is mentioned as the badge of the equestrian order. Lastly, the toga -worn by the Roman emperors was wholly of purple. It appears to have -been first assumed by Julius Caesar.--The material of which the toga -was commonly made was wool. It was sometimes thick and sometimes -thin. The former was the _toga densa_, _pinguis_, or _hirta_. A new -toga, with the nap neither worn off nor cut close, was called pexa, -to which is opposed the _trita_ or _rasa_, which was used as a summer -dress. The toga was originally worn by both sexes; but when the stola -came to be worn by matrons, the toga was only worn by the meretrices, -and by women who had been divorced on account of adultery. [STOLA.] -In war the toga was laid aside, and replaced by the PALUDAMENTUM and -SAGUM. Hence _togatus_ is opposed to _miles_. - - -TONSOR. [BARBA.] - - -TORCŬLAR, TORCŬLUM. [VINUM.] - - -TORMENTUM (ἀφετήρια ὄργανα), a military engine, so called from the -twisting (_torquendo_) of hairs, thongs, and vegetable fibres. The -principal military engines were the _balista_ and _catapulta_. The -_balista_ (πετροβόλος) was used to shoot stones; the _catapulta_ -(καταπέλτης, καταπελτική) to project darts, especially the falarica -[HASTA], and a kind of missile, 4½ feet long, called _trifax_. Whilst -in besieging a city the ram [ARIES] was employed in destroying -the lower part of the wall, the balista was used to overthrow the -battlements (_propugnacula_, ἐπαλξεῖς), and the catapult to shoot -any of the besieged who appeared between them: the forms of these -machines being adapted to the objects which they were intended to -throw; the catapult was long, the balista nearly square. Instances -are recorded in which the balista threw stones to the distance of -a quarter of a mile. Some balistae threw stones weighing three -hundredweight. Of the _scorpio_ or _onager_, which was also a species -of tormentum, we know next to nothing. - - -TORMENTUM (βάσανος), torture. (1) GREEK.--By a decree of Scamandrius -it was ordained that no free Athenian could be put to the torture, -and this appears to have been the general practice. The evidence -of slaves was, however, always taken with torture, and their -testimony was not otherwise received. From this circumstance their -testimony appears to have been considered of more value than that -of freemen. Any person might offer his own slave to be examined by -torture, or demand that of his adversary, and the offer or demand -was equally called πρόκλησις εἰς βάσανον. The parties interested -either superintended the torture themselves, or chose certain persons -for this purpose, hence called βασανισταὶ, who took the evidence -of the slaves. (2) ROMAN.--During the time of the republic freemen -were never put to the torture, and slaves only were exposed to this -punishment. Slaves, moreover, could not be tortured to prove the -guilt of their own master, except in the case of incestus, which was -a crime against the gods, or unless the senate made an exception in -some special instance. At a later time slaves might be tortured to -bear witness against their masters in cases of majestas and adultery. -Under the emperors even free persons were put to the torture to -extract evidence from them in cases of majestas; and although this -indignity was confined for the most part to persons in humble -circumstances, we read of cases in which even Roman senators and -equites were exposed to it. - - -TORQUES or TORQUIS (στρεπτός), an ornament of gold, twisted spirally -and bent into a circular form, which was worn round the neck by men -of distinction among the Persians, the Gauls, and other Asiatic and -northern nations. It was by taking a collar from a Gallic warrior -that T. Manlius obtained the cognomen of _Torquatus_. Such collars -were among the rewards of valour bestowed after an engagement upon -those who had most distinguished themselves. - - -TŎRUS, a bed covered with sheets or blankets, called _Toralia_. - - -TRĂBEA. [TOGA.] - - -TRĂGOEDIA (τραγῳδία), tragedy. (1) GREEK. The tragedy of the ancient -Greeks as well as their comedy confessedly originated in the -worship of the god Dionysus. The peculiarity which most strikingly -distinguishes the Greek tragedy from that of modern times, is the -lyrical or choral part. This was the offspring of the dithyrambic and -choral odes from which, as applied to the worship of Dionysus, Greek -tragedy took its rise. The name of Tragedy (τραγῳδία) is probably -derived from the goatlike appearance of the Satyrs who sang or acted -with mimetic gesticulations (ὄρχησις) the old Bacchic songs, with -Silenus, the constant companion of Dionysus, for their leader. The -Dionysian dithyrambs were sometimes of a gay and at other times -of a mournful character: it was from the latter that the stately -and solemn tragedy of the Greeks arose. Great improvements were -introduced in the dithyramb by Arion, a contemporary of Periander. -Before his time the dithyramb was sung in a wild and irregular -manner; but he is said to have invented the Cyclic chorus, by which -we are to understand that the Dithyramb was danced by a chorus of -fifty men round an altar. The choral Dithyrambic songs prevailed -to some extent, as all choral poetry did, amongst the Dorians of -the Peloponnesus; whence the choral element of the Attic tragedy -was always written in the Dorian dialect, thus showing its origin. -The lyrical poetry was, however, especially popular at Sicyon and -Corinth. In the latter city Arion made his improvements; in the -former “tragic choruses,” i.e. dithyrambs of a sad and plaintive -character, were very ancient. From the more solemn Dithyrambs then, -as improved by Arion, ultimately sprang the dramatic tragedy of -Athens, somewhat in the following manner. The choruses were under -the direction of a leader or exarchus, who, it may be supposed, -came forward separately, and whose part was sometimes taken by -the poet himself. We may also conjecture that the exarchus in -each case led off by singing or reciting his part in a solo, and -that the chorus dancing round the altar then expressed their -feelings of joy or sorrow at his story, representing the perils and -sufferings of Dionysus, or some hero, as it might be. The subjects -of this Dithyrambic tragedy were not, however, always confined -to Dionysus. Even Arion wrote Dithyrambs, relating to different -heroes, a practice in which he was followed by succeeding poets. -It is easy to conceive how the introduction of an actor or speaker -independent of the chorus might have been suggested by the exarchs -coming forward separately and making short off-hand speeches, -whether learnt by heart beforehand, or made on the spur of the -moment. [CHORUS.] But it is also possible, if not probable, that -it was suggested by the rhapsodical recitations of the epic and -gnomic poets formerly prevalent in Greece: the gnomic poetry being -generally written in Iambic verse, the metre of the Attic dialogue. -This however is certain, that the union of the Iambic dialogue with -the lyrical chorus took place at Athens under Pisistratus, and -that it was attributed to Thespis, a native of Icaria, one of the -country demes or parishes of Attica where the worship of Dionysus -had long prevailed. The alteration made by him, and which gave to -the old tragedy a new and dramatic character, was very simple but -very important. He introduced an actor, as it is recorded, for the -sake of giving rest to the chorus, and independent of it, in which -capacity he probably appeared himself, taking various parts in the -same piece, under various disguises, which he was enabled to assume -by means of linen masks, the invention of which is attributed to -him. Now as a chorus, by means of its leader, could maintain a -dialogue with the actor, it is easy to see how with one actor only a -dramatic action might be introduced, continued, and concluded, by the -speeches between the choral songs expressive of the joy or sorrow of -the chorus at the various events of the drama. With respect to the -character of the drama of Thespis there has been much doubt: some -writers, and especially Bentley, have maintained that his plays were -all satyrical and ludicrous, i.e. the plot of them was some story -of Bacchus, the chorus consisted principally of satyrs, and the -argument was merry. But perhaps the truth is that in the early part -of his career Thespis retained the satyrical character of the older -tragedy, but afterwards inclined to more serious compositions, which -would almost oblige him to discard the Satyrs from his choruses. -That he did write serious dramas is intimated by the titles of the -plays ascribed to him, as well as by the character of the fragments -of Iambic verse quoted by ancient writers as his. It is evident that -the introduction of the dialogue must also have caused an alteration -in the arrangement of the chorus, which could not remain cyclic or -circular, but must have been drawn up in a rectangular form about the -thymele or altar of Bacchus in front of the actor, who was elevated -on a platform or table (ἐλεός), the forerunner of the stage. The -lines of Horace (_Ar. Poet._ 276):-- - - “Dicitur et plaustris vexisse poemata Thespis, - Quae canerent agerentque peruncti faecibus ora”-- - -are founded on a misconception of the origin of the Attic tragedy, -and the tale about the waggons of Thespis probably arose out of a -confusion of the waggon of the comedian Susarion with the _platform_ -of the Thespian actor. The first representation of Thespis was in -B.C. 535. His immediate successors were the Athenian Choerilus -and Phrynichus, the former of whom represented plays as early as -B.C. 524. Phrynichus was a pupil of Thespis, and gained his first -victory in the dramatic contests B.C. 511. In his works, the lyric -or choral element still predominated over the dramatic, and he was -distinguished for the sweetness of his melodies, which in the time of -the Peloponnesian war were very popular with the admirers of the old -style of music. The first use of female masks is also attributed to -him, and he so far deviated from the general practice of the Attic -tragedians as to write a drama on a subject of contemporary history, -the capture of Miletus by the Persians, B.C. 494.--We now come to -the first writer of Satyrical dramas, Pratinas of Phlius, a town not -far from Sicyon, and which laid claim to the invention of tragedy -as well as comedy. For some time previously to this poet, and -probably as early as Thespis, tragedy had been gradually departing -more and more from its old characteristics, and inclining to heroic -fables, to which the chorus of Satyrs was not a fit accompaniment. -But the fun and merriment caused by them were too good to be lost. -Accordingly the Satyrical drama, distinct from the recent and -dramatic tragedy, but suggested by the sportive element of the old -Dithyramb, was founded by Pratinas, who however appears to have been -surpassed in his own invention by Choerilus. It was always written -by tragedians, and generally three tragedies and one Satyrical piece -were represented together, which in some instances at least formed a -connected whole, called a tetralogy (τετραλογία). The Satyrical piece -was acted last, so that the minds of the spectators were agreeably -relieved by a merry after-piece at the close of an earnest and -engrossing tragedy. The distinguishing feature of this drama was the -chorus of Satyrs, in appropriate dresses and masks, and its subjects -seem to have been taken from the same class of the adventures of -Bacchus and of the heroes as those of tragedy; but of course they -were so treated and selected, that the presence of rustic satyrs -would seem appropriate. In their jokes and drollery consisted the -merriment of the piece; for the kings and heroes who were introduced -into their company were not of necessity thereby divested of their -epic and legendary character, though they were obliged to conform to -their situation and suffer some diminution of dignity, from their -position. Hence Horace (_Ar. Poet._ 231) says:-- - - “Effutire leves indigna Tragoedia versus - Intererit Satyris paulum pudibunda protervis.”-- - -alluding in the first line to the mythic or epic element of -the Satyric drama, which he calls Tragoedia, and in the second -representing it as being rather ashamed of its company. The “Cyclops” -of Euripides is the only Satyric drama now extant.--The great -improvements in tragedy were introduced by Aeschylus. This poet added -a second actor, diminished the parts of the chorus, and made the -dialogue the principal part of the action. He also availed himself of -the aid of Agatharchus, the scene-painter, and improved the costume -of his actors by giving them thick-soled boots (ἐμβάται), as well as -the masks, which he made more expressive and characteristic. Horace -(_Ar. Poet._ 278) thus alludes to his improvements:-- - - “personae pallaeque repertor honestae - Aeschylus, et modicis instravit pulpita tignis - Et docuit magnumque loqui, nitique cothurno.”-- - -The custom of contending with trilogies (τριλογίαι), or with three -plays at a time, is said to have been also introduced by him. In -fact he did so much for tragedy, and so completely built it up to -its “towering height,” that he was considered the father of it. -The subjects of his dramas were not connected with the worship of -Dionysus; but rather with the great cycle of Hellenic legends and -some of the myths of the Homeric Epos. Accordingly, he said of -himself that his dramas were but scraps and fragments from the great -feasts of Homer. In the latter part of his life Aeschylus made use -of one of the improvements of Sophocles, namely the τριταγωνιστής, -or third actor. This was the finishing stroke to the dramatic -element of Attic tragedy, which Sophocles is said to have matured -by further improvements in costume and scene-painting. Under him -tragedy appears with less of sublimity and sternness than in the -hands of Aeschylus, but with more of calm grandeur and quiet dignity -and touching incident. The plays of Sophocles are the perfection of -the Grecian tragic drama, as a work of art and poetic composition in -a thoroughly chastened and classic style. In the hands of Euripides -tragedy deteriorated not only in dignity, but also in its moral -and religious significance. He introduces his heroes in rags and -tatters, and busies them with petty affairs, and makes them speak the -language of every-day life. As Sophocles said of him, he represented -men not as they ought to be, but as they are, without any ideal -greatness or poetic character. His dialogues too were little else -than the rhetorical and forensic language of his day cleverly put -into verse: full of sophistry and quibbling distinctions. One of the -peculiarities of his tragedies was the πρόλογος, an introductory -monologue, with which some hero or god opens the play, telling who -he is, what is the state of affairs, and what has happened up to -the time of his address, so as to put the audience in possession -of every fact which it might be necessary for them to know: a -very business-like proceeding no doubt, but a poor make-shift for -artistical skill. The “Deus ex machina,” also, though not always, in -a “nodus, tali vindice dignus,” was frequently employed by Euripides -to effect the _dénoûment_ of his pieces. The chorus too no longer -discharged its proper and high functions either as a representative -of the feelings of unprejudiced observers, or, as one of the actors, -and a part of the whole, joining in the development of the piece. -Many of his choral odes in fact are but remotely connected in subject -with the action of the play. Another novelty of Euripides was the -use of the monodies or lyrical songs, in which not the chorus, -but the principal persons of the drama, declare their emotions -and sufferings. Euripides was also the inventor of tragi-comedy. -A specimen of the Euripidean tragi-comedy is still extant in the -Alcestis, acted B.C. 438, as the last of four pieces, and therefore -as a substitute for a Satyrical drama. Though tragic in its form and -some of its scenes, it has a mixture of comic and satyric characters -(_e.g._ Hercules) and concludes happily.--The parts which constitute -a Greek tragedy, _as to its form_, are, the prologue, episode, exode, -and choral songs; the last divided into the parode and stasimon. The -πρόλογος is all that part of a tragedy which precedes the parodos -of the chorus, _i.e._ the first act. The ἐπεισόδιον is all the part -between whole choral odes. The ἔξοδος that part which has no choral -ode after it. Of the choral part the πάροδος is the first speech -of the whole chorus (not broken up into parts): the stasimon is -without anapaests and trochees. These two divisions were sung by -all the choreutae, but the “songs on the stage” and the κόμμοι by a -part only. The commus, which properly means a wailing for the dead, -was generally used to express strong excitement, or lively sympathy -with grief and suffering, especially by Aeschylus. It was common to -the actors and a portion only of the chorus. Again the πάροδος was -so named as being the passage-song of the chorus sung while it was -advancing to its proper place in the orchestra, and therefore in -anapaestic or marching verse: the στάσιμον, as being chaunted by the -chorus when standing still in its proper position.--The materials of -Greek tragedy were the national mythology, - - “Presenting Thebes, or Pelop’s line, - Or the tale of Troy divine.” - -The exceptions to this were the two historical tragedies, the -“Capture of Miletus” by Phrynichus, and the “Persians” of Aeschylus; -but they belong to an early period of the art. Hence the plot -and story of the Grecian tragedy were of necessity known to the -spectators, a circumstance which strongly distinguishes the ancient -tragedy from the modern.--The functions of the Chorus in Greek -Tragedy were very important, as described by Horace (_Ar. Poet._ 193), - - “Actoris partes chorus officiumque virile - Defendat: neu quid medios intercinat actus, - Quod non proposito conducat, et haereat apte,” &c. - -It often expresses the reflections of a dispassionate and -right-minded spectator, and inculcates the lessons of morality and -resignation to the will of heaven, taught by the occurrence of -the piece in which it is engaged. With respect to the number of -the chorus see CHORUS.--(2) ROMAN. The tragedy of the Romans was -borrowed from the Greek, but the construction of the Roman theatre -afforded no appropriate place for the chorus, which was therefore -obliged to appear on the stage, instead of in the orchestra. The -first tragic poet and actor at Rome was Livius Andronicus, a Greek -by birth, who began to exhibit in B.C. 240. In his monodies (or the -lyrical parts sung, not by a chorus, but by one person), it was -customary to separate the singing from the mimetic dancing, leaving -the latter only to the actor, while the singing was performed by a -boy placed near the flute-player (_ante tibicinem_); so that the -dialogue only (_diverbia_) was left to be spoken by the actors. -Livius Andronicus was followed by Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, and -Attius. These five poets belong to the earlier epoch of Roman -tragedy, in which little was written but translations and imitations -of the Greek, with occasional insertions of original matter. How -they imitated the structure of the choral odes is doubtful--perhaps -they never attempted it. In the age of Augustus the writing of -tragedies, whether original or imitations, seems to have been quite -a fashionable occupation. The emperor himself attempted an Ajax, but -did not succeed. One of the principal tragedians of this epoch was -Asinius Pollio, to whom the line (Virg. _Eclog._ viii. 10) applies-- - - “Sola Sophocleo tua carmina digna cothurno.” - -Ovid wrote a tragedy on the subject of Medea. Quintilian says of -Varius, who was distinguished in epic as well as tragic poetry, that -his Thyestes might be compared with any of the Greek tragedies. Some -fragments of this Thyestes are extant, but we have no other remains -of the tragedy of the Augustan age. The loss perhaps is not great. -The only complete Roman tragedies that have come down to us are the -ten attributed to the philosopher Seneca; but whether he wrote any -of them or not is a disputed point. To whatever age they belong, -they are beyond description bombastic and frigid, utterly unnatural -in character and action, full of the most revolting violations of -propriety, and barren of all theatrical effect. Still they have had -admirers: Heinsius calls the Hippolytus “divine,” and prefers the -Troades to the Hecuba of Euripides: even Racine has borrowed from -the Hippolytus in Phèdre. Roman tragedians sometimes wrote tragedies -on subjects taken from their national history. Pacuvius, _e.g._ -wrote a _Paulus_, L. Accius a _Brutus_ and a _Decius_. Curiatius -Maternus, also a distinguished orator in the reign of Domitian, wrote -a Domitius and a Cato, the latter of which gave offence to the rulers -of the state. - - -TRĀGŬLA. [HASTA.] - - -TRANSTRA. [NAVIS.] - - -TRANSVECTĬO ĔQUĬTUM. [EQUITES, p. 157.] - - -TRIĀRĬI. [EXERCITUS.] - - -TRĪBŬLA or TRĪBŬLUM (τριβόλος), a corn-drag, consisting of a thick -and ponderous wooden board, which was armed underneath with pieces -of iron or sharp flints, and drawn over the corn by a yoke of oxen, -either the driver or a heavy weight being placed upon it, for the -purpose of separating the grain and cutting the straw. - - -TRĬBŬLUS (τρίβολος), a caltrop, also called _murex_. When a place was -beset with troops, the one party endeavoured to impede the cavalry -of the other party, either by throwing before them caltrops, which -necessarily lay with one of their four sharp points turned upwards, -or by burying the caltrops with one point at the surface of the -ground. - - -TRĬBŪNAL, a raised platform, on which the praetor and judices sat in -the Basilica. [BASILICA.] There was a tribunal in the camp, which -was generally formed of turf, but sometimes, in a stationary camp, -of stone, from which the general addressed the soldiers, and where -the consul and tribunes of the soldiers administered justice. When -the general addressed the army from the tribunal the standards were -planted in front of it, and the army placed round it in order. The -address itself was called _Allocutio_. - - -TRĬBŪNUS, a tribune. This word seems originally to have indicated -an officer connected with a tribe (_tribus_), or who represented a -tribe for certain purposes; and this is indeed the character of the -officers who were designated by it in the earliest times of Rome, -and may be traced also in the later officers of this name.--(1) -TRIBUNES OF THE THREE ANCIENT TRIBES.--At the time when all the -Roman citizens were contained in the three tribes of the Ramnes, -Tities, and Luceres, each of them was headed by a tribune, and these -three tribunes represented their respective tribes in all civil, -religious, and military affairs; that is to say, they were in the -city the magistrates of the tribes, and performed the sacra on their -behalf, and in times of war they were their military commanders. -The _tribunus celerum_ was the commander of the _celeres_, the -king’s body-guard, and not the tribune of the tribe of the Ramnes, -as is supposed by some modern writers. In what manner the tribunus -celerum was appointed is uncertain, but it is probable that he was -elected by the tribes; for we find that when the imperium was to be -conferred upon the king, the comitia were held under the presidency -of the tribunus celerum; and in the absence of the king, to whom -this officer was next in rank, he convoked the comitia: it was in -an assembly of this kind that Brutus proposed to deprive Tarquinius -of the imperium. A law passed under the presidency of the tribunus -celerum was called a _lex tribunicia_, to distinguish it from one -passed under the presidency of the king. The tribunes of the three -ancient tribes ceased to be appointed when these tribes themselves -ceased to exist as political bodies, and when the patricians became -incorporated in the local tribes of Servius Tullius. [TRIBUS.]--(2) -TRIBUNES OF THE SERVIAN TRIBES (φύλαρχοι, τριττυάρχοι).--When Servius -Tullius divided the commonalty into thirty local tribes, we again -find a tribune at the head of these tribes. The duties of these -tribunes, who were without doubt the most distinguished persons -in their respective districts, appear to have consisted at first -in keeping a register of the inhabitants in each district, and of -their property, for purposes of taxation, and for levying the troops -for the armies. When subsequently the Roman people became exempted -from taxes, the main part of their business was taken from them, -but they still continued to exist. The _tribuni aerarii_, who occur -down to the end of the republic, were perhaps only the successors -of the tribunes of the tribes. When (B.C. 406) the custom of giving -pay (_stipendium_) to the soldiers was introduced, each of the -tribuni aerarii had to collect the tributum in his own tribe, and -with it to pay the soldiers; and in case they did not fulfil this -duty, the soldiers had the right of pignoris capio against them. In -later times their duties appear to have been confined to collecting -the tributum, which they made over to the military quaestors who -paid the soldiers. [QUAESTOR.] The Lex Aurelia, B.C. 70, called -the tribuni aerarii to the exercise of judicial functions, along -with the senators and equites, as these tribunes represented the -body of the most respectable citizens. But of this distinction they -were subsequently deprived by Julius Caesar.--(3) TRIBUNI PLEBIS -(δήμαρχοι, the office δημαρχία).--The ancient tribunes of the -plebeian tribes had undoubtedly the right of convoking the meetings -of their tribes, and of maintaining the privileges granted to them -by king Servius, and subsequently by the Valerian laws. But this -protection was very inadequate against the insatiable ambition and -usurpations of the patricians. When the plebeians, impoverished by -long wars, and cruelly oppressed by the patricians, at last seceded -in B.C. 494 to the Mons Sacer, the patricians were obliged to grant -to the plebeians the right of appointing tribunes (_tribuni plebis_) -with more efficient powers to protect their own order than those -which were possessed by the heads of the tribes. The purpose for -which they were appointed was only to afford protection against -any abuse on the part of the patrician magistrates; and that they -might be able to afford such protection their persons were declared -sacred and inviolable, and it was agreed that whoever invaded this -inviolability should be an outlaw, and that his property should be -forfeited to the temple of Ceres. A subsequent law enacted that no -one should oppose or interrupt a tribune while addressing the people, -and that whoever should act contrary to this ordinance should give -bail to the tribunes for the payment of whatever fine they should -affix to his offence in arraigning him before the commonalty; if -he refused to give bail, his life and property were forfeited. The -tribunes were thus enabled to afford protection to any one who -appealed to the assembly of the commonalty or required any other -assistance. They were essentially the representatives and the organs -of the plebeian order, and their sphere of action was the comitia -tributa. With the patricians and their comitia they had nothing to -do. The tribunes themselves, however, were not judges, and could -inflict no punishments, but could only propose the imposition of a -fine to the commonalty (_multam irrogare_). The tribunes were thus -in their origin only a protecting magistracy of the plebs, but in -the course of time their power increased to such a degree that it -surpassed that of all other magistrates, and the tribunes then became -a magistracy for the whole Roman people, in opposition to the senate -and the oligarchical party in general, although they had nothing -to do with the administration or the government. During the latter -period of the republic they became true tyrants, and may be compared -to the national convention of France during the first revolution. At -first the number of the tribunes was only two, but soon afterwards -they were increased to five, one being taken from each of the five -classes, and subsequently to ten, two being taken from each of the -five classes. This last number appears to have remained unaltered -down to the end of the empire. The tribunes entered upon their office -on the 10th of December, but were elected, at least in the time of -Cicero, on the 17th of July. It is almost superfluous to state that -none but plebeians were eligible to the office of tribune; hence -when, towards the end of the republic, patricians wished to obtain -the office, they were obliged first to renounce their own order and -to become plebeians; hence also under the empire it was thought that -the princeps should not be tribune because he was a patrician. But -the influence which belonged to this office was too great for the -emperors not to covet it. Hence Augustus was made tribune for life. -During the republic, however, the old regulation remained in force, -even after the tribunes had ceased to be the protectors of the plebs -alone. There is only one instance recorded in which patricians were -elected to the tribuneship, and this was probably the consequence -of an attempt to divide the tribuneship between the two orders. -Although nothing appears to be more natural than that the tribunes -should originally have been elected by that body of Roman citizens -which they represented, yet the subject is involved in considerable -obscurity. Some writers state that they were elected by the comitia -of the curies; others suppose that they were elected in the comitia -of the centuries; but whether they were elected in the latter or in -the comitia of the tribes, it is certain that at first the sanction -of the curies to the election was at all events necessary. But after -the time of the Lex Publilia (B.C. 472) the sanction of the curies is -not heard of, and the election of the tribunes was left entirely to -the comitia tributa, which were convoked and held for this purpose -by the old tribunes previous to the expiration of their office. One -of the old tribunes was appointed by lot to preside at the election. -As the meeting could not be prolonged after sunset, and the business -was to be completed in one day, it sometimes happened that it was -obliged to break up before the election was completed, and then those -who were elected filled up the legitimate number of the college by -cooptatio. But in order to prevent this irregularity, the tribune L. -Trebonius, in 448 B.C., got an ordinance passed, according to which -the college of the tribunes should never be completed by cooptatio, -but the elections should be continued on the second day, if they were -not completed on the first, till the number ten was made up. The -place where the election of the tribunes was held was originally and -lawfully the Forum, afterwards also the Campus Martius, and sometimes -the area of the Capitol.--We now proceed to trace the gradual growth -of the tribunitian power. Although its original character was merely -protection (_auxilium_ or βοήθεια) against patrician magistrates, -the plebeians appear early to have regarded their tribunes also as -mediators or arbitrators in matters among themselves. The whole power -possessed by the college of tribunes was designated by the name -_tribunicia potestas_, and extended at no time farther than one mile -beyond the gates of the city; at a greater distance than this they -came under the imperium of the magistrates, like every other citizen. -As they were the public guardians, it was necessary that every one -should have access to them and at any time; hence the doors of their -houses were open day and night for all who were in need of help and -protection, which they were empowered to afford against any one, even -against the highest magistrates. For the same reason a tribune was -not allowed to be absent from the city for a whole day, except during -the Feriae Latinae, when the whole people were assembled on the -Alban Mount. In B.C. 456 the tribunes, in opposition to the consuls, -assumed the right of convoking the senate, in order to lay before it -a rogation, and discuss the same; for until that time the consuls -alone had had the right of laying plebiscita before the senate for -approbation. Some years after, B.C. 452, the tribunes demanded of -the consuls to request the senate to make a senatusconsultum for the -appointment of persons to frame a new legislation; and during the -discussions on this subject the tribunes themselves were present in -the senate. The written legislation which the tribunes then wished -can only have related to their own order; but as such a legislation -would only have widened the breach between the two orders, they -afterwards gave way to the remonstrances of the patricians, and -the new legislation was to embrace both orders. From the second -decemvirate the tribuneship was suspended, but was restored after -the legislation was completed, and now assumed a different character -from the change that had taken place in the tribes. [TRIBUS.] The -tribunes now had the right to be present at the deliberations of -the senate; but they did not sit among the senators themselves, -but upon benches before the opened doors of the senate house. The -inviolability of the tribunes, which had before only rested upon a -contract between the two estates, was now sanctioned and confirmed by -a law of M. Horatius. As the tribes now also included the patricians -and their clients, the tribunes might naturally be asked to interpose -on behalf of any citizen, whether patrician or plebeian. Hence the -patrician ex-decemvir, Appius Claudius, implored the protection of -the tribunes. About this time the tribunes also acquired the right -of taking the auspices in the assemblies of the tribes. They also -assumed again the right, which they had exercised before the time -of the decemvirate, of bringing patricians who had violated the -rights of the plebeians before the comitia of the tribes. By the Lex -Valeria passed in the Comitia Centuriata (B.C. 449), it was enacted -that a plebiscitum, which had been voted by the tribes, should bind -the patricians as well. While the college thus gained outwardly new -strength every day, a change took place in its internal organisation, -which to some extent paralysed its powers. Before B.C. 394, every -thing had been decided in the college by a majority; but about this -time, we do not know how, a change was introduced, which made the -opposition (_intercessio_) of one tribune sufficient to render a -resolution of his colleagues void. This new regulation does not -appear in operation till 394 and 393 B.C.; the old one was still -applied in B.C. 421 and 415. From their right of appearing in the -senate, and of taking part in its discussions, and from their being -the representatives of the whole people, they gradually obtained -the right of intercession against any action which a magistrate -might undertake during the time of his office, and this even without -giving any reason for it. Thus we find a tribune preventing a consul -from convoking the senate, and preventing the proposal of new laws -or elections in the comitia; they interceded against the official -functions of the censors; and even against a command issued by the -praetor. In the same manner a tribune might place his veto upon an -ordinance of the senate; and he could thus either compel the senate -to submit the subject to a fresh consideration, or could raise the -session. In order to propose a measure to the senate they might -themselves convene a meeting, or when it had been convened by a -consul they might make their proposal even in opposition to the -consul, a right which no other magistrates had in the presence of the -consuls. The senate, on the other hand, had itself, in certain cases, -recourse to the tribunes. Thus, in B.C. 431 it requested the tribunes -to compel the consuls to appoint a dictator, in compliance with a -decree of the senate, and the tribunes compelled the consuls, by -threatening them with imprisonment, to appoint A. Postumius Tubertus -dictator. From this time forward we meet with several instances in -which the tribunes compelled the consuls to comply with the decrees -of the senate, _si non essent in auctoritate senatus_, and to execute -its commands. In their relation to the senate a change was introduced -by the _Plebiscitum Atinium_, which ordained that a tribune, by -virtue of his office, should be a senator. When this plebiscitum was -made is uncertain; but we know that in B.C. 170 it was not yet in -operation. It probably originated with C. Atinius, who was tribune in -B.C. 132. But as the quaestorship, at least in later times, was the -office which persons held previously to the tribuneship, and as the -quaestorship itself conferred upon a person the right of a senator, -the law of Atinius was in most cases superfluous.--In their relation -to other magistrates we may observe, that the right of intercessio -was not confined to stopping a magistrate in his proceedings, but -they might even command their viatores to seize a consul or a censor, -to imprison him, or to throw him from the Tarpeian rock. When the -tribunes brought an accusation against any one before the people, -they had the right of _prehensio_, but not the right of _vocatio_, -that is, they might command a person to be dragged by their viatores -before the comitia, but they could not summon him. They might, as in -earlier times, propose a fine to be inflicted upon the person accused -before the comitia, but in some cases they dropped this proposal -and treated the case as a capital one. The college of tribunes had -also the power of making edicts. In cases in which one member of -the college opposed a resolution of his colleagues nothing could be -done, and the measure was dropped; but this useful check was removed -by the example of Tiberius Gracchus, in which a precedent was given -for proposing to the people that a tribune obstinately persisting -in his veto should be deprived of his office. From the time of the -Hortensian law the power of the tribunes had been gradually rising -to such a height that at length it was superior to every other in -the state. They had acquired the right of proposing to the comitia -tributa or the senate measures on nearly all the important affairs of -the state, and it would be endless to enumerate the cases in which -their power was manifested. Their proposals were indeed usually made -ex auctoritate senatus, or had been communicated to and approved by -it; but cases in which the people itself had a direct interest, such -as a general legal regulation, granting of the franchise, a change in -the duties and powers of a magistrate, and others, might be brought -before the people, without their having been previously communicated -to the senate, though there are also instances of the contrary. -Subjects belonging to the administration could not be brought before -the tribes without the tribunes having previously received through -the consuls the auctoritas of the senate. This, however, was done -very frequently, and hence we have mention of a number of plebiscita -on matters of administration. It sometimes even occurs that the -tribunes brought the question concerning the conclusion of peace -before the tribes, and then compelled the senate to ratify the -resolution, as expressing the wish of the whole people. Sulla, in his -reform of the constitution on the early aristocratic principles, left -to the tribunes only the jus auxiliandi, and deprived them of the -right of making legislative or other proposals, either to the senate -or the comitia, without having previously obtained the sanction of -the senate. But this arrangement did not last, for Pompey restored to -them their former rights. During the latter period of the republic, -when the office of quaestor was in most cases held immediately -before that of tribune, the tribunes were generally elected from -among the senators, and this continued to be the case under the -empire. Sometimes, however, equites also obtained the office, and -thereby became members of the senate, where they were considered -of equal rank with the quaestors. Tribunes of the people continued -to exist down to the fifth century of our era, though their powers -became naturally much limited, especially in the reign of Nero. They -continued however to have the right of intercession against decrees -of the senate, and on behalf of injured individuals.--(4) TRIBUNI -MILITUM CUM CONSULARI POTESTATE. When in B.C. 445 the tribune C. -Canuleius brought forward the rogation that the consulship should not -be confined to either order, the patricians evaded the attempt by a -change in the constitution; the powers which had hitherto been united -in the consulship were now divided between two new magistrates, -viz. the _Tribuni militum cum consulari potestate_ and the censors. -Consequently, in B.C. 444, three military tribunes, with consular -power, were appointed, and to this office the plebeians were to -be equally eligible with the patricians. For the years following, -however, the people were to be at liberty, on the proposal of the -senate, to decide whether consuls were to be elected according to -the old custom, or consular tribunes. Henceforth, for many years, -sometimes consuls and sometimes consular tribunes were appointed, -and the number of the latter varied from three to four, until in -B.C. 405 it was increased to six, and as the censors were regarded -as their colleagues, we have sometimes mention of eight tribunes. -At last, however, in B.C. 367, the office of these tribunes was -abolished by the Licinian law, and the consulship was restored. These -consular tribunes were elected in the comitia of the centuries, and -undoubtedly with less solemn auspices than the consuls.--(5) TRIBUNI -MILITARES [EXERCITUS, p. 169.] - - -TRĬBUS (φῦλον, φυλή), a tribe. (1) GREEK. In the earliest times of -Greek history mention is made of people being divided into tribes -and clans. Homer speaks of such divisions in terms which seem to -imply that they were elements that entered into the composition of -every community. A person not included in any clan (ἀφρήτωρ), was -regarded as a vagrant or outlaw. These divisions were rather natural -than political, depending on family connection, and arising out of -those times, when each head of a family exercised a patriarchal sway -over its members. The bond was cemented by religious communion, -sacrifices and festivals, which all the family or clansmen attended, -and at which the chief usually presided.--Of the Dorian race -there were originally three tribes, traces of which are found in -all the countries which they colonised. Hence they are called by -Homer Δωριέες τριχάϊκες. These tribes were the _Hylleis_ (Ὑλλεῖς), -_Pamphyli_ (Πάμφυλοι), and _Dymanatae_ or _Dymanes_ (Δυμανάται or -Δυμᾶνες). The first derived their name from Hyllus, son of Hercules, -the two last from Pamphylus and Dymas, who are said to have fallen -in the last expedition when the Dorians took possession of the -Peloponnesus. The Hyllean tribe was perhaps the one of highest -dignity; but at Sparta there does not appear to have been much -distinction, for all the freemen there were by the constitution of -Lycurgus on a footing of equality. To these three tribes others -were added in different places, either when the Dorians were joined -by other foreign allies, or when some of the old inhabitants were -admitted to the rank of citizenship or equal privileges. Thus the -Cadmean Aegeids are said by Herodotus to have been a great tribe -at Sparta, descended (as he says) from Aegeus, grandson of Theras, -though others have thought they were incorporated with the three -Doric tribes. The subdivision of tribes into _phratriae_ (φρατρίαι) -or _patrae_ (πάτραι), _genē_ (γένη), _trittyes_ (τρίττυες), &c. -appears to have prevailed in various places. At Sparta each tribe -contained ten _obae_ (ὠβαί), a word denoting a local division -or district; each _obe_ contained ten _triacades_ (τριακάδες), -communities containing thirty families. But very little appears -to be known of these divisions, how far they were local, or how -far genealogical. After the time of Cleomenes the old system of -tribes was changed; new ones were created corresponding to the -different quarters of the town, and they seem to have been five in -number.--The first Attic tribes that we read of are said to have -existed in the reign, or soon after the reign, of Cecrops, and were -called _Cecropis_ (Κεκροπίς), _Autochthon_ (Αὐτόχθων), _Actaea_ -(Ἀκταία), and _Paralia_ (Παραλία). In the reign of a subsequent king, -Cranaus, these names were changed to _Cranais_ (Κραναΐς), _Atthis_ -(Ἀτθίς), _Mesogaea_ (Μεσόγαια), and _Diacris_ (Διακρίς). Afterwards -we find a new set of names; _Dias_ (Διάς), _Athenais_ (Ἀθηναΐς), -_Poseidonias_ (Ποσειδωνιάς), and _Hephaestias_ (Ἡφαιστιάς); evidently -derived from the deities who were worshipped in the country. Some -of those secondly mentioned, if not all of them, seem to have been -geographical divisions; and it is not improbable that, if not -independent communities, they were at least connected by a very -weak bond of union. But all these tribes were superseded by four -others, which were probably founded soon after the Ionic settlement -in Attica, and seem to have been adopted by other Ionic colonies out -of Greece. The names _Geleontes_ (Γελέοντες), _Hopletes_ (Ὅπλητες), -_Argades_ (Ἀργάδεις), _Aegicores_ (Αἰγικορεῖς), are said by Herodotus -to have been derived from the sons of Ion, son of Xuthus. Upon -this, however, many doubts have been thrown by modern writers. The -etymology of the last three names would seem to suggest, that the -tribes were so called from the occupations which their respective -members followed; the _Hopletes_ being the armed men, or warriors; -the _Argades_, labourers or husbandmen; the _Aegicores_, goatherds -or shepherds. But whatever be the truth with respect to the origin -of these tribes, one thing is certain, that before the time of -Theseus, whom historians agree in representing as the great founder -of the Attic commonwealth, the various people who inhabited the -country continued to be disunited and split into factions.--Theseus -in some measure changed the relations of the tribes to each -other, by introducing a gradation of ranks in each; dividing the -people into _Eupatridae_ (Εὐπατρίδαι), _Geomori_ (Γεωμόροι), and -_Demiurgi_ (Δημιουργοί), of whom the first were nobles, the second -agriculturists or yeomen, the third labourers and mechanics. At the -same time, in order to consolidate the national unity, he enlarged -the city of Athens, with which he incorporated several smaller towns, -made it the seat of government, encouraged the nobles to reside -there, and surrendered a part of the royal prerogative in their -favour. The tribes or phylae were divided, either in the age of -Theseus or soon after, each into three _phratriae_ (φρατρίαι, a term -equivalent to fraternities, and analogous in its political relation -to the Roman _curiae_), and each _phratria_ into thirty _gene_ (γένη, -equivalent to the Roman _Gentes_), the members of a _genos_ (γένος) -being called _gennetae_ (γεννῆται) or _homogalactes_ (ὁμογαλάκτες). -Each _genos_ was distinguished by a particular name of a patronymic -form, which was derived from some hero or mythic ancestor. These -divisions, though the names seem to import family connection, were -in fact artificial; which shows that some advance had now been made -towards the establishment of a closer political union. The members of -the _phratriae_ and _gene_ had their respective religious rites and -festivals, which were preserved long after these communities had lost -their political importance, and perhaps prevented them from being -altogether dissolved.--After the age of Theseus, the monarchy having -been first limited and afterwards abolished, the whole power of the -state fell into the hands of the _Eupatridae_ or nobles, who held all -civil offices, and had besides the management of religious affairs, -and the interpretation of the laws. Attica became agitated by feuds, -and we find the people, shortly before the legislation of Solon, -divided into three parties, _Pediaei_ (Πεδιαῖοι) or lowlanders, -_Diacrii_ (Διάκριοι) or highlanders, and _Parali_ (Πάραλοι) or people -of the sea-coast. The first two remind us of the ancient division of -tribes, _Mesogaea_ and _Diacris_; and the three parties appear in -some measure to represent the classes established by Theseus, the -first being the nobles, whose property lay in the champaign and most -fertile part of the country; the second, the smaller landowners and -shepherds; the third, the trading and mining class, who had by this -time risen in wealth and importance. To appease their discords, Solon -was applied to; and thereupon framed his celebrated constitution and -code of laws. Here we have only to notice that he retained the four -tribes as he found them, but abolished the existing distinctions of -_rank_, or at all events greatly diminished their importance, by -introducing his property qualification, or division of the people -into _Pentacosiomedimni_ (Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι), _Hippeis_ (Ἱππεῖς), -_Zeugitae_ (Ζευγῖται), and _Thetes_ (Θῆτες). [CENSUS, GREEK.] The -enactments of Solon continued to be the _law_ at Athens, though in -great measure suspended by the tyranny, until the democratic reform -effected by Clisthenes. He abolished the old tribes, and created ten -new ones, according to a geographical division of Attica, and named -after ten of the ancient heroes: _Erechtheis_, _Aegeis_, _Pandionis_, -_Leontis_, _Acamantis_, _Oeneis_, _Cecropis_, _Hippothoontis_, -_Aeantis_, _Antiochis_. These tribes were divided each into ten -_demi_ (δῆμοι), the number of which was afterwards increased by -subdivision; but the arrangement was so made that several _demi_ not -contiguous or near to one another were joined to make up a tribe. -[DEMUS.] The object of this arrangement was, that by the breaking of -old associations a perfect and lasting revolution might be effected, -in the habits and feelings, as well as the political organisation of -the people. Solon allowed the ancient _phratriae_ to exist, but they -were deprived of all political importance. All foreigners admitted -to the citizenship were registered in a phyle and demus, but not in -a phratria or genos. The functions which had been discharged by the -old tribes were now mostly transferred to the _demi_. Among others, -we may notice that of the forty-eight _naucrariae_ into which the old -tribes had been divided for the purpose of taxation, but which now -became useless, the taxes being collected on a different system. The -reforms of Clisthenes were destined to be permanent. They continued -to be in force (with some few interruptions) until the downfall of -Athenian independence. The ten tribes were blended with the whole -machinery of the constitution. Of the senate of five hundred, fifty -were chosen from each tribe. The allotment of dicasts was according -to tribes; and the same system of election may be observed in most -of the principal offices of state, judicial and magisterial, civil -and military, &c. In B.C. 307, Demetrius Poliorcetes increased -the number of tribes to twelve by creating two new ones, namely, -_Antigonias_ and _Demetrias_, which afterwards received the names of -_Ptolemais_ and _Attalis_; and a thirteenth was subsequently added -by Hadrian, bearing his own name.--(2) ROMAN. The three ancient -Romulian tribes, the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, or the Ramnenses, -Titienses, and Lucerenses, to which the patricians alone belonged, -must be distinguished from the thirty plebeian tribes of Servius -Tullius, which were entirely local, four for the city, and twenty-six -for the country around Rome. The history and organisation of the -three ancient tribes are spoken of under PATRICII. They continued -of political importance almost down to the period of the decemviral -legislation; but after this time they no longer occur in the history -of Rome, except as an obsolete institution. The institution and -organisation of the thirty plebeian tribes, and their subsequent -reduction to twenty by the conquests of Porsena, are spoken of -under PLEBES. The four city tribes were called by the same names -as the regions which they occupied, viz. _Suburana_, _Esquilina_, -_Collina_, and _Palatina_. The names of the sixteen country tribes -which continued to belong to Rome after the conquest of Porsena, -are in their alphabetical order as follows: _Aemilia_, _Camilia_, -_Cornelia_, _Fabia_, _Galeria_, _Horatia_, _Lemonia_, _Menemia_, -_Papiria_, _Pollia_, _Popillia, upinia_, _Romilia_, _Sergia_, -_Veturia_, and _Voltinia_. As Rome gradually acquired possession of -more of the surrounding territory, the number of tribes also was -gradually increased. When Appius Claudius, with his numerous train -of clients, emigrated to Rome, lands were assigned to them in the -district where the Anio flows into the Tiber, and a new tribe, the -_tribus Claudia_, was formed. This tribe was subsequently enlarged, -and was then designated by the name _Crustumina_ or _Clustumina_. -This name is the first instance of a country tribe being named after -a place, for the sixteen older ones all derived their name from -persons or heroes. In B.C. 387, the number of tribes was increased to -twenty-five by the addition of four new ones, viz. the _Stellatina_, -_Tromentina_, _Sabatina_, and _Arniensis_. In B.C. 358 two more, the -_Pomptina_ and _Publilia_, were formed of Volscians. In B.C. 332, the -censors Q. Publilius Philo and Sp. Postumius increased the number of -tribes to twenty-nine, by the addition of the _Maecia_ and _Scaptia_. -In B.C. 318 the _Ufentina_ and _Falerina_ were added. In B.C. 299 two -others, the _Aniensis_ and _Terentina_, were added by the censors, -and at last in B.C. 241, the number of tribes was augmented to -thirty-five, by the addition of the _Quirina_ and _Velina_. Eight -new tribes were added upon the termination of the Social War, to -include the Socii, who then obtained the Roman franchise; but they -were afterwards incorporated among the old 35 tribes, which continued -to be the number of the tribes to the end of the republic. When the -tribes, in their assemblies, transacted any business, a certain order -(_ordo tribuum_) was observed, in which they were called upon to give -their votes. The first in the order of succession was the Suburana, -and the last the Arniensis. Any person belonging to a tribe had in -important documents to add to his own name that of his tribe, in the -ablative case. Whether the local tribes, as they were established by -the constitution of Servius Tullius, contained only the plebeians, -or included the patricians also, is a point on which the opinions of -modern scholars are divided: but it appears most probable that down -to the decemviral legislation the tribes and their assemblies were -entirely plebeian. From the time of the decemviral legislation, the -patricians and their clients were undoubtedly incorporated in the -tribes. Respecting the assemblies of the tribes, see COMITIA TRIBUTA. - - -TRĬBŪTUM, a tax which was partly applied to cover the expenses of -war, and partly those of the fortifications of the city. The usual -amount of the tax was one for every thousand of a man’s fortune, -though in the time of Cato it was raised to three in a thousand. The -tributum was not a property-tax in the strict sense of the word, for -the accounts respecting the plebeian debtors clearly imply, that the -debts were not deducted in the valuation of a person’s property, -so that he had to pay the tributum upon property which was not his -own, but which he owed, and for which he had consequently to pay the -interest as well. It was a direct tax upon objects without any regard -to their produce, like a land or house-tax, which indeed formed the -main part of it. That which seems to have made it most oppressive, -was its constant fluctuation. It was raised according to the regions -or tribes instituted by Servius Tullius, and by the tribunes of these -tribes, subsequently called tribuni aerarii. It was not, like the -other branches of the public revenue, let out to farm, but being -fixed in money it was raised by the tribunes, unless (as was the case -after the custom of giving pay to the soldiers was introduced) the -soldiers, like the knights, demanded it from the persons themselves -who were bound to pay it. [AES EQUESTRE and HORDEARIUM.] When this -tax was to be paid, what sum was to be raised, and what portion of -every thousand asses of the census, were matters upon which the -senate alone had to decide. But when it was decreed, the people -might refuse to pay it when they thought it too heavy, or unfairly -distributed, or hoped to gain some other advantage by the refusal. In -later times the senate sometimes left its regulation to the censors, -who often fixed it very arbitrarily. No citizen was exempt from it, -but we find that the priests, augurs, and pontiffs made attempts to -get rid of it: but this was only an abuse, which did not last. After -the war with Macedonia (B.C. 147), when the Roman treasury was filled -with the revenues accruing from conquests and from the provinces, -the Roman citizens became exempted from paying the tributum, and -this state of things lasted down to the consulship of Hirtius and -Pansa (43 B.C.), when the tributum was again levied, on account of -the exhausted state of the aerarium. After this time it was imposed -according to the discretion of the emperors. Respecting the tributum -paid by conquered countries and cities, see VECTIGALIA. - - -TRICLĪNĬUM, the dining-room of a Roman house, the position of -which, relatively to the other parts of the house, is seen in the -“house of the Tragic poet” (see p. 144). It was of an oblong shape, -and was twice as long as it was broad. The superintendence of -the dining-room in a great house was intrusted to a slave called -_tricliniarcha_, who, through other slaves, took care that everything -was kept and proceeded in proper order. A _triclinium_ generally -contained three couches, and as the usual number of persons occupying -each couch was three, the triclinium afforded accommodation for a -party of nine. Sometimes, however, as many as four lay on each of the -couches. Each man in order to feed himself lay flat upon his breast -or nearly so, and stretched out his hand towards the table; but -afterwards, when his hunger was satisfied, he turned upon his left -side, leaning on his elbow. To this Horace alludes in describing a -person sated with a particular dish, and turning in order to repose -upon his elbow. (_Sat._ ii. 4, 39.) We find the relative positions -of two persons who lay next to one another, commonly expressed by -the prepositions _super_ or _supra_, and _infra_. A passage of Livy -(xxxix. 43), in which he relates the cruel conduct of the consul L. -Quintius Flamininus, shows that _infra aliquem cubare_ was the same -as _in sinu alicujus cubare_, and consequently that each person was -considered as _below_ him to whose breast his own head approached. On -this principle we are enabled to explain the denominations both of -the three couches, and of the three places on each couch. - -[Illustration: - lectus medius - +-------------+ - | m s | - | i e u | - | m d m | - | u i m | - | s u u | - | s s | - +---------+-------------+---------+ - l | | 6 5 4 | | l s - e i | summus |7 3| imus | e u - c m | | | | c m - t u | medius |8 2| medius | t m - u s | | | | u u - s | imus |9 1| summus | s s - +---------+ +---------+ -] - -Supposing the annexed arrangement to represent the plan of a -triclinium, it is evident that, as each guest reclined on his left -side, the countenances of all when in this position were directed, -first, from No. 1 towards No. 3, then from No. 4 towards No. 6, and -lastly, from No. 7 towards No. 9; that the guest No. 1 lay, in the -sense explained, _above_ No. 2, No. 3 _below_ No. 2, and so of the -rest; and that, going in the same direction, the couch to the right -hand was _above_ the others, and the couch to the left hand _below_ -the others. It will be found, that in a passage in the eighth satire -of the second book of Horace, the guests are enumerated in the order -of their accubation--an order exhibited in the annexed diagram. - -[Illustration: - ____________ - | | - | V M S | - | i a e | - | b e r | - | i c v | - | d e i | - | i n l | - | u a i | - | s s u | - | s | - ___________|____________|___________ - | | ______ | | - |Nomentanus | / \ | Varius | - |Nasidienus | ( Mensa. ) | Viscus | - | Porcius | \ / | Fundanius | - |___________| ¯¯¯¯¯¯ |___________| -] - - -TRĬDENS. [FUSCINA.] - - -TRĬENS. [AS.] - - -TRIĒRARCHĬA (τριήραρχια), one of the extraordinary war services or -liturgies at Athens, the object of which was to provide for the -equipment and maintenance of the ships of war belonging to the -state. The persons who were charged with it were called trierarchs -(τριήραρχοι), as being the captains of triremes, though the name -was also applied to persons who bore the same charge in other -vessels. It existed from very early times in connection with the -forty-eight naucraries of Solon, and the fifty of Clisthenes: each -of which corporations appears to have been obliged to equip and man -a vessel. [NAUCRARIA.] Under the constitution of Clisthenes the -ten tribes were at first severally charged with five vessels. This -charge was of course superseded by the later forms of the hierarchy. -The state furnished the ship, and either the whole or part of the -ship’s rigging and furniture, and also pay and provisions for the -sailors. The trierarchs were bound to keep in repair the ship and its -furniture, and were frequently put to great expense in paying the -sailors and supplying them with provisions, when the state did not -supply sufficient money for the purpose. Moreover, some trierarchs, -whether from ambitious or patriotic motives, put themselves to -unnecessary expense in fitting out and rigging their ships, from -which the state derived an advantage. The average expense of the -trierarchy was 50 minae. In ancient times one person bore the whole -charge of the trierarchy, afterwards it was customary for two persons -to share it, who were then called _syntrierarchs_ (συντριήραρχοι). -When this practice was first introduced is not known, but it was -perhaps about the year 412 B.C., after the defeat of the Athenians -in Sicily, when the union of two persons for the choregia was first -permitted. The syntrierarchy, however, did not entirely supersede -the older and single form, being only meant as a relief in case of -emergency, when there was not a sufficient number of wealthy citizens -to bear the expense singly. In the case of a syntrierarchy the two -trierarchs commanded their vessel in turn, six months each, according -as they agreed between themselves.--The third form of the trierarchy -was connected with, or suggested by, the syntrierarchy. In B.C. 358, -the Athenians were unable to procure a sufficient number of legally -appointed trierarchs, and accordingly they summoned volunteers. This, -however, was but a temporary expedient; and as the actual system -was not adequate to the public wants, they determined to manage the -trierarchy somewhat in the same way as the property-tax (_eisphora_), -namely, by classes or symmoriae, according to the law of Periander -passed in B.C. 358, and which was the primary and original enactment -on the subject. With this view 1200 _synteleis_ (συντελεῖς) or -partners were appointed, who were probably the wealthiest individuals -of the state, according to the census or valuation. These were -divided into 20 _symmoriae_ (συμμορίαι) or classes; out of which -a number of persons (σώματα) joined for the equipment or rather -the maintenance and management of a ship, under the title of a -_synteleia_ (συντέλεια) or union. To every ship there was generally -assigned a _synteleia_ of fifteen persons of different degrees of -wealth, as we may suppose, so that four ships only were provided -for by each symmoria of sixty persons. It appears, however, that -before Demosthenes carried a new law on this subject (B.C. 340), it -had been customary for _sixteen_ persons to unite in a synteleia or -company for a ship, who bore the burden in equal shares. This being -the case, it follows either that the members of the symmoriae had -been by that time raised from 1200 to 1280, or that some alterations -had taken place in their internal arrangements, of which no account -has come down to us. The superintendence of the whole system was in -the hands of the 300 wealthiest members, who were therefore called -the “leaders of the symmoriae” (ἡγεμόνες τῶν συμμοριῶν), on whom -the burdens of the trierarchy chiefly fell, or rather ought to have -fallen. The services performed by individuals under this system -appear to have been the same as before: the state still provided -the ship’s tackle, and the only duty then of the trierarchs under -this system was to keep their vessels in the same repair and order -as they received them. But even from this they managed to escape: -for the wealthiest members, who had to serve for their synteleia, -let out their trierarchies for a talent, and received that amount -from their partners (συντελεῖς), so that in reality they paid next -to nothing, or, at any rate, not what they ought to have done, -considering that the trierarchy was a ground of exemption from -other liturgies.--To remedy these abuses Demosthenes carried a law -when he was the ἐπιστάτης τοῦ ναυτικοῦ, or the superintendent of -the Athenian navy, thereby introducing the _Fourth form_ of the -trierarchy. The provisions of the law were as follows: The naval -services required from every citizen were to depend upon and be -proportional to his property, or rather to his taxable capital, as -registered for the symmoriae of the property-tax, the rate being -one trireme for every ten talents of taxable capital, up to three -triremes and one auxiliary vessel (ὑπηρέσιον) for the largest -properties; _i.e._ no person, however rich, could be required to -furnish more. Those who had not ten talents in taxable capital were -to club together in synteleiae till they had made up that amount. -By this law great changes were effected. All persons paying taxes -were rated in proportion to their property, so that the poor were -benefited by it, and the state likewise: for, as Demosthenes says, -those who had formerly contributed one-sixteenth to the trierarchy of -one ship were now trierarchs of two, in which case they must either -have served by proxy, or done duty in successive years. He adds, that -the consequences were highly beneficial. We do not know the amount -of property which rendered a man liable to serve a trierarchy or -syntrierarchy, but we read of no instance of liability arising from -a property of less value than 500 minae. The appointment to serve -under the first and second forms of the trierarchy was made by the -strategi, and in case any person was appointed to serve a trierarchy, -and thought that any one else (not called upon) was better able -to bear it than himself, he offered the latter an exchange of his -property [ANTIDOSIS] subject to the burden of the trierarchy. In -cases of extreme hardship, persons became suppliants to the people, -or fled to the altar of Artemis at Munychia. If not ready in time, -they were sometimes liable to imprisonment. On the contrary, whoever -got his ship ready first was to be rewarded with the “crown of -the trierarchy;” so that in this way considerable emulation and -competition were produced. Moreover, the trierarchs were ὑπεύθυνοι, -or liable to be called to account for their expenditure; though they -applied their own property to the service of the state. It has been -already stated that the trierarchy was a ground of exemption from the -other liturgies, any of which, indeed, gave an exemption, from all -the rest during the following year. - - -TRĬNUNDĬNUM. [NUNDINAE.] - - -TRIŌBŎLON (τριώβολον), the fee of three obols, which the Athenian -dicasts received. [DICASTAE.] - - -TRĬPOS (τρίπους), a tripod, _i.e._ any utensil or article of -furniture supported upon three feet. More especially (1) A -three-legged table.--(2) A pot or caldron, used for boiling meat, -and either raised upon a three-legged stand of bronze, or made -with its three feet in the same piece.--(3) A bronze altar, not -differing probably in its original form from the tall tripod caldron -already described. It was from a tripod that the Pythian priestess -at Delphi gave responses. [CORTINA.] The celebrity of this tripod -produced innumerable imitations of it, which were made to be used in -sacrifice, and still more frequently to be presented to the treasury -both in that place and in many other Greek temples. - -[Illustration: Tripod of Apollo at Delphi. (Böttiger’s Amalthea, vol. -i. p. 119.)] - - -TRĬPŬDĬUM. [AUSPICIUM.] - - -TRIRĒMIS. [NAVIS.] - - -TRĬUMPHUS (θρίαμβος), a solemn procession, in which a victorious -general entered the city in a chariot drawn by four horses. He was -preceded by the captives and spoils taken in war, was followed by -his troops, and after passing in state along the Via Sacra, ascended -the Capitol to offer sacrifice in the temple of Jupiter. From the -beginning of the republic down to the extinction of liberty a regular -triumph (_justus triumphus_) was recognised as the summit of military -glory, and was the cherished object of ambition to every Roman -general. A triumph might be granted for successful achievements -either by land or sea, but the latter were comparatively so rare -that we shall for the present defer the consideration of the naval -triumph. After any decisive battle had been won, or a province -subdued by a series of successful operations, the imperator forwarded -to the senate a laurel-wreathed dispatch (_literae laureatae_), -containing an account of his exploits. If the intelligence -proved satisfactory, the senate decreed a public thanksgiving. -[SUPPLICATIO.] After the war was concluded, the general with his -army repaired to Rome, or ordered his army to meet him there on a -given day, but did not enter the city. A meeting of the senate was -held without the walls, usually in the temple either of Bellona or -Apollo, that he might have an opportunity of urging his pretensions -in person, and these were then scrutinised and discussed with the -most jealous care. The following rules were for the most part rigidly -enforced, although the senate assumed the discretionary power of -relaxing them in special cases. 1. That no one could be permitted -to triumph unless he had held the office of dictator, of consul, -or of praetor. The honours granted to Pompey, who triumphed in his -24th year (B.C. 81) before he had held any of the great offices of -state, and again ten years afterwards, while still a simple eques, -were altogether unprecedented. 2. That the magistrate should have -been actually in office both when the victory was gained and when -the triumph was to be celebrated. This regulation was insisted upon -only during the earlier ages of the commonwealth. Its violation -commenced with Q. Publilius Philo, the first person to whom the -senate ever granted a _prorogatio imperii_ after the termination -of a magistracy, and thenceforward proconsuls and propraetors were -permitted to triumph without question. 3. That the war should have -been prosecuted or the battle fought under the auspices and in the -province and with the troops of the general seeking the triumph. -Thus if a victory was gained by the legatus of a general who was -absent from the army, the honour of it did not belong to the former, -but to the latter, inasmuch as he had the auspices. 4. That at -least 5000 of the enemy should have been slain in a single battle, -that the advantage should have been positive, and not merely a -compensation for some previous disaster, and that the loss on the -part of the Romans should have been small compared with that of their -adversaries. But still we find many instances of triumphs granted -for general results, without reference to the numbers slain in any -one engagement. 5. That the war should have been a legitimate -contest against public foes, and not a civil contest. Hence Catulus -celebrated no triumph over Lepidus, nor Antonius over Catiline, nor -Cinna and Marius over their antagonists of the Sullan party, nor -Caesar after Pharsalia; and when he did subsequently triumph after -his victory over the sons of Pompey, it caused universal disgust. 6. -That the dominion of the state should have been extended, and not -merely something previously lost regained. The absolute acquisition -of territory does not appear to have been essential. 7. That the war -should have been brought to a conclusion and the province reduced to -a state of peace, so as to permit of the army being withdrawn, the -presence of the victorious soldiers being considered indispensable -in a triumph. The senate claimed the exclusive right of deliberating -upon all these points, and giving or withholding the honour sought, -and they for the most part exercised the privilege without question, -except in times of great political excitement. The sovereignty of the -people, however, in this matter was asserted at a very early date, -and a triumph is said to have been voted by the tribes to Valerius -and Horatius, the consuls of B.C. 446, in direct opposition to the -resolution of the fathers, and in a similar manner to C. Marcius -Rutilus the first plebeian dictator, while L. Postumius Megellus, -consul B.C. 294, celebrated a triumph, although resisted by the -senate and seven out of the ten tribunes. Nay, more, we read of a -certain Appius Claudius, consul B.C. 143, who having persisted in -celebrating a triumph in defiance of both the senate and people, was -accompanied by his daughter (or sister) Claudia, a vestal virgin, -and by her interposition saved from being dragged from his chariot -by a tribune. A disappointed general, however, seldom ventured to -resort to such violent measures, but satisfied himself with going -through the forms on the Alban Mount, a practice first introduced by -C. Papirius Maso. If the senate gave their consent, they at the same -time voted a sum of money towards defraying the necessary expenses, -and one of the tribunes _ex auctoritate senatus_ applied for a -plebiscitum to permit the imperator to retain his imperium on the day -when he entered the city. This last form could not be dispensed with -either in an ovation or a triumph, because the imperium conferred -by the comitia curiata did not include the city itself, and when a -general had once gone forth _paludatus_, his military power ceased -as soon as he re-entered the gates, unless the general law had been -previously suspended by a special enactment; and in this manner the -resolution of the senate was, as it were, ratified by the plebs. For -this reason no one desiring a triumph ever entered the city until -the question was decided, since by so doing he would ipso facto -have forfeited all claim. We have a remarkable example of this in -the case of Cicero, who after his return from Cilicia lingered in -the vicinity of Rome day after day, and dragged about his lictors -from one place to another, without entering the city, in the vain -hope of a triumph.--In later times these pageants were marshalled -with extraordinary pomp and splendour, and presented a most gorgeous -spectacle. Minute details would necessarily be different according -to circumstances, but the general arrangements were as follows. The -temples were all thrown open, garlands of flowers decorated every -shrine and image, and incense smoked on every altar. Meanwhile the -imperator called an assembly of his soldiers, delivered an oration -commending their valour, and concluded by distributing rewards to -the most distinguished, and a sum of money to each individual, the -amount depending on the value of the spoils. He then ascended his -triumphal car and advanced to the Porta Triumphalis, where he was -met by the whole body of the senate headed by the magistrates. The -procession then defiled in the following order. 1. The senate headed -by the magistrates. 2. A body of trumpeters. 3. A train of carriages -and frames laden with spoils, those articles which were especially -remarkable either on account of their beauty or rarity being disposed -in such a manner as to be seen distinctly by the crowd. Boards were -borne aloft on fercula, on which were painted in large letters the -names of vanquished nations and countries. Here, too, models were -exhibited in ivory or wood of the cities and forts captured, and -pictures of the mountains, rivers, and other great natural features -of the subjugated region, with appropriate inscriptions. Gold and -silver in coin or bullion, arms, weapons, and horse furniture of -every description, statues, pictures, vases, and other works of art, -precious stones, elaborately wrought and richly embroidered stuffs, -and every object which could be regarded as valuable or curious. 4. -A body of flute players. 5. The white bulls or oxen destined for -sacrifice, with gilded horns, decorated with infulae and serta, -attended by the slaughtering priests with their implements, and -followed by the Camilli bearing in their hands paterae and other holy -vessels and instruments. 6. Elephants or any other strange animals, -natives of the conquered districts. 7. The arms and insignia of the -leaders of the foe. 8. The leaders themselves, and such of their -kindred as had been taken prisoners, followed by the whole band of -inferior captives in fetters. 9. The coronae and other tributes of -respect and gratitude bestowed on the imperator by allied kings and -states. 10. The lictors of the imperator in single file, their fasces -wreathed with laurel. 11. The imperator himself in a circular chariot -of a peculiar form, drawn by four horses, which were sometimes, -though rarely, white. He was attired in a gold-embroidered robe -(_toga picta_) and flowered tunic (_tunica palmata_): he bore in his -right hand a laurel bough, and in his left a sceptre; his brows were -encircled with a wreath of Delphic laurel, in addition to which in -ancient times, his body was painted bright red. He was accompanied in -his chariot by his children of tender years, and sometimes by very -dear or highly honoured friends, while behind him stood a public -slave, holding over his head a golden Etruscan crown ornamented with -jewels. The presence of a slave in such a place at such a time seems -to have been intended to avert _invidia_ and the influence of the -evil eye, and for the same purpose a fascinum, a little bell, and a -scourge were attached to the vehicle. Tertullian tells us, that the -slave ever and anon whispered in the ear of the imperator the warning -words _Respice post te, hominem memento te_, but this statement is -not confirmed by any earlier writer. 12. Behind the chariot or on -the horses which drew it rode the grown-up sons of the imperator, -together with the legati, the tribuni, and the equites, all on -horseback. 13. The rear was brought up by the whole body of the -infantry in marching order, their spears adorned with laurel, some -shouting Io Triumphe, and singing hymns to the gods, while others -proclaimed the praises of their leader or indulged in keen sarcasms -and coarse ribaldry at his expense, for the most perfect freedom of -speech was granted and exercised. Just as the pomp was ascending the -Capitoline hill, some of the hostile chiefs were led aside into the -adjoining prison and put to death, a custom so barbarous that we -could scarcely believe that it existed in a civilised age, were it -not attested by the most unquestionable evidence. Pompey, indeed, -refrained from perpetrating this atrocity in his third triumph, and -Aurelian on like occasion spared Zenobia, but these are quoted as -exceptions to the general rule. When it was announced that these -murders had been completed, the victims were then sacrificed, an -offering from the spoils was presented to Jupiter, the laurel wreath -was deposited in the lap of the god, the imperator was entertained -at a public feast along with his friends in the temple, and returned -home in the evening preceded by torches and pipes, and escorted by a -crowd of citizens. The whole of the proceedings, generally speaking, -were brought to a close in one day; but when the quantity of plunder -was very great, and the troops very numerous, a longer period was -required for the exhibition, and thus the triumph of Flaminius -continued for three days in succession. But the glories of the -imperator did not end with the show, nor even with his life. It was -customary (we know not if the practice was invariable) to provide him -at the public expense with a site for a house, such mansions being -styled _triumphales domus_. After death his kindred were permitted -to deposit his ashes within the walls, and laurel-wreathed statues -standing erect in triumphal cars, displayed in the vestibulum of -the family mansion, transmitted his fame to posterity.--A TRIUMPHUS -NAVALIS appears to have differed in no respect from an ordinary -triumph, except that it must have been upon a smaller scale, and -would be characterised by the exhibition of beaks of ships and -other nautical trophies. The earliest upon record was granted to C. -Duillius, who laid the foundation of the supremacy of Rome by sea -in the first Punic war; and so elated was he by his success, that -during the rest of his life, whenever he returned home at night from -supper, he caused flutes to sound and torches to be borne before -him. A second naval triumph was celebrated by Lutatius Catulus for -his victory off the Insulae Aegates, B.C. 241; a third by Q. Fabius -Labeo, B.C. 189, over the Cretans; and a fourth by C. Octavius -over King Perseus, without captives and without spoils.--TRIUMPHUS -CASTRENSIS was a procession of the soldiers through the camp in -honour of a tribunus or some officer inferior to the general, who -had performed a brilliant exploit. After the extinction of freedom, -the emperor being considered as the commander-in-chief of all the -armies of the state, every military achievement was understood to -be performed under his auspices, and hence, according to the forms -of even the ancient constitution, he alone had a legitimate claim -to a triumph. This principle was soon fully recognised and acted -upon; for although Antonius had granted triumphs to his legati, and -his example had been freely followed by Augustus in the early part -of his career, yet after the year B.C. 14, he entirely discontinued -the practice, and from that time forward triumphs were rarely, if -ever, conceded to any except members of the imperial family. But to -compensate in some degree for what was then taken away, the custom -was introduced of bestowing what were termed _Triumphalia Ornamenta_, -that is, permission to receive the titles bestowed upon and to appear -in public with the robes worn by the imperatores of the commonwealth -when they triumphed, and to bequeath to descendants triumphal -statues. These _triumphalia ornamenta_ are said to have been first -bestowed upon Agrippa or upon Tiberius, and ever after were a common -mark of the favour of the prince. - -[Illustration: Triumphal Procession. (Zoega, Bassi-rilievi, tav. 9, -76.)] - - -TRĬUMVĬRI, or TRESVĬRI, were either ordinary magistrates or officers, -or else extraordinary commissioners, who were frequently appointed -at Rome to execute any public office. The following is a list of the -most important of both classes. - -1. TRIUMVIRI AGRO DIVIDUNDO. [TRIUMVIRI COLONIAE DEDUCENDAE.] - -2. TRIUMVIRI CAPITALES were regular magistrates, first appointed -about B.C. 292. They were elected by the people, the comitia being -held by the praetor. They succeeded to many of the functions of the -Quaestores Parricidii. [QUAESTOR.] It was their duty to inquire into -all capital crimes, and to receive informations respecting such, and -consequently they apprehended and committed to prison all criminals -whom they detected. In conjunction with the aediles, they had to -preserve the public peace, to prevent all unlawful assemblies, &c. -They enforced the payment of fines due to the state. They had the -care of public prisons, and carried into effect the sentence of the -law upon criminals. In these points they resembled the magistracy of -the Eleven at Athens. - -4. TRIUMVIRI COLONIAE DEDUCENDAE were persons appointed to -superintend the formation of a colony. They are spoken of under -COLONIA, p. 99, _b_. Since they had besides to superintend the -distribution of the land to the colonists, we find them also called -_Triumviri Coloniae Deducendae Agroque Dividundo_, and sometimes -simply _Triumviri Agro Dando_. - -5. TRIUMVIRI EPULONES. [EPULONES.] - -6. TRIUMVIRI EQUITUM TURMAS RECOGNOSCENDI, or LEGENDIS EQUITUM -DECURIIS, were magistrates first appointed by Augustus to revise the -lists of the equites, and to admit persons into the order. This was -formerly part of the duties of the censors. - -7. TRIUMVIRI MENSARII. [MENSARII.] - -8. TRIUMVIRI MONETALES. [MONETA.] - -9. TRIUMVIRI NOCTURNI were magistrates elected annually, whose chief -duty it was to prevent fires by night, and for this purpose they had -to go round the city during the night (_vigilias circumire_). If they -neglected their duty they appear to have been accused before the -people by the tribunes of the plebs. The time at which this office -was instituted is unknown, but it must have been previously to the -year B.C. 304. Augustus transferred their duties to the Praefectus -Vigilum. [PRAEFECTUS VIGILUM.] - -10. TRIUMVIRI REFICIENDIS AEDIBUS, extraordinary officers elected -in the Comitia Tributa in the time of the second Punic war, were -appointed for the purpose of repairing and rebuilding certain temples. - -11. TRIUMVIRI REIPUBLICAE CONSTITUENDAE. When the supreme power -was shared between Caesar (Octavianus), Antony, and Lepidus, they -administered the affairs of the state under the title of _Triumviri -Reipublicae Constituendae_. This office was conferred upon them in -B.C. 43, for five years; and on the expiration of the term, in B.C. -38, was conferred upon them again, in B.C. 37, for five years more. -The coalition between Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, in B.C. 60, -is usually called the first triumvirate, and that between Octavianus, -Antony, and Lepidus, the second; but it must be borne in mind that -the former never bore the title of triumviri, nor were invested with -any office under that name, whereas the latter were recognised as -regular magistrates under the above-mentioned title. - -12. TRIUMVIRI SACRIS CONQUIRENDIS DONISQUE PERSIGNANDIS, -extraordinary officers elected in the Comitia Tributa in the time of -the second Punic war, seem to have had to take care that all property -given or consecrated to the gods was applied to that purpose. - -13. TRIUMVIRI SENATUS LEGENDI were magistrates appointed by Augustus -to admit persons into the senate. This was previously the duty of the -censors. - - -TRŎCHUS (τροχός), a hoop. The Greek hoop was a bronze ring, and had -sometimes bells attached to it. It was impelled by means of a hook -with a wooden handle, called _clavis_, and ἐλατήρ. From the Greeks -this custom passed to the Romans, who consequently adopted the Greek -term. The following woodcuts from gems exhibit naked youths trundling -the hoop by means of the hook or key. They are accompanied by the jar -of oil and the laurel branch, the signs of effort and of victory. - -[Illustration: Trochi, Hoops. (From ancient Gems.)] - - -TROJAE LŪDUS. [CIRCUS.] - - -TRŎPAEUM (τρόπαιον, _Att._ τροπαῖον), a trophy, a sign and memorial -of victory, which was erected on the field of battle where the enemy -had turned (τρέπω, τρόπη) to flight; and in case of a victory gained -at sea, on the nearest land. The expression for raising or erecting -a trophy is τροπαῖον στῆσαι or στήσασθαι, to which may be added ἀπὸ -or κατὰ τῶν πολεμίων. When the battle was not decisive, or each party -considered it had some claims to the victory, both erected trophies. -Trophies usually consisted of the arms, shields, helmets, &c. of the -enemy that were defeated; and these were placed on the trunk of a -tree, which was fixed on some elevation. The trophy was consecrated -to some divinity, with an inscription (ἐπίγραμμα), recording the -names of the victors and of the defeated party; whence trophies were -regarded as inviolable, which even the enemy were not permitted to -remove. Sometimes, however, a people destroyed a trophy, if they -considered that the enemy had erected it without sufficient cause. -That rankling and hostile feelings might not be perpetuated by the -continuance of a trophy, it seems to have been originally part of -Greek international law that trophies should be made only of wood, -and not of stone or metal, and that they should not be repaired when -decayed. It was not, however, uncommon to erect trophies of metal. -Pausanias speaks of several which he saw in Greece. The trophies -erected to commemorate naval victories were usually ornamented with -the beaks or acroteria of ships [ACROTERIUM; ROSTRA]; and were -generally consecrated to Poseidon or Neptune. Sometimes a whole ship -was placed as a trophy. The Romans, in early times, never erected any -trophies on the field of battle, but carried home the spoils taken in -battle, with which they decorated the public buildings, and also the -private houses of individuals. [SPOLIA.] Subsequently, however, the -Romans adopted the Greek practice of raising trophies on the field -of battle. The first trophies of this kind were erected by Domitius -Ahenobarbus and Fabius Maximus in B.C. 121, after their conquest of -the Allobroges, when they built at the junction of the Rhone and the -Isara towers of white stone, upon which trophies were placed adorned -with the spoils of the enemy. Pompey also raised trophies on the -Pyrenees after his victories in Spain; Julius Caesar did the same -near Ziela, after his victory over Pharnaces; and Drusus, near the -Elbe, to commemorate his victory over the Germans. Still, however, it -was more common to erect some memorial of the victory at Rome than on -the field of battle. The trophies raised by Marius to commemorate his -victories over Jugurtha and the Cimbri and Teutoni, which were cast -down by Sulla, and restored by Julius Caesar, must have been in the -city. In the later times of the republic, and under the empire, the -erection of triumphal arches was the most common way of commemorating -a victory, many of which remain to the present day. [ARCUS.] - -[Illustration: Trophy of Augustus. (Museo Capitolino, vol i. tav. 5.)] - - -TROSSŬLI. [EQUITES, p. 157, _a_.] - - -TRŬA, _dim._ TRULLA (τορύνη), derived from τρύω, τόρω, &c., to -perforate; a large and flat spoon or ladle, pierced with holes; a -trowel. The annexed woodcut represents such a ladle. The _trulla -vinaria_ seems to have been a species of colander [COLUM], used as a -wine-strainer. - -[Illustration: Trua. (From the House of Pansa at Pompeii.)] - - -TRŬTĬNA (τρυτάνη), a general term, including both _libra_, a balance, -and _statera_, a steelyard. Payments were originally made by -weighing, not by counting. Hence a balance (_trutina_) was preserved -in the temple of Saturn at Rome. - - -TŬBA (σάλπιγξ), a bronze trumpet, distinguished from the _cornu_ by -being straight while the latter was curved. [CORNU.] The tuba was -employed in war for signals of every description, at the games and -public festivals, and also at the last rites to the dead: those who -sounded the trumpet at funerals were termed _siticines_, and used an -instrument of a peculiar form. The tones of the tuba are represented -as of a harsh and fear-inspiring character. The invention of the tuba -is usually ascribed by ancient writers to the Etruscans. It has been -remarked that Homer never introduces the σάλπιγξ in his narrative -except in comparisons, which leads us to infer that, although known -in his time, it had been but recently introduced into Greece; and it -is certain that, notwithstanding its eminently martial character, it -was not until a late period used in the armies of the leading states. -By the Greek tragedians its Tuscan origin is fully recognised. -According to one account it was first fabricated for the Tyrrhenians -by Athena, who in consequence was worshipped by the Argives under the -title of Σάλπιγξ, while at Rome the _tubilustrium_, or purification -of sacred trumpets, was performed on the last day of the Quinquatrus. -[QUINQUATRUS.] There appears to have been no essential difference in -form between the Greek and Roman or Tyrrhenian trumpets. Both were -long, straight, bronze tubes, gradually increasing in diameter, and -terminating in a bell-shaped aperture. - -[Illustration: Soldiers blowing Tubae and Cornua. (From Column of -Trajan.)] - - -TŬBĬLUSTRIUM. [QUINQUATRUS.] - - -TULLIĀNUM. [CARCER.] - - -TŬMULTUĀRĬI. [TUMULTUS.] - - -TŬMULTUS, the name given to a sudden or dangerous war in Italy or -Cisalpine Gaul, and the word was supposed by the ancients to be a -contraction of _timor multus_. It was, however, sometimes applied -to a sudden or dangerous war elsewhere; but this does not appear to -have been a correct use of the word. Cicero says that there might -be a war without a tumultus, but not a tumultus without a war; but -it must be recollected that the word was also applied to any sudden -alarm respecting a war; whence we find a tumultus often spoken of -as of less importance than a war, because the results were of less -consequence, though the fear might have been much greater than in a -regular war. In the case of a tumultus there was a cessation from -all business (_justitium_), and all citizens were obliged to enlist -without regard being had to the exemptions (_vacationes_) from -military service, which were enjoyed at other times. As there was not -time to enlist the soldiers in the regular manner, the magistrate who -was appointed to command the army displayed two banners (_vexilla_) -from the Capitol, one red, to summon the infantry, and the other -green, to summon the cavalry, and said, _Qui rempublicam salvam vult, -me sequatur_. Those that assembled took the military oath together, -instead of one by one, as was the usual practice, whence they were -called _conjurati_, and their service _conjuratio_. Soldiers enlisted -in this way were termed _Tumultuarii_ or _Subitarii_. - - -[Illustration: Doric Chiton. (From a Bas-relief in the British -Museum.)] - -[Illustration: Ionic Chiton. (From a Statue in the British Museum.)] - -TŬNĬCA (χιτών, _dim._ χιτωνίσκος, χιτώνιον), an under-garment. (1) -GREEK. The chiton was the only kind of ἔνδυμα, or under-garment worn -by the Greeks. Of this there were two kinds, the Dorian and Ionian. -The Dorian chiton, as worn by males, was a short woollen shirt, -without sleeves; the Ionian was a long linen garment, with sleeves. -The former seems to have been originally worn throughout the whole -of Greece; the latter was brought over to Greece by the Ionians of -Asia. The Ionic chiton was commonly worn at Athens by men during the -Persian wars, but it appears to have entirely gone out of fashion for -the male sex about the time of Pericles, from which time the Dorian -chiton was the under-garment universally adopted by men through the -whole of Greece. The distinction between the Doric and Ionic chiton -still continued in the dress of women. The Spartan virgins only -wore this one garment, and had no upper kind of clothing, whence it -is sometimes called _Himation_ [PALLIUM] as well as _Chiton_. They -appeared in the company of men without any further covering; but the -married women never did so without wearing an upper garment. This -Doric chiton was made, as stated above, of woollen stuff; it was -without sleeves, and was fastened over both shoulders by clasps or -buckles (πόρπαι, περόναι), which were often of considerable size. -It was frequently so short as not to reach the knee. It was only -joined together on one side, and on the other was left partly open -or slit up (σχιστός χίτων), to allow a free motion of the limbs. The -following cut represents an Amazon with a chiton of this kind: some -parts of the figure appear incomplete, as the original is mutilated. -The Ionic chiton, on the contrary, was a long and loose garment, -reaching to the feet (ποδήρης), with wide sleeves (κόραι), and was -usually made of linen. The sleeves, however, appear generally to -have covered only the upper part of the arm; for in ancient works -of art we seldom find the sleeve extending farther than the elbow, -and sometimes not so far. The sleeves were sometimes slit up, and -fastened together with an elegant row of brooches. The Ionic chiton, -according to Herodotus, was originally a Carian dress, and passed -over to Athens from Ionia, as has been already remarked. The women -at Athens originally wore the Doric chiton, but were compelled to -change it for the Ionic, after they had killed with the buckles or -clasps of their dresses the single Athenian who had returned alive -from the expedition against Aegina, because there were no buckles -or clasps required in the Ionic dress. The preceding cut represents -the Muse Thalia wearing an Ionic chiton. The peplum has fallen off -her shoulders, and is held up by the left hand. Both kinds of dress -were fastened round the middle with a girdle, and as the Ionic chiton -was usually longer than the body, part of it was drawn up so that -the dress might not reach farther than the feet, and the part which -was so drawn up overhung or overlapped the girdle, and was called -κόλπος.--There was a peculiar kind of dress, which seems to have been -a species of double chiton, called _Diplois_ (διπλοΐς), _Diploidion_ -(διπλοΐδιον), and _Hemidiploidion_ (ἡμιδιπλοΐδιον). - -[Illustration: Diploidia, double Chitons. (Museo Borbonico, vol. ii. -tav. 4, 6.)] - -It appears not to have been a separate article of dress, but merely -the upper part of the cloth forming the chiton, which was larger than -was required for the ordinary chiton, and was therefore thrown over -the front and back. The following cuts will give a clearer idea of -the form of this garment than any description. Since the Diploidion -was fastened over the shoulders by means of buckles or clasps, it -was called _Epomis_ (ἐπωμίς), which is supposed by some writers to -have been only the end of the garment fastened on the shoulder. The -chiton was worn by men next their skin; but females were accustomed -to wear a chemise (χιτώνιον) under their chiton. It was the practice -among most of the Greeks to wear an himation, or outer garment, -over the chiton, but frequently the chiton was worn alone. A person -who wore only a chiton was called μονοχίτων (οἰοχίτων in Homer), an -epithet given to the Spartan virgins. In the some way, a person who -wore only an himation, or outer garment, was called ἀχίτων. The -Athenian youths, in the earlier times, wore only the chiton, and when -it became the fashion, in the Peloponnesian war, to wear an outer -garment over it, it was regarded as a mark of effeminacy.--(2) ROMAN. -The _Tunica_ of the Romans, like the Greek chiton, was a woollen -under-garment, over which the toga was worn. It was the _Indumentum_ -or _Indutus_, as opposed to the _Amictus_, the general term for the -toga, pallium, or any other outer garment. [AMICTUS.] The Romans -are said to have had no other clothing originally but the toga; and -when the tunic was first introduced, it was merely a short garment -without sleeves, and was called _Colobium_. It was considered a mark -of effeminacy for men to wear tunics with long sleeves (_manicatae_) -and reaching to the feet (_talares_). The tunic was girded (_cincta_) -with a belt or girdle around the waist, but it was usually worn -loose, without being girded, when a person was at home, or wished to -be at his ease. Hence we find the terms _cinctus_, _praecinctus_, -and _succinctus_, applied, like the Greek εὔζωνος, to an active and -diligent person, and _discinctus_ to one who was idle or dissolute. -The form of the tunic, as worn by men, is represented in many -woodcuts in this work. In works of art it usually terminates a -little above the knee; it has short sleeves, covering only the upper -part of the arm, and is girded at the waist: the sleeves sometimes, -though less frequently, extend to the hands.--Both sexes at Rome -usually wore two tunics, an outer and an under, the latter of which -was worn next the skin, and corresponds to our shirt and chemise. -The under tunics were called _Subucula_ and _Indusium_, the former -of which is supposed to be the name of the under tunic of the men, -and the latter of that of the women: but this is not certain. The -word _Interula_ was of later origin, and seems to have been applied -equally to the under tunic of both sexes. It is doubtful whether the -_Supparus_ or _Supparum_ was an outer or an under garment. Persons -sometimes wore several tunics, as a protection against cold: Augustus -wore four in the winter, besides a subucula. As the dress of a man -usually consisted of an under tunic, an outer tunic, and the toga, -so that of a woman, in like manner, consisted of an under tunic, an -outer tunic, and the palla. The outer tunic of the Roman matron was -properly called stola [STOLA], and is represented in the woodcut on -p. 355; but the annexed woodcut, which represents a Roman empress -in the character of Concordia, or Abundantia, gives a better idea -of its form. Over the tunic or stola the palla is thrown in many -folds, but the shape of the former is still distinctly shown. The -tunics of women were larger and longer than those of men, and always -had sleeves; but in ancient paintings and statues we seldom find -the sleeves covering more than the upper part of the arm. Sometimes -the tunics were adorned with golden ornaments called _Leria_. Poor -people, who could not afford to purchase a toga, wore the tunic -alone, whence we find the common people called _Tunicati_. A person -who wore only his tunic was frequently called NUDUS. Respecting the -clavus latus and the clavus angustus, worn on the tunics of the -senators and equites respectively, see CLAVUS LATUS, CLAVUS ANGUSTUS. -When a triumph was celebrated, the conqueror wore, together with an -embroidered toga (_Toga picta_), a flowered tunic (_Tunica palmata_), -also called _Tunica Jovis_, because it was taken from the temple of -Jupiter Capitolinus. Tunics of this kind were sent as presents to -foreign kings by the senate. - -[Illustration: Roman Tunic. (Visconti, Monumenti Gabini, n. 34.)] - - -TŪRĬBŬLUM (θυμιατήριον), a censer. The Greeks and Romans, when they -sacrificed, commonly took a little frankincense out of the ACERRA -and let it fall upon the flaming altar. [ARA.] More rarely they -used a censer, by means of which they burnt the incense in greater -profusion, and which was in fact a small moveable grate or FOCULUS. -The annexed cut shows the performance of both of these acts at the -same time. Winckelmann supposes it to represent Livia, the wife, and -Octavia, the sister of Augustus, sacrificing to Mars in gratitude -for his safe return from Spain. The censer here represented has two -handles for the purpose of carrying it from place to place, and it -stands upon feet so that the air might be admitted underneath, and -pass upwards through the fuel. - -[Illustration: Livia and Octavia Sacrificing. (From an ancient -Painting.)] - - -TURMA. [EXERCITUS, p. 166, b.] - - -TURRIS (πύργος), a tower. Moveable towers were among the most -important engines used in storming a fortified place. They were -generally made of beams and planks, and covered, at least on the -three sides which were exposed to the besieged, with iron, not only -for protection, but also to increase their weight, and thus make -them steadier. They were also covered with raw hides and quilts, -moistened, and sometimes with alum, to protect them from fire. -Their height was such as to overtop the walls, towers, and all -other fortifications of the besieged place. They were divided into -stories (_tabulata_ or _tecta_), and hence they are called _turres -contabulatae_. The sides of the towers were pierced with windows, of -which there were several to each story. The use of the stories was -to receive the engines of war (_tormenta_). They contained balistae -and catapults, and slingers and archers were stationed in them, and -on the tops of the towers. In the lowest story was a battering-ram -[ARIES]; and in the middle one or more bridges (_pontes_) made -of beams and planks, and protected at the sides by hurdles. -Scaling-ladders (_scalae_) were also carried in the towers, and when -the missiles had cleared the walls, these bridges and ladders enabled -the besiegers to rush upon them. These towers were placed upon wheels -(generally 6 or 8), that they might be brought up to the walls. These -wheels were placed for security inside of the tower. - - -TŪTOR. [CURATOR.] - - -TYMPĂNUM (τύμπανον), a small drum carried in the hand. Of these, some -resembled in all respects a modern tambourine with bells. Others -presented a flat circular disk on the upper surface and swelled out -beneath like a kettle-drum. Both forms are represented in the cuts -below. Tympana were covered with the hides of oxen, or of asses; were -beaten with a stick, or with the hand, and were much employed in all -wild enthusiastic religious rites, especially the orgies of Bacchus -and Cybele.--(2) A solid wheel without spokes, for heavy waggons, -such as is shown in the cut on p. 298. - -[Illustration: Tympana. (From ancient Paintings.)] - - -TỸRANNUS (τύραννος). In the heroic age all the governments in -Greece were monarchical, the king uniting in himself the functions -of the priest, the judge, and military chief. In the first two or -three centuries following the Trojan war various causes were at -work, which led to the abolition, or at least to the limitation, of -the kingly power. Emigrations, extinctions of families, disasters -in war, civil dissensions, may be reckoned among these causes. -Hereditary monarchies became elective; the different functions -of the king were distributed; he was called _Archon_ (ἄρχων), -_Cosmus_ (κόσμος), or _Prytanis_ (πρύτανις), instead of _Basileus_ -(βασιλεύς), and his character was changed no less than his name. -Noble and wealthy families began to be considered on a footing -of equality with royalty; and thus in process of time sprang up -oligarchies or aristocracies, which most of the governments that -succeeded the ancient monarchies were in point of fact, though not -as yet called by such names. These oligarchies did not possess the -elements of social happiness or stability. The principal families -contended with each other for the greatest share of power, and were -only unanimous in disregarding the rights of those whose station was -beneath their own. The people, oppressed by the privileged classes, -began to regret the loss of their old paternal form of government; -and were ready to assist any one who would attempt to restore it. -Thus were opportunities offered to ambitious and designing men to -raise themselves, by starting up as the champions of popular right. -Discontented nobles were soon found to prosecute schemes of this -sort, and they had a greater chance of success, if descended from -the ancient royal family. Pisistratus is an example; he was the -more acceptable to the people of Athens, as being a descendant of -the family of Codrus. Thus in many cities arose that species of -monarchy which the Greeks called _tyrannis_ (τυραννίς), which meant -only _a despotism_, or irresponsible dominion of one man; and which -frequently was nothing more than a revival of the ancient government, -and, though unaccompanied with any recognised hereditary title, or -the reverence attached to old name and long prescription, was hailed -by the lower orders of people as a good exchange, after suffering -under the domination of the oligarchy. All _tyrannies_, however, -were not so acceptable to the majority; and sometimes we find the -nobles concurring in the elevation of a despot, to further their -own interests. Thus the Syracusan _Gamori_, who had been expelled -by the populace, on receiving the protection of Gelon, sovereign -of Gela and Camarina, enabled him to take possession of Syracuse, -and establish his kingdom there. Sometimes the conflicting parties -in the state, by mutual consent, chose some eminent man, in whom -they had confidence, to reconcile their dissensions; investing him -with a sort of dictatorial power for that purpose, either for a -limited period or otherwise. Such a person they called _Aesymnetes_ -(αἰσυμνήτης). The _tyrannus_ must be distinguished, on the one hand, -from the _aesymnetes_, inasmuch as he was not elected by general -consent, but commonly owed his elevation to some violent movement -or stratagem, such as the creation of a body-guard for him by the -people, or the seizure of the citadel; and on the other hand, from -the ancient king, whose right depended, not on usurpation, but on -inheritance and traditionary acknowledgment. The power of a king -might be more absolute than that of a _tyrant_; as Phidon of Argos -is said to have made the royal prerogative greater than it was -under his predecessors; yet he was still regarded as a king; for -the difference between the two names depended on title and origin, -and not on the manner in which the power was exercised. The name of -_tyrant_ was originally so far from denoting a person who abused -his power, or treated his subjects with cruelty, that Pisistratus -is praised for the moderation of his government. Afterwards, when -_tyrants_ themselves had become odious, the name also grew to be -a word of reproach, just as _rex_ did among the Romans. Among -the early _tyrants_ of Greece those most worthy of mention are: -Clisthenes of Sicyon, grandfather of the Athenian Clisthenes, in -whose family the government continued for a century since its -establishment by Orthagoras, about B.C. 672; Cypselus of Corinth, -who expelled the Bacchiadae, B.C. 656, and his son Periander, both -remarkable for their cruelty; their dynasty lasted between seventy -and eighty years; Procles of Epidaurus; Pantaleon of Pisa, who -celebrated the thirty-fourth Olympiad, depriving the Eleans of the -presidency; Theagenes of Megara, father-in-law to Cylon the Athenian; -Pisistratus, whose sons were the last of the early _tyrants_ on the -Grecian continent. In Sicily, where _tyranny_ most flourished, the -principal were Phalaris of Agrigentum, who established his power in -B.C. 568; Theron of Agrigentum; Gelon, already mentioned, who, in -conjunction with Theron, defeated Hamilcar the Carthaginian, on the -same day on which the battle of Salamis was fought; and Hieron, his -brother: the last three celebrated by Pindar. The following also are -worthy of notice: Polycrates of Samos; Lygdamis of Naxos; Histiaeus -and Aristagoras of Miletus. Perhaps the last mentioned can hardly be -classed among the _Greek tyrants_, as they were connected with the -Persian monarchy. The general characteristics of a _tyranny_ were, -that it was bound by no laws, and had no recognised limitation to its -authority, however it might be restrained _in practice_ by the good -disposition of the _tyrant_ himself, or by fear, or by the spirit of -the age. It was commonly most odious to the wealthy and noble, whom -the _tyrant_ looked upon with jealousy as a check upon his power, -and whom he often sought to get rid of by sending them into exile -or putting them to death. The _tyrant_ usually kept a body-guard -of foreign mercenaries, by aid of whom he controlled the people at -home; but he seldom ventured to make war, for fear of giving an -opportunity to his subjects to revolt. The causes which led to the -decline of _tyranny_ among the Greeks were partly the degeneracy of -the _tyrants_ themselves, corrupted by power, indolence, flattery, -and bad education; for even where the father set a good example, it -was seldom followed by the son; partly the cruelties and excesses of -particular men, which brought them all into disrepute; and partly -the growing spirit of inquiry among the Greek people, who began to -speculate upon political theories, and soon became discontented -with a form of government, which had nothing in theory, and little -in practice, to recommend it. Few dynasties lasted beyond the third -generation. Most of the tyrannies, which flourished before the -Persian war, are said to have been overthrown by the exertions of -Sparta, jealous, probably, of any innovation upon the old Doric -constitution, especially of any tendency to ameliorate the condition -of the Periocci, and anxious to extend her own influence over the -states of Greece by means of the benefits which she conferred. Upon -the fall of _tyranny_, the various republican forms of government -were established, the Dorian states generally favouring oligarchy, -the Ionian democracy. Of the tyrants of a later period, the most -celebrated are the two Dionysii. The corruption of the Syracusans, -their intestine discords, and the fear of the Carthaginian invaders, -led to the appointment of Dionysius to the chief military command, -with unlimited powers; by means of which he raised himself to the -throne, B.C. 406, and reigned for 38 years, leaving his son to -succeed him. The younger Dionysius, far inferior in every respect to -his father, was expelled by Dion, afterwards regained the throne, and -was again expelled by Timoleon, who restored liberty to the various -states of Sicily. - - - - -UDO, a sock of goat’s-hair or felt, worn by countrymen with the low -boots called _perones_. [PERO.] - - -ULNA. [PES.] - - -UMBĬLĪCUS. [LIBER.] - - -UMBO. [CLIPEUS.] - - -UMBRĀCŬLUM, UMBELLA (σκιάδειον, σκιάδιον, σκιαδίσκη), a parasol, was -used by Greek and Roman ladies as a protection against the sun. They -seem not to have been carried generally by the ladies themselves, -but by female slaves, who held them over their mistresses. The -daughters of the aliens (μέτοικοι) at Athens had to carry parasols -after the Athenian maidens at the Panathenaea, as is mentioned under -HYDRIAPHORIA. The parasols of the ancients seem to have been exactly -like our own parasols or umbrellas in form, and could be shut up and -opened like ours. It was considered a mark of effeminacy for men to -make use of parasols. The Roman ladies used them in the amphitheatre -to defend themselves from the sun or some passing shower, when -the wind or other circumstances did not allow the velarium to be -extended. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] To hold a parasol over a lady was one -of the common attentions of lovers, and it seems to have been very -common to give parasols as presents. Instead of parasols, the Greek -women in later times wore a kind of straw hat or bonnet, called -_tholia_ (θολία). The Romans also wore a hat with a broad brim -(_petasus_) as a protection against the sun. - -[Illustration: Umbraculum, Parasol. (From an ancient Vase.)] - - -UNCIA (ὀγκία, οὐγκία, οὐγγία), the twelfth part of the AS or LIBRA, -is derived by Varro from _unus_, as being the unit of the divisions -of the as. Its value as a weight was 433·666 grains, or ¾ of an -ounce and 105·36 grains avoirdupois. [LIBRA.] In connecting the -Roman system of weights and money with the Greek another division of -the uncia was used. When the drachma was introduced into the Roman -system as equivalent to the denarius of 96 to the pound [DENARIUS; -DRACHMA], the uncia contained 8 drachmae, the drachma 3 scrupula, the -scrupulum 2 oboli (since 6 oboli made up the drachma), and the obolos -3 siliquae (κερατία). In this division we have the origin of the -modern Italian system, in which the pound is divided into 12 ounces, -the ounce into 3 drams, the dram into 3 scruples, and the scruple -into 6 carats. In each of these systems 1728 κερατία, siliquae, or -carats, make up the pound. The Romans applied the uncial division to -all kinds of magnitude. [AS.] In length the uncia was the twelfth -of a foot, whence the word _inch_ [PES], in area the twelfth of a -jugerum [JUGERUM], in content the twelfth of a sextarius [SEXTARIUS; -CYATHUS], in time the twelfth of an hour. - - -UNCIĀRĬUM FĒNUS. [FENUS.] - - -UNCTŌRES. [BALNEUM.] - - -UNGUENTA, ointments, oils, or salves. The application of unguenta in -connection with the bathing and athletic contests of the ancients is -stated under BALNEUM and ATHLETAE. But although their original object -was simply to preserve the health and elasticity of the human frame, -they were in later times used as articles of luxury. They were then -not only employed to impart to the body or hair a particular colour, -but also to give to them the most beautiful fragrance possible; they -were, moreover, not merely applied after a bath, but at any time, -to render one’s appearance or presence more pleasant than usual. In -short, they were used then as oils and pomatums are at present. At -Rome these luxuries did not become very general till towards the end -of the republic, while the Greeks appear to have been familiar with -them from early times. The wealthy Greeks and Romans carried their -ointments and perfumes with them, especially when they bathed, in -small boxes of costly materials and beautiful workmanship, which -were called _Narthecia_. The traffic which was carried on in these -ointments and perfumes in several towns of Greece and southern Italy -was very considerable. The persons engaged in manufacturing them -were called by the Romans _Unguentarii_, or, as they frequently -were women, _Unguentariae_, and the art of manufacturing them -_Unguentaria_. In the wealthy and effeminate city of Capua there was -one great street, called the Seplasia, which consisted entirely of -shops in which ointments and perfumes were sold. - - -ŪRĀGUS. [CENTURIO.] - - -URCĔUS, a pitcher or water-pot, generally made of earthenware, was -used by the priests at Rome in the sacrifices, and thus appears with -other sacrificial emblems on Roman coins. - -[Illustration: Urceus and Lituus on obverse of Coin of Pompey.] - - -URNA, an urn, a Roman measure of capacity for fluids, equal to half -an AMPHORA. This use of the term was probably founded upon its more -general application to denote a vessel for holding water, or any -other substance, either fluid or solid. An urn was used to receive -the names of the judges (_judices_) in order that the praetor might -draw out of it a sufficient number to determine causes: also to -receive the ashes of the dead. - - -USTRĪNA, USTRĪNUM. [BUSTUM.] - - -ŪSŪCĂPĬO, the possession of property for a certain time without -interruption. The Twelve Tables declared that the ownership of land, -a house, or other immoveable property, could be acquired by usucapio -in two years; and of moveable property by usucapio in one year. - - -ŪSŪRAE. [FENUS.] - - -ŪSUS. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - -ŪSUSFRUCTUS was the right to the enjoyment of a thing by one person, -while the ownership belonged to another. He who had the ususfructus -was _Ususfructuarius_ or _Fructuarius_, and the object of the -ususfructus was _Res Fructuaria_. - - -UTRĬCŬLĀRĬUS. [TIBIA.] - - -UXOR. [MATRIMONIUM.] - - -UXŌRĬUM. [AES UXORIUM.] - - - - -VĂCATĬO. [EXERCITUS, EMERITI.] - - -VĂDĬMŌNĬUM, VAS. [ACTIO; PRAES.] - - -VĀGĪNA. [GLADIUS.] - - -VALLUM, a term applied either to the whole or a portion of the -fortifications of a Roman camp. It is derived from _vallus_ (a -stake), and properly means the palisade which ran along the outer -edge of the agger, but it very frequently includes the agger also. -The _vallum_, in the latter sense, together with the _fossa_ or ditch -which surrounded the camp outside of the _vallum_, formed a complete -fortification. The _valli_ (χάρακες), of which the _vallum_, in -the former and more limited sense, was composed, are described by -Polybius and Livy, who make a comparison between the _vallum_ of the -Greeks and that of the Romans, very much to the advantage of the -latter. Both used for _valli_ young trees or arms of larger trees, -with the side branches on them; but the _valli_ of the Greeks were -much larger and had more branches than those of the Romans, which -had either two or three, or at the most four branches, and these -generally on the same side. The Greeks placed their valli in the -agger at considerable intervals, the spaces between them being filled -up by the branches; the Romans fixed theirs close together, and made -the branches interlace, and sharpened their points carefully. Hence -the Greek vallus could easily be taken hold of by its large branches -and pulled from its place, and when it was removed a large opening -was left in the vallum. The Roman vallus, on the contrary, presented -no convenient handle, required very great force to pull it down, -and even if removed left a very small opening. The Greek valli were -cut on the spot; the Romans prepared theirs beforehand, and each -soldier carried three or four of them when on a march. They were -made of any strong wood, but oak was preferred. The word _vallus_ -is sometimes used as equivalent to _vallum_. In the operations of -a siege, when the place could not be taken by storm, and it became -necessary to establish a blockade, this was done by drawing defences -similar to those of a camp round the town, which was then said to be -_circumvallatum_. Such a circumvallation, besides cutting off all -communication between the town and the surrounding country, formed -a defence against the sallies of the besieged. There was often a -double line of fortifications, the inner against the town, and the -outer against a force that might attempt to raise the siege. In this -case the army was encamped between the two lines of works. This -kind of circumvallation, which the Greeks called ἀποτειχισμός and -περιτειχισμός, was employed by the Peloponnesians in the siege of -Plataeae. Their lines consisted of two walls (apparently of turf) -at the distance of 16 feet, which surrounded the city in the form -of a circle. Between the walls were the huts of the besiegers. The -wall had battlements (ἐπάλξεις), and at every tenth battlement -was a tower, filling up by its depth the whole space between the -walls. There was a passage for the besiegers through the middle -of each tower. On the outside of each wall was a ditch (τάφρος). -This description would almost exactly answer to the Roman mode of -circumvallation, of which some of the best examples are that of -Carthage by Scipio, that of Numantia by Scipio, and that of Alesia -by Caesar. The towers in such lines were similar to those used in -attacking fortified places, but not so high, and of course not -moveable. [TURRIS.] - - -VALVAE. [JANUA.] - - -VANNUS (λικμός, λίκνον), a winnowing-van, _i.e._ a broad basket, -into which the corn mixed with chaff was received after thrashing, -and was then thrown in the direction of the wind. Virgil dignifies -this simple implement by calling it _mystica vannus Iacchi_. The -rites of Bacchus, as well as those of Ceres, having a continual -reference to the occupations of rural life, the vannus was borne in -the processions celebrated in honour of both these divinities. In the -cut annexed the infant Bacchus is carried in a vannus by two dancing -bacchantes clothed in skins. - -[Illustration: Bacchus carried in a Vannus. (From an Antefixa in the -British Museum.)] - - -VAS (pl. _vasa_), a general term for any kind of vessel. Thus -we read of _vas vinarium_, _vas argenteum_, _vasa Corinthia et -Deliaca_, _vasa Samia_, that is, made of Samian earthenware, _vasa -Murrhina_. [MURRHINA VASA.] The word _vas_ was used in a still wider -signification, and was applied to any kind of utensil used in the -kitchen, agriculture, &c. The utensils of the soldiers were called -_vasa_, and hence _vasa colligere_ and _vasa conclamare_ signify to -pack up the baggage, to give the signal for departure. - - -VECTĪGĀLĬA, the general term for all the regular revenues of the -Roman state. It means anything which is brought (_vehitur_) into the -public treasury, like the Greek φόρος. The earliest regular income -of the state was in all probability the rent paid for the use of -the public land and pastures. This revenue was called _pascua_, a -name which was used as late as the time of Pliny, in the tables -or registers of the censors for all the revenues of the state in -general. The senate was the supreme authority in all matters of -finance, but as the state did not occupy itself with collecting -the taxes, duties, and tributes, the censors were entrusted with -the actual business. These officers, who in this respect may not -unjustly be compared to modern ministers of finance, used to let the -various branches of the revenue to the publicani for a fixed sum, and -for a certain number of years. [CENSOR; PUBLICANI.] As most of the -branches of the public revenues of Rome are treated of in separate -articles, it is only necessary to give a list of them here, and to -explain those which have not been treated of separately. 1. The -tithes paid to the state by those who occupied the ager publicus. -[DECUMAE; AGER PUBLICUS.] 2. The sums paid by those who kept their -cattle on the public pastures. [SCRIPTURA.] 3. The harbour duties -raised upon imported and exported commodities. [PORTORIUM.] 4. The -revenue derived from the salt-works. [SALINAE.] 5. The revenues -derived from the mines (_metalla_). This branch of the public revenue -cannot have been very productive until the Romans had become masters -of foreign countries. Until that time the mines of Italy appear to -have been worked, but this was forbidden by the senate after the -conquest of foreign lands. The mines of conquered countries were -treated like the salinae. 6. The hundredth part of the value of all -things which were sold (_centesima rerum venalium_). This tax was not -instituted at Rome until the time of the civil wars; the persons who -collected it were called _coactores_. Tiberius reduced this tax to a -two-hundredth (_ducentesima_), and Caligula abolished it for Italy -altogether, whence upon several coins of this emperor we read R. C. -C., that is, _Remissa Ducentesima_. Respecting the tax raised upon -the sale of slaves, see QUINQUAGESIMA. 7. The vicesima hereditatum -et manumissionum. [VICESIMA.] 8. The tribute imposed upon foreign -countries was by far the most important branch of the public revenue -during the time of Rome’s greatness. It was sometimes raised at -once, sometimes paid by instalments, and sometimes changed into a -poll-tax, which was in many cases regulated according to the census. -In regard to Cilicia and Syria we know that this tax amounted to one -per cent. of a person’s census, to which a tax upon houses and slaves -was added. In some cases the tribute was not paid according to the -census, but consisted in a land-tax. 9. A tax upon bachelors. [AES -UXORIUM.] 10. A door-tax. [OSTIARIUM.] 11. The _octavae_. In the -time of Caesar all liberti living in Italy, and possessing property -of 200 sestertia, and above it, had to pay a tax consisting of the -eighth part of their property.--It would be interesting to ascertain -the amount of income which Rome at various periods derived from these -and other sources; but our want of information renders it impossible. -We have only the general statement, that previously to the time of -Pompey the annual revenue amounted to fifty millions of drachmas, and -that it was increased by him to eighty-five millions. - - -VĒLĀRĬUM. [AMPHITHEATRUM, p. 23.] - - -VĒLĬTES, the light-armed troops in a Roman army. [EXERCITUS, p. 169.] - - -VĒLUM (αὐλαία).--(1) A curtain. Curtains were used in private -houses as coverings over doors, or they served in the interior of -the house as substitutes for doors.--(2) _Velum_, and more commonly -its derivative _velamen_, denoted the veil worn by women. That worn -by a bride was specifically called _flammeum_. [MATRIMONIUM.]--(3) -(Ἱστίον.) A sail. [NAVIS, p. 267.] - - -VĒNĀBŬLUM, a hunting-spear. This may have been distinguished from -the spears used in warfare by being barbed; at least it is often so -formed in ancient works of art. It was seldom, if ever, thrown, but -held so as to slant downwards and to receive the attacks of the wild -boars and other beasts of chace. - - -VĒNĀTĬO, hunting, was the name given among the Romans to an -exhibition of wild beasts, which fought with one another and with -men. These exhibitions originally formed part of the games of the -circus. Julius Caesar first built a wooden amphitheatre for the -exhibition of wild beasts, and others were subsequently erected; -but we frequently read of venationes in the circus in subsequent -times. The persons who fought with the beasts were either condemned -criminals or captives, or individuals who did so for the sake of -pay, and were trained for the purpose. [BESTIARII.] The Romans were -as passionately fond of this entertainment as of the exhibitions of -gladiators, and during the latter days of the republic, and under -the empire, an immense variety of animals was collected from all -parts of the Roman world for the gratification of the people, and -many thousands were frequently slain at one time. We do not know on -what occasion a venatio was first exhibited at Rome; but the first -mention we find of any thing of the kind is in the year B.C. 251, -when L. Metellus exhibited in the circus 142 elephants, which he had -brought from Sicily after his victory over the Carthaginians. But -this can scarcely be regarded as an instance of a venatio, as it -was understood in later times, since the elephants are said to have -been only killed because the Romans did not know what to do with -them, and not for the amusement of the people. There was, however, -a venatio in the later sense of the word in B.C. 186, in the games -celebrated by M. Fulvius in fulfilment of the vow which he had -made in the Aetolian war; in these games lions and panthers were -exhibited. It is mentioned as a proof of the growing magnificence of -the age that in the ludi circenses, exhibited by the curule aediles -P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica and P. Lentulus B.C. 168, there were 63 -African panthers and 40 bears and elephants. From about this time -combats with wild beasts probably formed a regular part of the ludi -circenses, and many of the curule aediles made great efforts to -obtain rare and curious animals, and put in requisition the services -of their friends. Elephants are said to have first fought in the -circus in the curule aedileship of Claudius Pulcher, B.C. 99; and -twenty years afterwards, in the curule aedileship of the two Luculli, -they fought against bulls. A hundred lions were exhibited by Sulla -in his praetorship, which were destroyed by javelin-men sent by king -Bocchus for the purpose. This was the first time that lions were -allowed to be loose in the circus; they were previously always tied -up. The games, however, in the curule aedileship of Scaurus, B.C. 58, -surpassed anything the Romans had ever seen; among other novelties, -he first exhibited an hippopotamos and five crocodiles in a temporary -canal or trench (_euripus_). At the venatio given by Pompey in his -second consulship, B.C. 55, upon the dedication of the temple of -Venus Victrix, there was an immense number of animals slaughtered, -among which we find mention of 600 lions, and 18 or 20 elephants; -the latter fought with Gaetulians, who hurled darts against them, -and they attempted to break through the railings (_clathri_) by -which they were separated from the spectators. To guard against this -danger Julius Caesar surrounded the arena of the amphitheatre with -trenches (_euripi_). In the games exhibited by J. Caesar in his -third consulship, B.C. 45, the venatio lasted for five days, and was -conducted with extraordinary splendour. Cameleopards or giraffes were -then for the first time seen in Italy. The venationes seem to have -been first confined to the ludi circenses, but during the later times -of the republic, and under the empire, they were frequently exhibited -on the celebration of triumphs, and on many other occasions, with the -view of pleasing the people. The passion for these shows continued -to increase under the empire, and the number of beasts sometimes -slaughtered seems almost incredible. Under the emperors we read of -a particular kind of venatio, in which the beasts were not killed -by bestiarii, but were given up to the people, who were allowed to -rush into the area of the circus and carry away what they pleased. -On such occasions a number of large trees, which had been torn up by -the roots, was planted in the circus, which thus resembled a forest, -and none of the more savage animals were admitted into it. One of the -most extraordinary venationes of this kind was that given by Probus, -in which there were 1000 ostriches, 1000 stags, 1000 boars, 1000 -deer, and numbers of wild goats, wild sheep, and other animals of the -same kind. The more savage animals were slain by the bestiarii in -the amphitheatre, and not in the circus. Thus, in the day succeeding -the venatio of Probus just mentioned, there were slain in the -amphitheatre 100 lions and 100 lionesses, 100 Libyan and 100 Syrian -leopards, and 300 bears. - -[Illustration: Venationes. (From Bas-reliefs on the Tomb of Scaurus -at Pompeii.)] - - -VĔNĒFĬCĬUM, the crime of poisoning, is frequently mentioned in Roman -history. Women were most addicted to it: but it seems not improbable -that this charge was frequently brought against females without -sufficient evidence of their guilt, like that of witchcraft in Europe -in the middle ages. We find females condemned to death for this crime -in seasons of pestilence, when the people are always in an excited -state of mind, and ready to attribute the calamities under which they -suffer to the arts of evil-disposed persons. Thus the Athenians, -when the pestilence raged in their city during the Peloponnesian -war, supposed the wells to have been poisoned by the Peloponnesians, -and similar instances occur in the history of almost all states. -Still, however, the crime of poisoning seems to have been much more -frequent in ancient than in modern times; and this circumstance -would lead persons to suspect it in cases when there was no real -ground for the suspicion. At Athens the PHARMACON GRAPHE was brought -against poisoners. At Rome the first legislative enactment especially -directed against poisoning was a law of the dictator Sulla--Lex -Cornelia de Sicariis et Veneficis--passed in B.C. 82, which continued -in force, with some alterations, to the latest times. It contained -provisions against all who made, bought, sold, possessed, or gave -poison for the purpose of poisoning. The punishment fixed by this law -was the interdictio aquae et ignis. - - -VER SACRUM (ἔτος ἱερόν). It was a custom among the early Italian -nations, especially among the Sabines, in times of great danger and -distress, to vow to the deity the sacrifice of everything born in the -next spring, that is, between the first of March and the last day -of April, if the calamity under which they were labouring should be -removed. This sacrifice in the early times comprehended both men and -domestic animals, and there is little doubt that in many cases the -vow was really carried into effect. But in later times it was thought -cruel to sacrifice so many infants, and accordingly the following -expedient was adopted. The children were allowed to grow up, and in -the spring of their twentieth or twenty-first year they were with -covered faces driven across the frontier of their native country, -whereupon they went whithersoever fortune or the deity might lead -them. Many a colony had been founded by persons driven out in this -manner; and the Mamertines in Sicily were the descendants of such -devoted persons. In the two historical instances in which the Romans -vowed a ver sacrum, that is, after the battle of lake Trasimenus -and at the close of the second Punic war, the vow was confined to -domestic animals. - - -VERBĒNA. [SAGMINA.] - - -VERBĒNĀRĬUS. [FETIALIS.] - - -VERNA. [SERVUS.] - - -VERSŪRA. [FENUS.] - - -VĔRU, VERŪTUM. [HASTA.] - - -VESPAE, VESPILLŌNES. [FUNUS, p. 188.] - - -VESTĀLES, the virgin priestesses of Vesta, who ministered in her -temple and watched the eternal fire. Their existence at Alba Longa is -connected with the earliest Roman traditions, for Silvia the mother -of Romulus was a member of the sisterhood; their establishment in -the city, in common with almost all other matters connected with -state religion, is generally ascribed to Numa, who selected four, -two from the Titienses and two from the Ramnes; and two more were -subsequently added from the Luceres, by Tarquinius Priscus according -to one authority, by Servius Tullius according to another. This -number of six remained unchanged to the latest times. They were -originally chosen (_capere_ is the technical word) by the king, -and during the republic and empire by the pontifex maximus. It was -necessary that the maiden should not be under six nor above ten -years of age, perfect in all her limbs, in the full enjoyment of -all her senses, patrima et matrima [PATRIMI], the daughter of free -and freeborn parents who had never been in slavery, who followed -no dishonourable occupation, and whose home was in Italy. The Lex -Papia ordained that when a vacancy occurred the pontifex maximus -should name at his discretion twenty qualified damsels, one of whom -was publicly (_in concione_) fixed upon by lot, an exemption being -granted in favour of such as had a sister already a vestal, and of -the daughters of certain priests of a high class. The above law -appears to have been enacted in consequence of the unwillingness of -fathers to resign all control over a child, and this reluctance was -manifested so strongly in later times, that in the age of Augustus -_libertinae_ were declared eligible. The casting of lots moreover -does not seem to have been practised if any respectable person -came forward voluntarily, and offered a daughter who fulfilled the -necessary conditions. As soon as the election was concluded, the -pontifex maximus took the girl by the hand and addressed her in a -solemn form. After this was pronounced she was led away to the atrium -of Vesta, and lived thenceforward within the sacred precincts, under -the special superintendence and control of the pontifical college. -The period of service lasted for thirty years. During the first ten -the priestess was engaged in learning her mysterious duties, being -termed _discipula_, during the next ten in performing them, during -the last ten in giving instructions to the novices, and so long as -she was thus employed she was bound by a solemn vow of chastity. But -after the time specified was completed, she might, if she thought -fit, throw off the emblems of her office, unconsecrate herself -(_exaugurare_), return to the world, and even enter into the marriage -state. Few however availed themselves of these privileges; those who -did were said to have lived in sorrow and remorse (as might indeed -have been expected from the habits they had formed); hence such a -proceeding was considered ominous, and the priestesses for the most -part died, as they had lived, in the service of the goddess. The -senior sister was entitled _Vestalis Maxima_, or _Virgo Maxima_, -and we find also the expressions _Vestalium vetustissima_ and _tres -maximae_. Their chief office was to watch by turns, night and day, -the everlasting fire which blazed upon the altar of Vesta, its -extinction being considered as the most fearful of all prodigies, and -emblematic of the extinction of the state. If such misfortune befell, -and was caused by the carelessness of the priestess on duty, she -was stripped and scourged by the pontifex maximus, in the dark and -with a screen interposed, and he rekindled the flame by the friction -of two pieces of wood from a _felix arbor_. Their other ordinary -duties consisted in presenting offerings to the goddess at stated -times, and in sprinkling and purifying the shrine each morning with -water, which according to the institution of Numa was to be drawn -from the Egerian fount, although in later times it was considered -lawful to employ any water from a living spring or running stream, -but not such as had passed through pipes. When used for sacrificial -purposes it was mixed with _muries_, that is, salt which had been -pounded in a mortar, thrown into an earthen jar, and baked in an -oven. They assisted moreover at all great public holy rites, such as -the festivals of the Bona Dea, and the consecration of temples; they -were invited to priestly banquets, and we are told that they were -present at the solemn appeal to the gods made by Cicero during the -conspiracy of Catiline. They also guarded the sacred relics which -formed the _fatale pignus imperii_, the pledge granted by fate for -the permanency of the Roman sway, deposited in the inmost adytum, -which no one was permitted to enter save the virgins and the chief -pontifex. What this object was no one knew; some supposed that it was -the palladium, others the Samothracian gods carried by Dardanus to -Troy, and transported from thence to Italy by Aeneas, but all agreed -in believing that something of awful sanctity was here preserved, -contained, it was said, in a small earthen jar closely sealed, while -another exactly similar in form, but empty, stood by its side. We -have seen above that supreme importance was attached to the purity of -the vestals, and a terrible punishment awaited her who violated the -vow of chastity. According to the law of Numa, she was simply to be -stoned to death, but a more cruel torture was devised by Tarquinius -Priscus, and inflicted from that time forward. When condemned by -the college of pontifices, she was stripped of her vittae and other -badges of office, was scourged, was attired like a corpse, placed in -a close litter and borne through the forum attended by her weeping -kindred, with all the ceremonies of a real funeral, to a rising -ground called the _Campus Sceleratus_, just within the city walls, -close to the Colline gate. There a small vault underground had been -previously prepared, containing a couch, a lamp, and a table with -a little food. The pontifex maximus, having lifted up his hands to -heaven and uttered a secret prayer, opened the litter, led forth -the culprit, and placing her on the steps of the ladder which gave -access to the subterranean cell, delivered her over to the common -executioner and his assistants, who conducted her down, drew up the -ladder, and having filled the pit with earth until the surface was -level with the surrounding ground, left her to perish deprived of all -the tributes of respect usually paid to the spirits of the departed. -In every case the paramour was publicly scourged to death in the -forum. The honours which the vestals enjoyed were such as in a great -measure to compensate for their privations. They were maintained at -the public cost, and from sums of money and land bequeathed from time -to time to the corporation. From the moment of their consecration -they became as it were the property of the goddess alone, and were -completely released from all parental sway, without going through -the form of _emancipatio_ or suffering any _capitis deminutio_. -They had a right to make a will, and to give evidence in a court of -justice without taking an oath. From the time of the triumviri each -was preceded by a lictor when she went abroad; consuls and praetors -made way for them, and lowered their fasces; even the tribunes of -the plebs respected their holy character, and if any one passed -under their litter he was put to death. Augustus granted to them all -the rights of matrons who had borne three children, and assigned -them a conspicuous place in the theatre, a privilege which they had -enjoyed before at the gladiatorial shows. Great weight was attached -to their intercession on behalf of those in danger and difficulty, -of which we have a remarkable example in the entreaties which they -addressed to Sulla on behalf of Julius Caesar, and if they chanced -to meet a criminal as he was led to punishment, they had a right to -demand his release, provided it could be proved that the encounter -was accidental. Wills, even those of the emperors, were committed -to their charge, for when in such keeping they were considered -inviolable; and in like manner very solemn treaties, such as that -of the triumvirs with Sextus Pompeius, were placed in their hands. -That they might be honoured in death as in life, their ashes were -interred within the pomoerium. They were attired in a stola over -which was an upper vestment made of linen, and in addition to the -infula and white woollen vitta, they wore when sacrificing a peculiar -head-dress called _suffibulum_, consisting of a piece of white cloth -bordered with purple, oblong in shape, and secured by a clasp. In -dress and general deportment they were required to observe the utmost -simplicity and decorum, any fanciful ornaments in the one or levity -in the other being always regarded with disgust and suspicion. Their -hair was cut off, probably at the period of their consecration: -whether this was repeated from time to time does not appear, but -they are never represented with flowing locks. The following cut -represents the vestal Tuccia who, when wrongfully accused, appealed -to the goddess to vindicate her honour, and had power given to her to -carry a sieve full of water from the Tiber to the temple. The form of -the upper garment is well shown. - -[Illustration: Vestal Virgin. (From a Gem.)] - - -VESTĬBŬLUM. [DOMUS, p. 142, a.] - - -VĔTĔRĀNUS. [TIRO.] - - -VEXILLĀRĬI. [EXERCITUS, p. 170, b.] - - -VEXILLUM. [SIGNA MILITARIA.] - - -VIA, a public road. It was not until the period of the long -protracted Samnite wars that the necessity was felt of securing a -safe communication between the city and the legions, and then for -the first time we hear of those famous paved roads, which, in after -ages, connected Rome with her most distant provinces, constituting -the most lasting of all her works. The excellence of the principles -upon which they were constructed is sufficiently attested by their -extraordinary durability, many specimens being found in the country -around Rome which have been used without being repaired for more than -a thousand years. The Romans are said to have adopted their first -ideas upon this subject from the Carthaginians, and it is extremely -probable that the latter people may, from their commercial activity -and the sandy nature of their soil, have been compelled to turn -their attention to the best means of facilitating the conveyance of -merchandise to different parts of their territory. The first great -public road made by the Romans was the Via Appia, which extended in -the first instance from Rome to Capua, and was made in the censorship -of Appius Claudius Caecus (B.C. 312.) The general construction of a -Roman road was as follows:--In the first place, two shallow trenches -(_sulci_) were dug parallel to each other, marking the breadth of -the proposed road; this in the great lines is found to have been -from 13 to 15 feet. The loose earth between the _sulci_ was then -removed, and the excavation continued until a solid foundation -(_gremium_) was reached, upon which the materials of the road might -firmly rest; if this could not be attained, in consequence of the -swampy nature of the ground or from any peculiarity in the soil, a -basis was formed artificially by driving piles (_fistucationibus_). -Above the _gremium_ were four distinct strata. The lowest course -was the _statumen_, consisting of stones not smaller than the hand -could just grasp; above the statumen was the _rudus_, a mass of -broken stones cemented with lime, (what masons call _rubble-work_,) -rammed down hard, and nine inches thick; above the rudus came the -_nucleus_, composed of fragments of bricks and pottery, the pieces -being smaller than in the rudus, cemented with lime, and six inches -thick. Uppermost was the _pavimentum_, large polygonal blocks of the -hardest stone (_silex_), usually, at least in the vicinity of Rome, -basaltic lava, irregular in form, but fitted and jointed with the -greatest nicety, so as to present a perfectly even surface, as free -from gaps or irregularities as if the whole had been one solid mass. -The general aspect will be understood from the cut given below. - -[Illustration: Street at the entrance of Pompeii.] - -The centre of the way was a little elevated, so as to permit -the water to run off easily. Occasionally, at least in cities, -rectangular slabs of softer stone were employed instead of the -irregular polygons of silex, and hence the distinction between the -phrases _silice sternere_ and _saxo quadrato sternere_. Nor was -this all. Regular foot-paths (_margines_, _crepidines_, _umbones_) -were raised upon each side and strewed with gravel, the different -parts were strengthened and bound together with _gomphi_ or stone -wedges, and stone blocks were set up at moderate intervals on the -side of the foot-paths, in order that travellers on horseback might -be able to mount without assistance. Finally, Caius Gracchus -erected mile-stones along the whole extent of the great highways, -marking the distances from Rome, which appear to have been counted -from the gate at which each road issued forth, and Augustus, when -appointed inspector of the viae around the city, erected in the -forum a gilded column (_milliarium aureum_), on which were inscribed -the distances of the principal points to which the viae conducted. -During the earlier ages of the republic the construction and general -superintendence of the roads without, and the streets within the -city, were committed like all other important works to the censors. -These duties, when no censors were in office, devolved upon the -consuls, and in their absence on the praetor urbanus, the aediles, or -such persons as the senate thought fit to appoint. There were also -under the republic four officers, called _quatuorviri viarum_, for -superintending the streets within the city, and two called _curatores -viarum_, for superintending the roads without. Under the empire the -_curatores viarum_ were officers of high rank. The chief roads which -issued from Rome are:--1. The VIA APPIA, the _Great South Road_. -It issued from the _Porta Capena_, and passing through _Aricia_, -_Tres Tabernae_, _Appii Forum_, _Tarracina_, _Fundi_, _Formiae_, -_Minturnae_, _Sinuessa_, and _Carilinum_, terminated at _Capua_, -but was eventually extended through _Calatia_ and _Caudium_ to -_Beneventum_, and finally from thence through _Venusia_, _Tarentum_, -and _Uria_, to _Brundusium_.--2. The VIA LATINA, from the _Porta -Capena_, another great line leading to Beneventum, but keeping a -course farther inland than the Via Appia. Soon after leaving the city -it sent off a short branch (VIA TUSCULANA) to _Tusculum_, and passing -through _Compitum Anaginum_, _Ferentinum_, _Frusino_, _Fregellae_, -_Fabrateria_, _Aquinum_, _Casinum_, _Venafrum_, _Teanum_, _Allifae_, -and _Telesia_, joined the _Via Appia_ at _Beneventum_. A cross-road -called the VIA HADRIANA, running from _Minturnae_ through _Suessa -Aurunca_ to _Teanum_, connected the _Via Appia_ with the _Via -Latina_.--3. From the _Porta Esquilina_ issued the VIA LABICANA, -which passing Labicum fell into the _Via Latina_ at the station _ad -Bivium_, 30 miles from Rome.--4. The VIA PRAENESTINA, originally -the VIA GABINA, issued from the same gate with the former. Passing -through _Gabii_ and _Praeneste_, it joined the _Via Latina_ just -below _Anagnia_.--5. The VIA TIBURTINA, which issued from the _Porta -Tiburtina_, and proceeding N. E. to _Tibur_, a distance of about -20 miles, was continued from thence, in the same direction, under -the name of the VIA VALERIA, and traversing the country of the -Sabines passed through _Carseoli_ and _Corfinium_ to _Aternum_ on -the Adriatic, thence to _Adria_, and so along the coast to _Castrum -Truentinum_, where it fell into the _Via Salaria_.--6. The VIA -NOMENTANA, anciently FICULNENSIS, ran from the _Porta Collina_, -crossed the _Anio_ to _Nomentum_, and a little beyond fell into the -_Via Salaria_ at _Eretum_.--7. The VIA SALARIA, also from the _Porta -Collina_ (passing _Fidenae_ and _Crustumerium_) ran north and east -through Sabinum and Picenum to _Reate_ and _Asculum Picenum_. At -_Castrum Truentinum_ it reached the coast, which it followed until -it joined the _Via Flaminia_ at _Ancona_.--8. The VIA FLAMINIA, the -_Great North Road_, carried ultimately to _Ariminum_. It issued from -the _Porta Flaminia_, and proceeded nearly north to _Ocriculum_ and -_Narnia_ in Umbria. Here a branch struck off, making a sweep to -the east through _Interamna_ and _Spoletium_, and fell again into -the main trunk (which passed through _Mevania_) at _Fulginia_. It -continued through _Fanum Flaminii_ and _Nuceria_, where it again -divided, one line running nearly straight to _Fanum Fortunae_ on -the Adriatic, while the other diverging to _Ancona_ continued from -thence along the coast to _Fanum Fortunae_, where the two branches -uniting passed on to _Ariminum_ through _Pisaurum_. From thence the -_Via Flaminia_ was extended under the name of the VIA AEMILIA, and -traversed the heart of Cisalpine Gaul through _Bononia_, _Mutina_, -_Parma_, _Placentia_ (where it crossed the Po), to _Mediolanum_.--9. -The VIA AURELIA, the _Great Coast Road_, issued originally from the -_Porta Janiculensis_, and subsequently from the _Porta Aurelia_. It -reached the coast at _Alsium_, and followed the shore of the lower -sea along Etruria and Liguria by _Genoa_ as far as _Forum Julii_ in -Gaul. In the first instance it extended no farther than _Pisa_.--10. -The VIA PORTUENSIS kept the right bank of the Tiber to _Portus -Augusti_.--11. The VIA OSTIENSIS originally passed through the _Porta -Trigemina_, afterwards through the _Porta Ostiensis_, and kept the -left bank of the Tiber to _Ostia_. From thence it was continued -under the name of VIA SEVERIANA along the coast southward through -_Laurentum_, _Antium_, and _Circaei_, till it joined the _Via Appia_ -at _Tarracina_. The VIA LAURENTINA, leading direct to _Laurentum_, -seems to have branched off from the _Via Ostiensis_ at a short -distance from Rome.--12. The VIA ARDEATINA from Rome to _Ardea_. -According to some this branched off from the _Via Appia_, and thus -the circuit of the city is completed. - - -VĬĀTĬCUM is, properly speaking, everything necessary for a person -setting out on a journey, and thus comprehends money, provisions, -dresses, vessels, &c. When a Roman magistrate, praetor, proconsul, -or quaestor went to his province, the state provided him with all -that was necessary for his journey. But as the state in this, as -in most other cases of expenditure, preferred paying a sum at once -to having any part in the actual business, it engaged contractors -(_redemptores_), who for a stipulated sum had to provide the -magistrates with the viaticum, the principal parts of which appear -to have been beasts of burden and tents (_muli et tabernacula_). -Augustus introduced some modification of this system, as he once -for all fixed a certain sum to be given to the proconsuls (probably -to other provincial magistrates also) on setting out for their -provinces, so that the redemptores had no more to do with it. - - -VĬĀTOR, a servant who attended upon and executed the commands of -certain Roman magistrates, to whom he bore the same relation as the -lictor did to other magistrates. The name _viatores_ was derived -from the circumstance of their being chiefly employed on messages -either to call upon senators to attend the meeting of the senate, -or to summon people to the comitia, &c. In the earlier times of the -republic we find viatores as ministers of such magistrates also -as had their lictors: viatores of a dictator and of the consuls -are mentioned by Livy. In later times, however, viatores are only -mentioned with such magistrates as had only potestas and not -imperium, such as the tribunes of the people, the censors, and the -aediles. - - -VICTIMA. [SACRIFICIUM.] - - -VĪCĒSĬMA, a tax of five per cent. Every Roman, when he manumitted a -slave, had to pay to the state a tax of one-twentieth of his value, -whence the tax was called _vicesima manumissionis_. This tax was -first imposed by the Lex Manlia (B.C. 357), and was not abolished -when all other imposts were done away with in Rome and Italy. A -tax called _vicesima hereditatum et legatorum_ was introduced by -Augustus (_Lex Julia Vicesimaria_): it consisted of five per cent., -which every Roman citizen had to pay to the aerarium militare, upon -any inheritance or legacy left to him, with the exception of such -as were left to a citizen by his nearest relatives, and such as did -not amount to above a certain sum. It was levied in Italy and the -provinces by procuratores appointed for the purpose. - - -VĪCOMĂGISTRI. [VICUS.] - - -VĪCUS, the name of the subdivisions into which the four regions -occupied by the four city tribes of Servius Tullius were divided, -while the country regions, according to an institution ascribed to -Numa, were subdivided into pagi. This division, together with that of -the four regions of the four city tribes, remained down to the time -of Augustus, who made the vici subdivisions of the fourteen regions -into which he divided the city. In this division each vicus consisted -of one main street, including several smaller by-streets; their -number was 424, and each was superintended by four officers, called -_vico-magistri_, who had a sort of local police, and who, according -to the regulation of Augustus, were every year chosen by lot from -among the people who lived in the vicus. On certain days, probably at -the celebration of the compitalia, they wore the praetexta, and each -of them was accompanied by two lictors. These officers, however, were -not a new institution of Augustus, for they had existed during the -time of the republic, and had had the same functions as a police for -the vici of the Servian division of the city. - - -VICTŌRĬĀTUS. [DENARIUS.] - - -VĬGĬLES. [EXERCITUS, p. 171.] - - -VĬGĬLĬAE. [CASTRA.] - - -VĪGINTĬSEXVĬRI, twenty-six magistratus minores, among whom were -included the Triumviri Capitales, the Triumviri Monetales, the -Quatuorviri Viarum Curandarum for the city, the two Curatores Viarum -for the roads outside the city, the Decemviri Litibus (_stlitibus_) -Judicandis, and the four praefects who were sent into Campania for -the purpose of administering justice there. Augustus reduced the -number of officers of this college to twenty (_vigintiviri_), as the -two curatores viarum for the roads outside the city and the four -Campanian praefects were abolished. Down to the time of Augustus the -sons of senators had generally sought and obtained a place in the -college of the vigintisexviri, it being the first step towards the -higher offices of the republic; but in A.D. 13 a senatusconsultum -was passed, ordaining that only equites should be eligible to the -college of the vigintiviri. The consequence of this was that the -vigintiviri had no seats in the senate, unless they had held some -other magistracy which conferred this right upon them. The age at -which a person might become a vigintivir appears to have been twenty. - - -VĪGINTĬVĬRI. [VIGINTISEXVIRI.] - - -VILLA, a farm or country-house. The Roman writers mention two kinds -of villa, the _villa rustica_ or farm-house, and the _villa urbana_ -or _pseudo-urbana_, a residence in the country or in the suburbs of -a town. When both of these were attached to an estate they were -generally united in the same range of buildings, but sometimes -they were placed at different parts of the estate. The interior -arrangements of the _villa urbana_ corresponded for the most part to -those of a town-house. [DOMUS.] - - -VILLĬCUS, a slave who had the superintendence of the _villa rustica_, -and of all the business of the farm, except the cattle, which were -under the care of the _magister pecoris_. The word was also used -to describe a person to whom the management of any business was -entrusted. - - -VĪNĀLĬA. There were two festivals of this name celebrated by the -Romans: the _Vinalia urbana_ or _priora_, and the _Vinalia rustica_ -or _altera_. The vinalia urbana were celebrated on the 23rd of April, -when the wine-casks which had been filled the preceding autumn -were opened for the first time, and the wine tasted. The rustic -vinalia, which fell on the 19th of August, and was celebrated by -the inhabitants of all Latium, was the day on which the vintage was -opened. On this occasion the flamen dialis offered lambs to Jupiter, -and while the flesh of the victims lay on the altar, he broke with -his own hands a bunch of grapes from a vine, and by this act he, as -it were, opened the vintage, and no must was allowed to be conveyed -into the city until this solemnity was performed. This day was sacred -to Jupiter, and Venus too appears to have had a share in it. - - -VINDĒMĬĀLIS FĒRĬA. [FERIAE.] - - -VINDEX. [ACTIO.] - - -VINDICTA. [MANUMISSIO.] - - -VĪNĔA, in its literal signification, is a bower formed of the -branches of vines; and, from the protection which such a leafy roof -affords, the name was applied by the Romans to a roof under which the -besiegers of a town protected themselves against darts, stones, fire, -and the like, which were thrown by the besieged upon the assailants. -The whole machine formed a roof, resting upon posts eight feet in -height. The roof itself was generally sixteen feet long and seven -broad. The wooden frame was in most cases light, so that it could be -carried by the soldiers; sometimes, however, when the purpose which -it was to serve required great strength, it was heavy, and then the -whole fabric probably was moved by wheels attached to the posts. -The roof was formed of planks and wicker-work, and the uppermost -layer or layers consisted of raw hides or wet cloth, as a protection -against fire, by which the besieged frequently destroyed the vineae. -The sides of a vinea were likewise protected by wicker-work. Such -machines were constructed in a safe place at some distance from -the besieged town, and then carried or wheeled (_agere_) close to -its walls. Here several of them were frequently joined together, so -that a great number of soldiers might be employed under them. When -vineae had taken their place close to the walls, the soldiers began -their operations, either by undermining the walls, and thus opening a -breach, or by employing the battering-ram (_aries_). - - -VĪNUM (οἴνος). The general term for the fermented juice of the grape. -In the Homeric poems the cultivation of the grape is represented as -familiar to the Greeks. It is worth remarking that the only wine upon -whose excellence Homer dilates in a tone approaching to hyperbole -is represented as having been produced on the coast of Thrace, the -region from which poetry and civilisation spread into Hellas, and the -scene of several of the more remarkable exploits of Bacchus. Hence we -might infer that the Pelasgians introduced the culture of the vine -when they wandered westward across the Hellespont, and that in like -manner it was conveyed to the valley of the Po, when at a subsequent -period they made their way round the head of the Adriatic. It seems -certain that wine was both rare and costly in the earlier ages of -Roman history. As late as the time of the Samnite wars, Papirius -the dictator, when about to join in battle with the Samnites, vowed -to Jupiter only a small cupful (_vini pocillum_) if he should gain -the victory. In the times of Marius and Sulla foreign wines were -considered far superior to native growths; but the rapidity with -which luxury spread in this matter is well illustrated by the saying -of M. Varro, that Lucullus when a boy never saw an entertainment -in his father’s house, however splendid, at which Greek wine was -handed round more than once, but when in manhood he returned from his -Asiatic conquests he bestowed on the people a largess of more than -a hundred thousand cadi. Four different kinds of wine are said to -have been presented for the first time at the feast given by Julius -Caesar in his third consulship (B.C. 46.), these being Falernian, -Chian, Lesbian, and Mamertine, and not until after this date were the -merits of the numerous varieties, foreign and domestic, accurately -known and fully appreciated. But during the reign of Augustus and -his immediate successors the study of wines became a passion, and -the most scrupulous care was bestowed upon every process connected -with their production and preservation. Pliny calculates that the -number of wines in the whole world deserving to be accounted of high -quality (_nobilia_) amounted to eighty, of which his own country -could claim two-thirds; and that 195 distinct kinds might be reckoned -up, and that if all the varieties of these were to be included in the -computation, the sum would be almost doubled.--The process followed -in wine-making was essentially the same among both the Greeks and the -Romans. After the grapes had been gathered they were first trodden -with the feet in a vat (ληνός, _torcular_); but as this process did -not press out all the juice of the grapes, they were subjected to -the more powerful pressure of a thick and heavy beam (_prelum_) for -the purpose of obtaining all the juice yet remaining in them. From -the press the sweet unfermented juice flowed into another large vat, -which was sunk below the level of the press, and therefore called the -_under wine-vat_, in Greek ὑπολήνιον, in Latin _lacus_. A portion -of the must was used at once, being drunk fresh after it had been -clarified with vinegar. When it was desired to preserve a quantity in -the sweet state, an amphora was taken and coated with pitch within -and without, and corked so as to be perfectly air-tight. It was then -immersed in a tank of cold fresh water or buried in wet sand, and -allowed to remain for six weeks or two months. The contents after -this process were found to remain unchanged for a year, and hence the -name ἀεὶ γλεῦκος, _i.e._ _semper mustum_. A considerable quantity of -must from the best and oldest vines was inspissated by boiling, being -then distinguished by the Greeks under the general names of ἕψημα or -γλύξις, while the Latin writers have various terms according to the -extent to which the evaporation was carried. Thus, when the must was -reduced to two-thirds of its original volume it became _carenum_, -when one-half had evaporated _defrutum_, when two-thirds _sapa_ -(known also by the Greek names _siraeum_ and _hepsema_), but these -words are frequently interchanged. Similar preparations are at the -present time called in Italy _musto cotto_ and _sapa_, and in France -_sabe_. The process was carried on in large caldrons of lead (_vasa -defrutaria_), over a slow fire of chips, on a night when there was no -moon, the scum being carefully removed with leaves, and the liquid -constantly stirred to prevent it from burning. These grape-jellies, -for they were nothing else, were used extensively for giving body to -poor wines and making them keep, and entered as ingredients into many -drinks, such as the _burranica potio_, so called from its red colour, -which was formed by mixing _sapa_ with milk. The whole of the mustum -not employed for some of the above purposes was conveyed from the -_lacus_ to the _cella vinaria_, an apartment on the ground-floor or -a little below the surface. Here were the _dolia_ (πίθοι), otherwise -called _seriae_ or _cupae_, long bell-mouthed vessels of earthenware, -very carefully formed of the best clay, and lined with a coating of -pitch. They were usually sunk (_depressa_, _defossa_, _demersa_) -one-half or two-thirds in the ground; to the former depth, if the -wine to be contained was likely to prove strong, to the latter if -weak. In these _dolia_ the process of fermentation took place, which -usually lasted for about nine days, and as soon as it had subsided, -and the _mustum_ had become _vinum_, the dolia were closely covered. -The lids (_opercula doliorum_), were taken off about once every -thirty-six days, and oftener in hot weather, in order to cool and -give air to the contents, to add any preparation required to preserve -them sound, and to remove any impurities that might be thrown up. -The commoner sorts of wine were drunk direct from the dolium, and -hence draught wine was called _vinum doliare_ or _vinum de cupa_, -but the finer kinds were drawn off (_diffundere_, μεταγγίζειν), into -_amphorae_. On the outside the title of the wine was painted, the -date of the vintage being marked by the names of the consuls then in -office. [AMPHORA.] The amphorae were then stored up in repositories -(_apothecae_, _horrea_, _tabulata_), completely distinct from the -_cella vinaria_, and usually placed in the upper story of the house -(whence _descende_, _testa_, and _deripere horreo_ in Horace), for a -reason explained afterwards. It is manifest that wine prepared and -bottled in the manner described above must have contained a great -quantity of dregs and sediment, and it became absolutely necessary -to separate these before it was drunk. This was sometimes effected -by fining with yolks of eggs, those of pigeons being considered most -appropriate by the fastidious, but more commonly by simply straining -through small cup-like utensils of silver or bronze perforated with -numerous small holes. Occasionally a piece of linen cloth (σάκκος, -_saccus_) was placed over the _colum_, and the wine filtered through. -[COLUM.] In all the best wines hitherto described the grapes are -supposed to have been gathered as soon as they were fully ripe, and -fermentation to have run its full course. But a great variety of -sweet wines were manufactured by checking the fermentation, or by -partially drying the grapes, or by converting them completely into -raisins. _Passum_ or _raisin-wine_ was made from grapes dried in -the sun until they had lost half their weight, or they were plunged -into boiling oil, which produced a similar effect, or the bunches -after they were ripe were allowed to hang for some weeks upon the -vine, the stalks being twisted or an incision made into the pith -of the bearing shoot so as to put a stop to vegetation. The stalks -and stones were removed, the raisins were steeped in must or good -wine, and then trodden or subjected to the gentle action of the -press. The quantity of juice which flowed forth was measured, and an -equal quantity of water added to the pulpy residuum, which was again -pressed, and the product employed for an inferior _passum_ called -_secundarium_. The passum of Crete was most prized, and next in rank -were those of Cilicia, Africa, Italy, and the neighbouring provinces. -The kinds known as _Psythium_ and _Melampsythium_ possessed the -peculiar flavour of the grape and not that of wine. The grapes most -suitable for passum were those which ripened early, especially -the varieties _Apiana_, _Scirpula_, and _Psithia_. The Greeks -recognised three colours in wines: _red_ (μέλας), _white_, i.e. pale -straw-colour (λευκός), and brown or amber-coloured (κιῤῥός). The -Romans distinguish four: _albus_, answering to λευκός, _fulvus_ to -κιῤῥός, while μέλας is subdivided into _sanguineus_ and _niger_, the -former being doubtless applied to bright glowing wines like Tent -and Burgundy, while the _niger_ or _ater_ would resemble Port. We -have seen that wine intended for keeping was racked off from the -dolia into amphorae. When it was necessary in the first instance to -transport it from one place to another, or when carried by travellers -on a journey, it was contained in bags made of goat-skin (ἀσκοί, -_utres_) well pitched over so as to make the seams perfectly tight. - -[Illustration: Silenus astride upon a Wine-skin. (Museo Borbonico. -vol. iii. tav. 28.)] - -As the process of wine-making among the ancients was for the most -part conducted in an unscientific manner, it was found necessary, -except in the case of the finest varieties, to have recourse to -various devices for preventing or correcting acidity, heightening the -flavour, and increasing the durability of the second growths. The -object in view was accomplished sometimes by merely mixing different -kinds of wine together, but more frequently by throwing into the -dolia or amphorae various condiments or seasonings (ἀρτύσεις, -_medicamina_, _conditurae_). The principal substances employed as -_conditurae_ were, 1. sea-water; 2. turpentine, either pure, or in -the form of pitch (_pix_), tar (_pix liquida_), or resin (_resina_). -3. Lime, in the form of gypsum, burnt marble, or calcined shells. -4. Inspissated must. 5. Aromatic herbs, spices, and gums; and these -were used either singly, or cooked up into a great variety of -complicated confections. But not only were spices and gums steeped -in wine or incorporated during fermentation, but even the precious -perfumed essential oils (_unguenta_) were mixed with it before it was -drunk (μυῤῥίνη, _murrhina_.) Of these compound beverages the most -popular was the _oenomeli_ (οἰνόμελι) of the Greeks, the _mulsum_ -of the Romans. This was of two kinds; in the one honey was mixed -with wine, in the other with must. The former was said to have been -invented by the legendary hero Aristaeus, the first cultivator -of bees, and was considered most perfect and palatable when made -of some old rough (_austerum_) wine, such as Massic or Falernian -(although Horace objects to the latter for this purpose), and new -Attic honey. The proportions were four, by measure, of wine to one -of honey, and various spices and perfumes, such as myrrh, cassia, -costum, malobathrum, nard, and pepper, might be added. The second -kind was made of must evaporated to one half of its original bulk, -Attic honey being added in the proportion of one to ten. This, -therefore, was merely a very rich fruit syrup, in no way allied to -wine. _Mulsum_ was considered the most appropriate draught upon an -empty stomach, and was therefore swallowed immediately before the -regular business of a repast began and hence the whet (_gustatio_) -coming before the cup of mulsum was called the _promulsis_. _Mulsum_ -was given at a triumph by the imperator to his soldiers. _Mulsum_ -(sc. _vinum_) or _oenomeli_ (οἰνόμελι) is perfectly distinct from -_mulsa_ (sc. _aqua_). The latter, or _mead_, being made of honey -and water mixed and fermented, is the _melicraton_ (μελίκρατον) or -_hydromeli_ (ὑδρόμελι) of the Greeks. The ancients considered old -wine not only more grateful to the palate, but also more wholesome -and invigorating. Generally speaking the Greek wines do not seem to -have required a long time to ripen. Nestor in the Odyssey, indeed, -drinks wine ten years old; but the connoisseurs under the empire -pronounced that all transmarine wines arrived at a moderate degree -of maturity in six or seven. Many of the Italian varieties, however, -required to be kept for twenty or twenty-five years before they were -drinkable (which is now considered ample for our strongest ports), -and even the humble growths of Sabinum were stored up for from four -to fifteen. Hence it became a matter of importance to hasten, if -possible, the natural process. This was attempted in various ways, -sometimes by elaborate condiments, sometimes by sinking vessels -containing the must in the sea, by which an artificial mellowness -was induced (_praecox vetustas_) and the wine in consequence termed -_thalassites_; but more usually by the application of heat. Thus -it was customary to expose the amphorae for some years to the -full fervour of the sun’s rays, or to construct the _apothecae_ -in such a manner as to be exposed to the hot air and smoke of -the bath-furnaces, and hence the name _fumaria_ applied to such -apartments, and the phrases _fumosos_, _fumum bibere_, _fuligine -testae_, in reference to the wines. If the operation was not -conducted with care, and the amphorae not stoppered down perfectly -tight, a disagreeable effect would be produced on the contents. In -Italy, in the first century of the Christian aera, the lowest market -price of the most ordinary quality of wine was 300 sesterces for -40 urnae, that is, 15 sesterces for the amphora, or 6_d._ a gallon -nearly. At a much earlier date, the triumph of L. Metellus during -the first Punic war (B.C. 250), wine was sold at the rate of 8 asses -the amphora. The price of native wine at Athens was four drachmas -for the metretes, that is, about 4½_d._ the gallon, when necessaries -were dear, and we may perhaps assume one half of this sum as the -average of cheaper times. On the other hand, high prices were given -freely for the varieties held in esteem, since as early as the time -of Socrates a metretes of Chian sold for a mina.--With respect to -the way in which wine was drunk, and the customs observed by the -Greeks and Romans at their drinking entertainments, the reader is -referred to the article SYMPOSIUM.--The wine of most early celebrity -was that which the minister of Apollo, Maron, who dwelt upon the -skirts of Thracian Ismarus, gave to Ulysses. It was red (ἐρυθρόν), -and honey-sweet (μελιηδέα), so precious, that it was unknown to -all in the mansion save the wife of the priest and one trusty -house-keeper; so strong, that a single cup was mingled with twenty -of water; so fragrant, that even when thus diluted it diffused a -divine and most tempting perfume. Homer mentions also more than once -_Pramnian wine_ (οἴνος Πραμνεῖος), an epithet which is variously -interpreted by different writers. In after times a wine bearing the -same name was produced in the island of Icaria, around the hill -village of Latorea in the vicinity of Ephesus, in the neighbourhood -of Smyrna, near the shrine of Cybele, and in Lesbos. But the wines -of greatest renown at a later period were grown in the islands of -Thasos, Lesbos, Chios, and Cos, and in a few favoured spots on the -opposite coast of Asia, such as the slopes of Mount Tmolus, the ridge -which separates the valley of the Hermus from that of the Caÿster, -Mount Messogis, which divides the tributaries of the Caÿster from -those of the Meander, the volcanic region of the Catacecaumene, -which still retains its fame, the environs of Ephesus, of Cnidus, -of Miletus, and of Clazomenae. Among these the first place seems to -have been by general consent conceded to the _Chian_, of which the -most delicious varieties were brought from the heights of Ariusium in -the central parts, and from the promontory of Phanae at the southern -extremity of the island. The _Thasian_ and _Lesbian_ occupied the -second place, and the _Coan_ disputed the palm with them. In Lesbos -the most highly prized vineyards were around Mytilene and Methymna. -There is no foundation whatever for the remark that the finest -Greek wines, especially the products of the islands in the Aegean -and Ionian seas, belonged for the most part to the luscious sweet -class. The very reverse is proved by the epithets αὐστηρός, σκληρός, -λεπτός, and the like, applied to a great number, while γλυκύς and -γλυκάζων are designations comparatively rare, except in the vague -language of poetry.--The most noble Italian wines, with a very few -exceptions, were derived from Latium and Campania, and for the most -part grew within a short distance of the sea. In the first rank -we must place the _Setinum_, which fairly deserves the title of -_Imperial_, since it was the chosen beverage of Augustus and most of -his courtiers. It grew upon the hills of Setia, above Forum Appii, -looking down upon the Pomptine marshes. Before the age of Augustus -the _Caecubum_ was the most prized of all. It grew in the poplar -swamps bordering on the gulf of Amyclae, close to Fundi. In the time -of Pliny its reputation was entirely gone, partly in consequence -of the carelessness of the cultivators, and partly from its proper -soil, originally a very limited space, having been cut up by the -canal of Nero extending from Baiae to Ostia. It was full-bodied and -heady, not arriving at maturity until it had been kept for many -years. The second rank was occupied by the _Falernum_, of which the -_Faustianum_ was the most choice variety, having gained its character -from the care and skill exercised in the cultivation of the vines. -The _Falernus ager_ commenced at the Pons Campanus, on the left -hand of those journeying towards the Urbana Colonia of Sulla, the -_Faustianus ager_ at a village about six miles from Sinuessa, so that -the whole district in question may be regarded as stretching from -the Massic hills to the river Vulturnus. Falernian became fit for -drinking in ten years, and might be used until twenty years old, but -when kept longer gave headaches, and proved injurious to the nervous -system. Pliny distinguishes three kinds, the rough (_austerum_), -the sweet (_dulce_), and the thin (_tenue_). Others arranged the -varieties differently; that which grew upon the hill tops they called -_Caucinum_, that on the middle slopes _Faustianum_, and that on the -plain _Falernum_. In the third rank was the _Albanum_, from the -Mons Albanus, of various kinds, very sweet (_praedulce_), sweetish, -rough, and sharp; it was invigorating (_nervis utile_), and in -perfection after being kept for fifteen years. Here too we place the -_Surrentinum_, from the promontory forming the southern horn of the -bay of Naples, which was not drinkable until it had been kept for -five-and-twenty years, for, being destitute of richness, and very -dry, it required a long time to ripen, but was strongly recommended -to convalescents, on account of its thinness and wholesomeness. Of -equal reputation were the _Massicum_, from the hills which formed -the boundary between Latium and Campania, although somewhat harsh, -and the _Gauranum_, from the ridge above Baiae and Puteoli, produced -in small quantity, but of very high quality, full-bodied, and thick. -In the same class are to be included the _Calenum_ from Cales, and -the _Fundanum_ from Fundi. The _Calenum_ was light and better for -the stomach than Falernian; the _Fundanum_ was full-bodied and -nourishing, but apt to attack both stomach and head; therefore -little sought after at banquets. This list is closed by the -_Veliturninum_, _Privernatinum_, and _Signinum_, from Velitrae, -Privernum, and Signia, towns on the Volscian hills; the first was a -sound wine, but had this peculiarity, that it always tasted as if -mixed with some foreign substance; the second was thin and pleasant; -the last was looked upon only in the light of a medicine valuable -for its astringent qualities. We may safely bring in one more, the -_Formianum_, from the Gulf of Caieta, associated by Horace with the -Caecuban, Falernian, and Calenian. The fourth rank contained the -_Mamertinum_, from the neighbourhood of Messana, first brought into -fashion by Julius Caesar. The finest was sound, light, and at the -same time not without body. - - -VIRGĬNES VESTĀLES. [VESTALES VIRGINES.] - - -VIS. Leges were passed at Rome for the purpose of preventing acts of -violence. The Lex Plotia or Plautia was enacted against those who -occupied public places and carried arms. The lex proposed by the -consul Q. Catulus on the subject, with the assistance of Plautius -the tribunus, appears to be the Lex Plotia. There was a Lex Julia of -the dictator Caesar on this subject, which imposed the penalty of -exile. Two Juliae Leges were passed as to this matter in the time of -Augustus, which were respectively entitled De Vi Publica and De Vi -Privata. - - -VISCĔRĀTĬO. [FUNUS, p. 190, _b_.] - - -VĪTIS. [CENTURIO.] - - -VITRUM (ὕαλος), glass. A story has been preserved by Pliny, that -glass was first discovered accidentally by some merchants who, having -landed on the Syrian coast at the mouth of the river Belus, and -being unable to find stones to support their cooking-pots, fetched -for this purpose from their ships some of the lumps of nitre which -composed the cargo. This being fused by the heat of the fire, united -with the sand upon which it rested, and formed a stream of vitrified -matter. No conclusion can be drawn from this tale, even if true, in -consequence of its vagueness; but it probably originated in the fact, -that the sand of the district in question was esteemed peculiarly -suitable for glass-making, and exported in great quantities to -the workshops of Sidon and Alexandria, long the most famous in -the ancient world. Alexandria sustained its reputation for many -centuries: Rome derived a great portion of its supplies from this -source, and as late as the reign of Aurelian we find the manufacture -still flourishing. There is some difficulty in deciding by what -Greek author glass is first mentioned, because the term ὕαλος -unquestionably denotes not only artificial glass but rock-crystal, or -indeed any transparent stone or stone-like substance. Thus the ὕελος -of Herodotus, in which the Ethiopians encased the bodies of their -dead, cannot be glass, for we are expressly told that it was dug in -abundance out of the earth; and hence commentators have conjectured -that rock-crystal or rock-salt, or amber, or oriental alabaster, or -some bituminous or gummy product, might be indicated. But when the -same historian, in his account of sacred crocodiles, states that they -were decorated with ear-rings made of melted stone, we may safely -conclude that he intends to describe some vitreous ornament for which -he knew no appropriate name. Glass is, however, first mentioned with -certainty by Theophrastus, who notices the circumstance alluded to -above, of the fitness of the sand at the mouth of the river Belus for -the fabrication of glass. Among the Latin writers Lucretius appears -to be the first in which the word _vitrum_ occurs; but it must have -been well known to his countrymen long before, for Cicero names -it along with paper and linen, as a common article of merchandise -brought from Egypt. Scaurus, in his aedileship (B.C. 58), made a -display of it such as was never witnessed even in after-times; for -the _scena_ of his gorgeous theatre was divided into three tiers, of -which the under portion was of marble, the upper of gilded wood, and -the middle compartment of glass. In the poets of the Augustan age it -is constantly introduced, both directly and in similes, and in such -terms as to prove that it was an object with which every one must be -familiar. Strabo declares that in his day a small drinking-cup of -glass might be purchased at Rome for half an as, and so common was -it in the time of Juvenal and Martial, that old men and women made -a livelihood by trucking sulphur matches for broken fragments. When -Pliny wrote, manufactories had been established not only in Italy, -but in Spain and Gaul also, and glass drinking-cups had entirely -superseded those of gold and silver; and in the reign of Alexander -Severus we find _vitrearii_ ranked along with curriers, coachmakers, -goldsmiths, silversmiths, and other ordinary artificers whom the -emperor taxed to raise money for his thermae. The numerous specimens -transmitted to us prove that the ancients were well acquainted with -the art of imparting a great variety of colours to their glass; -they were probably less successful in their attempts to render it -perfectly pure and free from all colour, since we are told that it -was considered most valuable in this state. It was wrought according -to the different methods now practised, being fashioned into the -required shape by the blowpipe, _cut_, as we term it, although -_ground_ (_teritur_) is a more accurate phrase, upon a wheel, and -engraved with a sharp tool like silver. The art of etching upon -glass, now so common, was entirely unknown, since it depends upon the -properties of fluoric acid, a chemical discovery of the last century. -The following were the chief uses to which glass was applied:--1. -Bottles, vases, cups, and cinerary urns. 2. Glass pastes, presenting -fac-similes either in relief or intaglio of engraved precious stones. -3. Imitations of coloured precious stones, such as the carbuncle, -the sapphire, the amethyst, and, above all, the emerald. 4. Thick -sheets of glass of various colours appear to have been laid down for -paving floors, and to have been attached as a lining to the walls -and ceilings of apartments in dwelling houses, just as scagliuola is -frequently employed in Italy, and occasionally in our own country -also. Rooms fitted up in this way were called _vitreae camerae_, and -the panels _vitreae quadraturae_. Such was the kind of decoration -introduced by Scaurus for the scene of his theatre, not columns nor -pillars of glass as some, nor bas-reliefs as others have imagined. 5. -Glass was also used for windows. [DOMUS, p. 144.] - - -VITTA, or plural VITTAE, a ribbon or fillet, is to be considered, -1. As an ordinary portion of female dress. 2. As a decoration of -sacred persons and sacred things. 1. When considered as an ordinary -portion of female dress, it was simply a band encircling the head, -and serving to confine the tresses (_crinales vittae_), the ends when -long (_longae taenia vittae_) hanging down behind. It was worn by -maidens, and by married women also, the vitta assumed on the nuptial -day being of a different form from that used by virgins. The Vitta -was _not_ worn by libertinae even of fair character, much less by -meretrices; hence it was looked upon as an _insigne pudoris_, and, -together with the _stola_ and _instita_, served to point out at first -sight the freeborn matron. The colour was probably a matter of -choice: white and purple are both mentioned. When employed for sacred -purposes, it was usually twisted round the infula [INFULA], and held -together the loose flocks of wool. Under this form it was employed -as an ornament for 1. Priests, and those who offered sacrifice. 2. -Priestesses, especially those of Vesta, and hence _vittata sacerdos_ -for a vestal, κατ’ ἐξόχην. 3. Prophets and poets, who may be regarded -as priests, and in this case the vittae were frequently intertwined -with chaplets of olive or laurel. 4. Statues of deities. 5. Victims -decked for sacrifice. 6. Altars. 7. Temples. 8. The ἱκετήρια of -suppliants. The sacred vittae, as well as the infulae, were made of -wool, and hence the epithets _lanea_ and _mollis_. They were white -(_niveae_), or purple (_puniceae_), or azure (_caeruleae_), when -wreathed round an altar to the manes. - -[Illustration: Vittae. (Statues from Herculaneum.)] - - -VŎLŌNES is synonymous with _Voluntarii_ (from _volo_), and might -hence be applied to all those who volunteered to serve in the Roman -armies without there being any obligation to do so. But it was -applied more especially to slaves, when in times of need they offered -or were allowed to fight in the Roman armies. Thus when during -the second Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, there was not a -sufficient number of freemen to complete the army, about 8000 young -and able-bodied slaves offered to serve. Their proposal was accepted; -they received armour at the public expense, and as they distinguished -themselves they were honoured with the franchise. In after times the -name volones was retained whenever slaves chose or were allowed to -take up arms in defence of their masters, which they were the more -willing to do, as they were generally rewarded with the franchise. - - -VŎLŪMEN. [LIBER.] - - -VŎLUNTĀRĬI. [VOLONES.] - - -VŎMĬTŌRĬA. [AMPHITHEATRUM.] - - -VULCĀNĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome in honour of Vulcan, on the -23rd of August, with games in the circus Flaminius, where the god had -a temple. The sacrifice on this occasion consisted of fishes, which -the people threw into the fire. It was also customary on this day to -commence working by candle-light, which was probably considered as an -auspicious beginning of the use of fire, as the day was sacred to the -god of this element. - - -VULGĀRES. [SERVUS.] - - - - -XĔNĀGI (ξεναγοί). The Spartans, as being the head of that -Peloponnesian and Dorian league, which was formed to secure the -independence of the Greek states, had the sole command of the -confederate troops in time of war, ordered the quotas which each -state was to furnish, and appointed officers of their own to command -them. Such officers were called _Xenagi_. The generals whom the -allies sent with their troops were subordinate to these Spartan -_xenagi_, though they attended the council of war, as representatives -of their respective countries. After the peace of Antalcidas, the -league was still more firmly established, though Argos refused to -join it; and the Spartans were rigorous in exacting the required -military service, demanding levies by the _scytale_, and sending out -_xenagi_ to collect them. The word _Xenagus_ may be applied to any -leader of a hand of foreigners or mercenaries. - - -XĔNĒLĂSĬA (ξενηλασία). The Lacedaemonians appear in very early -times, before the legislation of Lycurgus, to have been averse to -intercourse with foreigners. This disposition was encouraged by the -lawgiver, who made an ordinance forbidding strangers to reside at -Sparta without special permission, and empowering the magistrate to -expel from the city any stranger who misconducted himself, or set an -example injurious to public morals. - - -XĔNĬAS GRĂPHĒ (ξενίας γραφή). As no man could be an Athenian citizen -except by birth or creation (γένει or ποιήσει), if one, having -neither of those titles, assumed to act as a citizen, either by -taking part in the popular assembly, or by serving any office, -judicial or magisterial, or by attending certain festivals, or doing -any other act which none but a citizen was privileged to do, he was -liable to a γραφὴ ξενίας, which any citizen might institute against -him; or he might be proceeded against by εἰσαγγελία. - - -XĔNUS (ξένος). [HOSPITIUM.] - - -XESTES (ξέστης), a Greek measure of capacity, both fluid and solid, -which contained 12 cyathi or 2 cotylae, and was equal to ⅙ of the -chous, 1/48 of the Roman amphora or quadrantal, and 1/72 of the -Greek amphora or metretes; or, viewing it as a dry measure, it was -half the choenix and 1/96 of the medimnus. It contained ·9911 of a -pint English. At this point the Roman and Attic systems of measures -coincide; for there is no doubt that the Attic xestes was identical -with the Roman sextarius. - - - - -ZĂCŎRI. [AEDITUI.] - - -ZĒTĒTAE (ζητηταί), _Inquisitors_, were extraordinary officers, -appointed by the Athenians to discover the authors of some crime -against the state, and bring them to justice. They were more -frequently appointed to search for confiscated property, the -goods of condemned criminals and state debtors; to receive and -give information against any persons who concealed, or assisted -in concealing them, and to deliver an inventory of all such goods -(ἀπογράφειν) to the proper authorities. - - -ZŌNA, also called CINGŬLUM (ζώνη, ζῶμα, ζωστῆρ, μίτρα), a girdle -or zone, worn about the loins by both sexes. The chief use of this -article of dress was to hold up the tunic (ζώννυσθαι), which was -more especially requisite to be done when persons were at work, on -a journey, or engaged in hunting. The zona is also represented in -many statues and pictures of men in armour as worn round the cuirass. -The girdle, mentioned by Homer, seems to have been a constituent -part of the cuirass, serving to fasten it by means of a buckle, and -also affording an additional protection to the body, and having a -short kind of petticoat attached to it, as is shown in the figure of -the Greek warrior in p. 240. The cut at p. 4 shows that the ancient -cuirass did not descend low enough to secure that part of the body -which was covered by the ornamental kilt or petticoat. To supply this -defect was the design of the _mitra_ (μίτρα), a brazen belt lined -probably on the inside with leather and stuffed with wool, which was -worn next to the body. Men used their girdles to hold money instead -of a purse. As the girdle was worn to hold up the garments for the -sake of business or of work requiring despatch, so it was loosened -and the tunic was allowed to fall down to the feet to indicate the -opposite condition, and more especially in preparing to perform -a sacrifice (_veste recincta_), or funeral rites (_discincti_, -_incinctae_). A girdle was worn by young women, even when their tunic -was not girt up, and removed on the day of marriage, and therefore -called ζώνη παρθενική. - - -ZŌPHŎRUS (ζωφόρος or διάζωμα), the frieze of an entablature. - - - - -TABLES - -OF - -GREEK AND ROMAN MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEY. - - - TABLE Page - - I. GREEK MEASURES OF LENGTH. - (1) Smaller Measures 424 - - II. ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH. - (1) Smaller Measures 424 - - III. GREEK MEASURES OF LENGTH. - (2) Land and Itinerary 425 - - IV. ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH. - (2) Land and Itinerary 426 - - V. GREEK MEASURES OF SURFACE 426 - - VI. ROMAN MEASURES OF SURFACE 427 - - VII. GREEK MEASURES OF CAPACITY. - (1) Liquid Measures 428 - - VIII. ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY. - (1) Liquid Measures 429 - - IX. GREEK MEASURES OF CAPACITY. - (2) Dry Measures 430 - - X. ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY. - (2) Dry Measures 430 - - XI. GREEK WEIGHTS 431 - - XII. GREEK MONEY 432 - - XIII. ROMAN WEIGHTS. - (1) The As and its Uncial Divisions 433 - - XIV. ROMAN WEIGHTS. - (2) Subdivisions of the Uncia 433 - - XV. ROMAN MONEY. - (1) Before Augustus 434 - - XVI. ROMAN MONEY. - (2) After Augustus 434 - - - - -TABLE I. - - GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH. - - Column headings: - - F: Feet. - - Row labels: - - O: ὈΡΓΥΙΆ - - +--------------------------------------------------------+-+---------+ - | I. SMALLER MEASURES. |F| Inches. | - +--------------------------------------------------------+-+---------+ - | Δάκτυλος |”| ·7584375| - +--+ | | | - | 2| Κόνδυλος |”| 1·516875| - +--+---+ | | | - | 4| 2 | Παλαιστή, Δῶρον, Δοχμή, or Δακτυλοδοχμή |”| 3·03375 | - +--+---+---+ | | | - | 8| 4 | 2 | Διχάς, or Ἡμιπόδιον |”| 6·0675 | - +--+---+---+---+ | | | - |10| 5 | 2½| 1¼| Διχάς |”| 7·584375| - +--+---+---+---+------+ | | | - |11| 5½| 2¾| 1⅜|1-1/10| Ὀρθοδῶρον |”|8·3428125| - +--+---+---+---+------+------+ | | | - |12| 6 | 3 | 1½| 1⅕ |1-1/11| Σπιθαμή |”| 9·10125 | - +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+ | | | - |16| 8 | 4 | 2 | 1⅗ |1-5/11| 1⅓| ΠΟῩΣ |1| 0·135 | - +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+ | | | - |18| 9 | 4½| 2¼| 1⅘ |1-7/11| 1½| 1⅛| Πυγμή |1| 1·651875| - +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+ | | | - |20| 10| 5 | 2½| 2 |1-9/11| 1⅔| 1¼|1-1/9| Πυγών |1| 3·16875 | - +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+ | | | - |24| 12| 6 | 3 | 2⅖ |2-2/11| 2 | 1½| 1⅓ | 1⅕| ΠΗΧΥΣ |1| 6·2025 | - +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+-+ | | | - |72| 36| 18| 9 | 7⅕ |6-6/11| 6 | 4½| 4 | 3⅗|3| Ξύλον |4| 6·6075 | - +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+-+---+ | | | - |96| 48| 24| 12| 9⅗ |8-8/11| 8 | 6 | 5⅓ | 4⅘|4| 1⅓| O |6| 0·81 | - +--+---+---+---+------+------+---+---+-----+---+-+---+---+-+---------+ - -N.B.--_Approximate Values._ From the above Table, it will be seen -that the Greek _Foot_, _Cubit_, and _Orguia_, only exceed the English -_Foot_, _Foot and a half_, and _Fathom_, by about 1-10th, 2-10ths, -and 8-10ths of an inch respectively. - - - - -TABLE II. - - ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH. - - +----------------------------------------------+-------+---------+ - | I. SMALLER MEASURES. | Feet. | Inches. | - +----------------------------------------------+-------+---------+ - | Digitus | ” | ·7281 | - +----+ | | | - | 1⅓ | UNCIA or Pollex | ” | ·9708 | - +----+----+ | | | - | 4 | 3 | Palmus | ” | 2·9124 | - +----+----+---+ | | | - | 12 | 9 | 3 | Palmus Major (of late times) | ” | 8·7372 | - +----+----+---+----+ | | | - | 16 | 12 | 4 | 1⅓ | PES | ” | 11·6496 | - +----+----+---+----+----+ | | | - | 20 | 15 | 5 | 1⅔ | 1¼ | Palmipes | 1 | 2·562 | - +----+----+---+----+----+----+ | | | - | 24 | 18 | 6 | 2 | 1½ | 1⅕ | CUBITUS | 1 | 5·4744 | - +----+----+---+----+----+----+-----------------+-------+---------+ - -N.B.--_Approximate Values._ The Roman _Uncia_, _Pes_, and _Cubitus_ -only fall short of our _Inch_, _Foot_, and _Foot and a half_, by less -than 1-10th, 4-10ths, and 6-10ths of an inch respectively. - - - - -TABLE III. - - GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH. - - Column headings: - - M: Miles. - F: Feet. - I: Inches. - - Row labels: - - RM: ROMAN MILE (μίλιον) - P: ΠαρασάγγηςS: ΣχοῖνοςD: DEGREE - - +--------------------------------------------------------------+-----+----+------+ - | II. LARGER MEASURES.--LAND AND ITINERARY.[4] | M | F | I | - +--------------------------------------------------------------+-----+----+------+ - | ΠΟΥΣ | ” | 1 |0·135 | - +------+ | | | | - | 1½ | ΠΗΧΥΣ | ” | 1 |6·2025| - +------+-------+ | | | | - | 2½ | 1⅔ | Βῦμα | ” | 2 |6·3375| - +------+------+------+ | | | | - | 6 | 4 | 2⅖ | ὈΡΓΥΙΆ | ” | 6 | 0·81 | - +------+------+------+----+ | | | | - | 10 | 6⅔ | 4 | 1⅔ | Κάλαμος, Ἄκαινα, or Δεκάπους | ” | 10 | 1·35 | - +------+------+------+----+----+ | | | | - | 60 | 40 | 24 | 10 | 6 | Ἄμμα | ” | 60 | 8·1 | - +------+------+------+----+----+---+ | | | | - | 100 | 66⅔ | 40 | 16⅔| 10 | 1⅔| Πλέθρον | ” | 101| 1·5 | - +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+ | | | | - | 600 | 400 | 240 | 100| 60 | 10| 6| ΣΤΆΔΙΟΝ or ΣΤΆΔΙΟΣ | ” | 606| 9 | - +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+ | | | | - | 1200 | 800 | 480 | 200| 120| 20| 12| 2 | Δίαυλος | ” |1213| 6 | - +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+ | | | | - | 2400 | 1600 | 960 | 40 | 240| 40| 24| 4 | 2 | Ἱππικόν | ” |2427| ” | - +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | - | 4800 | 3200 | 1920 | 800| 480| 80| 48| 8 | 4 | 2 | RM | ” |4854| ” | - +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | - |18,000|12,000| 7200 |3000|1800|300|180| 30| 15| 7½| 3¾| P | 3 |2362| 6 | - +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+ | | | | - |36,000|24,000|14,400|6000|3600|600|360| 60| 30| 15| 7½| 2| S | 6 |4735| ” | - +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+--+ | | | | - |360,000 |144,000 |36,000 |3600 |300 |75 |10|D|68[5]|5110| ” | - | |240,000 |60,000 |6000 |600 |150 |20 | - +------+------+------+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+--+-+-----+----+------+ - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[4] In order to show the relations more clearly, the foreign measures -most familiar to the Greeks are included in this Table. - -[5] This is, of course, not the true number of English statute miles -contained in a degree of a great circle of the earth, but the number -_computed_ from the data exhibited in the Table, some of which are -only approximate; namely, 1 Degree = 75 Roman miles = 600 Greek -Stadia, and 1 Greek foot = 12·135 inches. The true value of a degree -in English miles is 69-1/51 = 69·0196, and the difference is only about -7-100ths of a mile. - - - - -TABLE IV. - - ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH. - - Column headings: - - M: Miles - F: Feet. - I: Inches. - - Row labels: - - MP: MILLE PASSUUM - GL: Gallic Leuga - D: DEGREE[6] - - +---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----+-------+ - | II. LARGER MEASURES.--LAND AND ITINERARY. | M | F | I | - +---------------------------------------------------------+---+-----+-------+ - | PES | ” | ” |11·6496| - +-------+ | | | | - | 1½ | Cubitus | ” | 1 | 5·4744| - +-------+-------+ | | | | - | 2½ | 1⅔ | Gradus, or Pes Sestertius | ” | 2 | 5·124 | - +-------+-------+-------+ | | | | - | 5 | 3⅓ | 2 | PASSUS | ” | 4 |10·248 | - +-------+-------+-------+------+ | | | | - | 10 | 6⅔ | 4 | 2 | Decempeda, or Pertica | ” | 9 | 8·496 | - +-------+-------+-------+------+------+ | | | | - | 120 | 80 | 48 | 24 | 12 | Actus (in length) | ” | 116 | 5·952 | - +-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+ | | | | - | 5000 | 3333⅓| 2000 | 1000 | 500 | 41⅔| MP | ” | 4854| ” | - +-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+--+ | | | | - | 7500 | 5000 | 3000 | 1500 | 750 | 62½|1½| GL | 1 | 2003| ” | - +-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+--+--+ | | | | - |375,000|250,000|150,000|75,000|37,500|3125|75|50| D |68 | 5110| ” | - +-------+-------+-------+------+------+----+--+--+--------+---+-----+-------+ - -N.B.--The Roman mile only differs from the English by less than -1-10th. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[6] See Note to Table III. - - - - -TABLE V. - - GRECIAN MEASURES OF SURFACE. - - Column headings: - - P: Perches. - SF: Square Feet. - - +---------------------------------------------------+----+-----------+ - | ORDINARY LAND MEASURES. | P | SF | - +---------------------------------------------------+----+-----------+ - | ΠΟΥΣ (Square Foot) | ” | 1·0226 | - +------+ | | | - | 36 | Ἑξαπόδης | ” | 36·81456 | - +------+--------+ | | | - | 100 | 2-7/9 | Ἄκαινα (Square of the καλαμος) | ” | 102·26266 | - +------+--------+-----+ | | | - | 833⅓| 23-4/27| 8⅓| Ἡμίεκτος | 3 | 35·439 | - +------+--------+-----+----+ | | | - | 1666⅔| 46-8/27| 16⅔| 2 | Ἕκτος | 6 | 70·877 | - +------+--------+-----+----+----+ | | | - | 2500 | 69-4/9| 25 | 3 | 1½ | Ἄρουρα | 9 | 106·318 | - +------+--------+-----+----+----+---+ | | | - |10,000| 277-7/9| 100 | 12 | 6 | 4 | ΠΛΈΘΡΟΝ | 37 | 153·02[7] | - +------+--------+-----+----+----+---+---------------+----+-----------+ - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[7] This differs from a rood, or a quarter of an acre, by little more -than 2 perches; for the rood contains 40 perches. - - - - -TABLE VI. - - ROMAN MEASURES OF SURFACE. - - Column headings: - - A: Acres. - R: Roods. - P: Perches. - SF: Square Feet. - - Row labels: - - H: Heredium - C: Centuria - S: Saltus - - +------------------------------------------------------+---+---+---+----------+ - | ORDINARY LAND MEASURES. | A | R | P | SF | - +------------------------------------------------------+---+---+---+----------+ - | PES QUADRATUS | ” | ” | ” | ·9445 | - +----------+ | | | | | - | 100 | Scrupulum, or Decempeda Quadrata | ” | ” | ” | 94·245 | - +----------+-------+ | | | | | - | 480 | 4⅘ | ACTUS SIMPLEX | ” | ” | 1 | 180·127 | - +----------+-------+------+ | | | | | - | 2400 | 24 | 5 | Uncia[8] | ” | ” | 8 | 83·885 | - +----------+-------+------+----+ | | | | | - | 3600 | 36 | 7½ | 1½ | Clima | ” | ” |12 | 125·83 | - +----------+-------+------+----+----+ | | | | | - | 14,400 | 144 | 30 | 6 | 4 | ACTUS QUADRATUS | ” | 1 | 9 | 231·07 | - +----------+-------+------+----+----+----+ | | | | | - | 28,800 | 288 | 60 | 12 | 8 | 2 | JUGERUM | ” | 2 |19 |189·89[9] | - +----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+ | | | | | - | 57,600 | 576 | 120 | 24 | 16 | 4 | 2 | H | 1 | 0 |39 |107·53[10]| - +----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+---+ | | | | | - | 5,760,000| 57,600|12,000|2400|1600| 400|200|100| C |124| 2 |19 | 135·25 | - +----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+---+-+ | | | | | - |23,040,000|230,400|48,000|9600|6400|1600|800|400|4| S |498| 1 |37 |268·75[11]| - +----------+-------+------+----+----+----+---+---+-+---+---+---+---+----------+ - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[8] The _As_ to which this _Uncia_ and the above _Scrupulum_ belong -is the _Jugerum_. The other uncial divisions of the _Jugerum_ may -easily be calculated from the _Uncia_. The _Semissis_ is, of course, -the _Actus Quadratus_. - -[9] _i.e._ almost 5-8ths of an acre. - -[10] _i.e._ almost an acre and a quarter. - -[11] _i.e._ almost 500 acres. - - - - -TABLE VII. - - GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY. - - Column headings: G=Gallons. P=Pints. - - Row labels: - - RA: ROMAN AMPHORA (κεράμιον) - AM: ΑΜΦΟΡΕΥΣ ΜΕΤΡΗΤΗΣ - - +----------------------------------------------------------+-+-----+-------+ - | | | |Approx-| - | | | |imate. | - | I. ATTIC LIQUID MEASURES. | | | [12] | - | | | +-+-----+ - | |G| P |G| P | - +----------------------------------------------------------+-+-----+-+-----+ - |Κοχλιάριον |“| ·008|”|1/120| - +----+ | | | | | - | 2 |Χήμη |“| ·016|”|1/60 | - +----+----+ | | | | | - | 2½| 1¼|Μύστρον |“| ·02 |”|1/48 | - +----+----+----+ | | | | | - | 5 | 2½| 2|Κόγχη |“| ·04 |”|1/24 | - +----+----+----+----+ | | | | | - | 10 | 5 | 4| 2|ΚΎΑΘΟΣ |“| ·08 |”|1/12 | - +----+----+----+----+---+ | | | | | - | 15 | 1½| 6| 3| 1½|Ὀξύβαφον |“| ·12 |”| ⅛ | - +----+----+----+----+---+---+ | | | | | - | 30 15 | 12| 6| 3| 2|Τέταρτον |“| ·24 |”| ¼ | - +----+----+----+----+---+---+---+ | | | | | - | 60 | 30 | 24| 12| 6| 4| 2|Κοτύλη, Τρυβλίον or Ἡμίνα |“| ·48 |”| ½ | - +----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | - | 120| 60 | 48| 24| 12| 8| 4| 2| ΞΈΣΤΗΣ (Sextarius) |“| ·96 |”| 1 | - +----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--- | | | | | - | 720| 360| 288| 144| 72| 48| 24| 12| 6 ΧΟΥΣ |“|5·76 |”| 6 | - +----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--+--+ | | | | | - |5760|2880|2304|1152|576|384|192| 96|48| 8| RA |5|6·08 |6| ” | - +----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--+--+---+ | | | | | - |8640|4320|3456|1728|864|576|288|144|72|12| 1½| AM |8|5·12 |9| ” | - +----+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+--+--+---+------------+-+-----+-+-----+ - -N.B.--The _Aeginetan_ measures of capacity may be easily calculated -from these, according to the ratio given under QUADRANTAL. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[12] As the _Sextarius_ differs from the English pint by only 1-25th -part of the latter, it will be found useful, in ordinary rough -calculations, to take it at exactly a pint, and so with the other -measures in this table. The results thus obtained may be corrected by -subtracting from each of them its 1-25th part. - - - - -TABLE VIII. - - ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY. - - Column headings: - - A: Approximate.[13] - G: Gallons. - P: Pints. - - Row labels: - - Q: Quartarius, _i.e._ 1-4th of the _Sextarius_ - S: SEXTARIUS, _i.e._ 1-6th of the _Congius_ - AQ: AMPHORA QUADRANTAL - C: Culeus - - +-----------------------------------------------+----+-----+-----------+ - | | | | A | - | I. LIQUID MEASURES. | G | P +-----+-----+ - | | | | G | P | - +-----------------------------------------------+----+-----+-----+-----+ - | Ligula | ” | ·02| ” | 1/48| - +------+ | | | | | - | 4 | CYATHUS[14] | ” | ·08| ” | 1/12| - +------+------+ | | | | | - | 6 | 1½ | Acetabulum | ” | ·12| ” | ⅛ | - +------+------+----+ | | | | | - | 12 | 3 | 2 | Q | ” | ·24| ” | ¼ | - +------+------+----+----+ | | | | | - | 24 | 6 | 4 | 2 | Hemina or Cotyla | ” | ·48| ” | ½ | - +------+------+----+----+----+ | | | | | - | 48 | 12 | 8 | 4 | 2 | S | ” | ·96| ” | 1 | - +------+------+----+----+----+---+ | | | | | - | 288 | 72 | 48 | 24 | 12 | 6 | CONGIUS | ” | 5·76| ” | 6 | - +------+------+----+----+----+---+---+ | | | | | - | 1152 | 288 | 192| 96 | 48 | 24| 4 | Urna | 2 | 7·04| 3 | ” | - +------+------+----+----+----+---+---+--+ | | | | | - | 2304 | 576 | 384| 192| 96 | 48| 8 | 2| AQ | 5 | 6·08| 6 | ” | - +------+------+----+----+----+---+---+--+--+ | | | | | - |46,080|11,520|7680|3840|1920|960|160|40|20| C | 115| 1·6 | 120 | ” | - +------+------+----+----+----+---+---+--+--+----+----+-----+-----+-----+ - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[13] See the Note to Table VII - -[14] According to the uncial division, the _Sextarius_ was the _As_, -and the _Cyathus_ the _Uncia_. - - - - -TABLE IX. - - GRECIAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY. - - Column headings: - - A: Approximate.[15] - G: Gallons - P: Pints. - - Row labels: - - H: Ἕκτος (equal to the Roman _Modius_.) - M: ΜΈΔΙΜΝΟΣ - - +------------------------------------------+----+------+---------------+ - | | | | A | - | II. ATTIC DRY MEASURES. | G | P +-------+-------+ - | | | | G | P | - +------------------------------------------+----+------+-------+-------+ - | Κοχλιάριον | ” | ·008 | ” | 1/120 | - +------+ | | | | | - | 10 | ΚΎΑΘΟΣ | ” | ·08 | ” | 1/12 | - +------+----+ | | | | | - | 15 | 1½| Ὀξύβαφον | ” | ·12 | ” | ⅛ | - +------+----+---+ | | | | | - | 60 | 6 | 4| ΚΟΤΎΛΗ or Ἡμίνα | ” | ·48 | ” | ½ | - +------+----+---+---+ | | | | | - | 120 | 12| 8| 2| ΞΈΣΤΗΣ (_Sextarius_) | ” | ·96 | ” | 1 | - +------+----+---+---+---+ | | | | | - | 240 | 24| 16| 4| 2 | ΧΟΙΝΙΞ | ” | 1·92 | ” | 2[16] | - +------+----+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | - | 960 | 96| 64| 16| 8 | 4 | Ἡμίεκτον | ” | 7·68 | 1 | ” | - +------+----+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | - | 1920 | 192|128| 32| 16| 8 | 2 | H | 1 | 7·36 | 2 | ” | - +------+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | - |11,520|1152|768|192| 96| 48| 12| 6 | M | 11 | 4·16 | 12[17]| ” | - +------+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+------+----+------+-------+-------+ - -N.B.--Respecting the _Aeginetan_ Measures, see the Note to Table VII. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[15] See the Note to Table VII. - -[16] Or one quart. - -[17] Or one bushel and a half. - - - - -TABLE X. - - ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY. - - Column headings: - - A: Approximate.[18] - G: Gallons. - P: Pints. - - Row labels: - - Quart.: Quartarius, _i.e._ 1-4th of the _Sextarius_ - Sext.: SEXTARIUS, _i.e._ 1-6th of the _Congius_ - - +----------------------------------------------+---+------+-------------+ - | | | | A | - | II. DRY MEASURES. | G | P +------+------+ - | | | | G | P | - +----------------------------------------------+---+------+------+------+ - | Ligula | ” | ·02 | ” | 1/48 | - +-----+ | | | | | - | 4 | CYATHUS[19] | ” | ·08 | ” | 1/12 | - +-----+-----+ | | | | | - | 6 | 1½ | Acetabulum | ” | ·12 | ” | ⅛ | - +-----+-----+-----+ | | | | | - | 12 | 3 | 2 | Quart. | ” | ·24 | ” | ¼ | - +-----+-----+-----+----+ | | | | | - | 24 | 6 | 4 | 2 | Hemina, or Cotyla | ” | ·48 | ” | ½ | - +-----+-----+-----+----+----+ | | | | | - | 48 | 12 | 8 | 4 | 2 | Sext. | ” | ·96 | ” | 1 | - +-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+ | | | | | - | 384 | 96 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | Semimodius | ” | 7·68 | 1 | ” | - +-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+---+ | | | | | - | 768 | 192 | 128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 2 | MODIUS | 1 | 7·36 | 2[20]| ” | - +-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+---+---------+---+------+------+------+ - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[18] See the Note to Table VII. - -[19] See the Note to Table VIII. - -[20] Or a quarter of a bushel. - - - - -TABLE XI. - - GRECIAN WEIGHTS. - - +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | 1. Ratios of the three chief Systems. | - +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Aeginetan : Euboic or old Attic :: 6 : 5 | - | Aeginetan : Solonian or later Attic :: 5 : 3 | - | Euboic : Solonian :: 138-8/9 : 100 | - | or :: 100 : 72 | - | or :: 25 : 18 | - +========================================================================+ - |The Aeginetan Talent=6000 Aeginetan Drachmae=7200 Euboic=10,000 Solonian| - | Euboic ” =5000 ” =6000 ” = 8,333⅓ ” | - | Solonian[21] ” =3600 ” =4320 ” = 6,000 ” | - +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[21] Also called the _Attic Silver Talent_. When Attic weights are -spoken of without any further distinction, these are generally -intended. - - - Column headings: - - L: lb. - O: oz. - G: grs. - - +----------------------------------+--------------------+--------------+ - | | _Exact._[22] |_Approximate._| - | 2. Aeginetan Weights. +----+---+-----------+-----+---+----+ - | | L | O | grs. | lb. |oz.| G | - +----------------------------------+----+---+-----------+-----+---+----+ - | Obol (Ὀβολος) | ” | ” | 18·472-2/9| ” | ” | 20 | - +------+ | | | | | | | - | 6 | Drachma (Δραχμή) | ” | ” | 110·83⅛ | ” | ¼ | ” | - +------+----+ | | | | | | | - | 600 | 100| Mina (Μνᾶ) | 1 | 9 |145·83⅓[23]| 1⅔ | ” | ” | - +------+----+--+ | | | | | | | - |36,000|6000|60| Talent (Τάλαντον) | 95 | ” | ” | 100 | ” | ” | - +------+----+--+-------------------+----+---+-----------+-----+---+----+ - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[22] In this and the other tables the English weights used are those -of the avoirdupois scale as fixed by statute; namely, the grain = the -Troy grain, the ounce = 437½ grains, the pound = 16 ounces = 7000 -grains. - -[23] Or ⅓ of an oz. - - - Column headings: - - L: lb. - O: oz. - - +------------------------------+-----------------------+--------------+ - | | _Exact._ |_Approximate._| - | 3. Euboic or Attic +----+---+--------------+----+---+-----+ - | Commercial Weights. | L | O | grs. | L | O | grs.| - +------------------------------+----+---+--------------+----+---+-----+ - | Obol | ” | ” | 15·398-14/27 | | ” | 15½ | - +--------+ | | | | | | | - | 6 | Drachma | ” | ” | 92·3611-1/9 | ” | ” | 93⅓ | - +--------+------+ | | | | | | | - | 600 | 100 | Mina | 1 | 5 | 48·611-1/9 | 1 | ” | ” | - +--------+------+----+ | | | | | | | - | 36,000 | 6000 | 60 | Talent | 79 | 2 | 291·63⅓ | 80 | ” | ” | - +--------+------+----+---------+----+---+--------------+----+---+-----+ - - - Column headings: - - L: lb. - O: oz. - G: grs. - - +----------------------------------+------------------+--------------+ - | | _Exact._ |_Approximate._| - | 4. Attic Commercial +----+----+--------+----+----+----+ - | Weights increased. | L | O | grs. | L | O | G | - +----------------------------------+----+----+--------+----+----+----+ - | 1 Mina = 150 Drachmae (silver) | 1 | 6 | 350 | 1½ | ” | ” | - | 5 Minae = 6 Minae (commercial) | 7 | 14 | 291·6⅔ | 7½ | ” | ” | - | 1 Talent = 65 Minae (commercial) | 88 | ” | 145·8⅓ | 90 | ” | ” | - +----------------------------------+----+----+--------+----+----+----+ - - +-----------------------------+----------------------+--------------+ - | | _Exact._ |_Approximate._| - | 5. Attic Silver Weights. +-----+----+-----------+----+----+----+ - | | lb. | oz.| grs. | lb.| oz.|grs.| - +-----------------------------+-----+----+-----------+----+----+----+ - | Obol | ” | ” | 11·0833⅓ | ” | ” | 12 | - +--------+ | | | | | | | - | 6 | Drachma | ” | ” | 66·5 | ” | ” | 70 | - +--------+------+ | | | | | | | - | 600 | 100 | Mina | ” | 15 | 87·5[24] | 1 | ” | ” | - +--------+------+----+ | | | | | | | - | 36,000 | 6000 | 60 | Talent | 57 | ” | ” | 60 | ” | ” | - +--------+------+----+--------+-----+----+-----------+----+----+----+ - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[24] Or ⅕ of an oz. - - - - -TABLE XII. - - GRECIAN MONEY. - - Column headings: - - F: Farthings. - - Row labels: - - Dr.: DRACHMA[25] (Δραχμή) - Di.: Didrachm (Δίδραχμον) - Tet.: Tetradrachm (Τετράδραχμον) - M: MINA (Μνᾶ) - T: TALENT (Τάλαντον) - - +--------------------------------------------------------+---+----+----+-----+ - | I. ATTIC COPPER AND SILVER. |£. |_s._|_d._| F | - +--------------------------------------------------------+---+----+----+-----+ - | Lepton (Λεπτόν) | ” | ” | ” | ·116| - +------+ | | | | | - | 7 | Chalchus (Χαλκοῦς) | ” | ” | ” |·8125| - +------+----+ | | | | | - | 14 | 2 | Dichalcon, or Quarter Obol (Δίχαλκον) | ” | ” | ” |1·625| - +------+----+----+ | | | | | - | 28 | 4 | 2 | Half Obol (Ἡμιοβόλιον) | ” | ” | ” | 3·25| - +------+----+----+----+ | | | | | - | 56 | 8 | 4 | 2 | OBOL (Ὀβολός) | ” | ” | 1 | 2·5 | - +------+----+----+----+---+ | | | | | - | 112 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | Diobolus (Διόβολον) | ” | ” | 3 | 1 | - +------+----+----+----+---+---+ | | | | | - | 168 | 24 | 12 | 6 | 3 | 1½| Triobolus (Τριόβολον) | ” | ” | 4 | 3·5 | - +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+ | | | | | - | 224 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1⅓| Tetrobolus | ” | ” | 6 | 2 | - | | | | | | | | (Τετρόβολον) | | | | | - +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | - | 336 | 48 | 24 | 12 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1½| Dr. | ” | ” | 9 | 3 | - +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | - | 672 | 96 | 48 | 24 | 12| 6 | 4 | 3 | 2 | Di. | ” | 1 | 7 | 2 | - +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | - | 1344 | 192| 96 | 48 | 24| 12| 8 | 6 | 4 | 2 | Tet. | ” | 3 | 3 | ” | - +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | | | - |33,600|4800|2400|1200|600|300|200|150|100| 50| 25| M | 4 | 1 | 3 | ” | - +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+ | | | | | - |2,016,000 |144,000 |36,000 |12,000 |6000 |1500 | T |243|15[26] ” | ” | - | |288,000 |72,000 |18,000 |9000 |3000 |60| | - +------+----+----+----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+---+---+----+----+-----+ - - II. _Aeginetan and Euboic Silver._--The coins of these systems can be - easily calculated from the Attic, according to the ratios given in - Table XI., No. 1. As thus calculated, the Aeginetan Talent was equal - to 406_l._ 5_s._, and the Euboic was equal to 338_l._ 10_s._ 10_d._, - and the Drachmae were equal respectively to 1_s._ 4¼_d._ for the - Aeginetan, and 1_s._ 1½_d._ + ⅕ of a farthing for the Euboic. - - III. _Grecian Gold._--The values of the Grecian gold money cannot be - conveniently reduced to the tabular form; they will be found in the - articles STATER and DAREICUS. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[25] The Drachma was very nearly equal to the French Franc. - -[26] Or, approximately, 250_l._, the difference being only 1-40th. - - - - -TABLE XIII. - - ROMAN WEIGHTS. - - Column headins: - - O: Oz. - - Row labels: - - AL: AS, or LIBRA - - +--------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+ - | |Avoirdupois| - | | Weight. | - | I. THE UNCIAL DIVISIONS OF THE POUND. +--+--------+ - | |O | Grs. | - +--------------------------------------------------------------+--+--------+ - | UNCIA | ”| 430·83⅓| - | | | [27] | - +---+ | | | - | 1½| Sescuncia, or Sescunx | 1| 203·75 | - +---+---+ | | | - | 2 | 1⅓| Sextans | 1| 404·16⅔| - +---+---+---+ | | | - | 3 | 2 | 1½| Quadrans, or Teruncius | 2| 168·750| - +---+---+---+---+ | | | - | 4 | 2⅓| 2 | 1⅓| Triens | 3| 270·83⅓| - +---+---+---+---+---+ | | | - | 5 | 3⅓| 2½| 1⅔| 1¼| Quincunx | 4| 354·16⅔| - +---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | - | 6 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1½| 1⅕| SEMIS, or Semissi | 5| 337·5 | - +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | | - | 7 | 4⅓| 3½| 2⅓| 1¾| 1⅖| 1⅙| Septunx | 6| 320·33⅓| - +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+ | | | - | 8 | 5⅓| 4 | 2⅔| 2 | 1⅗| 1⅓|1-1/7| Bes, or Bessis | 7| 104·16⅔| - +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+ | | | - | 9 | 6 | 4½| 3 | 2¼| 1⅘| 1½|1-2/7| 1⅛| Dodrans | 8| 277·5 | - +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+-----+ | | | - | 10| 6⅓| 5 | 3⅓| 2½| 2 | 1⅔|1-3/7| 1¼|1-1/9| Dextrans | 9| 270·83⅓| - +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+-----+------+ | | | - | 11| 7⅓| 5½| 3⅔| 2¾| 2⅕| 1⅚|1-4/7| 1⅜|1-2/9|1-1/10| Deunx |10| 260·83⅓| - +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+-----+------+------+ | | | - | 12| 8 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 2⅖| 2 |1-5/7| 1½| 1⅓ | 1⅕ |1-1/11| AL |11| 237·5 | - +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-----+---+-----+------+------+----+--+--------+ - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[27] This only differs from the ounce avoirdupois by less than 7 -grains. - - - - -TABLE XIV. - - ROMAN WEIGHTS. - - +----------------------------------------------------+-------------+ - | II. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE UNCIA. | Grains. | - +----------------------------------------------------+-------------+ - | Siliqua | 2·9224 | - +----+ | | - | 3 | Obolus | 8·767361 | - +----+---+ | | - | 6 | 2 | SCRUPULUM | 17·53472 | - +----+---+---+ | | - | 12 | 4 | 2 | Semisextula | 35·0694 | - +----+---+---+---+ | | - | 24 | 8 | 4 | 2 | SEXTULA | 70·138 | - +----+---+---+---+---+ | | - | 36 | 12| 6 | 3 | 1½| Sicilicus | 105·2083 | - +----+---+---+---+---+---+ | | - | 48 | 16| 8 | 4 | 2 | 1⅓| Duella | 140·277 | - +----+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | - | 72 | 24| 12| 6 | 3 | 2 | 1½| Semuncia | 120·416 | - +----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | - | 144| 48| 24| 12| 6 | 4 | 3 | 2 | UNCIA | 420·833 | - +----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | - |1728|576|288|144| 72| 48| 36| 24| 12| AS, or LIBRA | 5050 | - +----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---------------+-------------+ - - - - -TABLE XV. - - ROMAN MONEY. - - Row labels: - - Du: Dupondius - S: SESTERTIUS - Q: Quinarius - De: DENARIUS - - +---------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | I. BEFORE THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS: when the Denarius was | - | 1-7th of an Ounce, or about 60 Grains. | - +----------------------+--------------------+----+----+----+----------+ - | 1. _Copper Coins._ | 2. _Silver Coins._ | £. |_s._|_d._|Farthings.| - | | | | | | | - | Sextula | | ” | ” | ” | ·35416 | - +--+ | | | | | | - |1½| Quadrans | Teruncius | ” | ” | ” | ·53125 | - +--+--+ | | | | | | - | 2|1⅓| Triens | | ” | ” | ” | ·7083 | - +--+--+--+ +--+ | | | | | - | 3| 2|1½| Semissis | 2| Sembella | ” | ” | ” | 1·0625 | - +--+--+--+--+ +--+--+ | | | | | - | 6| 4| 3| 2| As | 4| 2| Libella | ” | ” | ” | 2·125 | - +--+--+--+--+--+ +--+--+--+ | | | | | - |12| 8| 6| 4| 2| Du | | | | | ” | ” | 1 | ·25 | - +--+--+--+--+--+-+ +--+--+--+ | | | | | - |24|16|12| 8| 4|2| S |16| 8| 4| S | ” | ” | 2 | ·5 | - +--+--+--+--+--+-+-+ +--+--+--+-+ | | | | | - |48|32|24|16| 8|4|2| |32|16| 8|2| Q | ” | ” | 4 | 1 | - +--+--+--+--+--+-+-+ +--+--+--+-+-+ | | | | | - |96|64|48|32|16|8|4| |24|32|16|4|2| De | ” | ” | 8 | 2 | - +==+==+==+==+==+=+=+===+==+==+==+=+=+=======+====+====+====+==========+ - | 3. _Gold Coins._ AUREUS[28] | | | | | - | (value in proportion to Roman Silver) | ” | 17 | 8 | 2 | - | (value in English current Coin) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | - +===========================================+====+====+====+==========+ - | 4. _Money of Account (not a Coin)._ | | | | | - | SESTERTIUM, or Mille Nummi | 8 | 17 | 1 | ” | - +-------------------------------------------+----+----+----+----------+ - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[28] For the subdivisions of the gold money, see AURUM. - - - - -TABLE XVI. - - ROMAN MONEY. - - Row labels: - - QV: Quinarius, or Victoriatus - - +---------------------------------------+----+----+----+--------+ - | II. AFTER THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS: | | | | | - | when the Denarius was 1-8th of an | £. | s. | d. | Farth- | - | Ounce, or 52·5 Grains. | | | | ings. | - +---------------------------------------+----+----+----+--------+ - | Sextula | ” | ” | ” | ·3125 | - +----+ | | | | | - | 1½ | Quadrans | ” | ” | ” | ·46875| - +----+----+ | | | | | - | 2 | 1⅓ | Triens | ” | ” | ” | ·625 | - +----+----+----+ | | | | | - | 3 | 2 | 1½ | Semissis | ” | ” | ” | ·9375 | - +----+----+----+--+ | | | | | - | 6 | 4 | 3 | 2| As | ” | ” | ” | 1·875 | - +----+----+----+--+--+ | | | | | - | 12 | 8 | 6 | 4| 2| Dupondius | ” | ” | ” | 3·75 | - +----+----+----+--+--+-+ | | | | | - | 24 | 16 | 12 | 8| 4|2| SESTERTIUS | ” | ” | 1 | 3·5 | - +----+----+----+--+--+-+-+ | | | | | - | 48 | 32 | 24 |16| 8|4|2| QV | ” | ” | 3 | 3 | - +----+----+----+--+--+-+-+-+ | | | | | - | 96 | 64 | 48 |32|16|8|4|2| Denarius | ” | ” | 7 | 2 | - +====+====+====+==+==+=+=+=+============+====+====+====+========+ - | AUREUS, reckoned at 25 Denarii | ” | 15 | 7 | 2 | - | ” reckoned in English Current Coin| ” | 18 | 5 | 3·25 | - | SESTERTIUM, or Mille Nummi | 7 | 16 | 3 | ” | - +---------------------------------------+----+----+----+--------+ - - - - -PARALLEL YEARS. - -(_See page 276._) - - - B.C. Ol. - - 776. 1. 1. - 772. 2. 1. - 768. 3. 1. - 764. 4. 1. - 760. 5. 1. - 756. 6. 1. - 752. 7. 1. - 748. 8. 1. - 744. 9. 1. - 740. 10. 1. - 736. 11. 1. - 732. 12. 1. - 728. 13. 1. - 724. 14. 1. - 720. 15. 1. - 716. 16. 1. - 712. 17. 1. - 708. 18. 1. - 704. 19. 1. - 700. 20. 1. - 696. 21. 1. - 692. 22. 1. - 688. 23. 1. - 684. 24. 1. - 680. 25. 1. - 676. 26. 1. - 672. 27. 1. - 668. 28. 1. - 664. 29. 1. - 660. 30. 1. - 656. 31. 1. - 652. 32. 1. - 648. 33. 1. - 644. 34. 1. - 640. 35. 1. - 636. 36. 1. - 632. 37. 1. - 628. 38. 1. - 624. 39. 1. - 620. 40. 1. - 616. 41. 1. - 612. 42. 1. - 608. 43. 1. - 604. 44. 1. - 600. 45. 1. - 596. 46. 1. - 592. 47. 1. - 591. 2. - 590. 3. - 589. 4. - 588. 48. 1. - 587. 2. - 586. 3. - 585. 4. - 584. 49. 1. - 583. 2. - 582. 3. - 581. 4. - 580. 50. 1. - 579. 2. - 578. 3. - 577. 4. - 576. 51. 1. - 575. 2. - 574. 3. - 573. 4. - 572. 52. 1. - 571. 2. - 570. 3. - 569. 4. - 568. 53. 1. - 567. 2. - 566. 3. - 565. 4. - 564. 54. 1. - 563. 2. - 562. 3. - 561. 4. - 560. 55. 1. - 559. 2. - 558. 3. - 557. 4. - 556. 56. 1. - 555. 2. - 554. 3. - 553. 4. - 552. 57. 1. - 551. 2. - 550. 3. - 549. 4. - 548. 58. 1. - 547. 2. - 546. 3. - 545. 4. - 544. 59. 1. - 543. 2. - 542. 3. - 541. 4. - 540. 60. 1. - 539. 2. - 538. 3. - 537. 4. - 536. 61. 1. - 535. 2. - 534. 3. - 533. 4. - 532. 62. 1. - 531. 2. - 530. 3. - 529. 4. - 528. 63. 1. - 527. 2. - 526. 3. - 525. 4. - 524. 64. 1. - 523. 2. - 522. 3. - 521. 4. - 520. 65. 1. - 519. 2. - 518. 3. - 517. 4. - 516. 66. 1. - 515. 2. - 514. 3. - 513. 4. - 512. 67. 1. - 511. 2. - 510. 3. - 509. 4. - 508. 68. 1. - 507. 2. - 506. 3. - 505. 4. - 504. 69. 1. - 503. 2. - 502. 3. - 501. 4. - 500. 70. 1. - 499. 2. - 498. 3. - 497. 4. - 496. 71. 1. - 495. 2. - 494. 3. - 493. 4. - 492. 72. 1. - 491. 2. - 490. 3. - 489. 4. - 488. 73. 1. - 487. 2. - 486. 3. - 485. 4. - 484. 74. 1. - 483. 2. - 482. 3. - 481. 4. - 480. 75. 1. - 479. 2. - 478. 3. - 477. 4. - 476. 76. 1. - 475. 2. - 474. 3. - 473. 4. - 472. 77. 1. - 471. 2. - 470. 3. - 469. 4. - 468. 78. 1. - 467. 2. - 466. 3. - 465. 4. - 464. 79. 1. - 463. 2. - 462. 3. - 461. 4. - 460. 80. 1. - 459. 2. - 458. 3. - 457. 4. - 456. 81. 1. - 455. 2. - 454. 3. - 453. 4. - 452. 82. 1. - 451. 2. - 450. 3. - 449. 4. - 448. 83. 1. - 447. 2. - 446. 3. - 445. 4. - 444. 84. 1. - 443. 2. - 442. 3. - 441. 4. - 440. 85. 1. - 439. 2. - 438. 3. - 437. 4. - 436. 86. 1. - 435. 2. - 434. 3. - 433. 4. - 432. 87. 1. - 431. 2. - 430. 3. - 429. 4. - 428. 88. 1. - 427. 2. - 426. 3. - 425. 4. - 424. 89. 1. - 423. 2. - 422. 3. - 421. 4. - 420. 90. 1. - 419. 2. - 418. 3. - 417. 4. - 416. 91. 1. - 415. 2. - 414. 3. - 413. 4. - 412. 92. 1. - 411. 2. - 410. 3. - 409. 4. - 408. 93. 1. - 407. 2. - 406. 3. - 405. 4. - 404. 94. 1. - 403. 2. - 402. 3. - 401. 4. - 400. 95. 1. - 399. 2. - 398. 95. 3. - 397. 4. - 396. 96. 1. - 395. 2. - 394. 3. - 393. 4. - 392. 97. 1. - 391. 2. - 390. 3. - 389. 4. - 388. 98. 1. - 387. 2. - 386. 3. - 385. 4. - 384. 99. 1. - 383. 2. - 382. 3. - 381. 4. - 380. 100. 1. - 379. 2. - 378. 3. - 377. 4. - 376. 101. 1. - 375. 2. - 374. 3. - 373. 4. - 372. 102. 1. - 371. 2. - 370. 3. - 369. 4. - 368. 103. 1. - 367. 2. - 366. 3. - 365. 4. - 364. 104. 1. - 363. 2. - 362. 3. - 361. 4. - 360. 105. 1. - 359. 2. - 358. 3. - 357. 4. - 356. 106. 1. - 355. 2. - 354. 3. - 353. 4. - 352. 107. 1. - 351. 2. - 350. 3. - 349. 4. - 348. 108. 1. - 347. 2. - 346. 3. - 345. 4. - 344. 109. 1. - 343. 2. - 342. 3. - 341. 4. - 340. 110. 1. - 339. 2. - 338. 3. - 337. 4. - 336. 111. 1. - 335. 2. - 334. 3. - 333. 4. - 332. 112. 1. - 331. 2. - 330. 3. - 329. 4. - 328. 113. 1. - 327. 2. - 326. 3. - 325. 4. - 324. 114. 1. - 323. 2. - 322. 3. - 321. 4. - 320. 115. 1. - 319. 2. - 318. 3. - 317. 4. - 316. 116. 1. - 315. 2. - 314. 3. - 313. 4. - 312. 117. 1. - 311. 2. - 310. 3. - 309. 4. - 308. 118. 1. - 307. 2. - 306. 3. - 305. 4. - 304. 119. 1. - 303. 2. - 302. 3. - 301. 4. - 300. 120. 1. - 299. 2. - 298. 3. - 297. 4. - 296. 121. 1. - 295. 2. - 294. 3. - 293. 4. - 292. 122. 1. - 291. 2. - 290. 3. - 289. 4. - 288. 123. 1. - 287. 2. - 286. 3. - 285. 4. - 284. 124. 1. - 283. 2. - 282. 3. - 281. 4. - 280. 125. 1. - 279. 2. - 278. 3. - 277. 4. - 276. 126. 1. - 275. 2. - 274. 3. - 273. 4. - 272. 127. 1. - 268. 128. 1. - 264. 129. 1. - 260. 130. 1. - 256. 131. 1. - 252. 132. 1. - 248. 133. 1. - 244. 134. 1. - 240. 135. 1. - 236. 136. 1. - 232. 137. 1. - 228. 138. 1. - 224. 139. 1. - 220. 140. 1. - 216. 141. 1. - 212. 142. 1. - 208. 143. 1. - 204. 144. 1. - 200. 145. 1. - 196. 146. 1. - 192. 147. 1. - 188. 148. 1. - 184. 149. 1. - 180. 150. 1. - 176. 151. 1. - 172. 152. 1. - 168. 153. 1. - 164. 154. 1. - 160. 155. 1. - 156. 156. 1. - 152. 157. 1. - 148. 158. 1. - 144. 159. 1. - 140. 160. 1. - 136. 161. 1. - 132. 162. 1. - 128. 163. 1. - 124. 164. 1. - 120. 165. 1. - 116. 166. 1. - 112. 167. 1. - 108. 168. 1. - 104. 169. 1. - 100. 170. 1. - 96. 171. 1. - 92. 172. 1. - 88. 173. 1. - 84. 174. 1. - 80. 175. 1. - 76. 176. 1. - 72. 177. 1. - 68. 178. 1. - 64. 179. 1. - 60. 180. 1. - 56. 181. 1. - 52. 182. 1. - 48. 183. 1. - 44. 184. 1. - 40. 185. 1. - 36. 186. 1. - 32. 187. 1. - 28. 188. 1. - 24. 189. 1. - 20. 190. 1. - 16. 191. 1. - 12. 192. 1. - 8. 193. 1. - 4. 194. 1. - - - A.D. Ol. - - 1. 195. 1. - 5. 196. 1. - 9. 197. 1. - 13. 198. 1. - 17. 199. 1. - 21. 200. 1. - 25. 201. 1. - 29. 202. 1. - 33. 203. 1. - 37. 204. 1. - 41. 205. 1. - 45. 206. 1. - 49. 207. 1. - 53. 208. 1. - 57. 209. 1. - 61. 210. 1. - 65. 211. 1. - 69. 212. 1. - 73. 213. 1. - 77. 214. 1. - 81. 215. 1. - 85. 216. 1. - 89. 217. 1. - 93. 218. 1. - 97. 219. 1. - 101. 220. 1. - 105. 221. 1. - 109. 222. 1. - 113. 223. 1. - 117. 224. 1. - 121. 225. 1. - 125. 226. 1. - 129. 227. 1. - 133. 228. 1. - 137. 229. 1. - 141. 230. 1. - 145. 231. 1. - 149. 232. 1. - 153. 233. 1. - 157. 234. 1. - 161. 235. 1. - 165. 236. 1. - 169. 237. 1. - 173. 238. 1. - 177. 239. 1. - 181. 240. 1. - 185. 241. 1. - 189. 242. 1. - 193. 243. 1. - 197. 244. 1. - 201. 245. 1. - 205. 246. 1. - 209. 247. 1. - 213. 248. 1. - 217. 249. 1. - 221. 250. 1. - 225. 251. 1. - 229. 252. 1. - 233. 253. 1. - 237. 254. 1. - 241. 255. 1. - 245. 256. 1. - 249. 257. 1. - 253. 258. 1. - 257. 259. 1. - 261. 260. 1. - 265. 261. 1. - 269. 262. 1. - 273. 263. 1. - 277. 264. 1. - 281. 265. 1. - 285. 266. 1. - 289. 267. 1. - 293. 268. 1. - 297. 269. 1. - 301. 270. 1. - - - - -CALENDARIUM: - - - Labels: - - AK: Ante Kalendas (of the month following). - AKM: Ante Kalendas Martias. - - +--------+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ - | Our | March, May, | January, | April, June, | February has | - | days | July, | August, | September, | 28 days, | - | of the | October, have | December, | November, | and in Leap | - | Month. | 31 days. | have 31 days. | have 30 days. | Year 29. | - +--------+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ - | 1. | KALENDIS. | KALENDIS. | KALENDIS. | KALENDIS. | - | 2. | VI. } | IV. } ante | IV. } ante | IV. } ante | - | 3. | V. } ante | III.} Nonas. | III.} Nonas. | III.} Nonas. | - | 4. | IV. } Nonas. | Pridie Nonas. | Pridie Nonas. | Pridie Nonas. | - | 5. | III.} | NONIS. | NONIS. | NONIS. | - | 6. | Pridie Nonas. | VIII.} | VIII.} | VIII. | - | 7. | NONIS. | VII. } | VII. } | VII. | - | 8. | VIII.} | VI. } ante | VI. } ante | VI. | - | 9. | VII. } | V. } Idus. | V. } Idus. | V. | - | 10. | VI. } ante | IV. } | IV. } | IV. | - | 11. | V. } Idus. | III. } | III. } | III. | - | 12. | IV. } | Pridie Idus. | Pridie Idus. | Pridie Idus. | - | 13. | III. } | IDIBUS. | IDIBUS. | IDIBUS. | - | 14. | Pridie Idus. | XIX. } | XVIII.} | XVI. } | - | 15. | IDIBUS. | XVIII.} | XVII. } | XV. } | - | 16. | XVII } | XVII. } | XVI. } | XIV. } | - | 17. | XVI. } | XVI. } | XV. } | XIII.} | - | 18. | XV. } | XV. } | XIV. } | XII. } | - | 19. | XIV. } | XIV. } | XIII. } | XI. } | - | 20. | XIII.} | XIII. } | XII. } | X. } AKM | - | 21. | XII. } | XII. } | XI. } AK | IX. } | - | 22. | XI. } AK | XI. } AK | X. } | VIII.} | - | 23. | X. } | X. } | IX. } | VII. } | - | 24. | IX. } | IX. } | VIII. } | VI. } | - | 25. | VIII.} | VIII. } | VII. } | V. } | - | 26. | VII. } | VII. } | VI. } | IV. } | - | 27. | VI. } | VI. } | V. } | III. } | - | 28. | V. } | V. } | IV. } | Pridie | - | 29. | IV. } | IV. } | III. } | Kalendas | - | 30. | III. } | III. } | Pridie | Martias. | - | 31. | Pridie | Pridie | Kalendas (of | | - | | Kalendas (of | Kalendas (of | the month | | - | | the month | the month | following). | | - | | following). | following). | | | - +--------+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ - - - - -GREEK INDEX. - - - _The numerals indicate the pages, and the letters_ a _and_ b - _the first and second columns respectively._ - - - Α. - - Ἄβαξ, 1, a. - - Ἄγαλμα, 13, b; 350, a. - - Ἀγαθοεργοί, 13, b. - - Ἀγγαρεία, 25, a. - - Ἀγέλη, 13, b. - - Ἄγημα, 13, b. - - Ἀγητής, 72, b. - - Ἀγητόρειον, 72, b. - - Ἀγητόρια, 72, b. - - Ἄγκιστρον, 191, b. - - Ἄγκοινα, 267, b. - - Ἀγκύλη, 200, a. - - Ἀγκύρα, 268, a. - - Ἀγορά, 15, b. - - Ἀγορανόμος, 8, b; 15, b. - - Ἀγρονόμοι, 16, a. - - Ἀγροτέρας θυσία, 16, a. - - Ἀγύρται, 16, a. - - Ἀγχεμάχοι, 41, b. - - Ἀγχιστεία, 203, a. - - Ἀγωνάρχαι, 15, a. - - Ἀγῶνες, 15, a; 131, b. - ἀτίμητοι, 132, b; 377, b. - τίμητοι, 132, b; 377, b. - - Ἀγωνισταί, 47, a. - - Ἀγωνοδίκαι, 15, a. - - Ἀγωνοθέται, 15, a. - - Ἀδελφιδοῦς, 203, a. - - Ἀδελφός, 203, a. - - Ἀδέσποτοι, 202, a. - - Ἀδύνατοι, 8, b. - - Ἀδώνια, 7, a. - - Ἄδυτον, 367, a. - - Ἀείσιτοι, 313, b. - - Ἀέτωμα, 176, a. - - Ἀθληταί, 47, a. - - Ἀθλητῆρες, 47, a. - - Ἀθλοθέται, 15, a; 282, a. - - Αἰγικορεῖς, 389, b. - - Αἰγίοχος, 10, b. - - Αἰγίς, 10, b. - - Αἴθουσα, 16, b. - - Αἰκίας δίκη, 16, a. - - Αἴνιγμα, 11, a; 357, b. - - Αἰσυμνήτης, 12, b; 15, a. - - Αἰχμή, 199, b. - - Αἰχμοφόροι, 587, b. - - Αἰώρα, 11, a. - - Ἄκαινα, Ἀκαίνη, 1, b. - - Ἀκάτειος, 266, b. - - Ἀκάτιον, 1, b; 262, b. - - Ἄκατος, 1, b; 262, a. - - Ἀκινάκης, 3, b. - - Ἀκμόθετον, 254, b. - - Ἄκμων, 254, b. - - Ἀκόντιον, 200, b. - - Ἀκράτισμα, 95, a. - - Ἀκροκέραια, 267, a. - - Ἀκρόλιθοι, 4, a; 350, b. - - Ἀκρόπολις, 4, a. - - Ἀκροστόλιον, 4, a; 263, b. - - Ἀκρωτηριάζειν, 4, b; 322, b. - - Ἀκρωτήριον, 4, a. - - Ἄκτια, 5, a. - - Ἀκωκή, 199, b. - - Ἄκων, 200, b. - - Ἀλαβάρχης, 16, b. - - Ἁλαί, 327, a. - - Ἀλείπται, 17, b. - - Ἁλία, 15, b. - - Ἄλληξ, or Ἄλλιξ, 17, a. - - Ἄλμα, 289, a. - - Ἁλοπήγιον, 327, a. - - Ἀλυσίδιον, 76, b. - - Ἀλύσιον, 76, b. - - Ἅλυσις, 76, b. - - Ἀλύται, 18, a; 275, a. - - Ἀλυτάρχης, 18, a; 275, a. - - Ἁλῶα, 18, a; 37, a. - - Ἀλῶα, 18, a. - - Ἅλως, 37, a. - - Ἅμαξα, 297, b. - - Ἀμαρύνθια, 18, a. - - Ἀμαρύσια, 18, a. - - Ἀμβροσία, 19, a. - - Ἀμπεχόνη, 19, b. - - Ἀμπίτταρες, 202, a. - - Ἀμπυκτήρ, 24, a. - - Ἄμπυξ, 24, a. - - Ἀμφίβληστρον, 320, b. - - Ἀμφίβολος, 268, b. - - Ἀμφιδέαι, 42, b. - - Ἀμφιδρόμια, 21, a. - - Ἀμφιθάλαμος, 141, b. - - Ἀμφικίων, 367, a. - - Ἀμφικτύονες, 19, b. - - Ἀμφιπρόστυλος, 367, a. - - Ἀμφίστομος, 268, b. - - Ἀμφορεύς, 23, a. - - Ἀναβαθμοί, 140, a. - - Ἀνάγλυπτα, 24, b. - - Ἀνάγλυφα, 24, b. - - Ἀναγώγια, 25, a. - - Ἀναδικία, 29, a. - - Ἀναθήματα, 145, a; 350, b. - - Ἁνακαλυπτήρια, 250, b. - - Ἀνακειμένα, 145, a. - - Ἀνάκειον, 24, b. - - Ἀνάκλιντρον, 222, a. - - Ἀνάκρισις, 24, b; 34, b. - - Ἀνάκτορον, 367, a. - - Ἄναξ, 320, a. - - Ἀναξυρίδες, 62, a. - - Ἀνδρεῖα, 359, b. - - Ἀνδριάς, 351, a. - - Ἀνδρογεώνια, 25, a. - - Ἀνδροληψία, 25, a. - - Ἀνδρολήψιον, 25, a. - - Ἀνδρῶνες, 140, b. - - Ἀνδρωνῖτις, 140, a. - - Ἀνεύθυνος, 160, a. - - Ἀνεψιαδαῦς, 203, a. - - Ἀνεψιός, 203, a. - - Ἀνθεστήρια, 135, b. - - Ἀνθεστηριών, 65, b. - - Ἀνθεσφόρια, 26, b. - - Ἀνθράκια, 141, b. - - Ἀνθύπατος, 310, a. - - Ἀνθυπωμοσία, 132, a. - - Ἄνοδος, 375, b. - - Ἄνοπλοι, 41, b. - - Ἀντιγόνεια, 390, b. - - Ἀντιγραφή, 27, a; 132, a. - - Ἀντίδοσις, 26, b. - - Ἀντιτίμησις, 81, b. - - Ἀντιχειροτονεῖν, 83, b. - - Ἀντλία, 27, a. - - Ἄντυξ, 27, a; 94, a. - - Ἀντωμοσία, 132, a. - - Ἀξίνη, 331, b. - - Ἄξονες, 54, b; 271, b. - - Ἄξων, 124, a. - - Ἄορ, 196, a. - - Ἀπαγωγή, 27, b. - - Ἀπατούρια, 27, b. - - Ἀπαύλια, 250, b. - - Ἀπελεύθερος, 239, a; 338, b. - - Ἀποβάθρα, 303, a. - - Ἀπογραφή, 28, b. - - Ἀποδέκται, 28, a; 345, a. - - Ἀπόδεσμος, 355, b. - - Ἀποθέωσις, 28, b. - - Ἀποθήκη, 28, b; 207, b. - - Ἀποικία, 98, b. - - Ἄποικοι, 93, a. - - Ἀπόκλητοι, 13, a. - - Ἀπολείψεως δίκη, 139, a. - - Ἀπολλώνια, 28, b. - - Ἀποπέμψεως δίκη, 139, a. - - Ἀπόῤῥητα, 28, b. - - Ἀποστασίου δίκη, 338, b. - - Ἀποστολεύς, 28, b. - - Ἀποτειχισμός, 406, b. - - Ἀποτελεσματικός, 45, b. - - Ἀποτίμημα, 145, b. - - Ἀπόφασις, 38, a. - - Ἀποφορά, 28, b. - - Ἀποφράδες ἡμέραι, 301, a. - - Ἀποχειροτονεῖν, 35, a. - - Ἀποχειροτονία, 83, b. - - Ἀπωμοσία, 171, b. - - Ἀραιόστυλος, 367, b. - - Ἀρβύλη, 291, a. - - Ἀργάδεις, 389, b. - - Ἀργυράσπιδες, 40, a. - - Ἀργυροκοπεῖον, 40, a. - - Ἄργυρος, 40, a. - - Ἀρδάλιον, 185, a. - - Ἀρδάνιον, 185, a. - - Ἄρειος πάγος, 37, a. - - Ἀριστοκρατία, 40, b. - - Ἄριστον, 95, a. - - Ἅρμα, 123, b; 274, b. - - Ἁρμάμαξα, 199, b. - - Ἄροτρον, 31, b. - - Ἄρουρα, 43, a. - - Ἁρπάγη, 199, a. - - Ἁρπαστόν, 297, a. - - Ἅρπη, 173, b. - - Ἀῤῥηφόρια, 42, b. - - Ἀῤῥηφόροι, 42, b. - - Ἀρτάβη, 43, a. - - Ἀρτεμίσια, 43, a. - - Ἀρτοποιός, 297, b. - - Ἀρτοπῶλαι, 96, a. - - Ἀρτοπώλιδες, 96, a; 297, b. - - Ἀρτύσεις, 418, a. - - Ἀρχεῖον, 33, a. - - Ἀρχή, 35, b. - - Ἀρχίατρος, 33, a. - - Ἀρχιθέωρος, 129, a; 375, a. - - Ἀρχιτεκτονία, 33, a. - - Ἀρχιτεκτονική, 33, a. - - Ἀρχιτέκτων, 374, b. - - Ἄρχων, 34, b. - βασιλέυς, 35, a. - ἐπώνυμος, 35, a; 66, a; 86, a. - - Ἀρχώνης, 365, a. - - Ἀσάμινθος, 54, b. - - Ἄσβολος, 183, b. - - Ἀσεβείας γραφή, 44, a. - - Ἀσκαύλης, 376, b. - - Ἀσκληπίεια, 44, b. - - Ἀσκοί, 418, a. - - Ἀσκωλιασμός, 44, b. - - Ἄσκωμα, 265, b. - - Ἀσπιδεῖον, 264, a. - - Ἀσπιδίσκη, 264, a. - - Ἀσπίς, 41, b; 94, a. - - Ἀσπισταί, 41, b. - - Ἀσσάριον, 44, a. - - Ἀστράβη, 154, a. - - Ἀστράγαλος, 45, a; 361, b. - - Ἀστρατείας γραφή, 45, b. - - Ἄστυλος, 367, a. - - Ἀστυνόμοι, 46, a. - - Ἀσυλία, 46, a. - - Ἄσυλον, 46, a. - - Ἀτέλεια, 46, b; 366, a. - - Ἀτιμία, 8, a; 47, b. - - Ἄτιμος, 36, a; 47, b. - - Ἄτλαντες, 47, b. - - Ἄτρακτος, 191, b. - - Αὐθέψης, 54, a. - - Αὐλαία, 372, a; 408, a. - - Αὔλακες, 32, b. - - Αὔλειος θύρα, 140, b. - - Αὐλή, 16, b; 48, a; 140, b. - - Αὐλητρίδες, 377, b. - - Αὐλός, 207, a; 376, b. - - Αὐτόνομοι, 54, a. - - Αὐτοψία, 150, b. - - Ἀφεταί, 202, a. - - Ἀφετήριον ὄργανον, 381, a. - - Ἄφλαστον, 264, b. - - Ἄφοδος, 85, b. - - Ἄφρακτος ναῦς, 261, b. - - Ἀφρήτορ, 389, a. - - Ἀφροδίσια, 28, a. - - Ἀχίτων, 401, b. - - Ἁψίς, 29, b. - - - Β. - - Βαλανεῖον, 54, b. - - Βάλαντιον, 248, b. - - Βαλλισμοί, 283, b. - - Βάραθρον, 57, a. - - Βάρβιτον, -ος, 57, b; 245, b. - - Βασανισταί, 381, b. - - Βάσανος, 248, b; 381, a. - - Βασίλεια, 256, b. - - Βασιλεύς, 320, a; 360, b. - - Βασίλισσα, 35, a. - - Βασκανία, 175, a. - - Βελόνη, 6, b. - - Βελονίς, 6, b. - - Βέμβηξ, 198, a. - - Βενδίδεια, 58, a. - - Βηλός, 215, a. - - Βῆμα, 146, b; 249, a. - - Βίβασις, 328, b. - - Βιβλιοθήκη, 58, b. - - Βιβλίον, 238, a. - - Βιδιαῖοι, 59, a. - - Βῖκος, 59, a. - - Βιός, 37, b. - - Βοηδρόμια, 59, b. - - Βοηδρομιών, 65, b. - - Βοιωτάρχης, -ος, 59, b. - - Βολίς, 76, a. - - Βομβύλιος, 23, b. - - Βορεασμοί, 61, a. - - Βορεασμός, 61, a. - - Βουλευτήριον, 62, a. - - Βουλή, 3, b; 15, b; 61, a. - - Βοῶναι, 60, b. - - Βραβεῖς, 15, b. - - Βραβευταί, 15, b. - - Βραυρώνια, 62, a. - - Βρόχοι, 319, b. - - Βύβλος, 238, a. - - Βυκάνη, 62, b. - - Βυσσός, 63, a. - - Βωμός, 31, a. - - - Γ. - - Γαισός, 192, b. - - Γάλως, 13, b. - - Γαμηλία, 193, a. - - Γάμοροι, 91, a. - - Γάμος, 249, b. - - Γελέοντες, 389, b. - - Γενεθλιαλογία, 45, b. - - Γένειον, 57, a. - - Γενέσια, 187, b. - - Γένεσις, 46, a. - - Γένη, 389, a. - - Γεννῆται, 389, b. - - Γένος, 301, a. - - Γέρανος, 327, a. - - Γερουσία, 193, b. - - Γέῤῥα, 194, a. - - Γέφυρα, 302, a. - - Γεφυρίζειν, 151, a. - - Γεφυρισμός, 151, a. - - Γεωμόροι, 389, b. - - Γλεῦκος, 416, b. - - Γλύξις, 416, b. - - Γναφεύς, 184, a. - - Γνήσιος, 7, a. - - Γνώμων, 206, a. - - Γοργύρα, 72, a. - - Γράμμα, 331, a. - - Γραμματεύς, 3, b; 196, a. - - Γραφή, 131, b; 293, b. - - Γραφή δωροδοκίας, 127, a. - δώρων, 127, a. - ξενίας, 422, a. - παρανοίας, 284, a. - παρανόμων, 147, b; 284, a. - ὕβρεως, 210, a. - φαρμάκων, 292, b. - ψευδεγγραφῆς, 314, a. - - Γραφική, 293, b. - - Γραφίς, 295, b. - - Γρῖφος, 357, b. - - Γρόσφος, 200, b. - - Γύης, 31, b. - - Γυμνασιάρχης, 197, b. - - Γυμνασίαρχος, 197, b. - - Γυμνάσιον, 197, a. - - Γυμνασταί, 197, b. - - Γυμνήσιοι, 198, a. - - Γυμνῆται, 41, b. - - Γυμνῆτες, 41, b; 198, b. - - Γυμνοί, 41, b; 272, b. - - Γυμνοπαιδία, 198, b. - - Γυναικοκόσμοι, 198, b. - - Γυναικονόμοι, 198, b. - - Γυναικωνῖτις, 140, a. - - Γωρυτός, 37, b. - - - Δ. - - Δαδοῦχος, 150, b. - - Δαίδαλα, 126, b. - - Δαιδάλεια, 126, b. - - Δακτύλιος, 25, b. - - Δάκτυλος, 126, b. - - Δαμαρέτειον χρύσιον, 126, b. - - Δαμοσία, 161, b; 301, b. - - Δανάκη, 126, b; 185, a. - - Δαρεικός, 126, b. - - Δαφνηφόρια, 126, b. - - Δεῖγμα, 128, b. - - Δείλη, 134, b. - - Δεῖπνον, 95, a. - - Δεκαδαρχία, 127, a. - - Δεκαδοῦχοι, 127, a. - - Δεκαρχία, 127, a. - - Δεκασμός, 127, a. - - Δεκάστυλος, 367, b. - - Δεκατευταί, 128, b. - - Δεκάτη, 128, b. - - Δεκατηλόγοι, 128, a. - - Δεκατῶναι, 128, a. - - Δελφίνια, 129, a. - - Δελφίς, 129, a. - - Δεσμωτήριον, 72, a. - - Δεσποσιοναῦται, 202, a. - - Δευτεραγωνιστής, 205, b. - - Δῆγμα, 182, b. - - Δήλια, 128, b; 283, b. - - Δήμαρχοι, 129, a; 385, b. - - Δημιοῦργοι, 3, b; 129, a; 389. b. - - Δήμιος, 202, a. - - Δημοκρατία, 129, b. - - Δῆμος, 129, b; 130, a. - - Δημόσιοι, 129, b. - - Δημόσιον, 11, b; 33, a. - - Δημόται, 130, a. - - Διαγραφεῖς, 149, a. - - Διάζωμα, 422, b. - - Διαζώματα, 371, a. - - Διαιτηταί, 130, b. - - Διάκριοι, 390, a. - - Διαμαρτυρία, 24, b. - - Διαμαστίγωσις, 130, b. - - Διάσια, 131, a. - - Διάστυλος, 367, b. - - Δίαυλος, 274, b; 348, b. - - Διαχειροτονία 83, b. - - Διαψήφισις, 130, b. - - Διελκυστίνδα παίζειν, 198, a. - - Διῆρες, 141, b. - - Δίκαι ἔμμηνοι, 152, a. - - Διιπόλεια, 135, b. - - Διιπόλια, 135, b. - - Δικαστής, 131, a. - - Δικαστικόν, 131, a. - - Δίκη, 131, b. - ἀποστασίου, 338, b. - - Δίκη αὐτοτελής, 132, b. - βλάβης, 248, b. - ἐξούλης, 152, a. - λειπομαρτυρίου, 248, b. - προικός, 345, a. - σίτου, 345, a. - χρέους, 377, b. - - Δίκροτα, 260, b. - - Δικτύννια, 134, b. - - Δίκτυον, 319, b. - - Διμάχαι, 135, b; 164, a. - - Δίμιτος, 364, b. - - Διοικήσεως, ὁ ἐπὶ, 362, b. - - Διόλεια, 135, b. - - Διονύσια, 135 b. - ἐν ἄστει, or μεγάλα, 135, b. - κατ’ ἀργούς, or μικρά, 135, b. - - Διοσημεῖα, 138, b. - - Διοσκούρια, 137, a. - - Διπλοΐδιον, 401, a. - - Διπλοΐς, 401, a. - - Διπόλεια, 135, b. - - Δίπτερος, 367, a. - - Δίπτυχα, 137, b; 358, b; 360, a. - - Δίσκος, 137, b. - - Διφθέρα, 137, a; 238, a. - - Δίφρος, 124, b. - - Διωβελία, 374, b. - - Δόκανα, 139, b. - - Δοκιμασία, 139, b; 153, b. - - Δόλιχος, 274, b; 348, b. - - Δόλων, 140, a. - - Δοράτιον, 199, b. - - Δόρπον, 95, a. - - Δόρυ, 41, b; 199, b. - - Δοῦλος, 337, a. - - Δράκων, 343, b. - - Δραχμή, 145, b. - - Δρεπάνη, Δρέπανον, 173, b. - - Δροῖται, 185, b. - - Δρόμος, 274, b. - - Δυμανάται, 389, a. - - Δυμᾶνες, 389, a. - - Δωμάτια, 140, b. - - Δῶρα, 145, a. - - Δωροδοκίας γραφή. 127, a. - - Δῶρον, 281, a. - - Δώρων γραφή, 127, a. - - - Ε. - - Ἐγγύησις, 249, b. - - Ἔγκλημα, 131, b. - - Ἔγκτημα, 152, b. - - Ἔγκτησις, 91, a; 152, b. - - Ἔγχος, 41, b; 199, b. - - Ἕδνα, 145, a. - - Ἕδος, 367, a. - - Ἑδώλια, 265, b. - - Ἔεδνα, 145, a. - - Ἐθελοπρόξενος, 209, a. - - Εἰκόνες, 351, a. - - Εἰκοστή, 148, b. - - Εἰκοστολόγοι, 148, b. - - Εἵλωτες, 201, b. - - Εἴρην, 148, b. - - Εἰσαγγελία, 148, b. - - Εἰσιτήρια, 148, b. - - Εἰσποιεῖσθαι, 7, a. - - Εἰσποίησις, 7, a. - - Εἰσποιητός, 7, a. - - Εἰσφέρειν, 149. a. - - Εἰσφορά, 148, b. - - Ἑκατόμβαια, 203, a. - - Ἑκατομβαιών, 65, b. - - Ἑκατομβή, 203, a; 324, b. - - Ἔκγονοι, 203, a. - - Ἔκδικος, 148, a. - - Ἔκδοσις, 176, b. - - Ἐκεχειρία, 274. a. - - Ἐκκλησία, 146, b. - κυρία, 146, b. - νόμιμος, 146, b. - σύγκλητος, 146, b. - - Ἔκκλητοι, 206, b. - - Ἐκκομιδή, 185, b. - - Ἐκλογεῖς, 149, a. - - Ἐκμαρτυρία, 24, b; 148, a. - - Ἐκποιεῖν, 7, a. - - Ἐκποιεῖσθαι, 7. a. - - Ἑκτεύς, Ἕκτη, 201, a. - - Ἐκφορά, 185, a. - - Ἐκφυλλοφορία, 172, b. - - Ἐλαία, Ἔλαιον, 273, b. - - Ἐλατήρ, 398, a. - - Ἐλαφηβολιών, 65, b. - - Ἐλέος, 382, b. - - Ἐλευθέρια, 151, b. - - Ἐλευσίνια, 149, b. - - Ἑλκυστίνδα παίζειν, 198, a. - - Ἑλλανοδίκαι, 18, a; 201, b; 275, a. - - Ἑλληνοταμίαι, 201, b. - - Ἐλλόβιον, 211, b. - - Ἐλλώτια, or Ἑλλώτια, 151, b. - - Ἔλυμα, 31, b. - - Ἐμβάς, 151, b. - - Ἐμβατεία, 151, b. - - Ἔμβλημα, 152, a. - - Ἐμβολή, 40, b. - - Ἔμβολον, 264, a. - - Ἔμβολος, 124, a; 264, a. - - Ἐμμέλεια, 85, b. - - Ἔμμηνοι δίκαι, 152, a. - - Ἔμπαισμα, 152, a. - - Ἐμποριον, 152, b. - - Ἔμπορος, 152, b. - - Ἔμφρουρος, 161, a. - - Ἐναγίσματα, 187, b. - - Ἔνατα, 187, a. - - Ἔνδειξις, 152, b. - - Ἕνδεκα οἱ, 202, b. - - Ἐνδοῦναι, 140, b. - - Ἐνδρομίς, 152, b. - - Ἔνδυμα, 19, b. - - Ἔννατα, 187, a. - - Ἐννεάκρουνος, 29, b. - - Ἐννεατηρίς, 316, a. - - Ἔνοπτρον, 347, a. - - Ἔντεα, 41, a. - - Ἐνωμοτίαι, 161, a. - - Ἐνώτιον, 211, b. - - Ἑξάστυλος, 367, a. - - Ἐξέδρα, 140, b; 160, b; 258, b. - - Ἐξετασταί, 160, b. - - Ἐξηγηταί, 160, a; 160, b. - - Ἑξήρεις, 262, a. - - Ἐξόδια, 171, a. - - Ἔξοδος, 384, a. - - Ἐξούλης δίκη, 152, a. - - Ἐξωμίς, 171, a. - - Ἐξωμοσία, 171, b. - - Ἐξώστρα, 171, b. - - Ἑορτή, 274, b. - - Ἐπαγγελία, 153, a. - - Ἑπάλξεις, 381, a; 406, b. - - Ἐπάριτοι, 153, a. - - Ἐπαύλια, 250, b. - - Ἐπεισόδιον, 384, a. - - Ἐπιβάθρα, 303, a. - - Ἐπιβάται, 155, a. - - Ἐπίβλημμα, 19, b. - - Ἐπιβόλαιον, 19, b. - - Ἐπιβολή, 155, a. - - Ἐπιγαμία, 91, a. - - Ἐπίγραμμα, 377, b. - - Ἐπιγραφεῖς, 149, a. - - Ἐπιδαύρια, 151, a. - - Ἐπιδόσεις, 155, a. - - Ἐπίθημα, 186, b. - - Ἐπίκληρος, 155, a. - - Ἐπίκλιντρον, 222, a. - - Ἐπίλογοι, 358, b. - - Ἐπιμεληταί, 155, b; 316, a. - τοῦ ἐμπορίον, 152, b; 155, b. - τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου, 155, b; 362, b. - τῶν μοριῶν Ἐλαιῶν, 155, b. - τῶν Μυστηρίων, 155, b. - τῶν νεωρίων, 155, b. - τῶν φυλῶν, 155, b. - - Ἐπιμύλιον, 256, a. - - Ἐπιπόραδος, 85, b. - - Ἐπίπροικοι, 203, a. - - Ἐπίσκοποι, 155, b. - - Ἐπισπάσασθαι, 140, b. - - Ἐπισπαστήρ, 140, b. - - Ἐπιστάτης, 61, b; 161, b. - τῶν δημοσίων ἔργων, 155, b. - - Ἐπιστολεύς, 155, b. - - Ἐπιστύλιον, 102, a; 155, b. - - Ἐπίσωτρον, 124, a. - - Ἐπίταγμα, 163, b. - - Ἐπίτονοι, 222, a; 267, b. - - Ἐπίτροπος, 155, b. - - Ἐπιχειροτονία, 35, a; 83, b. - - Ἐπόπται, 150, b. - - Ἐποπτεία, 150, b. - - Ἐπωβελία, 156, a. - - Ἐπωμίς, 401, a. - - Ἐπωνία, 365, b. - - Ἐπώνυμος, 35, a. - - Ἔρανος, 95, b; 159, a. - - Ἐργάναι, 363, b. - - Ἐργαστῖναι, 282, a. - - Ἑρμαῖ, 204, a. - - Ἕρμαια, 204, a. - - Ἐῤῥηφόροι, 42, b. - - Ἐρσηφόροι, 42, b. - - Ἐρυκτῆρες, 202, a. - - Ἐρώτια, 159, b. - - Ἐρωτίδια, 159, b. - - Ἔσοπτρον, 347, a. - - Ἐστία, 180, b. - - Ἐστιάσις, 204, a. - - Ἑστιάτωρ, 204, b. - - Ἐσχάρα, 31, a; 141, b; 180, b. - - Ἐσχαρίς, 31 a; 141, b; 180, b. - - Ἑταιρία, 98, a; 159, a; 359, b. - - Ἕταιροι, 163, b. - - Ἑτεροστόμος, 268, b. - - Εὔδειπνος, 11, a. - - Εὔζωνος, 401, b. - - Εὐθυδικία, 132, a. - - Εὐθύνη, 154, b; 160, a. - - Εὔθυνοι, 160, b. - - Εὐμολπίδαι, 159, b. - - Εὐνή, 222, a. - - Εὐπατρίδαι, 91, a; 160, a. - - Εὔστυλος, 367, b. - - Εὐφημεῖτε, 138, b. - - Εὐφημία, 138, b. - - Ἐφελκύσασθαι, 140, b. - - Ἐφέσις, 29, a. - - Ἐφέται, 153, b. - - Ἐφηβεία, 153, a. - - Ἔφηβος, 153, a. - - Ἐφήγησις, 153, b. - - Ἐφίππειον, 154, a. - - Ἐφίππιον, 154, a. - - Ἔφοροι, 154, a. - - Ἔφυροι, 150, b. - - Ἐχῖνος, 24, b; 132, a; 249, a. - - Ἕψημα, 416, b. - - Ἐώρα, 11, a. - - - Ζ. - - Ζάκοροι, 10, a. - - Ζευγῖται, 81, b; 162, a; 390, a. - - Ζεῦγλαι, 266, a. - - Ζευκτηρίαι, 266, a. - - Ζητηταί, 422, b. - - Ζυγά, 265, b. - - Ζύγιοι, 124, b; 265, b. - - Ζυγῖται, 124, b; 265, b. - - Ζύγον, 161, a; 217, a; 245, b; 329, a. - - Ζύγος, 217, a; 329, a. - - Ζύθος, 82, b. - - Ζωγραφία, 293, b. - - Ζῶμα, 422, b. - - Ζωμὸς μέλας, 360, a. - - Ζώνα, 41, a; 422, b. - - Ζωστήρ, 41, b; 422, b. - - Ζωφόρος, 102, a; 422, b. - - - Η. - - Ἡγεμόνες συμμοριῶν, 393, a. - - Ἡγεμονία δικαστηρίου, 249, a. - - Ἠθμός, 101, a. - - Ἠλακάτη, 191, b.; 267, a. - - Ἤλεκτρον -ος, 149, b. - - Ἡλιοτρόπιον, 207, a. - - Ἦμαρ δείελον, 134, b. - μέσον, 134, b. - - Ἡμέρα κυρία τοῦ νόμου, 94, a. - μέση, 134, b. - - Ἡμεροδρόμοι, 202, a. - - Ἡμιδιπλοΐδιον, 401, a. - - Ἡμιεκτεόν, 201, a. - - Ἡμιέκτον, 201, a. - - Ἡμικύκλιον, 202, a. - - Ἡμίμνα, or Ἡμίνα, 120, b; 202, b. - - Ἡνίοχος, 124, b. - - Ἡραῖα, 202, b. - - Ἡρῷον, 186, a. - - Ἠώς, 134, b. - - - Θ. - - Θαλάμιοι, 265, b. - - Θαλαμῖται, 265, b. - - Θάλαμος, 141, b; 265, b. - - Θαλλοφόροι, 282, b. - - Θάπτειν, 185, b. - - Θαργήλια, 370, a. - - Θαργηλιών, 65, b. - - Θέατρον, 273, a; 370, b. - - Θεατροπώλης, 374, b. - - Θεατρώνης, 374, b. - - Θέμα, 46, a. - - Θεοφανία, 374, a. - - Θεράπων, 161, b; 202, a. - - Θερμά, 55, a. - - Θέσις, 7, a. - - Θεσμοθέται, 35, a. - - Θεσμός, 35, b; 271, b. - - Θεσμοφόριος, 375, b. - - Θετοί, 7, a. - - Θεωρία, 375, a. - - Θεωρικά, 374, a. - - Θεωρίς, 128, b; 283, b. - - Θεωροί, 128, b; 375, a. - - Θῆκαι, 186, a. - - Θηριομάχοι, 58, b. - - Θησαυρός, 367, a; 375, a. - - Θησεῖα, 375, b. - - Θῆτες, 81, b; 390, a. - - Θίασος, 135, b. - - Θολία, 405, a. - - Θόλος, 376, a. - - Θόωκος, 15, b. - - Θράνιον, 376, a. - - Θρανῖται, 265, b. - - Θράνος, 265, b. - - Θρηνῳδοί, 185, b. - - Θρίαμβος, 394, a. - - Θρόνος, 376, a. - - Θυμέλη, 371, b. - - Θυμιατήριον, 2, a; 402, b. - - Θύρα, 214, b. - αὔλειος, 140, b. - βαλανωτός, 141, a. - κηπαία, 141, b. - μέσαυλος, 141, a. - μέταυλος, 141, a. - - Θυρεός, 331, a. - - Θύρετρον, 215, a. - - Θυρίδες, 141, b. - - Θύρσος, 376, a. - - Θυρῶν, 140, b. - - Θυρωρεῖον, 140, b. - - Θυρωρός, 140, b; 215, a. - - Θύσανοι, 10, b. - - Θυτήριον, 31, a. - - Θώραξ, 41, a; 240, b. - - - Ι. - - Ἴακχος, 150, b. - - Ἴγδη, Ἴγδις, 257, a. - - Ἵδρυσις, 366, b. - - Ἱερεῖον, 324, a. - - Ἱεροδιδάσκαλος, 303, a. - - Ἱερόδουλοι, 204, b. - - Ἱερομαντεία, 138, a. - - Ἱερομηνία, 274, a. - - Ἱερομνήμονες, 20, a; 205, a. - - Ἱερόν, 362, a; 366, b. - - Ἱερονῖκαι, 47, a. - - Ἱερονόμος, 303, a. - - Ἱεροποιοί, 205, a. - - Ἱεροσκοπία, 138, a. - - Ἱεροφάντης, 150, a; 159, b; 303, a. - - Ἱεροφύλαξ, 303, a. - - Ἱκετηρία, 421, a. - - Ἴκρια, 260, a. - - Ἰλάρια, 205, a. - - Ἴλη, 163, b. - - Ἱμάντες, 82, b; 267, b. - - Ἱμάντες πυκτικοί, 82, b. - - Ἱματίδιον, 280, a. - - Ἱμάτιον, 19, a; 280, a. - - Ἰνῶα, 213, a. - - Ἱππαρμοστής, 161, a. - - Ἴππαρχος, 3, b; 162, b. - - Ἱππεῖς, 13, b; 81, b; 390, a. - - Ἱππικόν, 348, b. - - Ἱπποβόται, 205, a. - - Ἱππόδρομος, 348, b. - - Ἱπποκόμος, 162, b. - - Ἴρην, 148, b. - - Ἴσθμια, 214, a. - - Ἰσοπολιτεία, 91, a; 255, a. - - Ἰσοτέλεια, 91, a; 255, a; 366, a. - - Ἰσοτελεῖς, 91, a; 255, a. - - Ἱστίον, 259, b; 267, a. - - Ἱστοβοεύς, 31, b. - - Ἱστός, 259, b; 266, a; 363, b. - - Ἱστών, 141, b; 363, b. - - Ἴτυς, 124, a. - - Ἱφικρατίδες, 163, a. - - - Κ. - - Καβείρια, 63, a. - - Κάδος, Κάδδος, 23, b; 63, b. - - Καθάπαξ, 47, b. - - Κάθαρσις, 244, a. - - Καθετήρ, 318, b. - - Κάθοδος, 375, b. - - Καίειν, 185, b. - - Κάλαθος, 64, a. - κάθοδος, 150, b. - - Κάλαμος, 301, a. - - Καλλιγένεια, 375, b. - - Καλλιερεῖν, 138, b. - - Καλλιστεῖα, 68, b. - - Καλοβάτης, 184, b. - - Κάλοι, 260, b; 267, b. - - Καλῳδία, 267, b. - - Καμάρα, 69, a. - - Κάναβος, or Κίναβος, 69, a. - - Κάναθρον, 69, a. - - Κάνδυς, 70, a. - - Κάνεον, 70, a. - - Κανηφόρος, 70, a; 282, b. - - Κανών, 364, b. - - Καπηλεῖον, 77, a. - - Κάπηλος, 77, a; 152, b. - - Καπνοδόκη, 141, b. - - Καρνεάται, 72, b. - - Καρνεῖα, 72, b. - - Καρπαία, 328, a. - - Καρχήσιον, 72, a. - - Καρύα, 73, a. - - Καρυατίς, 73, a. - - Καταβλητική, 242, a. - - Καταγώγιον, 77, a. - - Κατάλογος, 76, a. - - Κατάλυσις, 77, a. - - Καταπειρατήρια, 76, a. - - Καταπέλτης, 381, a. - - Καταπελτική, 381, a. - - Καταῤῥάκτης, 76, a. - - Κατάστασις, 162, b. - - Καταστρώματα, 261, a. - - Κατατομαί, 371, a. - - Κατάφρακτοι, 261, a. - - Καταχειροτονία, 83, b. - - Καταχύσματα, 250, a. - - Κατήγορος, 358, b. - - Κάτοπτρον, 347, a. - - Κατορύττειν, 185, b. - - Κατοχεύς, 215, a. - - Καυσία, 77, b. - - Κεάδας, 72, a; 78, a. - - Κειρία, 222, a. - - Κεκρύφαλος, 103, b. - - Κελευστής, 259, a; 305, b. - - Κεραία, 267, a. - - Κεραμεύς, 178, b. - - Κεράμιον, 178, b. - - Κέραμος, 178, b; 363, b. - - Κέρας, 163, b; 322, b. - - Κερατίον, 405, b. - - Κερκίδες, 364, b; 371, a. - - Κεροῦχοι, 267, b. - - Κεφαλή, 40, b. - - Κηπαία θύρα, 141, b. - - Κῆπος, 207, b. - - Κηρογραφία, 295, a. - - Κηροός, 82, b. - - Κηρύκειον, 63, a. - - Κηρύκιον, 63, a. - - Κιβωτός, 32, a. - - Κίθαρις,245, a. - - Κίονες, 186, a. - - Κίστη, 90, a. - - Κιστοφόρος, 90, b. - - Κίων, 101, b. - - Κλεῖθρον, 215, a. - - Κλείς, 178, b. - - Κλεψύδρα, 249, a. - - Κλήιδες, 260, a. - - Κληρονόμος, 203, a. - - Κλῆρος, 203, a. - - Κληρουχία, 93, a; 98, b. - - Κληροῦχοι, 93, a. - - Κλητῆρες, 93, a. - - Κλήτορες, 93, a. - - Κλιμακίδες, 266, a. - - Κλίνη, 221, a; 222, a. - - Κλινίδιον, 221, a. - - Κλισίας, 215, a. - - Κναφεύς, 184, a. - - Κνέφαλον, 222, a. - - Κνῆμαι, 124, a. - - Κνημίς, 41, a; 273, a. - - Κόγξ, 150, b. - - Κόθορνος, 120, a. - - Κοιλοι, 65, b. - - Κοῖλον, 371, a. - - Κοινὸν τῶν Αἰτώλων, 13, a. - - Κοιτῶνες, 140, b. - - Κολεός, 196, a. - - Κολοσσός, 101, a. - - Κόλπος, 401, a. - - Κολῶναι, 186, a. - - Κόμη, 103, a. - - Κομμός, 384, a. - - Κοντός, 266, a. - - Κοπίς, 122, a. - - Κόρδαξ, 85, b; 111, a. - - Κόρη, 400, b. - - Κορυβαντικά, 119, b. - - Κόρυμβος, 103, a. - - Κόρυς, 41, b; 192, b. - - Κορώνη, 288, a. - - Κορωνίς, 102, b; 119, b. - - Κοσμοί, 120, a. - - Κότινος, 275, b. - - Κότταβος, 120, b. - - Κοτύλη, 120, b. - - Κοτύττια, 120, b. - - Κουρά, 103, a. - - Κόφινος, 117, a. - - Κοχλιάριον, 94, b. - - Κοχλίας, 94, b. - - Κράνος, 192, b. - - Κρατήρ, 121, a. - - Κρεάγρα, 199, b. - - Κρήνη, 29, b; 181, a. - - Κρηπίς, 121, a. - - Κρίκος, 211, b. - - Κριός, 40, a. - - Κριταί, 121, a. - - Κροκή, 364, a. - - Κροκωτόν -ός, 121, a. - - Κρόταλον, 126, a. - - Κρούειν, 215, a. - - Κρυπτεία, 121, b. - - Κρωβύλος, 103, a. - - Κτείς, 288, a. - - Κύαθος, 125, a. - - Κυάμος, 96, a. - - Κυβερνῆται, 259, a. - - Κυβιστηρες, 328, a. - - Κύβος, 368, b. - - Κύκλα, 124, a. - - Κυκλάς, 125, b. - - Κύκλος, 338, a. - - Κύλιξ, 68, a. - - Κῦμα, 125, b. - - Κύμβαλον, 125, b. - - Κύμβη, 125, b. - - Κυνέη, 41, b; 192, b. - - Κυρβασία, 376, b. - - Κύρβεις, 54, b; 271, b. - - Κύριος, 123, b; 250, b. - - Κύων, 362, a. - - Κώδων, 378, a. - - Κωλακρέται, 98, a; 363, a. - - Κῶμος, 110, b. - - Κωμῳδία, 110, b. - - Κωνοπεῖον, 113, a. - - Κώπη, 265, b. - - - Λ. - - Λαμπαδαρχία, 220, a. - - Λαμπαδηδρομία, 220, a. - - Λαμπαδηφορία, 220, a. - - Λαμπάς, 220, a. - - Λάρνακες, 185, b. - - Λάφρια, 220, b. - - Λέβης, 273, b. - - Λειτουργία, 224, a. - - Λεκάνη, 286, a. - - Λεκανίς, 207, a. - - Λέσχη, 225, a. - - Λέχος, 222, a. - - Λήκυθος, 23, b; 185, a; 295, b. - - Λήναια, 135, b. - - Ληνοί, 185, b. - - Ληνός, 416, b. - - Ληξιαρχικὸν γραμματεῖον, 130, a. - - Λῆξις, 131, b. - - Λιβανωτρίς, 2, b. - - Λιβυρνίς, 239, a; 262, b. - - Λιβυρνόν, 239, a; 262, b. - - Λιθοτομίαι, 221, a. - - Λικμός, 407, a. - - Λίκνον, 407, a. - - Λίνα, 319, b. - - Λίτρα, 240, a. - - Λογεῖον, 372, a. - - Λογισταί, 160, b. - - Λογιστής, 65, a. - - Λόγχη, 199, b. - - Λοετρόν, 54, b. - - Λοιβαί, 325, b. - - Λουτήρ, 55, a. - - Λουτήριον, 55, a. - - Λουτρόν, 54, b. - - Λουτροφόρος, 250, a. - - Λόφος, 192, b. - - Λοχαγοί, 161, a; 363, b. - - Λόχος, 161, a; 162, b; 363, b. - - Λύκαια, 245, a. - - Λύκος, 199, a. - - Λύρα, 245, a. - - Λύχνος, 241, b. - - Λυχνοῦχος, 70, a. - - - Μ. - - Μάζα, 96, a; 285, a. - - Μαιμακτηριών, 65, b. - - Μάνδαλος, 215, a. - - Μανδύας, 219, b. - - Μανδύη, 219, b. - - Μαντεῖον, 276, b. - - Μάντεις, 137, b. - - Μαντική, 137, b. - - Μαρσύπιον, 248, b. - - Μαρτυρία, 24, b; 248, b. - - Μαστιγονόμοι, 249, a. - - Μαστιγοφόροι, 249, a. - - Μάστιξ, 179, b. - - Μάχαιρα, 122, a; 315, a. - - Μέγαρον, 367, a. - - Μέδιμνος, 253, a. - - Μεθίστασται, 172, a. - - Μελία, 199, b. - - Μελίκρατον, 418, b. - - Μελιττοῦτα, 185, a. - - Μελλείρην, 148, b. - - Μεσαύλιος θύρα, 141, a. - - Μέσαυλος θύρα, 141, a. - - Μεσημβρία, 134, b. - - Μεταγειτνιών, 65, b. - - Μέταλλον, 254, a. - - Μετάστασις, 85, b. - - Μέταυλος θύρα, 141, a. - - Μετεωρολογία, 45, b. - - Μετοίκιον, 255, a; 365, b. - - Μέτοικοι, 254, b. - - Μετόπη, 255, a. - - Μετρητής, 255, b. - - Μέτωπον, 263, a. - - Μήν ἐμβόλιμος, 65, b. - - Μητρόπολις, 98, b. - - Μήτρῳον, 33, a. - - Μῖμος, 255, b. - - Μισθὸς ἐκκλησιαστικός, 147, a. - - Μίτοι, 364, b. - - Μίτρα, 103, a; 256, a; 422, b. - - Μίτρη, 41, a. - - Μνᾶ, 361, b. - - Μνήματα, 186, a. - - Μνημεῖα, 186, a. - - Μόθακες, 202, a. - - Μόθωνες, 202, a. - - Μοιχείας γραφή, 8, a. - - Μολυβδίδες, 184, b. - - Μοναρχία, 256, b. - - Μονομάχοι, 194, b. - - Μονοχίτων, 401, a. - - Μόρα, 161, a. - - Μουνυχιών, 65, b. - - Μουσεῖον, 258, b. - - Μοχλός, 215, a. - - Μυκτῆρες, 241, b. - - Μύλος, 256, a. - - Μύξαι, 241, b. - - Μυρίοι, 258, b. - - Μυῤῥίναι, 418, a. - - Μύσια, 258, b. - - Μυσταγωγός, 150, a; 159, b. - - Μύσται, 150, a. - - Μυστήρια, 258, b. - - Μυστίλη, 95, b. - - Μύστρον, 95, b. - - Μύστρος, 95, b. - - - Ν. - - Ναΐδιον, 186, a. - - Ναός, 366, b. - - Ναυαρχία, 259, a. - - Ναύαρχος, 259, a. - - Ναύκληροι, 259, b; 359, a. - - Ναυκραρία, 259, a. - - Ναύκραρος, 259, a. - - Ναῦς, 259, b. - - Ναυτικόν, 176, b. - - Ναυτοδίκαι, 268, b. - - Νεάζεσθαι, 32, b. - - Νεκρόδειπνον, 187, a. - - Νεκύσια, 187, b. - - Νεμαῖα, 269, a. - - Νέμεα, 269, a. - - Νεμεῖα, 269, a. - - Νεοδαμώδεις, 202, a. - - Νεός, 32, b. - - Νεοῦσθαι, 32, b. - - Νεωκόροι, 10, a; 269, a. - - Νεώς, 366, b. - - Νῆες, 262, a. - - Νήμα, 191, b. - - Νηστεία, 375, b. - - Νομοθέτης, 35, b; 271, b. - - Νόμος, 271, b. - - Νομοφύλακες, 271, a. - - Νουμηνία, 65, a. - - Νυμφευτής, 250, a. - - Νυχθήμερον, 134, b. - - - Ξ. - - Ξεναγία, 163, a. - - Ξεναγοί, 421, b. - - Ξενηλασία, 422, a. - - Ξενία, 208, a. - - Ξενίας γραφή, 422, a. - - Ξενικά, 255, a. - - Ξένος, 208, a; 254, b. - - Ξενῶνες, 141, b. - - Ξέστης, 422, a. - - Ξίφος, 41, b; 196, a. - - Ξόανον, 349, a. - - Ξυήλη, 161, b. - - Ξυλοκοπία, 191, b. - - Ξυστήρ, 17, b. - - Ξύστρα, 56, b. - - - Ο. - - Ὀβολός, 145, a; 361, b. - - Ὀγδόδιον, 375, b. - - Ὀγκία, or Οὐγκία, 405, a. - - Ὁδοποιοί, 363, a. - - Οἰκήματα, 140, b. - - Οἰκιστής, 98, b. - - Οἶκος, 140, a. - - Οἰνιστήρια, 103, a. - - Οἰνόμελι, 418, a. - - Οἶνος, 416, a. - - Οἰωνιστική, 138, b. - - Οἰωνοπόλος, 49, b. - - Οἰωνοσκόποι, 49, b. - - Ὀκρίβας, 372, a. - - Ὀκτάστυλος, 367, a. - - Ὀλιγαρχία, 41, a; 273, b. - - Ὁλκάδες, 262, a. - - Ὁλκοί, 261, b. - - Ὄλμος, 257, a. - - Ὀλοκαυτεῖν, 324, b. - - Ὀλύμπια, 274, a. - - Ὀλυμπιάς, 276, a. - - Ὁμογάλακτες, 389, b. - - Ὅμοιοι, 91, b; 161, b; 206, a. - - Ὁμολογία, 358, b. - - Ὀμφάλος, 94, a; 163, b. - - Ὀνειροπολία, 138, b. - - Ὄνομα, 270, b. - - Ὄνος, 256, a. - - Ὀξίς, 2, b. - - Ὀξυβάφιον, 2, b. - - Ὀξύβαφον, 2, b; 120, b. - - Ὀξυγράφοι, 272, a. - - Ὀπή, 255, a. - - Ὀπισθόδομος, 367, a. - - Ὅπλα, 41, a. - - Ὅπλητες, 389, b. - - Ὁπλίται, 41, b. - - Ὄργια, 258, b. - - Ὀργυιά, 278, a. - - Ὀρείχαλκος, 278, a. - - Ὄρκος, 218, a. - - Ὄρμος, 256, b; 328, b. - - Ὄρυγμα, 57, a. - - Ὄρχησις, 327, b. - - Ὀρχήστρα, 371, b. - - Ὀρχηστύς, 327, b. - - Ὄσιοι, 277, a. - - Ὀστράκιον, 178, b. - - Ὀστρακισμός, 172, a. - - Ὄστρακον, 172, b; 178, b; 185, a. - - Ὀσχοφόρια, 278, a. - - Οὐγγία, 405, a. - - Οὐγκία, 405, a. - - Οὖδας, 215, a. - - Οὐλαμοί, 161, b. - - Οὐλόχυτα, 325, a. - - Οὐλοχύται, 325, a. - - Οὐραγός, 161, b; 166, b. - - Οὐριάχος, 200, a. - - Ὄφεις, 42, b. - - Ὀχάνη, 94, a. - - Ὄχανον, 94, a. - - Ὀχλοκρατία, 129, b. - - Ὄψημα, 276, b. - - Ὄψον, 276, b. - - Ὀψώνης, 276, b. - - - Π. - - Παγκρατιασταί, 282, b. - - Παγκράτιον, 282, b. - - Παιάν, 279, a. - - Παιδαγωγός, 279, a. - - Παιδονόμος, 279, a. - - Παιδοτριβαί, 197, b. - - Παιήων, 279, a. - - Παίων, 279, a. - - Πάλαισμα, 242, a. - - Παλαισμοσύνη, 242, a. - - Παλαιστή, 281, a. - - Παλαίστρα, 279, b. - - Πάλη, 242, a. - - Παμβοιώτια, 281, b. - - Πάμμαχοι, 282, b. - - Πάμφυλοι, 389, a. - - Παναθήναια, 281, b. - - Πανδοκεῖον, 77, a. - - Πανήγυρις, 283, a. - - Πανιώνια, 283, a. - - Πανοπλία, 283, a. - - Παράβασις, 111, a. - - Παραγναθίδες, 192, b. - - Παραγραφή, 283, b. - - Παράδεισος, 283, b. - - Παραθύρα, 215, a. - - Παραιβάτης, 124, b. - - Παραλῖται, 283, b. - - Πάραλοι, 283, b; 390, a. - - Πάραλος, 283, b. - - Παράμεσος δάκτυλος, 25, b. - - Παρανοίας γραφή, 284, a. - - Παρανόμων γραφή, 147, b; 284, a. - - Παράνυμφος, 250, a. - - Παραπέτασμα, 140, b; 372, a. - - Παραπρεσβεία, 284, b. - - Παραστάδες, 26, a. - - Παραπυλίς, 305, a. - - Παραῤῥύματα, 267, b. - - Παρασάγγης, 284, b. - - Παράσημον, 263, b. - - Παράσιτος, 284, b. - - Παρασκήνιον, 372, a. - - Παραστάς, 141, a. - - Παράστασι, ἐν, 367, a. - - Παραστάται, 266, a. - - Πάρεδροι, 284, b. - - Παρήορος, 124, b. - - Πάροδοι, 372, a. - - Πάροδος, 85, b. - - Πάροχος, 250, a. - - Παστός, 289, b. - - Πάτραι, 389, a. - - Πεδιαῖοι, 390, a. - - Πέδιλον, 64, b. - - Πεζέταιροι, 163, b. - - Πελάται, 288, b. - - Πέλεκυς, 331, b. - - Πελτασταί, 42, a; 163, a; 289, a. - - Πέλτη, 42, a; 288, b. - - Πενέσται, 289, a. - - Πενταετηρίς, 274, b. - - Πένταθλοι, 289, a. - - Πένταθλον, 289, a. - - Πεντακοσιαρχία, 163, b. - - Πεντακοσιομέδιμνοι, 81, b; 390, a. - - Πενταλιθίζειν, 362, a. - - Πεντάλιθος, 198, a. - - Πεντάπτυχα, 360, a. - - Πεντηκόντορος, 260, b; 262, a. - - Πεντηκοστή, 289, a. - - Πεντηκοστήρ, 161, a. - - Πεντηκοστολόγοι, 289, b. - - Πεντηκοστύς, 161, a. - - Πεντήρεις, 262, a. - - Πέπλος, 289, b. - - Περίαμμα, 24, a. - - Περίαπτον, 24, a. - - Περίβλημα, 19, b. - - Περιβόλαιον, 19, b. - - Περίβολος, 323, a. - - Περίδειπνον, 187, a. - - Περίοικοι, 290, b. - - Περίπατος, 258, b. - - Περιπόδιον, 213, a. - - Περίπολοι, 153, b; 162, a. - - Περίπτερος, 367, a. - - Περιῤῥαντήρια, 366, b. - - Περισκελλίς, 291, a. - - Περιστύλιον, 102, a; 140, b. - - Περιτειχισμός, 406, b. - - Περόνη, 178, b. - - Πεσσοί, 221, a. - - Πεταλισμός, 172, b. - - Πέτασος, 297, b. - - Πέταυρον, 292, a. - - Πέτευρον, 292, a. - - Πετροβόλος, 381, a. - - Πηδάλιον, 265, b. - - Πήληξ, 192, b. - - Πήνη, 364, a. - - Πηνίκη, 104, a. - - Πήνιον, 192, a. - - Πήρα, 290, a. - - Πῆχυς, 122, a; 245, b. - - Πίθος, 417, a. - - Πιθοιγία, 136, a. - - Πίλημα, 297, a. - - Πῖλος, 297, a. - - Πιλωτόν, 297, a. - - Πινακική, 45, b. - - Πινακοθήκη, 293, b. - - Πλαγίαυλος, 376, b. - - Πλαστική, 349, a. - - Πλέθρον, 300, b. - - Πλῆκτρον, 246, a. - - Πλήμνη, 124, a. - - Πλημοχόαι, 151, a. - - Πλημοχόη, 151, a. - - Πληρεῖς, 65, b. - - Πλίνθος, 220, b. - - Πλοῖον, 259, b; 262, a. - - Πλυντήρια, 301, a. - - Πόδες, 260, b; 267, b. - - Ποιεῖν, 7, a. - - Ποιεῖσθαι, 7. a. - - Ποίησις, 7, a. - - Ποιητός, 7, a. - - Ποινή, 301, a. - - Πολέμαρχος, 35, a; 162, b; 301, a. - - Πόλις, 91, b. - - Πολιτεία, 90, b; 203, a. - - Πολίτης, 90, b. - - Πόλος, 206, a. - - Πολύμιτος, 364, b. - - Πολύπτυχα, 360, a. - - Πομπή, 301, b. - - Πορισταί, 305, a; 362, b. - - Πόρπαξ, 161, b. - - Πόρπη, 178, b. - - Ποσειδεών, 65, b. - - Ποῦς, 292, a. - - Πράκτορες, 306, b. - - Προάγνευσις, 150, a. - - Προβολή, 310, a. - - Προβούλευμα, 61, b. - - Πρόβουλοι, 310, a. - - Προγάμεια, 250, a. - - Πρόδομος, 367, a. - - Προδοσία, 310, b. - - Πρόδρομος, 141, a. - - Προεδρία, 214, b. - - Πρόεδροι, 61, b. - - Πρόθεσις, 185, a. - - Προθεσμία, 311, b. - - Προθεσμίας νόμος, 311, b. - - Πρόθυρα, 140, a. - - Πρόθυρον, 16, b. - - Προικὸς δίκη, 345, a. - - Προΐξ, 145, a. - - Προκάθαρσις, 150, a. - - Προκαταβολή, 363, a. - - Πρόκλησις, 132, a. - - Πρόλογος, 383, b. - - Πρόμαχοι, 41, b. - - Προμήθεια, 311, a. - - Πρόναος, 367, a. - - Προξενία, 208, a. - - Πρόξενος, 209, a. - - Προπύλαια, 311, a. - - Προσκατάβλημα, 365, a. - - Προσκεφάλειον, 222, a. - - Προσκήνιον, 372, a. - - Πρόσκλησις, 131, b; 248, b. - - Προσκύνησις, 7, b. - - Προστάς, 141, a. - - Προστάτης, 91, a, - τοῦ δήμου, 311, b. - - Προστιμᾶν, 378, a. - - Προστιμᾶσθαι, 378, a. - - Προστίμημα, 132, b; 378, a. - - Προστόον, 140, b. - - Πρόστυλος, 367, a. - - Προσωπεῖον, 291, a. - - Πρόσωπον, 291, a. - - Προτέλεια γάμων, 249, b. - - Προτομή, 40, b. - - Πρότονοι, 259, b; 267, b. - - Προφήτης, 150, a. - - Προφῆτις, 277, a. - - Προχειροτονία, 62, a. - - Προωμοσία, 132, a. - - Πρυλέες, 327, b. - - Πρύλις, 327, b. - - Πρύμνη, 264, b. - - Πρυτανεία, 61, b. - - Πρυτανεῖα, 131, b; 313, b. - - Πρυτανεῖον, 313, a. - - Πρυτανεῖς, 61, b; 313, b. - - Πρωΐ, 134, b. - - Πρώρα, 263, a. - - Πρωράται, 259, a. - - Πρωρεύς, 264, b. - - Πρωταγωνιστής, 205, b. - - Πρωτοστάτης, 161, b. - - Πυανέψια, 315, b. - - Πυανεψιών, 65, b. - - Πυγμαχία, 315, a. - - Πυγμή, 315, a. - - Πυγμοσύνη, 315, a. - - Πυέλοι, 54, b; 185, b. - - Πύθια, 315, b. - - Πύθιοι, 316, a. - - Πυκνόστυλος, 367, b. - - Πύκται, 315, a. - - Πυλαγόραι, 20, a. - - Πυλαία, 20, a. - - Πύλη, 305, a. - - Πυλίς, 305, a. - - Πυλών, 140, b; 305, b. - - Πύξ, 315, a. - - Πυξίδιον, 316, a. - - Πύξις, 316, a. - - Πυράγρα, 254, b. - - Πυραί, 185, b. - - Πύργος, 402, a. - - Πυρία, 55, b. - - Πυριατήριον, 55, b. - - Πυῤῥίχη, 327, b. - - Πυῤῥιχισταί, 328, a. - - Πῶγων, 57, a. - - Πωλῆται, 301, b. - - Πῶμο, 207, a. - - - Ρ. - - Ῥαβδίον, 295, b. - - Ῥαβδονόμοι, 15, a. - - Ῥαβδοῦχοι, 15, a; 249, a. - - Ῥαιστήρ, 254, b. - - Ῥαφίς, 6, b. - - Ῥήτρα, 322, a. - - Ῥινοπύλη, 305, b. - - Ῥιπίς, 179, b. - - Ῥόμβος, 198, a. - - Ῥυμός, 31, b; 124, a. - - Ῥυτόν, 322, b. - - - Σ. - - Σαγήνη, 320, b. - - Σάκκος, 101, b; 103, a; 323, a. - - Σάκος, 41, b. - - Σαλαμίνια, 283, b. - - Σαλαμίνιοι, 283, b. - - Σάλπιγξ, 399, a. - - Σαμβύκη, 329, a. - - Σαμβυκιστριαί, 329, a. - - Σανδάλιον, 329, a. - - Σάνδαλον, 329, a. - - Σανίς, 215, a. - - Σαρδών, 320, a. - - Σάρισα, or Σάρισσα, 163, a. - - Σαυρωτήρ, 200, a. - - Σεβαστός, 53, a. - - Σειραφόρος, 124, b. - - Σεῖστρον, 344, a. - - Σηκός, 367, a. - - Σημαίαι, 343, a. - - Σήματα, 186, a. - - Σημειογράφοι, 272, a. - - Σημεῖον, 343, a. - - Σίγυννος, 289, a. - - Σίκιννις, 85, b. - - Σιτηρέσιον, 162, b. - - Σιτοδεῖαι, 345, a. - - Σιτοπῶλαι, 345, a. - - Σῖτος, 344, b. - - Σίτου δίκη, 345, a. - - Σιτοφυλακεῖον, 207, b. - - Σιτοφύλακες, 15, b; 344, b. - - Σιτῶναι, 345, a. - - Σκαλμοί, 264, b. - - Σκαπέδρα, 198, a. - - Σκάφη, 262, b. - - Σκέπαρνον, 44, a. - - Σκεύη κρεμαστά, 265, b. - ξύλινα, 265, b. - - Σκηνή, 372, a. - - Σκῆπτρον, 330, a. - - Σκιάδειον, 404, b. - - Σκιάδιον, 404, b. - - Σκιαδίσκη, 404, b. - - Σκιάθηρον, 206, a. - - Σκιάς, 376, a. - - Σκιροφοριών, 65, b. - - Σκόλοψ, 121, a. - - Σκύθαι, 129, b; 147, a. - - Σκυτάλη, 331, a. - - Σμίλη, 139, b. - - Σοροί, 185, b. - - Σπάθη, 364, b. - - Σπάργανον, 212, a. - - Σπεῖρα, 347, b. - - Σπονδαί, 325, b. - - Σπονδοφόροι, 274, a. - - Στάδιον, 348, b. - - Στάδιος, 348, b. - - Σταθμός, 215, a; 239, a; 247, b. - - Σταθμοῦχοι, 359, a. - - Στάσιμον, 111, a; 384, a. - - Στατήρ, 349, a. - - Σταυρός, 121, a. - - Στέφανος, 118, a. - - Στῆλαι, 186, a. - - Στήμων, 364, a. - - Στλεγγίς, 17, b; 56, b. - - Στοά, 140, b; 305, b. - - Στόλος, 263, b. - - Στόμιον, 182, b. - - Στοιχεῖον, 206, a. - - Στρατηγός, 3, b; 13, a; 308, a; 355, a. - ὁ ἐπὶ διοικήσεως, 363, a. - - Στρατός, 160, b. - - Στρεπτός, 381, b. - - Στρόβιλος, 198, a. - - Στρογγύλαι, 261, a; 262, a. - - Στρῶμα, 154, a; 222, a. - - Στύλος, 101, b; 354, a. - - Στύραξ, 200, a. - - Συγγένεια, 203, a. - - Συγγενεῖς, 203, a. - - Συγγραφή, 358, b. - - Σύγκλητος ἐκκλησία, 146, b. - - Συκοφάντης, 356, a. - - Σῦλαι, 356, b. - - Συλλογεῖς, 357, a. - - Συμβόλαιον, 357, a. - - Συμβολή, 95, b. - - Σύμμαχοι, 345, b. - - Συμμορία, 149, a; 393, a. - - Συμπόσιον, 357, a. - - Συνάλλαγμα, 357, a. - - Σύνδικος, 271, b; 358, a. - - Συνέδριον, 358, a. - - Σύνεδροι, 358, a. - - Συνηγορικόν, 358, b. - - Συνήγορος, 160, b; 358, a. - - Συνθήκη, 357, a. - - Σύνθημα, 368, b. - - Σύνοδος, 117, a. - - Συνοικία, 358, b. - - Σύνταγμα, 163, a. - - Συντάξεις, 358, a. - - Σύνταξις, 365, b. - - Συντέλεια, 393, a. - - Συντελεῖς, 393, a. - - Συντριήραρχοι, 392, b. - - Συνωρίς, 124, b. - - Σύριγξ, 359, a. - - Σύρμα, 359, b. - - Σύσκηνοι, 116, b. - - Συσσίτια, 359, b. - - Σύστασις, 163, b. - - Σύστυλος, 367, b. - - Σφαγίς, 122, a. - - Σφαῖρα, 296, a. - - Σφαιρεῖς, 296, b. - - Σφαιριστήριον, 198, a; 296, b. - - Σφαιριστική, 198, a; 296, a. - - Σφαιριστικός, 296, b. - - Σφαιρίστρα, 296, b. - - Σφενδόνη, 103, b; 184, b. - - Σφενδονήται, 184, b. - - Σφίδες, 246, a. - - Σφραγίς, 25, b. - - Σφύρα, 254, b. - - Σφυρήλατον, 254, b. - - Σχεδίαι, 260, a. - - Σχοινία, 267, b; 268, a. - - Σχοινοβάτης, 184, b. - - Σχοῖνος, 330, b. - - Σωφρονίσται, 197, b. - - Σωφροσύνη, 197, b. - - - Τ. - - Ταγός, 360, b. - - Ταινία, 264, b; 355, b. - - Ταινίδιον, 355, b. - - Τάλαντα, 239, a. - - Τάλαντον, 361, a. - - Τάλαρος, 64, a. - - Ταλασία, 363, b. - - Ταλασιουργία, 363, b. - - Ταμίας, 316, b; 362, a. - - Ταξίαρχοι, 163, b; 363, a. - - Τάξις, 163, b; 163, a. - - Ταῤῥός, 265, b. - - Τάφοι, 186, a. - - Ταφροποιοί, 363, a. - - Τάφρος, 406, b. - - Ταχυγράφοι, 272, a. - - Τέθριππος, 124, a. - - Τειχοποιός, 363, b. - - Τεῖχος, 257, a. - - Τελαμών, 47, b; 57, a. - - Ταλεταί, 258, b. - - Τέλος, 163, b; 365, b. - - Τελωνάρχης, 365, a. - - Τελώνης, 289, b; 365, a. - - Τέμενος, 366, b. - - Τέρμα, 205, b. - - Τετράδραχμον, 145, b. - - Τετραλογία, 383, a. - - Τετραορία, 124, a. - - Τετράρχης, 370, a. - - Τετραρχία, 163, a; 370, a. - - Τετράστυλος, 367, a. - - Τετρήρεις, 262, a. - - Τετταράκοντα, οἱ, 16, a; 370, a. - - Τεύχεα, 41, a. - - Τήβεννος, 378, a. - - Τιάρα, 376, b. - - Τιάρας, 376, b. - - Τίμημα, 81, b; 377, b. - - Τιμητεία, 78, b. - - Τιμητής, 78, b. - - Τόκοι ἔγγειοι, 176, b. - ἔγγυοι, 176, b. - ναυτικοί, 176, b. - - Τόκος, 176, b. - - Τολύπη, 191, b. - - Τόνοι, 222, a. - - Τόξαρχοι, 129, b. - - Τοξοθήκη, 37, b. - - Τόξον, 37, b. - - Τοξόται, 129, b; 147, a. - - Τοπεῖα, 267, b. - - Τορευτική, 63, b. - - Τορύνη, 399, a. - - Τραγῳδία, 381, b. - - Τράπεζα, 253, b. - - Τράπεζαι, 186, b. - δεύτεραι, 96, a. - πρῶται, 96, a. - - Τραπεζίται, 39, a. - - Τράφηξ, 264, b. - - Τρίαινα, 191, b. - - Τριακάδες, 389, a. - - Τριακοσιομέδιμνοι, 81, b. - - Τριβόλος, 385, a. - - Τριτηρίς, 65, b. - - Τριηραρχία, 224, b; 392, b. - - Τριήραρχοι, 392, b. - - Τριήρεις, 260, b. - - Τριηροποιοί, 261, a; 363, a. - - Τρίμιπος, 364, b. - - Τρίπολος, 32, b. - - Τρίπους, 253, b; 394, a. - - Τρίπτυχα, 360, a. - - Τρίτα, 187, a. - - Τριταγωνιστής, 205, b. - - Τριττύα, 325, a. - - Τριττύς, 389, a. - - Τριώβολον, 394, a. - - Τροπαῖον, 398, a. - - Τροπωτήρ, 265, a. - - Τρόχιλος, 347, b. - - Τροχός, 124, a; 178, b; 398, a. - - Τρυβλίον, 120, b. - - Τρύγοιπος, 101, b. - - Τρυγῳδία, 110, b. - - Τρυτάνη, 399, a. - - Τρυφάλεια, 193, a. - - Τυλεῖον, 222, a. - - Τύλη, 222, a. - - Τύμβος, 186, a. - - Τύμπανον, 403, a. - - Τύπος, 178, b. - - Τυραννίς, 403, b. - - Τύραννος, 403, a. - - - Υ. - - Ὑακίνθια, 209, b. - - Ὕαλος, 420, a. - - Ὕβρεως γραφή, 16, b; 210, a. - - Ὑδραγωγία, 29, b. - - Ὑδραλέτης, 256, a. - - Ὑδρανός, 150, a. - - Ὑδραύλις, 210, a. - - Ὑδρία, 345, a. - - Ὑδριαφορία, 210, b. - - Ὑδρόμελι, 418, b. - - Ὕδωρ, 207, a. - - Ὕλη, 260, b. - - Ὑλλεῖς, 389, a. - - Ὕπαιθρον, 140, b. - - Ὕπαιθρος, 102, a. - - Ὑπασπισταί, 161, b; 163, b. - - Ὕπατος, 113, b. - - Ὑπέραι, 260, b; 267, b. - - Ὑπερῷον, 140, a; 141, b. - - Ὑπεύθυνος, 34, a; 160, a; 393, b. - - Ὑπήνη, 57, a. - - Ὑπηρεσία, 393, b. - - Ὑπηρέτης, 162, b. - - Ὑπόγαιον, 186, a. - - Ὑπόγειον, 186, a. - - Ὑπογραφίς, 295, b. - - Ὑπόδημα, 64, b; 329, a. - - Ὑποζάκοροι, 10, a. - - Ὑποζώματα, 267, a. - - Ὑποκριτής, 205, b. - - Ὑπολήνιον, 416, b. - - Ὑπομείονες, 91, b; 206, a. - - Ὑπόνομος, 122, b; 152, a. - - Ὑποπόδιον, 376, a. - - Ὑπόρχημα, 210, b; 327, a. - - Ὑποστρατηγός, 3, b. - - Ὑπωμοσία, 132, a. - - Ὑσσός, 200, a. - - Ὑφάνται, 363, b. - - - Φ. - - Φάλαγγες, 163, b. - - Φαλαγγαρχία, 163, b. - - Φάλαγξ, 160, b; 163, b. - - Φάλαρον, 292, a. - - Φάλος, 192, b. - - Φανός, 176, a. - - Φαρέτρα, 292, b - - Φαρμακείας γραφή, 292, b. - - Φαρμακοί, 370, a. - - Φαρμάκων γραφή, 292, b. - - Φᾶρος, 280, b. - - Φάρος, 292, b. - - Φάσγανον, 196, a. - - Φάσηλας, 293, a. - - Φάσις, 293, a. - - Φειδίτης, 360, a. - - Φενάκη, 104, a. - - Φερνή, 145, a. - - Φεύγειν, 172, a. - - Φθορά, 8, a. - - Φιάλη, 285, b. - - Φιμός, 182, b. - - Φορβειά, 70, b. - - Φορεῖον, 221, a. - - Φόρμιγξ, 245, a. - - Φόρος, 358, a. - - Φορτηγοί, 262, a. - - Φορτικά, 262, a. - - Φρατρία, 389, a. - - Φρατρικὸν γραμματεῖον, 7, a. - - Φυγή, 172, a. - - Φῦκος, 183, b. - - Φύλακες, 155, a. - - Φυλακτήριον, 24, a. - - Φύλαρχοι, 162, b; 293, a. - - Φυλή, 162, a; 388, a. - - Φυλοβασιλεῖς, 293, a. - - Φῦλον, 388, a. - - Φωταγωγία, 150, b. - - - Χ. - - Χαλδαίων μέθοδοι, 45, b. - - Χαλδαίων ψηφίδες, 45, b. - - Χαλινός, 182, a. - - Χαλκιοίκια, 83, a. - - Χαλκός, 12, a. - - Χαλκοῦς, 12, a; 83, a. - - Χάρακες, 406, b. - - Χειρόγραφον, 83, b. - - Χειροτονεῖν, 83, b. - - Χειροτονητοί, 83, b. - - Χειροτονία, 34, a; 83, b. - - Χέλυς, 245, b. - - Χελώνη, 245, b; 369, a. - - Χηνίσκος, 263, b. - - Χιλαρχία, 163, b. - - Χιτών, 400, a. - σχιστός, 400, a. - - Χιτώνιον, 400, a; 401, a. - - Χιτωνίσκος, 400, a. - - Χλαῖνα, 220, a. - - Χλαμύς, 84, a. - - Χλαμύδιον, 84, a. - - Χλιδών, 42, b. - - Χοαί, 187, b. - - Χόες, 136, a. - - Χοεύς, 85, b. - - Χοίνιξ, 84, b. - - Χορηγία, 84, b. - - Χορηγός, 84, b. - - Χοροδιδάσκαλος, 84, b. - - Χορός, 85, a; 198, b. - κύκλικος, 85, a. - - Χοῦς, 85, b. - - Χρέους δίκη, 377, b. - - Χρησμόλογοι, 138, a. - - Χρηστήριον, 276, b. - - Χρονολογία, 85, b. - - Χρυσός, 53, b. - - Χρυσοῦς, 349, a. - - Χύτρα, 273, b. - - Χύτροι, 136, a. - - Χῶμα, 14, b; 186, a. - - - Ψ. - - Ψάλιον, 42, b. - - Ψέλιον, or Ψέλλιον, 42, b. - - Ψευδεγγραφῆς γραφή, 314, a. - - Ψευδοδίπτερος, 367, a. - - Ψευδοπερίπτερος, 367, a. - - Ψήφισμα, 62, a; 147, b; 272, a. - - Ψῆφος, 221, a; 313, b. - - Ψιλοί, 41, b. - - Ψυκτήρ, 314, a. - - - Ω. - - Ὠβαί, 191, b; 389, a. - - Ὠδεῖον, 273, a. - - Ὠρεῖον, 207, b. - - Ὡρολόγιον, 206, b. - - Ὡροσκόπος, 46, a. - - Ὠσχοφόρια, 278, a. - - - - -LATIN INDEX. - - - A. - - Abacus, 1, a. - - Ablegmina, 325, a. - - Abolla, 1, a. - - Abrogare legem, 225, b. - - Absolutio, 216, a. - - Accensi, 165, b; 168, b. - - Accensus, 1, b. - - Acclamatio, 2, a. - - Accubatio, 2, a. - - Accubitoria vestis, 359, a. - - Accusatio, 121, a. - - Accusator, 6, a; 216, a. - - Accusatorum libelli, 237, b. - - Acerra, 2, b. - - Acetabulum, 2, b. - - Achaicum fœdus, 3, a. - - Acies, 199, b. - - Acilia lex, 226, a. - - Acilia Calpurnia lex, 18, b. - - Acinaces, 3, b. - - Acisculus, 44, b. - - Aclis, 4, a; 201, a. - - Acroama, 4, a. - - Acropolis, 4, a. - - Acroterium, 4, a. - - Acta, 4, b. - diurna, 4, b. - forensia, 4 b. - jurare in, 4, b. - militaria, 4 b. - patrum, 4, b. - senatus, 4, b. - - Actio, 5, a; 213, b. - exercitoria, 160, b. - fiduciaria, 179, a. - injuriarum, 213, a. - in jure, 6, a. - Legis or Legitima, 5, a. - de pauperie, 288, a. - de peculio, 339, b. - rei uxoriæ, or dotis, 145, b. - restitutoria, 213, b. - Sepulchri violati, 190, b. - - Actionem dare, 5, b. - edere, 5, b. - - Actor, 6, a. - publicus, 6, a. - - Actuariæ naves, 6, a; 262, a. - - Actuarii, 6, a; 272, b. - - Actus, 6, b; 300, b. - minimus, 6, b. - quadratus, 6, b. - simplex, 6, b. - - Acus, 6, b. - - Adcrescendi jure, 204, a. - - Addico, 48, b; 50, a. - - Addicti, 269, b. - - Ademptio equi, 80, b. - - Adfines, 13, a. - - Adfinitas, 13, a. - - Adgnati, 98, a. - - Adgnatio, 98, a. - - Adlecti, 6, b. - - Admissionales, 6, b. - - Admissionum proximus, 6, b. - - Adolescentes, 212, b. - - Adoptio, 7, a. - - Adoratio, 7, b. - - Adrogatio, 7, a. - - Adsertor, 45, a. - - Adsessor, 45, a. - - Adversaria, 8, a. - - Adversarius, 6, a. - - Adulterium (Greek), 7, b. - - Adulterium (Roman), 8, a. - - Adulti, 6, b; 212, b. - - Advocatus, 8, b. - - Aebutia lex, 226, a. - - Aedes, 366, b. - sacra, 366, b. - - Aediles, 8, b. - cereales, 9, b. - - Aeditimi, 10, a. - - Aeditui, 10, a. - - Aeditumi, 10, a. - - Aegis, 10, b. - - Aelia lex, 226, a. - Sentia lex, 226, a. - - Aemilia lex, 226, a. - Baebia lex, 228, a. - Lepidi lex, 235, b. - Scauri lex, 248, b. - - Aenatores, 11, a. - - Aenei nummi, 12, a; 341, b. - - Aenum, 11, a. - - Aeora, 11, a. - - Aera, 12, a. - - Aerarii, 11, a. - Tribuni, 12, b; 385, b. - - Aerarium, 11, b. - militare, 11, b. - Praetores ad, 11, b. - sanctum, 11, b. - - Aerii nummi, 341, b. - - Aes, 12, a. - - Aes (money), 12, a. - alienum, 12, a. - circumforaneum, 12, a. - equestre, 12, a; 156, b. - grave, 12, a; 43, b. - hordearium, or hordiarium 12, a; 156, b. - militare, 12, a. - uxorium, 12, b. - - Aestivae feriae, 177, b. - - Aetolicum fœdus, 13, a. - - Affines, 13, a. - - Affinitas, 13, a. - - Agaso, 13, b. - - Agema, 13, b. - - Ager, 13, b. - iteratus, 32, b. - publicus, 13, b. - scriptuarius, 331, a. - - Agger, 14, b; 75, a; 302, b. - - Agitator, 89, a. - - Agmen, 167, a. - pilatum, 167, a. - quadratum, 167, a. - - Agnati, 98, a. - - Agnatio, 98, a. - - Agnomen, 271, b. - - Agonales, 326, b. - - Agonalia, 15, a. - - Agonensis, 326, b. - - Agonia, 15, a. - - Agonium Martiale, 15, a. - - Agonus, 15, a. - - Agoranomi, 15, b. - - Agrariae leges, 14, b. - - Agraulia, 15, b. - - Agrimensores, 16, a. - - Agronomi, 16, a. - - Ahenum, 11, a. - - Ala, 16, b. - - Alae, 142, b; 171, b. - - Alabaster, 16, b. - - Alabastrum, 16, b. - - Alares, 16, b. - - Alarii, 16, b. - - Alauda, 17, a. - legio, 17, a. - - Albogalerus, 28, a. - - Album, 17, a. - judicum, 17, a. - Senatorium, 17, a. - - Alea, 17, a. - - Aleator, 17, a. - - Ales, 50, a. - - Alicula, 17, a. - - Alimentarii pueri et puellae, 17, b. - - Alipilus, 17, b. - - Aliptae, 17, b. - - Alites, 50, a. - - Allocutio, 17, b; 385, a. - - Altare, 31, a. - - Aluta, 65, b. - - Amanuensis, 18, a. - - Ambarvalia, 43, a. - - Ambitus, 18, a. - - Ambrosia, 19, a. - - Ambubaiae, 19, a. - - Ambulationes, 208, a. - - Amburbiale, 19, a. - - Amburbium, 19, a. - - Amentum, 200, a. - - Amicire, 19, a. - - Amictorium, 19, a; 335, b. - - Amictus, 19, a. - - Amphictyones, 19, b. - - Amphitheatrum, 21, a. - - Amphora, 23, a; 316, b; 417, a. - - Ampliatio, 23, b; 215, b. - - Ampulla, 17, b; 23, b; 56, b. - - Ampullarius, 24, a. - - Amuletum, 24, a. - - Amussis, or Amussium, 24, b. - - Anagnostae, 24, b. - - Anatocismus, 177, a. - - Ancilia, 326, b. - - Ancora, 268, a. - - Ancones, 320, b. - - Andabatae, 195, a. - - Angaria, 25, a. - - Angariarum exhibitio, or praestatio, 25, a. - - Angiportus, or Angiportum, 25, a. - - Angustus clavus, 92, b. - - Animadversio censoria, 80, a. - - Anio novus, 30, a. - vetus, 30, a. - Annales maximi, 175, b; 304, b. - - Annalis lex, 226, b; 334, a. - - Annona, 25, a. - civica, 183, b. - - Annuli aurei jus, 25, b. - - Annulorum jus, 25, b. - - Annulus, 25, b. - - Annus magnus, 66, a. - - Anquina, 267, b. - - Anquisitio, 26, a; 216 b. - - Antae, 26, a. - - Anteambulones, 26, b. - - Antecessores, 26, b. - - Antecoena, 96, b. - - Antecursores, 26, b. - - Antefixa, 26, b. - - Antemeridianum tempus, 134, b. - - Antenna, 267, a. - - Antepilani, 165, b; 168, b. - - Antesignani, 168, b. - - Antia lex, 236, a. - - Anticum, 214, b. - - Antiquarii, 239, a. - - Antlia, 27, a. - - Antoniae leges, 226, b. - - Apaturia, 27, b. - - Aperta navis, 261, b. - - Apex, 28, a. - - Aplustre, 264, b. - - Apodectae, 28, a. - - Apodyterium, 56, a. - - Apollinares ludi, 242, b. - - Apophoreta, 28, b. - - Apotheca, 28, b; 58, b. - - Apotheosis, 28, b. - - Apparitio, 29, a. - - Apparitores, 29, a. - - Appellatio (Greek), 29, a. - (Roman), 29, a. - - Aprilis, 66, a. - - Apuleia lex, 226, b. - agraria lex, 226, b. - frumentaria lex, 226, b. - majestatis lex, 226, b. - - Aqua, 29, b. - Alexandrina, 30, b. - Algentia, 30, b. - Alsietina, or Augusta, 30, a. - Appia, 30, a. - Claudia, 30, a. - Crabra, 30, b. - Julia, 30, a. - Marcia, 30, a. - Septimiana, 30, b. - Tepula, 30, a. - Trajana, 30, b. - Virgo, 30, a. - - Aquae ductus, 29, b. - et ignis interdictio, 173, a. - - Aquarii, 31, a. - - Aquila, 343, a. - - Aquilifer, 169, b. - - Ara, 31, a. - - Aratrum, 31, b. - - Arbiter, 215, b. - - Arbiter bibendi, 357, b. - - Arbitrium, 188, a. - - Arca, 32, a; 188, b. - - Arca, ex, 39, b. - - Arca publica, 336, b. - - Arcera, 33, a. - - Archiater, 33, a. - - Archimagirus, 97, a. - - Archimimus, 188, a; 256, a. - - Architectura, 33, a. - - Archon, 34, b. - - Arcus, 36, a; 37, b. - triumphalis, 36, b. - Constantini, 37, b. - Drusi, 37, a. - Gallieni, 37, b. - Septimii Severi, 37, a. - Titi, 37, a. - - Area, 37, a. - - Areiopagus, 37, a. - - Arena, 21, a. - - Aretalogi, 39, a. - - Argei, 39, a. - - Argentarii, 39, a. - - Argentum, 40, a. - - Argyraspides, 40, a. - - Aries, 40, a. - - Arma, Armatura, 41, a. - - Armarium, 42, a. - - Armatura levis, 170, a. - - Armilla, 42, b. - - Armilustrium, 42, a. - - Arra, Arrabo, or Arrha, Arrhabo, 42, a. - - Arrogatio, 7, a. - - Ars Chaldaeorum, 45, b. - - Artaba, 43, a. - - Artopta, 297, a. - - Artopticii, 297, a. - - Arvales Fratres, 43, a. - - Arundo, 364, a. - - Arura, 43, a. - - Aruspices, 199, b. - - Arx, 43, b. - - As, 43, b. - - As libralis, 43, b. - - Asamenta, 326, b. - - Ascia, 44, a. - - Asiarchae, 45, a. - - Assamenta, 326, b. - - Assarius, 44, a. - - Asseres lecticarii, 221, b. - - Assertor, 45, a. - - Assertus, 45, a. - - Asses Usurae, 176, b. - - Assessor, 45, a. - - Assidui, 240, b. - - Assiduitas, 18, b. - - Astragalus, 45, a. - - Astrologi, 45, b. - - Astrologia, 45, b. - - Astronomi, 45, b. - - Asyli jus, 46, a. - - Asylum, 46, a. - - Atellanae Fabulae, 46, b. - - Aternia Tarpeia lex, 226, b. - - Athenaeum, 46, b. - - Athletae, 47, a. - - Atia lex, 226, b. - - Atilia lex, 226, b. - - Atinia lex, 226, b. - - Atlantes, 47, b. - - Atramentum, 48, a. - - Atrium, 48, a; 412, b. - - Auctio, 48, b. - - Auctor, 48, b. - - Auctores fieri, 49, b. - - Auctoramentum, 58, b; 194, b. - - Auctorati, 194, b. - - Auctoritas, 49, b. - senatus, 336, a. - - Auditorium, 49, b. - - Aufidia lex, 18, b. - - Augur, 49, b. - - Auguraculum, 43, b; 50, b; 366, a. - - Augurale, 50, b; 74, b. - - Augurium, 49, b; 138, b. - - Augustales, 52, b. - - Augustalia, 52, b. - - Augustus, 53, a; 68, a. - - Avia, 13, a. - - Aulaeum, 372, a. - - Aurelia lex, 226, b. - - Aures, 32, a. - - Aureus nummus, 53, b; 341, b. - - Aurichalcum, 341, b. - - Auriga, 89, a. - - Aurum, 53, b. - coronarium, 54, a. - vicesimarium, 11, b. - - Auspex, 49, b. - - Auspicium, 49, b; 138, b. - - Authepsa, 54, a. - - Autonomi, 54, a. - - Auxilia, 346, b. - - Auxiliares, 170, b. - - Auxiliarii, 170, b. - - Axamenta, 326, b. - - Axis, 124, a. - - - B. - - Babylonii, 45, b. - numeri, 45, b. - - Bacchanalia, 136, b. - - Baebia lex, 227, a. - Aemilia lex, 228, a. - - Balineae, 54, b. - - Balineum, 54, b. - - Balista, Ballista, 381, a. - - Balneae, 54, b. - - Balneator, 55, b. - - Balneum, 54, b. - - Balteus, or Baltea, 379, b. - - Balteus, 57, a. - - Baptisterium, 56, a. - - Barathrum, 57, a. - - Barba, 57, a. - - Barbati bene, 57, b. - - Barbatuli, 57, b. - - Bascauda, 57, b. - - Basilica, 57, b. - - Basis, 101, b. - - Basterna, 58, a. - - Baxa, or Baxea, 58, a. - - Bellaria, 97, a. - - Beneficiarius, 58, b. - - Beneficium, 58, b. - - Benignitas, 18, b. - - Bes, 44, a. - - Bessis, 176, b. - - Bestiarii, 58, b. - - Bibasis, 328, b. - - Bibliopola, 58, b. - - Bibliotheca, 58, b. - - Bidens, 59, a; 268, b. - - Bidental, 59, a. - - Bidiaei, 59, a. - - Biga, or Bigae, 124, b. - - Bigati, 136, b. - - Billix, 364, b. - - Bipennis, 331, b. - - Biremis, 59, b; 260, a. - - Bissextilis annus, 67, b. - - Bissextum, 67, b. - - Bissextus, 67, b. - - Bombycinum, 337, a. - - Bona, 59, b. - caduca, 60, a. - fides, 60, a. - - Bonorum cessio, 60, a. - collatio, 60, a. - emtio, et emtor, 60, b. - possessio, 5, b; 60, b. - - Bracae, or Braccae, 62, a. - - Bravium, 90, a. - - Bruttiani, 62, b. - - Buccina, 62, b. - - Buccinator, 11, a. - - Bucculae, 192, b. - - Bulla, 62, b. - - Bura, or Buris, 31, b. - - Bustuarii, 63, a. - - Bustum, 63, a; 189, a. - - Buxum, 63, a. - - Byssus, 63, a. - - - C. - - Caduceator, 63, b. - - Caduceus, 63, a. - - Caducum, 60, a. - - Cadus, 23, b; 63, b. - - Caecilia lex de censoribus, 227, a. - lex de vectigalibus, 227, a. - Didia lex, 227, a. - - Caelatura, 63, b. - - Caelia lex, 236, a. - - Caementa, 258, a. - - Caesar, 64, a. - - Caetra, 83, a. - - Calamistrum, 64, a. - - Calamus, 64, a. - - Calantica, 103, a. - - Calathus, 64, a. - - Calatores, 105, a. - - Calceamen, 64, b. - - Calceamentum, 64, b. - - Calceus, 64, b. - - Calculator, 65, a. - - Calculi, 65, a; 221, a. - - Calda lavatio, 56, a. - - Caldarium, 56, a. - - Calendae, 67, b. - - Calendarium, 65, a; 176, b. - - Calida, 77, a. - - Caliga, 68, a. - - Calix, 68, a. - - Callis, 68, b. - - Calones, 68, b. - - Calpurnia lex de ambitu, 18, b. - lex de repetundis, 319, a. - - Calvatica, 103, a. - - Calumnia, 68, b. - - Calx, 88, a. - - Camara, 69, a. - - Camera, 69, a. - - Camillae, Camilli, 69, a; 252, a. - - Caminus, 145, a. - - Campestre, 69, a. - - Canalis, 30, b. - - Cancellarius, 69, b. - - Cancelli, 69, a; 107, b. - - Candela, 69, b. - - Candelabrum, 69, b. - - Candidarii, 297, b. - - Candidatus, 18, b; 380, a. - - Canephorus, 70, a. - - Canistrum, 70, a. - - Cantharus, 70, b. - - Canthus, 124, a. - - Canticum, 70, b. - - Canuleia lex, 227, a. - - Capistrum, 70, b. - - Capite censi, 71, a. - - Capitis deminutio, 71, a. - - Capitis minutio, 71, a. - - Capitolini, 242, b. - ludi, 242, b. - - Capsa, 70, b. - - Capsarii, 56, a; 71, a. - - Captio, 303, b. - - Capulum, 188, a. - - Capulus, 32, a. - - Caput, 71, a. - extorum, 71, b. - - Caracalla, 72, a. - - Carcer, 72, a. - - Carceres, 87, b; 107, b. - - Carchesium, 72, a; 266, b. - - Carenum, 416, b. - - Carmen seculare, 243, b. - - Carmentalia, 72, a. - - Carnifex, 72, b. - - Carpentum, 72, b. - - Carptor, 97, a. - - Carrago, 73, a. - - Carruca, 73, a. - - Carrus, or Carrum, 73, a. - - Caryatides, 73, a. - - Caryatis, 73, a. - - Cassia lex, 227, a. - agraria, 227, a. - tabellaria, 236, a. - Terentia frumentaria, 227, a. - - Cassis, 41, b; 192, b. - - Castellarii, 31, a. - - Castellum aquae, 31, a. - - Castra, 73, a. - stativa, 73, b. - - Castrensis corona, 118, b. - - Cataphracti, 76, a. - - Catapulta, 381, a. - - Cataracta, 76, a. - - Catasta, 340, a. - - Cateia, 76, b; 201, a. - - Catella, 76, b. - - Catena, 76, b. - - Catervarii, 195, a. - - Cathedra, 76, b. - - Catillum, or Catillus, 77, a. - - Catillus, 256, a. - - Catinum, or Catinus, 77, a. - - Cavaedium, 142, b. - - Cavea, 87, a; 371, a. - - Cavere, 217, b; 77, b. - - Caupo, 77, a. - - Caupona, 77, a. - - Causia, 77, b. - - Cauterium, 295, b. - - Cautio, 77, b. - - Cavum aedium, 142, b. - - Celeres, 78, a. - - Celerum tribunus, 385, a. - - Cella, 78, a; 142, b; 367, a. - caldaria, 56, a. - - Cellarius, 78, a. - - Celtes, 139, b. - - Cenotaphium, 78, b. - - Censere, 336, a. - - Censor, 78, b; 101, a. - - Censura, 78, b. - - Census, 78, b; 31, b; 248, a. - (Greek), 81, b. - - Centesima, 82, a. - rerum venalium, 82, a. - - Centesimae usurae, 176, b. - - Centumviri, 82, a. - - Centuria, 105, b; 166, b; 168, a; 217, a. - - Centuriata comitia, 105, a. - - Centurio, 165, a; 166, b; 169, a. - primus, 169, b. - primipili, 169, b. - - Centussis, 44, a. - - Cera, 82, b. - - Cerae, 295, b; 360, b. - - Ceratae tabulae, 360, a. - - Cerealia, 82, b. - - Cerevisia, 82, b. - - Cernere hereditatem, 203, b. - - Ceroma, 82, b. - - Certamen, 52, b. - - Ceruchi, 267, a. - - Cessio bonorum, 60, a. - - Cestius pons, 302, a. - - Cestrum, 295, b. - - Cestus, 82, b. - - Cetra, 83, a. - - Chaldaei, 45, b. - - Charistia, 83, b. - - Charta, 238, b. - - Cheironomia, 83, b. - - Cheniscus, 263, b. - - Chirographum, 83, b. - - Chlamys, 84, a. - - Choregia, 84, b. - - Choregus, 84, b. - - Chorus, 85, a. - - Chronologia, 85, b. - - Chrysendeta, 86, b. - - Cidaris, 376, b. - - Cincia, or Muneralis, lex, 227, b. - - Cinctus, 401, b. - Gabinus, 380, a. - - Cinerarius, 64, a. - - Cingulum, 41, b; 422, b. - - Cinifio, 64, a. - - Cippus, 86, b. - - Circenses ludi, 89, a. - - Circuitores, 31, a. - - Circus, 87, a. - - Cisium, 90, a. - - Cista, 90, a; 345, b. - - Cistophorus, 90, b. - - Cithara, 245, a. - - Civica corona, 118, a. - - Civile jus, 218, a. - - Civis, 91, b. - - Civitas (Greek), 90, b. - (Roman), 91, b. - - Clarigatio, 178, b. - - Classica corona, 118, b. - - Classici, 171, a. - - Classicum, 118, a. - - Clathri, 144, b; 409, a. - - Claudia lex, 227, b. - - Clavis, 398, a. - - Claustra, 88, a; 215, a. - - Clavus angustus, 92, b. - annalis, 92, b. - latus, 92, b. - - Clepsydra, 207, a. - - Clibanarii, 76, a. - - Cliens, 93, b. - - Clientela, 93, b. - - Clipeus, 41, b; 94, a. - - Clitellae, 94, a. - - Cloaca, 94, a. - - Cloacarium, 94, a. - - Cloacarum curatores, 94, b. - - Clodiae leges, 183, a; 227, b. - - Coa vestis, 94, b. - - Coactor, 82, a; 94, b; 407, b. - - Cochlea, 27, a; 94, b. - - Cochlear, 94, b. - - Codex, 39, b; 95, a. - - Codex Gregorianus et Hermogianus, 95, a. - Justinianus, 95, a. - Theodosianus, 95, a. - - Coelia, or Caelia, lex, 236, a. - - Coemptio, 251, a. - - Coena, 95, a; 96, b. - - Coenaculum, 143, b. - - Coenatio, 97, b. - - Coenatoria, 97, b; 359, a. - - Cognati, 98, a. - - Cognatio, 98, a. - - Cognitor, 6, a. - - Cognomen, 271, b. - - Coheres, 203, b. - - Cohors, 167, b. - - Cohortes Alariae, 16, b. - equitatae, 171, a. - peditatae, 171, a. - vigilum, 171, a. - urbanae, 171, a. - - Collectio, 215, b. - - Collegae, 98, a. - - Collegium, 98, a. - - Colobium, 401, b. - - Colonia, 98, b. - - Colonus, 98, b. - - Colores, 295, a. - - Colossus, 101, a. - - Colum, 101, a. - - Columbarium, 101, b; 190, a. - - Columna, 101, b. - rostrata, 102, b. - - Columnarium, 102, b. - - Colus, 191, b. - - Coma, 103, a. - - Commentarii senatus, 4, b. - - Commissatio, 104, a; 357, a. - - Comitia, 104, a. - calata, 105, a. - centuriata, 105, a. - curiata, 104, b. - tributa, 108, a. - - Commeatus, 110, b. - - Commentarii sacrorum, 304, a. - - Commentarium, 110, b. - - Commentarius, 110, b. - - Commercium, 92, a. - - Commissoria lex, 227, b. - - Comoedia, 110, b. - - Comperendinatio, 215, b. - - Comperendini dies, 135, b. - - Competitor, 18, b. - - Compitalia, 112, b. - - Compitalicii ludi, 112, b. - - Compluvium, 142, b. - - Concamerata sudatio, 56, a. - - Conceptivae feriae, 112, b. - - Concilium, 112, b. - - Conditivum, 190, a. - - Conditorium, 190, a. - - Conditurae, 418, a. - - Conductor, 81, a. - - Condus, 78, a. - - Confarreatio, 251, b. - - Congiarium, 112, b. - - Congius, 113, a. - - Conjurati, 400, a. - - Conjuratio, 400, a. - - Connubium, 251, a. - - Conopeum, 113, a. - - Conquisitores, 113, a. - - Consanguinei, 98, a. - - Conscripti, 333, a. - - Consecratio, 29, a; 211, b. - - Consilium, 104, a. - - Consualia, 113, a. - - Consul, 113, b. - - Consulares, 116, b. - - Consularis, 116, b. - - Consulti, 217, b. - - Consultores, 217, b. - - Contio, 116, b. - - Controversia, 215, b. - - Contubernales, 116, b. - - Contubernium, 117, a; 168, b; 339, a. - - Contus, 266, b. - - Conventio in manum, 251, a. - - Conventus, 112, b; 117, a. - - Convicium, 212, b. - - Convivii magister, 357, b. - rex, 357, b. - - Convivium, 357, a. - - Cooptari, 98, b. - - Cophinus, 117, a. - - Corbicula, 117, b. - - Corbis, 117, b. - - Corbitae, 117, b. - - Corbula, 117, b. - - Cornelia lex-- - agraria, 228, a. - de alea, 17, a. - de civitate, 228, a. - de falsis, 173, b. - frumentaria, 183, a. - de injuriis, 212, b. - judiciaria, 216, b. - majestatis, 247, a. - de novis tabellis, 228, a. - nummaria, 228, a. - de parricidio, 228, a. - de proscriptione et proscriptis, 311, b. - de repetundis, 319, a. - de sacerdotiis, 324, a. - de sicariis et veneficis, 212, a; 228, a. - sumptuaria, 235, b. - testamentaria, 173, b; 228, a. - tribunicia, 228, a. - unciaria, 228, a. - - Cornelia Baebia lex, 18, b; 228, a. - Caecilia lex, 183, a. - et Caecilia lex, 228, a. - - Cornicines, 11, a. - - Cornu, 117, a. - - Cornua, 238, a; 245, b; 267, a. - - Corona, 102, b; 118, a. - castrensis, 118, b. - civica, 118, a. - classica, 118, b. - convivialis, 119, b. - funebris, 119, a. - graminea, 118, a. - muralis, 118, b. - natalitia, 119, b. - navalis, 118, b. - nuptialis, 119, b. - obsidionalis, 118, a. - oleagina, 118, b. - ovalis, 118, b. - rostrata, 118, b. - sacerdotalis, 119, a. - sepulchralis, 119, a. - triumphalis, 118, b. - vallaris, 118, b. - - Coronis, 102, b; 119, b. - - Corporati, 98, a. - - Corporatio, 98, a. - - Corpus, 98, a. - - Cortina, 119, b. - - Corvus, 119, b. - - Corytos, 37, b. - - Cosmetae, 120, a. - - Cosmi, 120, a. - - Cothurnus, 120, a. - - Cotyla, 120, b. - - Covinarii, 121, a. - - Covinus, 120, b. - - Crater, Cratera, 121, a. - - Creditum, 39, b. - - Crepida, 121, a. - - Crepidata tragœdia, 112, a. - - Crepidines, 412, b. - - Creta, 88, a. - - Cretio hereditatis, 203, b. - - Crimen, 121, a. - - Crista, 192, b. - - Crocota, 121, a. - - Crotalistria, 126, a. - - Crotalum, 126, a. - - Crusta, 64, a; 152, a. - - Crux, 121, a. - - Crypta, 88, a; 121, b. - - Cryptoporticus, 121, b. - - Ctesibica machina, 27, a. - - Cubicularii, 122, a. - - Cubiculum, 22, b; 78, a; 122, a; 143, a. - - Cubitoria, 97, b. - - Cubitus, 122, a. - - Cucullus, 122, a. - - Cudo, or Cudon, 122, a. - - Culcita, 222, a. - - Culeus, 122, a. - - Culina, 143, a. - - Culleus, 122, a. - - Culter, 32, a; 122, a. - - Cultrarius, 122, b. - - Cumatium, 125, b. - - Cumera, 252, a. - - Cumerum, 252, a. - - Cunabula, 212, a. - - Cuneus, 23, a; 122, b; 371, a. - - Cuniculus, 122, b. - - Cupa, 122, b; 417, a. - - Curator, 101, a; 122, b. - - Curatores, 123, a. - annonae, 123, a. - aquarum, 31, a. - ludorum, 123, a. - religionum, 123, a. - viarum, 413, a. - - Curia, 100, b; 123, a. - - Curiae, 100, b; 334, b. - - Curiales, 100, b. - - Curiata comitia, 104, b. - - Curio, 123, b. - maximus, 123, b. - - Curriculum, 123, b. - - Currus, 123, b. - - Cursores, 125, a. - - Cursus, 89, a. - - Curulis sella, 331, b. - - Cuspis, 199, b. - - Custodes, Custodiae, 75, b. - - Custos urbis, 307, b. - - Cyathus, 125, a. - - Cyclas, 125, b. - - Cyma, 125, b. - - Cymatium, 125, b. - - Cymba, 125, b. - - Cymbalum, 125, b. - - - D. - - Dare actionem, 5, b. - - Daricus, 126, b. - - Decanus, 117, a. - - December, 66, a. - - Decempeda, 127, a. - - Decemviri, 127, a. - legibus scribendis, 127, a; 228, b. - litibus, or stlitibus, judicandis, 127, b. - sacrorum, or sacris faciendis, 127, b. - - Decennalia, or Decennia, 128, a. - - Decimatio, 128, a. - - Decretum, 128, a; 213, b; 336, a. - - Decumae, 128, a. - - Decumani, 128, a. - - Decuncis, 128, b. - - Decuriae, 330, b. - - Decuriones, 100, b; 166, b. - - Decursoria, 302, b. - - Decussis, 44, a. - - Dedicare, 145, a. - - Dedicatio, 211, b. - - Dediticii, 128, b. - - Deditio, 128, a. - - Deductores, 18, b. - - Defrutum, 416, b. - - Delator, 128, b. - - Delectus, 167, a. - - Delia, 128, b. - - Delphinae, 87, b. - - Delphinia, 129, a. - - Delubrum, 366, b. - - Demarchi, 129, a. - - Demens, 123, a. - - Demensum, 129, a; 341, a. - - Dementia, 123, a. - - Deminutio capitis, 71, a. - - Demiurgi, 129, a. - - Demus, 130, a. - - Denarius, 130, a. - aureus, 53, b. - - Denicales feriae, 190, b. - - Dens, or Dentale, 31, b; 191, b. - - Deportatio, 173, b. - in insulam, 173, b. - - Deportatus, 173, b. - - Depositum, 39, b. - - Derogare legem, 225, b. - - Designator, 188, a. - - Desultor, 130, b. - - Detestatio sacrorum, 105, a. - - Deversorium, 77, a. - - Deunx, 44, a. - - Dextans, 44, a. - - Diadema, 130, b. - - Diaeta, 97, b; 143, b. - - Diaetetae, 130, b. - - Dialis flamen, 180, a. - - Diarium, 341, a. - - Dicere, 133, a. - - Dictator, 132, b. - - Didia lex, 235, b. - - Diem dicere, 216, a. - - Dies, 134, b. - Civilis, 134, b. - comitiales, 135, b. - comperendini, 135, b. - fasti, 135, a; 175, a. - feriati, 177, b. - festi, 135, a. - intercisi, 135, a. - Naturalis, 134, b. - nefasti, 135, a. - proeliales, 135, b. - profesti, 135, a. - stati, 135, b. - - Diffarreatio, 139, b. - - Digitus, 292, a. - - Dimachae, 135, b. - - Dimensum, 341, a. - - Diminutio capitis, 71, a. - - Dionysia, 135, b. - - Diota, 137, a. - - Diploma, 137, a. - - Diptycha, 137, b. - - Diribitores, 107, b. - - Discessio, 336, a. - - Discinctus, 401, b. - - Discipula, 410, b. - - Discus, 137, b. - - Dispensator, 65, a. - - Diversorium, 77, a. - - Divinatio, 137, b. - (law term), 139, a. - - Divisores, 18, b. - - Divortium, 139, a. - - Divus, 29, a. - - Dodrans, 44, a. - - Dolabella, 139, b. - - Dolabra, 139, b. - - Dolium, 140, b; 417, a. - - Dolo, 140, a. - - Dominium, 14, a; 140, a. - - Dominus, 140, a; 194, b; 338, b. - funeris, 188, a. - - Domitia lex, 324, a. - - Domo, de, 39, b. - - Domus, 140, a. - - Dona, 145, a. - - Donaria, 145, a. - - Donatio, 182, b. - - Donativum, 113, a. - - Dormitoria, 143, a. - - Dos (Greek), 145, a. - (Roman), 145, b. - - Drachma, 145, b; 405, b. - - Draco, 343, b. - - Draconarius, 343, b. - - Ducenarii, 146, a; 217, a. - - Ducentesima, 82, a; 408, a. - - Duillia lex, 228, b. - Maenia lex, 228, b. - - Dulciarii, 297, b. - - Duodecim scripta, 221, a. - - Duplarii, 146, a. - - Duplicarii, 146, a. - - Duplicatio, 6, a. - - Dupondium, 292, a. - - Dupondius, 44, a. - - Dussis, 44, a. - - Duumviri, 101, a; 146, a. - juri dicundo, 100, b. - navales, 146, a. - perduellionis, 290, a. - quinquennales, 146, b. - sacri, 146, b. - sacrorum, 146, b. - - - E. - - Eculeus, 159, a. - - Edere actionem, 5, b. - - Edictum, 148, a. - novum, 148, a. - perpetuum, 148, a. - repentinum, 148, a. - tralatitium, 148, b. - vetus, 148, a. - - Edititii, 216, a. - - Editor, 194, b. - - Elaeothesium, 56, a. - - Electrum, 149, b. - - Eleusinia, 149, b. - - Ellychnium, 241, b. - - Emancipatio, 151, b. - - Emblema, 152, a. - - Emeriti, 152, a; 167, b. - - Emissarium, 152, a. - - Emporium, 152, b. - - Encaustica, 295, a. - - Endromis, 152, b. - - Ensis, 41, b; 196, a. - - Entasis, 101, b; 152, b. - - Ephebia, 153, b. - - Ephippium, 154, a. - - Ephori, 154, a. - - Epibatae, 155, a. - - Epidemiurgi, 129, b. - - Epirhedium, 322, a. - - Epistylium, 155, b. - - Epitaphium, 189, a. - - Epithalamium, 250, b; 252, b. - - Epulones, 156, a. - - Epulum Jovis, 156, a. - - Equestris ordo, 157, b. - - Equiria, 156, a. - - Equites, 156, a; 314, b. - - Equitum transvectio, 157, a. - - Equuleus, 159, a. - - Equus October, 280, a. - Publicus, 156, b. - - Ergastulum, 159, a. - - Ericius, 159, a. - - Esseda, 159, b. - - Essedarii, 159, b; 195, b. - - Essedum, 159, b. - - Everriator, 190, b. - - Evocati, 167, b. - - Euripus, 22, a; 408, b. - - Exauctorati, 170, b. - - Exauguratio, 160, b. - - Exceptio, 5, b; 308, a. - - Exceptores, 272, a. - - Excubiae, 75, b. - - Excubitores, 160, b. - - Exedra, 143, a; 160, b. - - Exercitor navis, 160, b. - - Exercitoria actio, 160, b. - - Exercitus, 160, b. - - Exodia, 171, a. - - Exostra, 171, b. - - Expeditus, 170, a; 171, b. - - Exploratores, 347, a. - - Exsequiae, 188, a. - - Exsilium, 172, a. - liberum, 173, b. - - Exsul, 173, a. - - Exta, 325, a. - - Extispices, 199, b. - - Extispicium, 199, b. - - Extranei heredes, 203, b. - - Extraordinarii, 167, a; 346, a. - - Exverrae, 190, b. - - Exverriator, 190, b. - - Exuviae, 348, a. - - - F. - - Fabia lex, 297, b. - - Fabiani, 244, a. - - Fabii, 244, a. - - Fabri, 173, b. - - Fabula palliata, 112, a. - praetextata, 112, a. - togata, 112, a. - tabernaria, 112, a. - - Fabula trabeata, 112, a. - - Fabulae Atellanae, 46, b. - - Factiones aurigarum, 89, a. - - Falarica, 201, a. - - Falcidia lex, 237, b. - - Falcula, 173, b. - - Falsum, 173, b. - - Falx, 173, b. - - Familia, 174, b; 194, b; 340, b. - - Familiae emptor, 174, a. - - Famosi libelli, 237, b. - - Famulus, 174, a. - - Fannia lex, 235, b. - - Fanum, 366, a. - - Farreum, 251, a. - - Fartor, 174, a. - - Fas, 218, a. - - Fasces, 114, b; 174, a. - - Fascia, 175, a; 222, a. - - Fascinum, 175, a. - - Fasti, 175, a. - annales, 175, b. - calendares, 175, b. - Capitolini, 175, b. - dies, 175, a. - historici, 175, b. - sacri, 175, b. - - Fastigium, 175, b. - - Fata Sibyllina, 342, b. - - Fauces, 88, a; 143, a. - - Favete linguis, 138, b. - - Fax, 176, a. - - Februare, 244, a. - - Februarius, 67, a; 244, a. - - Februum, 244, a. - - Februus, 244, a. - - Feciales, 178, a. - - Feminalia, 176, a. - - Fenestra, 144, b. - - Fenus, 176, a. - nauticum, 176, b. - - Feralia, 191, a. - - Ferculum, 97, a; 177, a. - - Ferentarii, 168, b. - - Feretrum, 188, a. - - Feriae, 177, b. - aestivae, 177, b. - conceptivae, or conceptae, 177, b. - denicales, 190, b. - imperativae, 177, b. - Latinae, 177, b. - publicae, 177, b. - stativae, 177, b. - stultorum, 182, a. - vindemiales, 177, b. - - Ferre legem, 225, b. - - Fescennina, 178, a. - - Festi dies, 135, a. - - Festuca, 248, a. - - Fetiales, 178, a. - - Fibula, 178, b. - - Fictile, 31, a; 178, b. - - Fideicommissarii praetores, 308, b. - - Fideicommissum, 179, a. - - Fides, 245, a. - - Fiducia, 179, a. - - Fiduciaria actio, 179, a. - - Figulina ars, 178, b. - - Figulus, 178, b. - - Filiafamilias, 286, a. - - Filiusfamilias, 286, a. - - Filum, 191, b. - - Fiscus, 11, b; 179, a. - - Fistuca, 144, b. - - Fistucatio, 412, b. - - Fistula, 359, a. - - Flabelliferae, 179, b. - - Flabellum, 179, b. - - Flagellum, 179, b. - - Flagrum, 179, b. - - Flamen, 180, a. - Dialis, 180, a. - Martialis, 180, a. - Quirinalis, 180, a. - Pomonalis, 180, a. - - Flaminia lex, 229, a. - - Flaminica, 180, b. - - Flammeum, 252, a. - - Flavia agraria lex, 229, a. - - Flexumines, 157, a. - - Floralia, 180, b. - - Focale, 180, b. - - Foculus, 145, a; 180, b. - - Focus, 180, b. - - Foederatae civitates, 181, a. - - Foederati, 181, a. - - Foedus, 181, a; 346, b. - - Foenus, 176, a. - nauticum, 176, b. - - Follis, 181, b; 296, b. - - Fons, 181, a. - - Fores, 88, a; 142, b. - - Fori, 87, a; 265, b. - - Foris, 215, a. - - Forma, 178, b. - - Formido, 319, b. - - Formula, 5, b; 346, a. - - Fornacalia, 182, a. - - Fornax, 182, a. - - Fornix, 36, a; 182, a. - - Foro cedere, or abire, 39, b. - mergi, 39, b. - - Foruli, 87, a. - - Forum, 74, b; 117, a; 190, a. - - Fossa, 14, b; 75, a. - - Framea, 201, a. - - Fratres arvales, 43, a. - - Frenum, 182, a. - - Frigidarium, 56, a. - - Fritillus, 182, b. - - Frontale, 24, a. - - Fructuaria res, 406, a. - - Fructuarius, 406, a. - - Frumentariae leges, 182, b. - - Frumentarii, 183, b. - - Fucus, 183, b. - - Fuga lata, 173, b. - libera, 173, b. - - Fugalia, 318, b. - - Fugitivarii, 339, b. - - Fugitivus, 339, b. - - Fulcra, 222, a. - - Fullo, 184, a. - - Fullonica, 184, a. - - Fullonicum, 184, a. - - Fullonium, 184, a. - - Fumarium, 418, b. - - Funalis equus, 124, b. - - Funambulus, 184, b; 328, b. - - Funda, 184, b; 320, b. - - Funditores, 184, b. - - Funes, 222, a; 267, b. - - Funus, 184, b. - indictivum, 188, a. - plebeium, 188, a. - publicum, 188, a. - tacitum, 188, a. - translatitium, 188, a. - - Furca, 191, a. - - Furcifer, 191, a. - - Furia, or Fusia Caninia lex, 229, a. - - Furiosus, 123, a. - - Fuscina, 191, b. - - Fustuarium, 191, b. - - Fusus, 191, b. - - - G. - - Gabinia lex, 229, b; 236, a. - - Gabinus cinctus, 380, a. - - Gaesum, 192, a. - - Galea, 41, b; 192, b. - - Galerus, -um, 104, a; 193, a. - - Galli, 193, a; 195, b. - - Ganea, 77, a. - - Gausapa, 193, a. - - Gausape, 193, a. - - Gausapum, 193, a. - - Geminae frontes, 238, a. - - Gener, 13, a. - - Genethliaci, 45, b. - - Genitura, 46, a. - - Gens, 193, a. - - Gentilitia sacra, 193, b. - - Germani, 98, a. - - Gerrae, 194, a. - - Gladiatores, 194, a. - - Gladiatorium, 194, b. - - Gladius, 41, b; 196, a. - - Glandes, 184, b. - - Glomus, 191, b. - - Glos, 13, b. - - Gomphi, 413, a. - - Gradus, 21, b; 182, b. - - Graecostasis, 196, a. - - Graphiarium, 354, a. - - Gregorianus codex, 95, a. - - Gremium, 412, b. - - Gubernaculum, 265, b. - - Gubernator, 266, a. - - Gustatio, 96, b. - - Guttus, 17, b; 56, b. - - Gymnasium, 197, a. - - - H. - - Haeres, 203, a. - - Halteres, 198, b. - - Harmamaxa, 199, a. - - Harmostae, 199, a. - - Harpago, 199, a. - - Harpastum, 297, a. - - Haruspices, 199, b. - - Haruspicina ars, 138, a; 199, b. - - Haruspicium, 138, a. - - Hasta, 41, b; 82, a; 199, b. - celibaris, 201, a. - pura, 201, a. - vendere sub, 48, a. - - Hastarium, 201, a. - - Hastati, 165, a; 168, b. - - Helepolis, 201, b. - - Heliocaminus, 145, a. - - Hellanodicae, 201, b. - - Hellenotamiae, 201, b. - - Helotes, 201, b. - - Hemina, 120, b; 202, b. - - Heraea, 202, b. - - Hereditas, 203, b. - - Heredium, 217, a. - - Heres (Greek), 203, a. - (Roman), 203, a. - - Hermae, 204, a. - - Hermaea, 204, a. - - Hermanubis, 204, b. - - Hermares, 204, b. - - Hermathena, 204, b. - - Hermeracles, 204, b. - - Hermogenianus codex, 95, a. - - Hermuli, 88, a; 204, a. - - Hexaphoron, 221, b. - - Hexeres, 262, a. - - Hieronica lex, 229, b. - - Hieronicae, 47, a. - - Hilaria, 205, a. - - Hippodromus, 205, a. - - Hister, 205, b. - - Histrio, 188, a; 205, b. - - Honorarii, 116, b. - - Honorarium, 8, b. - - Honores, 206, b. - - Hoplomachi, 195, b. - - Hora, 135, a. - - Hordearium aes, 12, b; 156, b. - - Horologium, 206, b. - - Horreum, 207, b; 417, a. - - Hortator, 305, b. - - Hortensia lex, 229, b; 300, b. - - Hortus, 207, b. - - Hospes, 209, a. - - Hospitium, 208, a. - - Hostia, 324, b. - - Hostia ambarvalis, 43, b. - - Hostis, 208, a. - - Humare, 189, b. - - Hyacinthia, 209, b. - - Hydraulis, 210, a. - - Hypaethrae, 102, a. - - Hypocaustum, 56, a. - - Hypogeum, 186, a. - - - I, J. - - Jaculatores, 201, a. - - Jaculum, 209, b; 320, b. - - Janitor, 142, b; 215, a. - - Janua, 142, b; 214, b. - - Januarius, 67, a. - - Iconicae statuae, 351, a. - - Idus, 67, a. - - Jentaculum, 96, a. - - Ignominia, 80, a; 212, a. - - Ilicet, 189, a. - - Imagines, 210, b; 270, a. - - Immunitas, 210, b. - - Imperativae feriae, 177, b. - - Imperator, 211, a. - - Imperium, 211, a. - - Impluvium, 142, b. - - Impubes, 211, a. - - In bonis, 59, b. - - Inauguratio, 211, b. - regis, 321, a. - - Inauris, 211, b. - - Incendium, 211, b. - - Incensus, 71, b; 79, b. - - Inceramenta navium, 295, a. - - Incestum, -us, 212, a. - - Incunabula, 212, a. - - Index, 238, b. - - Induere, 19, a. - - Indumentum, 359, a; 401, b. - - Indusium, 401, b. - - Indutus, 19, a; 401, b. - - Infamia, 212, a. - - Infans, 212, b. - - Infantia, 212, b. - - Inferiae, 191, a. - - Infula, 212, b. - - Infundibulum, 256, a. - - Ingenui, 212, b. - - Injuria, 212, b. - - Injuriarum actio, 213, a. - - Inlicium, 106, b. - - Inquilinus, 173, a. - - Insigne, 263, b. - - Instita, 213, a; 222, a. - - Insula, 213, a. - - Intentio, 5, b. - - Intercessio, 213, a. - - Intercisi dies, 135, a. - - Interdictio aquae et ignis, 173, a. - - Interdictum, 213, a. - prohibitorium, 213, a. - restitutorium, 213, a. - - Interpres, 18, b; 39, b; 213, b. - - Interregnum, 214, a. - - Interrex, 213, b; 320, b. - - Interula, 401, b. - - Iselastici ludi, 47, a. - - Iter, 302, b. - - Iterare, 32, b. - - Jubere, 336, a. - - Judex, 215, a. - - Judices editi, 216, a. - edititii, 216, a. - - Judicium, 215, a. - album, 216, b. - populi, 215, b; 216, a. - privatum, 215, b. - publicum, 215, b. - - Jugerum, 217, a. - - Jugum, 217, a; 239, a; 364, a. - - Jugumentum, 215, a. - - Juliae leges, 229, b. - - Julia lex de civitate, 181, b; 229, b. - de foenore, 230, a. - judiciaria, 216, b. - de liberis legationibus, 224, a. - majestatis, 247, a. - municipalis, 230, a. - et Papia Poppaea, 230, a. - peculatus, 230, b. - et Plautia, 230, b. - de provinciis, 312, b. - repetundarum, 319, b. - de sacerdotiis, 324, a. - de sacrilegis, 230, b. - sumptuaria, 236, a. - theatralis, 230, b. - et Titia, 230, b. - de vi publica et privata, 212, a. - vicesimaria, 414, b. - - Julius, 67, b. - - Junea, or Junia, Norbana lex, 230, b. - - Junia lex repetundarum, 319, a. - - Juniores, 105, b. - - Junius, 66, a. - - Jure, actio in, 5, b. - adcrescendi, 204, a. - agere, 5, a. - - Jure cessio, in, 7, b; 60, a. - - Jureconsulti, 217, b. - - Juris auctores, 217, b. - - Jurisconsulti, 217, b. - - Jurisdictio, 117, a; 218, a. - - Jurisperiti, 217, b. - - Jurisprudentes, 217, b. - - Jus, 218, a. - annuli aurei, 25, b. - annulorum, 25, b. - applicationis, 173, a. - augurium, or augurum, 52, b. - Censurae, 79, a. - civile, 218, a. - civile Papirianum, or Papisianum, 233, b. - civitatis, 92, a. - commercii, 92, a. - connubii, 92, a. - edicendi, 9, a; 148, a. - exsulandi, 173, a. - fetiale, 219, a. - honorum, 92, a. - Latii, 92, a; 220, b. - liberorum, 230, b. - Pontificium, 218, a; 304, a. - postliminii, 306, a. - privatum, 92, a. - publice epulandi, 337, a. - publicum, 92, a. - Quiritium, 79, b; 218, a. - senatus, 333, b. - suffragiorum, 92, a. - vocatio, in, 5, a. - - Jusjurandum, 218, a. - judiciale, 219, a. - - Justa funera, 188, a. - - Justinianeus codex, 95, a. - - Justitium, 191, a; 219, a. - - Juvenalia, or juvenales ludi, 219, b. - - - L. - - Labarum, 344, a. - - Labrum, 56, a. - - Labyrinthus, 219, b. - - Lacerna, 219, b. - - Laciniae, 220, a. - - Laconicum, 56, a. - - Lacunar, 144, b. - - Lacus, 182, a; 416, b. - - Laena, 220, a. - - Laesa majestas, 246, b. - - Lancea, 200, a. - - Lances, 239, a. - - Lanificium, 363, b. - - Lanista, 194, b. - - Lanx, 220, b. - - Lapicidinae, 221, a. - - Lapis, 255, b. - specularis, 144, b. - - Laquear, 144, b. - - Laqueatores, 195, b. - - Laqueus, 220, b. - - Lararium, 220, b. - - Larentalia, 220, b. - - Larentinalia, 220, b. - - Largitio, 18, b. - - Larva, 291, a. - - Lata fuga, 173, b. - - Later, 220, b. - - Lateraria, 220, b. - - Laticlavius, 92, b. - - Latii jus, 220, b. - - Latinae feriae, 177, b. - - Latinitas, 220, b. - - Latinus, 92, a; 181, a. - - Latium, 220, b. - - Latomiae, 221, a. - - Latrones, 221, a. - - Latrunculi, 221, a. - - Latumiae, 221, a. - - Latus clavus, 92, b. - - Lavatio calda, 56, a. - - Laudatio funebris, 188, b. - - Laurentalia, 220, b. - - Lautomiae, 221, a. - - Lautumiae, 221, a. - - Lectica, 221, a. - - Lecticarii, 221, b. - - Lectisternium, 221, b. - - Lectus, 222, a. - funebris, 188, a. - - Legatio libera, 224, a. - - Legatum, 222, b. - - Legatus, 222, b; 313, a. - - Leges, 225, a. - censoriae, 81, a. - centuriatae, 79, a; 225, a. - curiatae, 225, a. - Juliae, 226, a. - - Legio, 164, a; 170, b. - - Legis actiones, 5, a. - - Legitima hereditas, 203, b. - - Legitimae actiones, 5, a. - - Lembus, 224, b. - - Lemniscus, 224, b. - - Lemuralia, 224, b. - - Lemuria, 224, b. - - Lenaea, 135, b. - - Leria, 402, a. - - Lessus, 188, a. - - Levir, 13, b. - - Lex, 225, a; 229, a. - Acilia, 226, a. - Acilia Calpurnia, 18, b. - Aebutia, 226, a. - Aelia, 226, a. - Aelia Sentia, 226, a. - Aemilia, 226, a. - Aemilia, de censoribus, 226, a. - Aemilia Baebia, 228, a. - Aemilia Lepidi, 235, b. - Aemilia Scauri, 248, b. - agraria, 14, b; 226, a. - ambitus, 18, b. - Ampia, 226, b. - annalis, or Villia, 226, b; 334, a. - annua, 148, b. - Antia, 236, a. - Antonia, 226, b. - Apuleia, 226, b. - Apuleia agraria, 226, b. - Apuleia frumentaria, 226, b. - Apuleia majestatis, 247, a. - Aternia Tarpeia, 226, b. - Atia de sacerdotiis, 226, b. - Atilia, 226, b. - Atilia Marcia, 226, b. - Atinia, 226, b. - Aufidia, 18, b. - Aurelia, 226, b. - Aurelia Tribunicia, 226, b. - Baebia, 227, a. - Baebia Aemilia, 228, a. - Caecilia de Censoribus, or Censoria, 227, a. - Caecilia de Vectigalibus, 227, a. - Caecilia Didia, 227, a. - Calpurnia de ambitu, 18, b. - Calpurnia de repetundis, 319, a. - Campana, 235, a. - Canuleia, 227, a. - Cassia, 227, a. - Cassia agraria, 227, a. - Cassia tabellaria, 236, a. - Cassia Terentia frumentaria, 227, b. - Centuriata, 79, a. - Cincia, 227, b. - Claudia, 227, b. - Claudia de Senatoribus, 227, b. - Clodiae, 183, a; 227, b. - Coelia or Caelia, 236, a. - - Lex Cornelia-- - agraria, 228, a. - de civitate, 228, a. - de falsis, 173, b. - frumentaria, 183, a. - de injuriis, 212, b. - judiciaria, 216, b. - de magistratibus, 228, a. - majestatis, 247, a. - de novis tabellis, 228, a. - nummaria, 228, a. - de parricidio, 228, a. - de proscriptione et proscriptis, 311, b. - de repetundis, 319, a. - de sacerdotiis, 324, a. - de sicariis et veneficis, 212, a; 228, a. - sumptuaria, 235, b. - testamentaria, 173, b; 228, a. - tribunicia, 228, a. - unciaria, 228, a. - Baebia, 18, b; 228, a. - Caecilia, 183, a. - et Caecilia, 228, a. - - Lex Curiata de imperio, 49, a; 104, b; 233, b. - Curiata de adoptione, 7, b. - Decemviralis, 228, b. - Decia de duumviris navalibus, 228, b. - Didia, 235, b. - Domitia de sacerdotiis, 324, a. - Duilia, 228, b. - Duilia maenia, 228, b. - Duodecim Tabularum, 228, b. - Fabia de plagio, 297, b. - Fabia de numero sectatorum, 229, a. - Falcidia, 237, b. - Fannia, 235, b. - Flaminia, 229, a. - Flavia agraria, 229, a. - frumentariae, 182, b; 229, a. - Fufia de religione, 229, a. - Fufia judiciaria, 217, a. - Furia or Fusia Caninia, 229, a. - Furia or Fusia testamentaria, 229, a. - Gabinia tabellaria, 229, b; 236, a. - Gellia Cornelia, 229, b. - Genucia, 229, b. - Hieronica, 229, b. - Hortensia de plebiscitis, 229, b; 300, b. - Icilia, 229, b. - Julia de adulteriis, 8, a. - Julia de ambitu, 18, b. - Juliae, 229, b. - Junia de peregrinis, 230, b. - Junia Licinia, 231, a. - Junia Norbana, 230, b. - Junia repetundarum, 319, a. - Laetoria, 230, b. - Licinia de sodalitiis, 19, a. - Licinia de ludis Apollinaribus, 231, a. - Licinia Junia, 231, a. - Licinia Mucia de civibus regundis, 231, a. - Licinia sumptuaria, 235, a. - Liciniae rogationes, 231, a. - Liviae, 231, a. - Lutatia de vi, 231, b. - Maenia, 231, b. - majestatis, 246, b. - - Lex Mamilia de Jugurthae Fautoribus, 231, b. - Mamilia finium regundarum, 231, b. - mancipii, 247, b. - Manilia, 231, b. - Manlia de vicesima, 231, b. - Marcia, 231, b. - Maria, 231, b. - Memmia, or Remmia, 69, a. - Mensia, 231, b. - Minucia, 231, b. - Nervae Agraria, 231, b. - Octavia, 182, b; 231, b. - Ogulnia, 232, a. - Oppia, 235, b. - Orchia, 235, b. - Ovinia, 232, a. - Papia de peregrinis, 232, a. - Papia Poppaea, 230, a. - Papiria, or Julia Papiria de mulctarum aestimatione, 232, a. - Papiria, 232, a. - Papiria Plautia, 232, a. - Papiria Poetelia, 232, a. - Papiria tabellaria, 236, a. - Pedia, 232, a. - Peducaea, 232, a. - Pesulania, 232, a. - Petreia, 232, a. - Petronia, 232, b. - Pinaria, 232, b. - Plaetoria, 122, b. - Plautia, or Plotia de vi, 231, b. - Plautia, or Plotia judiciaria, 232, b. - Plautia Papiria, 232, a. - Poetelia, 232, b. - Poetelia Papiria, 232, b. - Pompeia, 232, b. - Pompeia de ambitu, 217, a. - Pompeia de civitate, 232, b. - Pompeia de imperio Caesari prorogando, 232, b. - Pompeia judiciaria, 217, b. - Pompeia de jure magistratuum, 232, b. - Pompeia de parricidiis, 285, b. - Pompeia tribunitia, 232, b. - Pompeia de vi, 212, a; 232, b. - Pompeiae, 232, b. - Popilia, 232, a. - Porciae de capite civium, 232, b. - Porcia de provinciis, 232, b. - Publicia, 232, b. - Publilia, 232, b. - Publiliae, 233, a. - Pupia, 233, a. - Quina vicemaria, 122, b. - Quintia, 233, a. - regia, 233, a. - regiae, 233, b. - Remmia, 69, a. - repetundarum, 319, a. - Rhodia, 233, b. - Roscia theatralis, 233, b. - - Lex Rubria, 234, a. - Rupiliae, 234, a. - sacratae, 234, a. - Saenia de patriciorum numero augendo, 234, a. - Satura, 226, a. - Scantinia, 234, a. - Scribonia, 234, a. - Scribonia viaria, 234, a. - Sempronia de foenore, 234, b. - Semproniae, 234, a. - Servilia agraria, 235, a. - Servilia Glaucia de civitate, 319, a. - Servilia Glaucia de repetundis, 319, a. - Servilia judiciaria, 235, a. - Silia, 235, a. - Silvani et Carbonis, 92, a. - Sulpicia Sempronia, 235, a. - Sulpiciae, 235, a. - Sumptuariae, 235, a. - Tabellariae, 236, a. - Tarpeia Aternia, 226, b. - Terentia Cassia, 183, a. - Terentilia, 236, b. - Testamentariae, 236, b. - Thoria, 236, b. - Titia, 236, b. - Titia de alea, 17, a. - Titia de tutoribus, 230, b. - Trebonia, 236, b. - Trebonia de provinciis consularibus, 236, b. - Tribunicia, 233, a; 236, b. - Tullia de ambitu, 18, b. - Tullia de legatione libera, 224, a. - Valeria, 237, a. - Valeriae, 236, b. - Valeriae et Horatiae, 29, b; 237, a. - Varia, 247, a. - Vatinia de provinciis, 237, a. - Vatinia de colonis, 237, a. - Vatinia de rejectione judicum, 237, a. - de vi, 420, a. - viaria, 237, a. - vicesimaria, 414, b. - Villia annalis, 226, b. - Visellia, 237, a. - Voconia, 237, b. - - Libatio, 325, b. - - Libella, 90, a; 237, b. - - Libellus, 194, b; 237, b. - - Liber, 238, a. - - Libera fuga, 173, b. - - Liberales ludi, 137, a. - - Liberalia, 137, a. - - Liberalis causa, 45, a. - manus, 45, a. - - Liberalitas, 18, b. - - Liberi, 238, b. - - Libertus, 238, b. - - Libertinus, 212, b; 238, b. - - Libitinarii, 187, b. - - Libra, 239, a. - or as, 239, a. - - Librarium, 48, a. - - Libraria taberna, 58, b. - - Librarii, 58, b; 239, a. - - Librator, 239, a. - - Libripens, 247, b. - - Liburna, 239, a; 262, b. - - Liburnica, 239, a; 262, b. - - Liceri, 48, b. - - Licia, 364, b. - - Liciatorum, 364, b. - - Licinia lex de sodalitiis, 19, a. - Junia lex, 231, a. - Mucia lex, 231, a. - lex sumptuaria, 235, b. - - Liciniae rogationes, 231, a. - - Licitari, 48, b. - - Lictor, 239, b. - - Ligula, 239, b. - - Limen, 215, a. - - Linteones, 363, b. - - Linter, 239, b. - - Linteum, 17, b; 222, b. - - Linum, 360, b. - - Lirare, 32, b. - - Literae, 360, a. - - Lithostrotum, 144, b. - - Lituus, 240, a. - - Lixae, 68, b. - - Locatio, 80, b. - - Loculus, 32, b; 188, b. - - Locuples, 240, b. - - Locus liberatus et effatus, 366, a. - - Lodix, 240, b. - - Logistae, 160, b. - - Lorica, 41, a; 240, b. - - Lucar, 206, a. - - Lucerences, 286, b. - - Luceres, 286, b. - - Lucerna, 241, b. - - Lucta, 242, a. - - Luctatio, 242, a. - - Ludi, 242, a. - Apollinares, 242, a. - Augustales, 52, b. - Capitolini, 242, b. - Circenses, 89, a; 242, a. - compitalitii, 112, b. - Florales, 180, b. - funebres, 191, b; 242, b. - liberales, 137, a. - magni, 242, b. - Megalenses, 253, b. - Osci, 46, b. - plebeii, 242, b. - Romani, 242, b. - saeculares, 242, b. - scenici, 206, a; 242, a. - Tarentini, 242, b. - Taurii, 242, b. - - Ludus, 194, b. - Trojae, 90, a. - - Lupanar, 77, a. - - Lupatum, 182, b. - - Lupercalia, 243, b. - - Luperci, 243, b; 244, b. - - Lupus ferreus, 244, a. - - Lustratio, 43, b; 244, a. - - Lustrum, 66, a; 244, b. - - Lyra, 245, a. - - - M. - - Maceria, 257, a. - - Maculae, 319, b. - - Maenia lex, 231, b. - - Maenianum, 22, b; 246, a. - - Magadis, 245, b. - - Magister, 246, a. - admissionum, 6, b. - auctionis, 48, b. - equitum, 134, b. - populi, 132, b. - societatis, 246, a. - - Magistratus, 246, b. - - Maius, 66, a. - - Majestas, 246, b. - - Majores, 212, b; 246, b. - - Malleolus, 247, a. - - Malus, 266, a. - - Malus oculus, 175, a. - - Mamilia lex, 231, b. - - Manceps, 81, a; 247, a. - - Mancipatio, 247, b. - - Mancipi res, 247, b. - - Mancipium, 247, b. - - Mandatum, 247, b. - - Mangones, 339, b. - - Manilia lex, 231, b. - - Manipulares, 168, a. - - Manipularii, 168, a. - - Manipulus, 165, a; 168, a; 343, a. - - Manlia lex, 231, b. - - Mansio, 247, b. - - Mansionarius, 248, a. - - Mansiones, 248, a. - - Manubiae, 306, b; 348, a. - - Manum, conventio in, 251, a. - - Manumissio, 248, a. - - Manus ferrea, 199, b. - - Mappa, 97, b. - - Marcia lex, 231, b. - - Margines, 412, b. - - Maria lex, 231, b. - - Marsupium, 248, b. - - Martialis flamen, 180, a. - - Martius, 66, a. - - Materfamilias, 251, a. - - Mathematici, 45, b. - - Mathesis, 45, b. - - Matralia, 249, a. - - Matrimonium, 249, b. - - Matrona, 251, a. - - Matronales feriae, 249, b. - - Matronalia, 249, b. - - Matura, 201, a. - - Mausoleum, 190, a; 253, a. - - Mediastini, 253, a; 340, b. - - Medicamina, 418, a. - - Medimnus, 253, a. - - Medix tuticus, 253, b. - - Megalenses ludi, 253, b. - - Megalensia, 253, b. - - Megalesia, 253, b. - - Membrana, 238, b. - - Memmia lex, 69, a. - - Mensa, 253, b. - de, 39, b. - - Mensae scripturam, per, 39, b. - - Mensam per, 39, b. - - Mensarii, 254, a. - - Mensularii, 254, a. - - Mensia lex, 231, b. - - Mensis, 66, a. - - Menstruum, 341, a. - - Mercedonius, 66, b. - - Meridiani, 195, b. - - Meridies, 134, b. - - Metae, 87, a. - - Metallum, 254, a. - - Metator, 73, b. - - Metretes, 23, b; 255, b. - - Mille passuum, 255, b. - - Milliare, 255, b. - - Milliarium, 255, b. - aureum, 255, b. - - Mimus, 255, b. - - Minores, 123, a; 246, b. - - Minucia lex, 231, b. - - Minutio capitis, 71, a. - - Mirmillones, 195, b. - - Missio, 167, b; 195, a. - causaria, 167, b. - honesta, 167, b. - ignominiosa, 167, b. - - Missus, 90, a. - aerarius, 90, a. - - Mitra, 104, a; 256, a. - - Modiolus, 124, a. - - Modius, 256, a. - - Moenia, 257, a. - - Mola, 256, a. - aquaria, 256, a. - asinaria, 256, a. - manuaria, 256, a. - trusatilis, 256, a. - versatilis, 256, a. - salsa, 325, a. - - Monarchia, 256, b. - - Monaulos, 376, b. - - Moneris, 261, a. - - Moneta, 256, b. - - Monetales triumviri, 256, b. - - Monile, 256, b. - - Monstrum, 310, b. - - Monumentum, 190, a. - - Morator, 89, b. - - Morbus comitialis, 108, a. - - Mortarium, 257, a. - - Morum cura, or praefectura, 79, a. - - Mos, 251, b. - - Motio e senatu, 80, b. - e tribu, 80, b. - - Mulleus, 65, b. - - Mulsa, 418, b. - - Mulsum, 418, a. - - Munerator, 194, b. - - Municeps, 100, b. - - Municipes, 100, b. - - Municipium, 100, b. - - Munus, 194, b; 206, b. - - Muralis corona, 118, b. - - Muries, 411, a. - - Murrea vasa, 257, a. - - Murrhina vasa, 257, a. - - Murus, 257, a. - - Musculus, 258, b. - - Museum, 258, b. - - Musica muta, 283, a. - - Musivum opus, 144, b; 296, a. - - Mustum, 416, b. - - Mysteria, 258, b. - - - N. - - Nacca, 184, a. - - Naenia, 188, a. - - Narthecia, 405, b. - - Natatio, 56, a. - - Natatorium, 56, a. - - Nationes, 170, b. - - Navales Socii, 171, a. - - Navalis corona, 118, b. - - Navarchus, 259, a. - - Navis, 259, b. - aperta, 261, b. - - Naumachia, 268, a. - - Naumachiarii, 268, a. - - Necessarii heredes, 203, b. - - Nefasti dies, 135, a. - - Negotiatores, 269, a. - - Nenia, 188, a. - - Neptunalia, 269, b. - - Nexum, 269, b. - - Nexus, 269, b. - - Nobiles, 270, a. - - Nobilitas, 270, a. - - Nomen, 270, b. - expedire, or expungere, 39, b. - Latinum, 345, b. - (Greek), 270, b. - (Roman), 270, b. - - Nomenclator, 18, b. - - Nonae, 66, a. - - Nota, 272, a. - censoria, 80, a. - - Notarii, 272, a. - - Notatio censoria, 80, a. - - Novale, 32, b. - - Novare, 32, b. - - November, 66, a. - - Novendiale, 190, b; 272, b. - - Noverca, 13, b. - - Novi homines, 270, a. - - Novitas, 270, a. - - Nucleus, 412, b. - - Nudus, 272, b. - - Numeratio, 336, a. - - Numeri, 168, a. - - Nummularii, 254, a. - - Numularii, 254, a. - - Nummus, or Numus, 341, a. - aureus, 53, b. - - Nuncupatio, 369, a. - - Nundinae, 66, a; 272, b. - - Nundinum, 273, a. - - Nuntiatio, 51, a. - - Nuptiae, 249, b. - - Nurus, 13, a. - - - O. - - Obices, 215, a. - - Obnuntiatio, 51, a. - - Obolus, 145, a; 405, b. - - Obrogare legem, 225, b. - - Obsidionalis corona, 118, a. - - Obsonium, 276, b. - - Occatio, 32, b. - - Ocrea, 41, a; 273, a. - - Octavae, 408, a. - - Octavia lex, 182, b; 231, b. - - October, 66, a. - equus, 280, a. - - Octophoron, 221, b. - - Odeum, 273, a. - - Oecus, 143, a. - - Oenomelum, 418, a. - - Officium admissionis, 6, b. - - Offringere, 32, b. - - Ogulnia lex, 232, a. - - Olea, 273, b. - - Oleagina corona, 118, b. - - Oleum, 273, b. - - Oliva, 273, b. - - Olla, 190, b; 273, b. - - Olympia, 274, a. - - Onager, 381, a. - - Onerariae naves, 117, b; 262, a. - - Onyx, alabaster, 16, b. - - Opalia, 276, b; 330, a. - - Opifera, 267, b. - - Opima spolia, 348, a. - - Oppia lex, 235, b. - - Oppidum, 87, b. - - Opsonator, 276, b. - - Opsonium, 276, b. - - Optio, 166, b. - - Optimates, 270, b. - - Opus incertum, 258, a. - - Oraculum, 276, b. - - Orarium, 277, b. - - Oratio, 7, b. - - Orator, 277, b. - - Orbis, 178, b. - - Orca, 345, a. - - Orchestra, 371, b. - - Orchia lex, 235, b. - - Orcinus senator, 333, a. - - Ordinarii servi, 340, b. - - Ordinum ductores, 166, b; 168, b; 169, a. - - Ordo, 100, b; 165, b; 168, a; 278, a. - decurionum, 100, b. - equestris, 157, b. - senatorius, 333, b. - - Oreae, 182, b. - - Orichalcum, 278, a. - - Ornamenta triumphalia, 397, a. - - Ornatrix, 103, b. - - Oscines, 50, a. - - Oscillum, 278, a. - - Ostentum, 310, b. - - Ostiarium, 278, b. - - Ostiarius, 142, b. - - Ostium, 88, a; 142, b; 214, b. - - Ova, 87, b. - - Ovalis corona, 118, b. - - Ovatio, 278, b. - - Ovile, 107, b. - - Ovinia lex, 232, a. - - - P. - - Paean, 279, a. - - Paedagogia, 279, a. - - Paedagogus, 279, a. - - Paenula, 279, a. - - Paganalia, 279, b. - - Pagani, 279, b. - - Paganica, 296, b. - - Pagi, 279, b. - - Pala, 26, a. - - Palaestra, 198, a; 279, b. - - Palangae, 160, b. - - Palilia, 280, a. - - Palimpsestus, 238, a. - - Palla, 280, a. - - Palliata fabula, 112, a. - - Palliolum, 280, a. - - Pallium, 280, a. - - Palmipes, 281, a. - - Palmus, 281, a. - - Paludamentum, 281, a. - - Paludatus, 395, a. - - Panathenaea, 281, b. - - Pancratiastae, 282, b. - - Pancratium, 282, b. - - Panegyris, 283, a. - - Pantomimus, 283, a. - - Papia lex de peregrinis, 232, a. - Poppaea lex, 230, a. - - Papiria lex, 232, a. - Plautia lex, 232, a. - Poetelia lex, 232, a. - tabellaria lex, 236, a. - - Papyrus, 238, a. - - Paradisus, 283, b. - - Parapherna, 145, b. - - Parasiti, 284, b. - - Parentalia, 191, a. - - Paries, 144, a. - - Parma, 285, a. - - Parmula, 285, a. - - Parochi, 285, a. - - Paropsis, 285, a. - - Parricida, 285, b. - - Parricidium, 285, b. - - Partes, 314, b. - - Particulae, 314, b. - - Pascua, 407, a. - publica, 330, b. - - Passum, 417, b. - - Passus, 285, b. - - Patella, 285, b. - - Pater, 286, b. - familias, 174, a. - patratus, 178, a. - - Patera, 285, b. - - Patibulum, 191, a. - - Patina, 286, a. - - Patres, 286, b. - conscripti, 333, a. - - Patria potestas, 286, a. - - Patricii, 286, b. - - Patrimi et matrimi, or Patrimes et matrimes, 287, b. - - Patrimonium, 174, a. - - Patronomi, 287, b. - - Patronus, 93, b; 287, b. - - Pavimentum, 144, b; 412, b. - - Pauperie, aetio de, 288, a. - - Pauperies, 288, a. - - Pausarii, 305, b. - - Pecten, 288, a; 364, b. - - Peculator, 288, a. - - Peculatus, 288, a. - - Peculio, actio de, 339, b. - - Peculium, 339, b. - - Pecunia, 12, a; 40, a; 53, b. - vacua, 39, b. - - Pecuniae repetundae, 318, b. - - Pecus, 288, a. - - Pedarii senatores, 334, a. - - Pedisequi, 288, a. - - Peducaea lex, 232, a. - - Pedum, 288, a. - - Pegma, 288, b. - - Pegmares, 288, b. - - Pelta, 288, b. - - Penicillus -um, 295, b. - - Pentacosiomedimni, 81, b; 390, a. - - Pentathli, 289, a. - - Pentathlon, 289, a. - - Peplum, 289, b. - - Pera, 290, a. - - Perduellio, 247, a; 290, a. - - Perduellionis duumviri, 290, a. - - Peregrinus, 92, a; 290, a. - - Perferre legem, 225, b. - - Peripetasmata, 222, b. - - Periscelis, 291, a. - - Peristroma, 222, b; 291, a. - - Peristylium, 102, a; 143, a. - - Peritiores, 217, b. - - Permutatio, 39, b. - - Pero, 291, a. - - Perscriptio, 39, b. - - Persona, 291, a. - - Pes, 267, b; 292, a. - sestertius, 292, a. - - Pessulus, 215, a. - - Pesulania lex, 232, a. - - Petasus, 297, a; 405, a. - - Petauristae, 292, a. - - Petaurum, 292, a. - - Petitor, 6, a; 18, b. - - Petorritum, 292, a. - - Petreia lex, 232, a. - - Petronia lex, 232, b. - - Phalangae, 160, b. - - Phalanx, 160, b; 163, b. - - Phalarica, 201, a. - - Phalera, 292, a. - - Pharetra, 292, b. - - Pharos, or Pharus, 292, b. - - Phaselus, 293, a. - - Pictura, 293, b. - - Pignoris captio, 334, b. - - Pila, 257, a; 296, a; 343, b. - - Pilani, 168, b. - - Pileati, 188, a. - - Pilentum, 297, a. - - Pileum, 297, a. - - Pileus, 297, a. - - Pilum, 200, a; 257, a. - - Pinacotheca, 143, a. - - Pinaria lex, 232, b. - - Piscina, 30, a; 31, a; 56, a. - - Pistor, 297, b. - - Pistrinum, 257, a. - - Plaetoria lex, 122, b. - - Plagiarius, 297, b. - - Plagium, 297, b. - - Planetarii, 45, b. - - Planipedes, 256, a. - - Plaustrum, or Plostrum, 297, b. - - Plautia, or Plotia lex de vi, 231, b. - judiciaria, 232, b. - - Plebeii, 298, a. - ludi, 242, b. - - Plebes, 298, a. - - Plebiscitum. 225, b; 300, b. - - Plebs, 298, a. - - Plectrum, 246, a. - - Pluteus, 58, a; 222, a; 301, a. - - Pnyx, 146, b. - - Poculum, 301, a. - - Podium, 21, b; 101, b. - - Poena, 301, a. - - Poetelia Papiria lex, 232, b. - - Pollinctores, 187, b. - - Polus, 206, a. - - Polychromy, 295, b. - - Pomeridianum tempus, 134, b. - - Pomoerium, 301, b. - - Pompa, 301, b. - Circensis, 89, b. - - Pompeiae leges, 232, b. - - Pons, 107, b; 302, a. - Aelius, 302, b. - Cestius, 302, a. - Fabricius, 302, b. - Janiculensis, 302, a. - Milvius, 302, b. - Palatinus, 302, b. - Sublicius, 302, b. - suffragiorum, 303, a. - Vaticanus, 302, b. - - Pontifex, 303, a. - - Pontificales libri, 304, a. - - Pontifices minores, 305, a. - - Pontificii libri, 304, a. - - Pontificium jus, 218, a; 304, a. - - Popa, 77, a; 122, b; 325, a. - - Popilia lex, 232, a. - - Popina, 77, a. - - Popularia, 23, a. - - Populi scitum, 225, b. - - Populifugia, or Poplifugia, 305, a. - - Populus, 300, a; 286, a. - - Porcae, 32, b. - - Porciae leges, 232, b. - - Porta, 305, a. - decumana, 75, a. - pompae, 88, a. - - Porta praetoria, or extraordinaria, 75, a. - principalis, 75, a. - - Portentum, 138, b; 199, b. - - Porticus, 305, b. - - Portisculus, 305, b. - - Portitores, 306, a. - - Portorium, 305, b. - - Portula, 305, b. - - Possessio, 14, a. - - Possessor, 14, a. - - Postes, 215, a. - - Posticum, 214, b. - - Postliminium, 306, a. - - Postmeridianum tempus, 135, a. - - Postsignani, 168, b. - - Potestas, 286, a. - - Praecinctio, 23, a; 371, a. - - Praecinctus, 401, b. - - Praecones, 306, b. - - Praeconium, 306, b. - - Praeda, 306, b; 347, b. - - Praedes, 216, a. - - Praedia, 308, a. - - Praediator, 308, a. - - Praefecti sociorum, 167, a. - - Praefectus, 307, a. - aerarii, 11, b. - annonae, 182, b; 307, a. - aquarum, 31, a. - castrorum, 307, a. - classis, 307, a. - fabrûm, 173, a. - juri dicundo, 100, b. - praetorio, 307, a. - vigilum, 171, a. - urbi, 10, a; 307, b. - - Praefectura, 101, a. - morum, 79, a. - - Praeficae, 188, a. - - Praejudicium, 308, a. - - Praelusio, 194, b. - - Praemium, 167, b. - - Praenomen, 270, b. - - Praerogativa tribus, 109, a. - - Praerogativae, 109, a. - - Praes, 308, a. - - Praescriptio, 308, a. - - Praeses, 313, a. - - Praesidia, 75, b. - - Praeteriti senatores, 80, b; 333, b. - - Praetexta, 380, b. - - Praetextata fabula, 46, b; 112, a. - - Praetor, 308, a. - peregrinus, 308, b. - urbanus, 308, b. - - Praetoria cohors, 309, a. - - Praetoriani, 309, a. - - Praetorium, 308, a; 309, b. - - Prandium, 96, b. - - Prehensio, 388, a. - - Prelum, or Praelum, 416, b. - - Prensatio, 18, b. - - Primipilus, 169. b. - - Primitiae, 325, b. - - Princeps juventutis, 159, a. - - Princeps senatus, 333, b. - - Principes, 165, b; 168, b. - - Principia, 168, b. - via, 75, a. - - Principium, 109, a. - - Privatum jus, 92, a. - - Privilegium, 225, b. - - Privigna, 13, b. - - Privignus, 13, b. - - Probatio nummorum, 39, b. - - Proconsul, 310, a. - - Procubitores, 168, b. - - Procuratio prodigiorum, 310, b. - - Procurator, 6, a; 65, a; 179, b; 310, b; 313, a. - peni, 78, a. - - Prodigium, 310, b. - - Prodigus, 123, a. - - Proeliales dies, 135, b. - - Profesti dies, 135, a. - - Progener, 13, b. - - Proletarii, 71, a. - - Promulsis, 96, b; 418, a. - - Promus, 78, a; 97, a. - - Pronubae, 252, b. - - Pronubi, 252, b. - - Pronurus, 13, b. - - Propraetor, 308, b. - - Propugnaculum, 381, a. - - Proquaestor, 317, b. - - Prora, 263, a. - - Proscenium, 372, a. - - Proscindere, 32, b. - - Proscribere, 311, b. - - Proscripti, 311, b. - - Proscriptio, 311, b. - - Prosecta, 325, a. - - Prosiciae, 325, a. - - Prosocrus, 13, b. - - Provincia, 311, b. - - Provocatio, 29, b. - - Provocatores, 195, b. - - Proximus admissionum, 6, b. - - Prudentiores, 217, b. - - Pteron, 253, a. - - Pubertas, 211, a. - - Pubes, 212, b. - - Publicae feriae, 177, b. - - Publicani, 314, a. - - Publicia lex, 232, b. - - Publicum, 314, a. - jus, 92, a. - - Publicus ager, 13, b. - - Publilia lex, 232, b. - - Publiliae leges, 232, b. - - Pugilatus, 315, a. - - Pugiles, 315, a. - - Pugillares, 360, a. - - Pugio, 315, a. - - Pugna equestris et pedestris, 90, a. - - Pullarius, 50, b. - - Pullati, 23, a. - - Pulmentarium, 276, b. - - Pulpitum, 372, a. - - Pulvinar, 87, a; 315, a. - - Pulvinus, 315, a. - - Punctae, 107, a. - - Pupia lex, 233, a. - - Pupillus, 315, a. - - Puppis, 264, b. - - Puteal, 315, a. - - Puteus, 56, a. - - Puticulae, 189, b. - - Puticuli, 189, b. - - Pyra, 188, b. - - Pyrgus, 182, b. - - Pythia, 277, a; 315, b. - - Pyxidula, 316, a. - - Pyxis, 316, a. - - - Q. - - Quadragesima, 316, b. - - Quadrans, 44, a. - - Quadrantal, 316, b. - - Quadriga, 124, b. - - Quadrigati, 130, b. - - Quadriremes, 261, b. - - Quadrupes, 288, a. - - Quadruplatores, 316, b. - - Quadruplicatio, 6, a. - - Quadrussis, 44, a. - - Quaesitor, 216, a. - - Quaestiones, 216, a; 316, b. - perpetuae, 309, a. - - Quaestor, 316, b. - - Quaestores classici, 316, b. - parricidii, 216, a; 316, b. - rerum capitalium, 216, a. - urbani, 317, b. - - Quaestorium, 74, b. - - Quaestura Ostiensis, 317, b. - - Qualus, 64, b. - - Quasillariae, 64, b. - - Quasillus, 64, b. - - Quatuorviri juri dicundo, 100, b. - viarum curandarum, 318, a; 413, a. - - Quinctiliani, 244, a. - - Quinctilii, 244, a. - - Quinctilis, 66, a. - - Quincunx, 44, a. - - Quindecemviri, 128, a. - - Quinquatria, 318, a. - - Quinquatrus, 318, a. - minores or minusculae, 318, a. - - Quinquennalia, 318, a. - - Quinquennalis, 101, a. - - Quinqueremes, 261, b. - - Quinquertium, 289, a. - - Quinqueviri, 318, a. - mensarii, 254, a. - - Quintana, 74, b. - - Quintia lex, 233, a. - - Quirinalia, 318, a. - - Quirinalis flamen, 180, a. - - Quiritium jus, 79, b; 281, a. - - - R. - - Radius, 124, a; 364, b. - - Ramnenses, 286, b. - - Ramnes, 286, b. - - Rationes, 39, b. - - Rationes Chaldaicae, 45, b. - - Recuperatores, 5, b; 215, b. - - Reda, 322, a. - - Redemptor, 81, a; 318, b. - - Redimiculum, 318, b. - - Regia, 15, a. - lex, 233, a. - - Regifugium, 318, b. - - Regimen morum, 80, a. - - Regina sacrorum, 322, a. - - Rei uxoriae, or dotis actio, 145, b. - - Relatio, 335, b. - - Relegatio, 173, a. - - Relegatus, 173, b. - - Religiosus, 190, b. - - Remancipatio, 139, b. - - Remmia lex, 69, a. - - Remulcum, 318, b. - - Remuria, 224, b. - - Remus, 265, b. - - Renuntiatio, 109, a. - - Repagula, 88, a; 215, a. - - Repetundae, 318, b. - - Replicatio, 6, a. - - Repositorium, 97, a. - - Repotia, 252, b. - - Repudium, 139, b. - - Res mancipi, 247, b. - nec mancipi, 247, b. - privatae, 225, b. - singulae, 225, b. - - Responsa, 217, b. - - Restitutoria actio, 213, b. - - Rete, 319, b. - - Retiarii, 195, b. - - Reticulum, 103, a; 319, b. - - Retinaculum, 268, a; 320, b. - - Retis, 319, b. - - Reus, 6, a; 216, a. - - Rex, 320, a. - sacrificulus, 321, b. - sacrificus, 15, a; 321, b. - sacrorum, 304, a; 321, b. - - Rheda, 322, a. - - Rhinthonica, 112, a. - - Rhodia lex, 233, b. - - Rica, 322, b. - - Ricinium, 322, b. - - Robigalia, 322, b. - - Robur, 72, a. - - Rogare legem, 225, b. - - Rogatio, 107, a; 216, b; 225, b. - - Rogationem accipere, 225, b. - promulgare, 225, b. - - Rogationes Liciniae, 231, a. - - Rogator, 107, b. - - Rogus, 188, b. - - Romphea, 201, a. - - Rorarii, 165, b; 168, b. - - Roscia theatralis lex, 233, b. - - Rostra, 322, b. - - Rostrata columna, 102, b. - corona, 118, b. - - Rostrum, 264, a. - - Rota, 124, a; 178, b. - - Rubria lex, 234, a. - - Rubrica, 179, a. - - Ruderatio, 144, b. - - Rudiarii, 195, a. - - Rudis, 194, b. - - Rudus, 412, b. - - Rupiliae leges, 234, a. - - - S. - - Saccus, 101, b; 323, a; 417, a. - - Sacellum, 193, b; 323, a; 366, a. - - Sacer, 234, a. - - Sacerdos, 323, b. - - Sacerdotes Augustales, 53, a. - - Sacerdotium, 323, b. - - Sacra, 268, b; 324, a. - gentilitia, 193, b. - privata, 324, a. - publica, 324, a. - - Sacramentum, 218, b; 324, a. - - Sacrarium, 324, a; 366, a. - - Sacratae leges, 234, a. - - Sacrificium, 324, a. - - Sacrilegium, 325, b. - - Sacrorum detestatio, 105, a. - - Sacrum novemdiale, 272, b. - - Saeculares ludi, 242, b. - - Saeculum, 325, b. - - Sagittarii, 37, b. - - Sagmina, 326, a. - - Sagulum, 326, a. - - Sagum, 326, a. - - Salaminia, 283, b. - - Salii, 326, a. - - Salinae, 327, a. - - Salinum, 327, a. - - Saltatio, 283, a; 327, b. - - Saltus, 217, a; 330, b. - - Salutatores, 328, b. - - Sambuca, 329, a. - - Samnites, 195, a. - - Sandalium, 329, a. - - Sandapila, 188, a. - - Sapa, 416, b. - - Sarcophagus, 188, b. - - Sarissa, 201, a. - - Sarracum, 329, a. - - Satira, 329, a. - - Satura, 329, a. - lex, 226, a; 329, a. - - Saturnalia, 329, a. - - Scabellum, 330, a. - - Scalae, 23, a; 266, a. - - Scalmi, 264, b. - - Scalptura, 330, a. - - Scamnum, 222, a; 330, a. - - Scantinia lex, 234, a. - - Scapha, 1, b; 262, b. - - Scapus, 101, b. - - Scena, 372, a. - - Scenici ludi, 206, a; 242, a. - - Sceptrum, 330, a. - - Schoenus, 330, b. - - Sciothericum, 207, a. - - Scire, 336, a. - - Scissor, 97, a. - - Scitum populi, 225, b. - - Scorpio, 180, a; 381, a. - - Scotia, 347, b. - - Scribae, 330, b. - - Scribere, 331, a. - - Scribonia lex, 234, a. - - Scrinium, 70, b. - - Scriplum, 331, a. - - Scripta, 221, a. - - Scriptura, 330, b. - - Scripturarii, 331, a. - - Scripulum, 331, a. - - Scrupulum, 53, b; 331, a; 405, b. - - Sculptura, 330, a. - - Scutica, 180, a. - - Scutum, 41, b; 331, a. - - Scytale, 331, a. - - Secespita, 331, b. - - Sectatores, 18, b. - - Sectio, 331, b. - - Sector, 331, b. - - Secundarium, 417, b. - - Securis, 331, b. - - Secutores, 195, b. - - Seges, 32, b. - - Segestre, 222, b. - - Sella, 154, a; 331, b. - - Sembella, 237, b. - - Semis, Semissis, 44, a; 54, a. - - Semproniae leges, 234, a. - - Sempronia lex de foenere, 234, b. - - Semunciarium fenus, 177, a. - - Senator, 333, a. - - Senatores Orcini, 333, a. - pedarii, 334, a. - - Senatus, 332, a. - auctoritas, 336, a. - consultum, 336, a. - jus, 333, b. - - Seniores, 105, b. - - Sepelire, 189, b. - - September, 66, a. - - Septemviri Epulones, 156, a. - - Septimontium, 337, a. - - Septum, 107, b. - - Septunx, 44, a. - - Sepulchri violati actio, 190, b. - - Sepulchrum, 189, b. - - Sequestres, 18, b. - - Sera, 215, a. - - Seriae, 417, a. - - Sericum, 337, a. - - Serrati, _sc._ nummi, 130, b. - - Serta, 337, a. - - Servare de coelo, 51, a. - - Servilia agraria lex, 235, a. - Glaucia lex, 319, a. - judiciaria lex, 235, a. - - Servus (Greek), 337, a. - (Roman), 338, b. - ad manum, 18, a. - publicus, 340, a. - - Sescuncia, 44, a. - - Sescunx, 44, a. - - Sestertium, 341, b. - - Sestertius, 341, b. - - Sevir turmae equitum, 159, a. - - Seviri, 53, a. - - Sex suffragia, 156, a. - - Sextans, 44, a. - - Sextarius, 342, a; 405, b. - - Sextilis, 66, a. - - Sibina, 201, a. - - Sibyllini libri, 342, b. - - Sica, 342, b. - - Sicarius, 343, a. - - Sicila, 342, b. - - Sidus natalitium, 46, a. - - Sigillaria, 330, a. - - Signa militaria, 343, a. - - Signifer, 166, b; 343, b. - - Signum, 138, b; 168, a. - - Silentium, 51, a. - - Silia lex, 235, a. - - Silicarii, 31, a. - - Silicernium, 190, b. - - Siliqua, 405, b. - - Silvae, 330, b. - - Silvani et Carbonis lex, 92, a. - - Simpulum, or Simpuvium, 331, b; 344, a. - - Siparium, 344, a; 372, a. - - Sistrum, 344, a. - - Sitella, 345, a. - - Siticines, 188, a. - - Situla, 345, a. - - Socculus, 345, b. - - Soccus, 345, b. - - Socer, 13, a. - magnus, 13, b. - - Societas, 39, b. - - Socii, 170, b; 181, a; 345, b. - - Socrus, 13, a. - magna, 13, b. - - Sodales, 98, a. - Augustales, 53, a. - Titii, 43, a. - - Sodalitium, 19, a. - - Solarium, 135, a; 143, b; 207, a. - - Solea, 346, b. - - Solidorum venditio, 39, b. - - Solidus, 54, a. - - Solitaurilia, 325, a; 244, b. - - Solium, 56, a; 376, a. - - Solum, 144, b. - - Sophronistae, 179, b. - - Sordidati, 380, a. - - Sortes, 345, a; 347, a. - - Sparus, 200, b. - - Spectacula, 87, a. - - Spectio, 51, a. - - Specularia, 144, b. - - Specularis lapis, 144, b. - - Speculatores, 347, a. - - Speculum, 347, a. - - Specus, 30, b. - - Sperata, 252, b. - - Sphaeristerium, 296, b. - - Spiculum, 199, b; 200, b. - - Spina, 87, a. - - Spira, 101, b; 347, b. - - Spirula, 347, b. - - Spolia, 347, b. - - Sponda, 222, a. - - Sponsa, 251, b. - - Sponsalia, 251, b. - - Sponsus, 251, b. - - Sportula, 348, a. - - Stadium, 348, b. - - Stalagamia, 211, b. - - Stamen, 191, b; 364, a. - - Stater, 349, a. - - Statera, 399, a. - - Stati dies, 135, b. - - Stationes, 75, b. - - Stativae feriae, 177, b. - - Stator, 349, a. - - Statuaria ars, 349, a. - - Statumen, 412, b. - - Stesichorus, 362, a. - - Stilus, 354, a. - - Stipendiarii, 354, a. - - Stipendium, 354, b. - - Stiva, 32, a. - - Stola, 354, b. - - Stragulum, 222, b. - - Stratum, 154, a. - - Strena, 355, b. - - Strigil, 56, b. - - Strophium, 355, b. - - Structor, 97, a. - - Stultorum feriae, 182, a. - - Stuprum, 8, a. - - Stylus, 354, a. - - Subitarius exercitus, 167, a. - - Subitarii, 400, a. - - Subrogare legem, 225, b. - - Subscriptores, 139, a. - - Subscriptio censoria, 80, a. - - Subsellium, 376, a. - - Subsignanus, 168, b; 355, b. - - Subtegmen, 364, a. - - Subtemen, 364, a. - - Subucula, 401, b. - - Suburana, 390, b. - - Succinctus, 401, b. - - Sudatio concamerata, 56, a. - - Sudatorium, 56, a. - - Suffibulum, 412, a. - - Suffitio, 190, b. - - Suffragia sex, 156, a. - - Suffragium, 355, b. - - Suggestus, 22, b; 322, b; 356, a. - - Suggrundarium, 188, b. - - Sui heredes, 203, b. - - Sulci, 412, b. - - Sulcus, 32, b. - - Sulpiciae leges, 235, a. - - Sulpicia Sempronia lex, 235, a. - - Sumptuariae leges, 235, a. - - Suovetaurilia, 244, b; 325, a. - - Supparum, 267, b; 401, b. - - Supparus, 401, b. - - Supplicatio, 356, a. - - Supposititii, 195, b. - - Susceptores, 81, a. - - Suspensura, 56, a. - - Sutorium, 48, a. - - Symposium, 357, a. - - Syndicus, 358, a. - - Syngrapha, 358, b. - - Synthesis, 329, b; 359, a. - - Syrinx, 359, a. - - Syssitia, 359, b. - - - T. - - Tabella, 360, a. - - Tabellariae leges, 236, a. - - Tabellarius, 360, a. - - Taberna, 39, b; 77, a. - diversoria, 77, a. - - Tabernaria fabula, 112, a. - - Tablinum, 142, b. - - Tabulae, 39, b; 360, a. - censoriae, 79, b. - novae, 360, b. - publicae, 317, a. - - Tabulam, adesse ad, 48, b. - - Tabularii, 360, b. - - Tabularium, 360, b. - - Tabulatum, 417, a. - - Talaria, 361, a. - - Talasius, 252, b. - - Talassio, 252, b. - - Talentum, 361, a. - - Talio, 361, b. - - Talus, 361, b. - - Tarentini ludi, 242, b. - - Tarpeia Aternia lex, 226, b. - - Taurii ludi, 242, b. - - Tectores, 31, a. - - Tectorium, 48, a. - - Tegula, 363, b. - - Tela, 363, b. - - Telamones, 47, b. - - Temo, 31, b; 124, a; 297, b. - - Templum, 322, b. - - Temporis praescriptio, 308, a. - - Tensae, 373, b. - - Tepidarium, 56, a. - - Terentilia lex, 236, b. - - Terentini ludi, 242, b. - - Terminalia, 368, a. - - Termini, 204, b. - - Tertiare, 32, b. - - Teruncius, 44, a; 237, b. - - Tessera, 368, b. - hospitalis, 209, b. - nummaria, or frumentaria, 183, a. - - Testamentariae leges, 236, b. - - Testamentifactio, 368, b. - - Testamentum, 248, a; 368, b. - - Testator, 368, b. - - Testis, 248, a; 218, b. - - Testudo, 40, b; 245, b; 369, a. - - Tetrarcha, 370, a. - - Tetrarches, 370, a. - - Textores, 363, b. - - Textrices, 363, b. - - Textrinum, 363, b. - - Thalassites, 418, b. - - Thargelia, 370, a. - - Theatrum, 370, b. - - Thensae, 373, b. - - Theodosianus codex, 95, a. - - Thermae, 54, b. - - Thermopolium, 77, a. - - Thesmophoria, 375, b. - - Thorax, 240, b. - - Thoria lex, 236, b. - - Thraces, 195, b. - - Threces, 195, b. - - Thronus, 376, a. - - Thyrsus, 376, a. - - Tiara, 376, b. - - Tiaras, 376, b. - - Tibia, 376, b. - - Tibicinium, 377, a. - - Tintinnabulum, 378, a. - - Tirocinium, 378, a. - - Tiro, 378, a. - - Titia lex, 236, b. - - Titienses, 286, b. - - Tities, 286, b. - - Titii Sodales, 378, a. - - Titulus, 189, a; 238, b. - - Toga, 378, a. - candida, 380, a. - palmata, 380, b. - picta, 380, b. - praetexta, 380, b. - pulla, 380, b. - pura, 380, a. - sordida, 380, a. - virilis, 380, a. - - Togata fabula, 112, a. - - Togatus, 378, b. - - Tonsor, 381, a. - - Topiaria ars, 208, b. - - Topiarius, 208, a. - - Toralia, 222, b. - - Torcular, 416, b. - - Torculum, 416, b. - - Tormentum, 267, a; 381, a. - - Torques, 381, b. - - Torquis, 381, b. - - Torus, 222, a; 347, b; 381, b. - - Trabea, 380, b. - - Trabeata fabula, 112, a. - - Tragoedia, 381, b. - - Tragula, 201, a; 320, b. - - Tragum, 320, b. - - Trama, 364, a. - - Transactio in via, 5, a. - - Transtillum, 245, b. - - Transtra, 265, b. - - Transvectio equitum, 158, b. - - Trebonia lex, 236, b. - - Tremissis, 54, a. - - Tressis, 44, a. - - Tresviri, 397, a. - - Triarii, 165, b; 168, b. - - Tribula, 385, a. - - Tribulum, 385, a. - - Tribulus, 385, a. - - Tribunal, 385, a. - - Tribuni Laticlavii, 169, a. - militum, 166, a; 169, a. - - Tribunicia lex, 233, a; 236, b. - potestas, 387, a. - - Tribunus, 385, a. - celerum, 78, a. - - Tribus (Greek), 388, a. - (Roman), 390, b. - - Tributa comitia, 108, a. - - Tributum, 391, a. - - Tricliniarchia, 392, a. - - Triclinium, 391, b. - - Tridens, 191, b. - - Triens, 44, a. - - Trifax, 381, a. - - Triga, 124, a. - - Trilix, 364, b. - - Trinum nundinum, 273, a. - - Trinundinum, 273, a. - - Triplicatio, 6, a. - - Tripos, 394, a. - - Tripudium, 50, b. - - Triremes, 260, b. - - Triticum, 182, b. - - Triumphalia ornamenta, 397, a. - - Triumphalis corona, 118, b. - - Triumphus, 394, a. - castrensis, 397, a. - navalis, 397, a. - - Triumviri, 397, a. - agro dividundo, 397, b. - capitalis, 397, b. - coloniae deducendae, 99, b; 397, b. - epulones, 156, a. - equitum turmas recognoscendi, or legendis equitum decuriis, 397, b. - mensarii, 254, a. - monetales, 256, b. - nocturni, 397, b. - reficiendis aedibus, 397, b. - reipublicae constituendae, 397, b. - sacris conquirendis donisque - persignandis, 398, a. - senatus legendi, 398, a. - - Trochleae, 267, a. - - Trochus, 398, a. - - Trojae ludus, 90, a. - - Tropaeum, 398, a. - - Trossuli, 157, a. - - Trua, 399, a. - - Trulla, 399, a. - - Trutina, 399, a. - - Tuba, 399, a. - - Tubicen, 11, a. - - Tubilustrium, 318, a. - - Tullia lex de ambitu, 18, b. - de legatione libera, 224, a. - - Tullianum, 72, a. - - Tumultuarii, 400, a. - - Tumultuarius Exercitus, 167, a. - - Tumultus, 399, b. - - Tunica, 400, a. - - Tunica recta, 252, a. - - Tunicati, 402, b. - - Turibulum, 402, b. - - Turma, 166, b. - - Turricula, 182, b. - - Turris, 402, a. - - Tutela, 264, b. - - Tutor, 122, b. - - Tympanum, 27, a; 298, a; 403, a. - - - U, V. - - Vacatio, 152, a; 167, b. - - Vadari reum, 5, b. - - Vades, 216, a. - - Vades dare, 5, b. - - Vadimonium, Vas, 5, b. - - Vagina, 196, a. - - Valeriae leges, 236, b. - - Valeriae et Horatiae leges, 29, b; 237, a. - - Valeria lex, 237, a. - - Vallaris corona, 118, b. - - Vallum, 14, b; 75, a; 406, a. - - Vallus, 75, a; 406, b. - - Valva, 215, a. - - Vannus, 407, a. - - Vari, 320, b. - - Varia lex, 247, a. - - Vas, 407, a. - - Vatinia lex, 237, a. - - Udo, 404, b. - - Vectigal rerum venalium, 82, a. - - Vectigalia, 407, a. - - Velarium, 23, a. - - Velites, 166, b; 168, b; 408, a. - - Velum, 267, a; 408, a. - - Venabulum, 408, a. - - Venatio, 21, a; 408, a. - - Venditio, 80, b. - - Veneficium, 409, a. - - Venereus jactus, 362, a. - - Venus, 362, a. - - Ver sacrum, 410, a. - - Verbena, 31, b; 326, a. - - Verbenarius, 178, a. - - Verna, 340, a. - - Verriculum, 320, b. - - Versura, 177, a. - - Veru, 200, b. - - Vervactum, 32, b. - - Verutum, 200, b. - - Vespae, 188, a. - - Vespillones, 188, a. - - Vestalis, 410, a. - maxima, 410, b. - - Vestibulum, 142, a. - - Veteranus, 167, b; 378, a. - - Veteratores, 340, a. - - Vexillarii, 165, b; 170, b. - - Vexillum, 165, b; 343, b. - - Via Principalis, 75, a. - - Viae, 412, a. - - Viaria lex, 237, a. - - Viaticum, 414, a. - - Viator, 414, b. - - Victima, 324, b. - - Vicesima, 11, b; 414, b. - hereditatum et legatorum, 414, b. - manumissionis, 248, b; 414, b. - - Vicesimaria lex, 414, b. - - Vicesimarii, 414, b. - - Vico magistri, 415, a. - - Vicus, 414, b. - - Victoriatus, 130, a. - - Vigiles, 171, a. - - Vigiliae, 75, b. - - Vigintisexviri, 415, a. - - Vigintiviri, 415, a. - - Villa, 415, a. - publica, 79, a. - rustica, 415, a. - - Villia annalis lex, 226, b. - - Villicus, 31, a; 208, a; 340, b; 415, b. - - Vinalia, 415, b. - - Vindemialis feria, 177, b. - - Vindex, 5, a. - - Vindicta, 248, a. - - Vinea, 415, b. - - Vinum, 416, a. - - Virgines Vestales, 410, a. - - Virgo maxima, 411, a. - - Viridarium, 208, b. - - Viridarius, 208, a. - - Virilis toga, 380, a. - - Vis, 420, a. - - Visceratio, 190, b. - - Viscellia lex, 237, a. - - Vitis, 169, a. - - Vitium, 51, a. - - Vitrearii, 420, b. - - Vitricus, 13, b. - - Vitrum, 420, a. - - Vitta, Vittae, 421, a. - - Vittata sacerdos, 421, b. - - Ulna, 404, b. - - Umbella, 404, b. - - Umbilicus, 238, a. - - Umbo, 94, a; 379, b; 412, b. - - Umbraculum, 404, b. - - Uncia, 44, a; 176, b; 405, a. - - Unciarum fenus, 177, a. - - Unctores, 17, b. - - Unctorium, 56, a. - - Unguenta, 405, b. - - Unguentaria, 405, b. - - Unguentariae, 405, b. - - Unguentarii, 405, b. - - Universitas, 98, a. - - Vocatio, 388, a. - - Voconia lex, 237, b. - - Volones, 421, b. - - Volumen, 238, a. - - Voluntarii, 421, b. - - Vomer, 32, a. - - Vomitoria, 23, a. - - Vorticellum, 191, b. - - Urceus, 406, a. - - Urna, 189, a; 345, a; 406, a. - - Ustrina, 63, a; 189, a. - - Ustrinum, 189, a. - - Usucapio, 406, a. - - Usurae, 176, b. - - Usus, 251, a. - - Ususfructuarius, 406, a. - - Ususfructus, 406, a. - - Uterini, 98, a. - - Utres, 418, a. - - Utricularius, 376, b. - - Vulcanalia, 421, b. - - Vulgares, 340, b. - - Uxor, 251, a. - - Uxorium, 12, b. - - - X. - - Xystus, 208, a. - - - Z. - - Zona, 422, b. - - Zophorus, 102, a; 422, b. - - - - -ENGLISH INDEX. - - - A. - - Actors (Greek), 205, b. - (Roman), 205, b. - - Adoption (Greek), 7, a. - (Roman), 7, a. - - Advocate, 358, a. - - Adze, 44, a. - - Altar, 31, a. - - Ambassadors, 223, a. - - Anchor, 268, a. - - Anvil, 254, b. - - Aqueduct, 29, b. - - Arch, 36, a. - - Archers, 37, b. - - Armour, 41, a. - - Arms, 41, a. - - Army (Greek), 160, b. - (Roman), 164, a. - - Astronomy, 45, b. - - Auction (sale), 48, b. - - Axe, 331, b. - - Axle, 124, a. - - - B. - - Bail (Greek), 152, b. - (Roman), 5, b. - - Bakers, 297, b. - - Balance, the, 239, a. - - Ball, game at, 181, b; 296, a. - - Bankers, 39, a. - - Banishment (Greek), 172, a. - (Roman), 173, a. - - Barber, 57, a. - - Basket, 57, b. - - Baths (Greek), 54, a. - (Roman), 55, b. - - Beard, 57, a. - - Beds, 222, a. - - Beer, 82, b. - - Bell, 378, a. - - Bellows, 181, b. - - Belt, 57, a. - - Bit (of horses), 182, b. - - Boeotian constitution, 59, b. - - Books, 238, a. - - Bookseller, 239, a. - - Boots, 64, b; 120, a. - - Bottomry, 176, b. - - Bow, 37, b. - - Boxing, 315, a. - - Bracelet, 42, b. - - Brass, 12, a; 278, a. - - Brazier, 180, b. - - Breakfast, 95, a. - - Bribery (Greek), 127, a. - (Roman), 18, b. - - Bricks, 220, b. - - Bridge, 302, a. - - Bridle, 182, a. - - Bronze, 12, a. - - Brooch, 178, b. - - Burial (Greek), 184, a. - (Roman), 187, b. - - - C. - - Calendar (Greek), 65, a. - (Roman); 66, a. - - Cameos, 330, a. - - Camp, 73, a. - breaking up of, 76, a. - choice of ground for, 73, b. - construction of, 74, a. - - Candle, 69, b. - - Candlestick, 69, b. - - Canvassing, 18, a. - - Capital (of columns), 101, b. - - Cart, 72, b. - - Casque, 192, b. - - Ceilings, 144, b. - - Celt, 139, b. - - Censer, 402, b. - - Chain, 76, b. - - Chariot, 123, b. - - Chimneys, 145, a. - - Chisel, 139, b. - - Circumvallation, 406, b. - - Citizenship (Greek), 90, b. - (Roman), 91, b. - - Clerks (Athenian), 196, a. - (Roman), 6, a. - - Clocks, 206, b. - - Coffins, 185, b; 188, b. - - Colony (Greek), 98, b. - (Roman), 99, b. - - Column, 101, b. - - Combs, 288, a. - - Comedy (Greek), 110, b. - (Roman), 111, b. - - Cooks, 97, a. - - Cordage, 267, b. - - Corn crops, 344, b. - preservation of, 345, a. - - Couches, 221, a. - - Cowl, 122, a. - - Cretan constitution, 120, a. - - Criers, 306, b. - - Crook, 288, a. - - Crops, 344, b. - - Cross, 121, a. - - Crown, 118, a. - - Crucifixion, 121, a. - - Cubit, 122, a. - - Cup, 68, a. - - Cymbal, 125, b. - - - D. - - Daggers, 315, a; 342, b. - - Dance, the Pyrrhic, 328, a. - - Dancing, 327, b. - - Day, 134, a. - - Dice, 368, b. - - Dice-box, 182, b. - - Dinner, 95, a. - - Dish, 77, a; 285, a. - - Distaff, 191, b. - - Dithyramb, 381, b. - - Divorce (Greek), 139, a. - (Roman), 139, a. - - Door, 214, b. - - Dowry (Greek), 145, a. - (Roman), 145, b. - - Drains, 94, a. - - Draughts, game of, 221, a. - - Drum, 403, a. - - Dynasty, 34, b. - - - E. - - Ear-ring, 211, b. - - Earthenware, 178, b. - - Eleven, the, 202, b. - - Ensigns, military, 343, a. - - Era, 86, a. - - Evil Eye, 175, a. - - Executioner, 72, b. - - - F. - - Fan, 179, b. - - Felting, 297, a. - - Fire-place, 180, b. - - Floors of houses, 144, b. - - Fresco, 295, a. - - Fuller, 184, a. - - Funerals (Greek), 184, b. - (Roman), 187, b. - - Furnace, 56, a; 182, a. - - - G. - - Gambler, Gaming, 17, a. - - Garden, 207, b. - - Gates of cities, 305, a. - - Girdle, 422, b. - - Gladiators, 194, a. - - Glass, 420, a. - - Gold, 53, b. - - Granary, 207, b. - - Greaves, 273, a. - - Guards, 75, b. - - - H. - - Hair (Greek), 103, a. - (Roman), 103, b. - - Hammers, 247, a; 254, b. - - Harp, 329, a. - - Hatchet, 331, b. - - Hearth, 180, b. - - Heir (Greek), 203, a. - (Roman), 203, a. - - Helmet, 192, b. - - Hemlock, 202, b. - - Heraclean tablet, 230, a. - - Holidays, 177, b. - - Hoop, 398, a. - - Hospitality, 208, a. - - Hour, 207, a. - - House (Greek), 140, a. - (Roman), 142, a. - - Hunting, 408, a. - - Hunting-spear, 408, a. - - - I, J. - - Informer, 128, b. - - Inheritance (Greek), 203, a. - (Roman), 203, a. - - Ink, 48, a. - - Inn, 77, a. - - Intaglios, 330, a. - - Intercalary month, 66, b. - - Interest of money (Greek), 176, b. - (Roman), 176, b. - - Istumian games, 214, a. - - Italy, 100, b. - - Judges (Greek), 121, a; 131, a. - (Roman), 215, a. - - - K. - - Kiln, 182, a. - - King (Greek), 320, a. - (Roman), 320, b. - - Kitchen, 143, a. - - Knife, 122, a. - - Knights (Athenian), 81, b. - (Roman), 156, a. - - Knockers, 215, a. - - - L. - - Ladders, 266, a. - - Lamps, 241, b. - - Law, 218, a; 225, a. - - Legacy, 222, b. - - Legion, 164, a. - - Letter-carrier, 360, a. - - Levy, 167, a. - - Library, 58, b. - - Light-house, 293, a. - - Litters, 221, b. - - Liturgies, 224, a. - - Looking-glass, 347, a. - - Loom, 363, b. - - Lots, 347, a. - - Luncheon, 95, a. - - Lyre, the, 245, a. - - - M. - - Marriage (Greek), 249, b. - (Roman), 250, b. - - Masks, 291, a. - - Masts, 266, a. - - Meals (Greek), 95, a. - (Roman), 96, a. - - Mile, 255, b. - - Mile-stones, 255, b; 413, a. - - Mills, 256, a. - - Mines, 407, b. - - Mint, 256, b. - - Mirror, 347, a. - - Money, coined, 12, a. - (Greek), gold, 53, b. - (Roman), ” 53, b. - - Month (Greek), 65, a. - (Roman), 66, a. - - Mortars, 257, a; 258, a. - - Mosaics, 141, b; 144, b. - - Mourning for the dead, 190, b; 187, a. - - - N. - - Names (Greek), 270, b. - (Roman), 270, b. - - Necklaces, 256, b. - - Nemean games, 269, a. - - Nets, 319, b. - - Notary, 360, b. - - - O. - - Oars, 265, b. - - Oath (Greek), 218, a. - (Roman), 218, b. - - October-horse, 280, a. - - Officers, duty of, 75, b. - parade of, 75, b. - - Olympiad, 276, a. - - Olympic games, 274, a. - - Oracles, 276, b. - - Orders of architecture, 101, b; 102, a. - - Organ, 210, a. - - Ostracism, 172, a. - - Oven, 182, a. - - Ounce, 105, a. - - - P. - - Painting, 293, b. - - Paper, 238, b. - - Parasol, 404, b. - - Parchment, 238, b. - - Pay of soldiers, 354, b. - - Pediment, 176, a. - - Pen, 64, a. - - Perfumes, 405, b. - - Pipe, 376, b. - - Plough, 31, b. - - Poisoning, 409, a. - - Poles, 266, a. - - Portcullis, 76, a. - - Pottery, 178, b. - - Priests, 323, b. - - Prison, 72, a. - - Prodigies, 310, b. - - Property-tax (Greek), 148, b. - (Roman), 391, b. - - Prow, 263, a. - - Purification, 244, a. - - Purses, 248, b. - - Pyrrhic dance, 328, a. - - Pythian games, 315, b. - - - Q. - - Quiver, 292, b. - - - R. - - Races, 87, a. - - Rings, 25, b. - - Road, 412, a. - - Rope-dancers, 184, b. - - Ropes, 267, b. - - Rounds, 75, b. - - Rudder, 265, b. - - - S. - - Sacrifices, 324, a. - - Saddles, 154, a. - - Sails, 267, a. - - Salt, 327, a. - - Salt-cellar, 327, a. - - Salt-works, 327, a. - - Sandal, 58, a. - - Scales, 239, a. - - Screw, 94, b. - - Scythe, 173, b. - - Senate (Greek), 61, a; 193, b. - (Roman), 332, b. - - Sentinels, 75, b. - - Shawl, 289, b. - - Shields, 94, a; 285, a; 331, a; 288, b. - - Ships, 259, b. - - Shoe, 64, b; 151, b. - - Shops, 39, b. - - Sibyl, 342, b. - - Sickle, 342, b. - - Silk, 337, a. - - Silver, 40, a. - - Slaves (Greek), 337, a. - (Roman), 338, b. - - Sling, 184, b. - - Slingers, 184, b. - - Spartan constitution, 193, b. - - Spear, 199, b. - - Speusinians, 129, b. - - Spindle, 191, b. - - Standards, military, 343, a. - - Statuary, 349, a. - - Stern, 264, b. - - Stoves, 145, a. - - Sun-dial, 206, b. - - Sword, 196, a. - - - T. - - Tables, 253, b. - - Talent, 361, a. - - Tapestry, 344, a. - - Taxes (Greek), 365, b. - (Roman), 365, b; 391, a. - - Temple, 366, a. - - Testament, 368, b. - - Theatre, 370, b. - - Thessalian constitution, 360, b. - - Threshold, 214, b. - - Throne, 376, a. - - Tiles, roofing, 363, b. - - Tombs, 186, a. - - Torch, 176, a. - - Torture, 381, a. - - Tower, 402, a. - - Tragedy (Greek), 381, b. - (Roman), 384, a. - - Triangle, the, 181, a. - - Tribes (Greek), 388, b. - (Roman), 390, b. - - Tribunes, 385, a. - - Trident, 191, b. - - Tripod, 394, a. - - Trophy, 398, a. - - Trousers, 62, a. - - Trumpet, 62, b; 399, a. - - Tumblers, 328, a. - - - U, V. - - Vase-painting, 295, b. - - Veil, 408, a. - - Voting (Greek), 355, b. - (Roman), 107, a; 355, b. - - Usurers, 176, b. - - - W. - - Waggon, 297, b. - - Wall, 257, b; 301, b. - - Weaving, 364, a. - - Wheel, 124, a. - - Whip, 179, b. - - Wills, 368, b. - - Window, 144, b. - - Wine, 416, a. - - Witnesses (Greek), 248, b. - (Roman), 218, a. - - Wrestling, 242, a. - - - Y. - - Yards of a sail, 267, a. - - Year (Greek), 65, a. - (Roman), 66, b. - - Yoke, 217, a. - - - - -CLASSIFIED INDEX. - -_Under each head the names of the articles in the Index are given in -which the subject is explained._ - - - AGRICULTURE. - Hortus. - Olea, Oliva. - Oscillum. - Scamnum. - Sitos. - Villa rustica. - Vinum. - - AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. - Aratrum. - Jugum. - Pala. - Pecten. - Pedum. - Plaustrum. - Prelum. - Sarracum. - Stilus. - Tintinnabulum. - Torculum. - Tribula. - Tympanum. - Vannus. - - AMUSEMENTS AND PLAYTHINGS. - Abacus. - Aenigma. - Alea. - Ascoliasmus. - Buxum. - Calculi. - Cottabos. - Follis. - Fritillus. - Latrunculi. - Talus. - Tessera. - Trochus. - - ARCHITECTURE. - Abacus. - Acroterium. - Antae. - Antefixa. - Apsis. - Architectura. - Arcus. - Astragalus. - Atlantes. - Balteus. - Camara. - Canalis. - Columbaria. - Columna. - Coronis. - Cortina. - Crypta. - Cyma. - Entasis. - Epistylium. - Fascia. - Fastigium. - Janua. - Jugum. - Later. - Maenianum. - Metopa. - Peristylium. - Podium. - Porticus. - Spira. - Testudo. - Tholus. - Tympanum. - Zophorus. - - ARITHMETIC. - Abacus. - Calculi. - - ARMOUR AND WEAPONS. - Acinaces. - Aegis. - Arcus. - Arma. - Armatura. - Capulus. - Cateia. - Cetra. - Clipeus. - Dolo. - Funda. - Galea. - Gerrha. - Gladius. - Hasta. - Lorica. - Ocrea. - Palma. - Pelta. - Pharetra. - Pugio. - Scutum. - Securis. - Sica. - Venabulum. - - ASSEMBLIES AND COUNCILS. - Agora. - Amphictyones. - Areiopagus. - Boule. - Comitia calata. - curiata. - centuriata. - tributa. - Concilium. - Concio. - Conventus. - Curia. - Ecclesia. - Eccleti. - Gerousia. - Myrii. - Panegyris. - Panionia. - Senatus. - Synedri. - - ASTRONOMY. - Astrologia. - - CAMPS AND FORTS. - Acropolis. - Agger. - Arx. - Carrago. - Castra. - stativa. - Pagi. - Praetorium. - Turris. - Vallum. - - CHARITIES AND DONATIONS. - Alimentarii. - Congiaria. - Dianomae. - Donaria. - Frumentariae Leges. - Strena. - - CIVIL PUNISHMENTS. - Arca. - Barathron, or Orugma. - Carcer. - Ceadas. - Crux. - Equuleus. - Ergastulum. - Flagrum. - Furca, patibulum. - Laqueus. - Latumiae. - Sestertium. - - CLASSES OF CITIZENS AND OTHERS. - Adlecti. - Aerarii. - Agela. - Aretalogi. - Camilli. - Canephoros. - Dediticii. - Delator. - Demos. - Eiren. - Emphruri. - Ephebus. - Equites. - Eupatridae. - Geomori. - Hetaerae. - Hippobotae. - Homoei. - Libertus. - Locupletes. - Metoeci. - Naucraria. - Nobiles. - Ordo. - Parasiti. - Patricii. - Patrimi et Matrimi. - Perioeci. - Plebes. - Quadruplatores. - Salutatores. - - COLONIES & MOTHER COUNTRY. - Apoikia. - Cleruchiae. - Colonia. - Metropolis. - - CRIMES. - Ambitus. - Calumnia. - Falsum. - Incendium. - Injuria. - Leges Corneliae et Juliae. - Majestas. - Parricidium. - Plagium. - Sacrilegium. - Sodalitium. - Stuprum. - Talio. - Veneficium. - Vis. - - DIVISION OF LAND. - Ager publicus. - Cippus. - Pyrgos. - Temenos. - - DRAMA, DRAMATIC ENTERTAINMENTS. - Comoedia. - Exodia. - Exostra. - Mimus. - Pantomimus. - Periactos. - Persona. - Siparium. - Theatrum. - Tragoedia. - Velum. - - DRESS, ORNAMENTS, THE TOILET. - Abolla. - Alicula. - Amictorium. - Amictus. - Ampyx. - Annulus. - Apex. - Armilla. - Barba. - Baxa. - Braccae. - Bulla. - Calamistrum. - Calceus. - Campestre. - Candys. - Caracalla. - Catena. - Causia. - Cestus. - Chlamys. - Clavus latus. - angustus. - Coma. - Cothurnus. - Crepida. - Crocota. - Cucullus. - Cudo. - Cyclas. - Diadema. - Embas. - Emblema. - Endromis. - Exomis. - Fascia. - Feminalia. - Fibula. - Fimbriae. - Flabellum. - Focale. - Fucus. - Galerus. - Inauris. - Incunabula. - Infula. - Instita. - Lacerna. - Laciniae. - Laena. - Lemniscus. - Marsupium. - Mitra. - Monile. - Nudus. - Orarium. - Paenula. - Pallium. - Pecten. - Peplum. - Pera. - Periscelis. - Pero. - Phalera. - Pileus. - Redimiculum. - Reticulum. - Ricinium. - Saccus. - Sandalium. - Serta. - Soccus. - Solea. - Stola. - Strophium. - Synthesis. - Tiara. - Toga. - Torques. - Tunica. - Udo. - Velum. - Vitta. - Umbraculum. - Unguenta. - Zona. - - ENGINEERING. - Aquae ductus. - Cloaca. - Crypta. - Emissarium. - Fistula. - Fons. - Librator aquae. - Murus, moenia. - Navalia. - Pharos. - Piscina. - Pons. - Porta. - Syrinx. - - ENGRAVING AND CHASING. - Caelatura. - - ENTERTAINMENTS. FOOD. - Apophoreta. - Calida. - Cerevisia. - Coena. - Commissatio. - Erani. - Opsonium. - Paropsis. - Posca. - Sportula. - Symposium. - Syssitia. - Vinum. - - EPOCHS AND DIVISIONS OF TIME. - Calendarium, 1. Greek. - 2. Roman. - Chronologia. - Clavus annalis. - Dies. - fasti et nefasti. - Fasti. - sacri, or kalendares. - annales, or historici. - Feriae. - Hora. - Horologium. - Lustrum. - Nundinae. - Olympias. - Saeculum. - - EXERCISES. - Ceroma. - Cestus. - Cheironomia. - Desultor. - Discus. - Gymnasium. - Halteres. - Harpastum. - Hippodromus. - Lucta, luctatio. - Palaestra. - Pancratium. - Pentathlon. - Petaurum. - Pila. - Pugilatus. - Saltatio. - - FESTIVALS, GAMES, AND SHOWS. - Actia. - Adonia. - Aeora. - Agonalia. - Agones. - Agraulia. - Agroteras thusia. - Aloa or haloa. - Amarynthia. - Ambrosia. - Amphidromia. - Anagogia. - Androgeonia. - Anthesphoria. - Apaturia. - Aphrodisia. - Apollonia. - Ariadneia. - Armilustrium. - Arrhephoria. - Artemisia. - Asclepieia. - Augustales. - Bendideia. - Boedromia. - Boreasmus. - Brauronia. - Cabeiria. - Callisteia. - Carmentalia. - Carneia. - Carya. - Cerealia. - Chalcioikia. - Charistia. - Compitalia. - Consualia. - Cotyttia. - Daedala. - Decennalia. - Delia. - Delphinia. - Diipoleia. - Diocleia. - Dionysia. - Eleusinia. - Eleutheria. - Ellotia. - Equiria. - Floralia. - Fornacalia. - Gymnopaedia. - Heraea. - Hermaea. - Hestiasis. - Hilaria. - Hyacinthia. - Inoa. - Isthmia. - Juvenalia. - Lampadephoria. - Laphria. - Larentalia. - Lectisternium. - Lemuralia. - Ludi. - [_In the text an alphabetical list of the principal ludi - is given._] - Lupercalia. - Lycaea. - Matralia. - Matronalia. - Megalensia. - Mysia. - Mysteria. - Neptunalia. - Novendiale. - Olympia. - Opalia. - Oschophoria. - Palilia. - Pamboeotia. - Panathenaea. - Plynteria. - Poplifugia. - Prometheia. - Pyanepsia. - Pythia. - Quinquatrus. - Quinquennalia. - Quirinalia. - Regifugium. - Robigalia. - Saturnalia. - Septimontium. - Sthenia. - Synoikia. - Terminalia. - Theophania. - Theseia. - Thesmophoria. - Vinalia. - Vulcanalia. - - FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. - Aristocratia. - Democratia. - Monarchia. - Ochlocratia. - Oligarchia. - - FUNERALS. - Arca. - Cenotaphium. - Cippus. - Columbarium. - Crypta. - Funus, 1. Greek. - 2. Roman. - Mausoleum. - Urna. - - FURNITURE. - Abacus. - Armarium. - Balnea. - Cathedra. - Conopeum. - Cortina. - Incitega. - Lectus. - Mensa. - Pluteus. - Pulvinar. - Scamnum. - Sella. - Speculum. - Thronus. - Torus. - Triclinium. - Tripos. - - GREEK LAW. - Adoptio. - Aikias dike. - Anakrisis. - Androlepsia. - Antidosis. - Antigraphe. - Apographe. - Apophasis. - Aporrheta. - Apostasiou dike. - Appellatio. - Asebeias graphe. - Astrateias graphe. - Ateleia. - Atimia. - Axones. - Civitas, politeia. - Cleteres. - Decasmus. - Diaetetae. - Diapsephisis. - Dicastes. - Dike. - Divortium. - Dokimasia. - Dos. - Ecmartyria. - Eisangelia. - Embateia. - Emmeni dikae. - Endeixis, ephegesis. - Epangelia. - Epibole. - Epiclerus. - Epitropus. - Epobelia. - Euthyne. - Exomosia. - Exsilium. - Fenus. - Gamelia. - Graphe. - Heres. - Hieromenia. - Hybreos graphe. - Jusjurandum. - Prodosia. - Proeisphoras dike. - Prostates tou demou. - Prothesmia. - Psephus. - Pseudengraphes graphe. - Pseudocleteias graphe. - Rhetrae. - Sitou dike. - Sycophantes. - Sylae. - Syndicus. - Synegorus. - Syngraphe. - Timema. - Tormentum. - Xenias graphe. - - HORSE FURNITURE. - Ephippium. - Frenum. - Habenae. - Hippoperae. - - INCOME, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. - Aes uxorium. - Apophora. - Arca. - Census. - Centesima. - Columnarium. - Decumae. - Eicoste. - Eisphora. - Epidoseis. - Fiscus. - Ostiarium. - Pentecoste. - Phoros. - Portorium. - Quadragesima. - Salinae. - Scriptura. - Stipendiarii. - Telones. - Telos. - Theorica. - Tributum. - Vectigalia. - Vicesima. - - INSIGNIA AND ATTRIBUTES. - Caduceus. - Fasces. - Insignia. - Sceptrum. - Talaria. - Thyrsus. - - LEAGUES. - Achaicum Foedus. - Aetolicum Foedus. - Socii. - - LITERATURE. - Commentarius. - Fescennina. - Logographi. - Paean. - Satura. - - MACHINES AND CONTRIVANCES. - Antlia. - Catena. - Clitellae. - Cochlea. - Columbarium. - Ephippium. - Exostra. - Ferculum. - Fistula. - Follis. - Forma. - Fornax. - Jugum. - Libra, Libella. - Mortarium, pila. - Pegma. - Phalangae. - Retis, Rete. - Scalae. - Tela. - Tintinnabulum. - Torculum. - Trutina. - - MAGISTRATES AND RULERS. - Acta. - Adlecti. - Aesymnetes. - Alabarches. - Amphictyones. - Archon. - Areiopagus. - Bidiaei. - Boetarches. - Boule. - Censor. - Centumviri. - Consul. - Consularis. - Cosmi. - Decaduchi. - Decarchia. - Decemviri. - legibus scribendis. - litibus judicandis. - sacris faciundis. - agris dividundis. - Demarchi. - Demiurgi. - Dictator. - Duumviri. - Ephetae. - Ephori. - Epimeletae. - Eponymus. - Gerousia. - Gynaeconomi. - Harmostae. - Hendeka, hoi. - Hieromnemones. - Interrex. - Magistratus. - Medix tuticus. - Nomophylaces. - Paedonomus. - Patronomi. - Perduellionis duumviri. - Phylarchi. - Phylobasileis. - Polemarchus. - Poletae. - Poristae. - Praetor. - Proconsul. - Rex. - Senatus. - Tetrarches. - Tribunus. - Triumviri. - Tyrannus. - Vigintisexviri. - - MANUFACTURES AND MATERIALS. - Byssus. - Coa vestis. - Fictile. - Gausapa. - Lodix, lodicula. - Salinae. - Sericum. - Serta. - Vitrum. - - MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. - Acclamatio. - Acta. - Angaria. - Cheirotonia. - Chelidonia. - Chirographum. - Corona convivialis. - nuptialis. - natalitia. - Crypteia. - Diploma. - Hospitium. - Hydriaphoria. - Immunitas. - Jusjurandum, 1. Greek. - 2. Roman. - Leiturgia. - Matrimonium, 1. Greek. - 2. Roman. - Nomen. - Nudus. - Proscriptio. - Prytaneium. - Suffragium. - Synoikia. - Syssitia. - Tabella. - Tribus, 1. Greek. - 2. Roman. - Trierarchia. - Venatio. - Viaticum. - Xenelasia. - - MARITIME AFFAIRS. - Camara. - Carchesium. - Cataphracti. - Corbitae. - Cymba. - Delphis. - Dolo. - Epibatae. - Epistoleus. - Harpago. - Insignia. - Jugum. - Lembus. - Navarchus. - Navis. - Naumachia. - Paralus. - Phaselus. - Portisculus. - Praefectus classis. - Remulcum. - Rudens. - - MARKETS. - Agora. - Deigma. - Emporium. - Forum. - Macellum. - - MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. - Acaena. - Acetabulum. - Actus. - Amphora. - Artaba. - Arura. - As. - Choenix. - Chous. - Congius. - Cotyla. - Cubitus. - Culeus. - Cyathus. - Dactylus. - Decempeda. - Gradus. - Hecte. - Hemina. - Hippicon. - Jugerum. - Libra, as. - Ligula. - Litra. - Medimnus. - Metretes. - Milliare. - Modius. - Obolus. - Orgyia. - Palmipes. - Palmus. - Parasanga. - Passus. - Pes. - Plethron. - Quadrantal. - Schoenus. - Scrupulum. - Sextarius. - Stadium. - Ulna. - Uncia. - Urna. - Xestes. - - METALS. - Aes. - Argentum. - Aurum. - Electrum. - Metallum. - Orichalcum. - - MILITARY COSTUME. - Abolla. - Alicula. - Balteus. - Bulla. - Caliga. - Paludamentum. - Sagum. - - MILITARY ENGINES. - Aries. - Catapulta. - Cataracta. - Corvus. - Cuniculus. - Ericius. - Helepolis. - Lupus ferreus. - Pluteus. - Scalae. - Stylus. - Testudo. - Tormentum. - Tribulus. - Turris. - Vinea. - - MILITARY ENSIGNS. - Signa Militaria. - - MILITARY LEVIES. - Catalogus. - Conquisitores. - Emphruri. - Epariti. - Tumultus. - - MILITARY MANŒUVRES. - Cuneus. - Forfex. - Testudo. - - MILITARY PAY AND ALLOWANCES. - Acta. - Aes equestre. - hordearium. - militare. - Praeda. - Stipendium. - - MILITARY PUNISHMENTS. - Decimatio. - Fustuarium. - - MILITARY REWARDS. - Aurum coronarium. - Corona obsidionalis. - civica. - navalis. - muralis. - castrensis, vallaris. - ovalis. - oleagina. - Hasta pura. - Ovatio. - Praeda. - Spolia. - Triumphus. - Tropaeum. - - MONEY. - Aes. - circumforaneum. - Argentum. - As. - Assarius nummus. - Aurum. - Chalcus. - Cistophorus. - Damaretion. - Danace. - Daricus. - Denarius. - Drachma. - Hecte. - Libella. - Litra. - Nummus. - Obolus. - Sestertius. - Stater. - Uncia. - - MUSIC AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. - Acroama. - Aeneatores. - Buccina. - Canticum. - Capistrum. - Chorus. - Cornu. - Crotalum. - Cymbalum. - Hydraula. - Lituus. - Lyra. - Pecten. - Sambuca. - Sistrum. - Syrinx. - Testudo. - Tibia. - Tuba. - Tympanum. - - OFFICERS AND SOLDIERS. - Accensi. - Aeneatores. - Agathoergi. - Ala. - Alauda. - Antecessores. - Argyraspides. - Catalogus. - Cataphracti. - Celeres. - Conquisitores. - Contubernales. - Damosia. - Dimachae. - Ducenarii. - Duplarii. - Epariti. - Evocati. - Excubitores. - Exercitus, 1. Greek. - 2. Roman. - Libratores. - Phylarchi. - Praefectus castrorum. - praetorio. - Praetor. - Praetoriani. - Strategus. - Tagus. - Taxiarchi. - Tiro. - Volones. - Xenagi. - - ORACLES AND DIVINATION. - Augurium, auspicium. - Caput extorum. - Oraculum. - Sibyllini Libri. - Sortes. - - PRIESTS AND PRIESTLY OFFICES. - Aeditui. - Agyrtae. - Arvales fratres. - Asiarchae. - Augur, auspex. - Augustales. - Curio. - Epulones. - Eumolpidae. - Exegetae. - Fetiales. - Flamen. - Galli. - Haruspices. - Luperci. - Neocori. - Pausarii. - Pontifex. - Rex sacrificulus. - Sacerdos. - Salii. - Theori. - Titii sodales. - Vestales. - - PRIVATE BUILDINGS. - Aithousa. - Apotheca. - Armarium. - Atrium. - Bibliotheca. - Caupona. - Cella. - Cubiculum. - Domus, 1. Greek. - 2. Roman. - vestibulum. - ostium. - atrium. - alae. - tablinum. - fauces. - perystylum. - cubicula. - triclinia. - oeci. - exedrae. - culina. - coenacula. - diaeta. - solaria. - Exedrae. - Focus. - Fornax. - Fornix. - Hemicyclium. - Janua. - Lararium. - Later. - Paries cratitius. - formaceus. - lateritius. - reticulata structura. - Paries structura antiqua. - emplecton. - e lapide quadrato. - Pergula. - Pinacotheca. - Pluteus. - Puteal. - Scalae. - Synoikia. - Taberna. - Tegula. - Triclinium. - Villa. - - PUBLIC BUILDINGS. - Aerarium. - Amphitheatrum. - Archeion. - Arcus triumphalis. - Argyrocopeion. - Athenaeum. - Auditorium. - Balneae. - Basilica, chalcidicum. - Bibliotheca. - Carcer. - Circus. - Cochlea. - Curia. - Forum. - Graecostasis. - Hippodromus. - Horreum. - Labyrinthus. - Lautumiae. - Lesche. - Moneta. - Museum. - Paradisus. - Porticus. - Prytaneion. - Rostra. - Stadium. - Suggestus. - Tabularium. - Thesaurus. - Tribunal. - - PUBLIC OFFICERS. - Accensi. - Actuarii. - Adlecti. - Admissionales. - Aediles. - Agathoergi. - Agonothetae. - Agoranomi. - Agrimensores. - Agronomi. - Apodectae. - Apostoleis. - Apparitores. - Asiarchae. - Astynomi. - Boonae. - Carnifex. - Choregus. - Coactor. - Critae. - Curatores. - [_An alphabetical list of curatores is given._] - Diaetetae. - Diribitores. - Ducenarii. - Ecdicus. - Episcopi. - Epistates. - Euthyni. - Exetastae. - Frumentarii. - Grammateus. - Hieropoii. - Hodopoei. - Legatus. - Leiturgia. - Lictor. - Magister. - [_An alphabetical list of magistri is given._] - Manceps. - Mastigophori. - Mensarii. - Notarii. - Paredri. - Parochi. - Practores. - Praecones. - Praefectus Annonae. - Urbi. - Probouli. - Procurator. - Publicani. - Pythii. - Quaestores classici. - parricidii. - Quinqueviri. - Scribae. - Sitophylaces. - Stator. - Stratores. - Syllogeis. - Tabularii. - Tamias. - Teichopoeus. - Tettaraconta, hoi. - Theori. - Trierarchia. - Triumviri. - Viatores. - Zetetae. - - ROADS AND STREETS. - Angiportus. - Callis. - Mansio. - Viae. - Vicus. - - ROMAN LAW. - Actio. - Actor. - Adoptio. - Advocatus. - Aediles. - Affinitas. - Agrariae leges. - Album. - Ambitus. - Appellatio. - Arra, Arrha. - Arrabo, Arrhabo. - Assertor. - Assessor. - Auctio. - Auctor, Auctoritas. - Basilica. - Beneficium. - Bona. - caduca. - fides. - Bonorum cessio. - collatio. - emptio. - possessio. - Calumnia. - Caput. - Caupo. - Cautio, cavere. - Centumviri. - Certi, incerti actio. - Chirographum. - Civitas. - Cliens. - Codex Gregorianus. - Hermogenianus. - Justinianeus. - Theodosianus. - Cognati. - Collegium. - Colonia. - Commissoria lex. - Crimen, delictum. - Curator. - Decretum. - Dediticii. - Depositum. - Divortium. - Dominium. - Dominus. - Dos. - Edictum. - Theodorici. - Emancipatio. - Exercitoria actio. - Exsilium. - Falsum. - Familia. - Fenus. - Fidei commissum. - Fiducia. - Fiscus. - Foederatae civitates. - Frumentariae leges. - Gens. - Heres. - Honores. - Imperium. - Impubes. - Incendium. - Incestum. - Infamia. - Infans. - Ingenui. - Injuria. - Intercessio. - Interdictum. - Judex. - Jure, cessio in. - Jurisconsulti. - Jurisdictio. - Jus. - Civile Papirianum. - Jusjurandum. - Latinitas. - Legatum. - Lex. - [_Under this head an alphabetical list of the principal laws - is given._] - Libelli accusatorum. - famosi. - Libertus. - Magistratus. - Majestas. - Mancipium. - Mandatum. - Manumissio. - Negotiatores. - Nexum. - Orator. - Patria potestas. - Patronus. - Pauperies. - Peculatus. - Plagium. - Plebiscitum. - Poena. - Possessio. - Postliminium. - Praedium. - Praejudicium. - Praes. - Praescriptio. - Praetor. - Procurator. - Proscriptio. - Provincia. - Repetundae pecuniae. - Sectio. - Senatus consultum. - Societas. - Sumptuariae leges. - Tabellariae leges. - Talio. - Testamentum. - Tormentum. - Tutor. - Vindicta. - Vis. - Universitas. - Usufructus. - - SACRIFICES AND RELIGIOUS RITES. - Acerra. - Amburbium. - Anakleteria. - Antigoneia. - Apotheosis. - Ara. - Canephoros. - Corona sacerdotalis. - Cortina. - Diamastigosis. - Eisiteria. - Eleusinia. - Exauguratio. - Inauguratio. - Lituus. - Lustratio. - Lustrum. - Sacra. - Sacrificium. - Sagmina. - Secespita. - Simpulum. - Supplicatio. - Thensae. - Tripos. - Turibulum. - - SLAVES AND BONDSMEN. - Agaso. - Alipilus. - Aliptae. - Amanuensis. - Anagnostae. - Anteambulones. - Aquarii. - Bruttiani. - Calones. - Capsarii. - Coloni. - Cosmetae. - Cubicularii. - Cursores. - Demosii. - Fartor. - Gymnesii. - Helotes. - Ieroduli. - Librarii. - Mediastini. - Notarii. - Paedagogus. - Pedisequi. - Penestae. - Servus, 1. Greek. - 2. Roman. - Tabellarius. - Thetes. - Villicus. - - STATUARY. - Acrolithi. - Caryatides. - Colossus. - Daedala. - Hermae. - Imago. - Sculptura. - Statuaria ars. - Typus. - - SUPERSTITIONS. - Amuletum. - Apophrades hemerai. - Astrologia. - Fascinum. - Oscillum. - Prodigium. - Sortes. - - TEMPLES AND HOLY PLACES. - Argei. - Asylum. - Bidental. - Docana. - Propylaea. - Sacellum. - Sacrarium. - Templum. - Velum. - - TITLES. - Augustus. - Caesar. - - TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS. - Acus. - Amussis. - Apsis. - Ascia. - Colus. - Contus. - Culter. - Dolabra, Dolabella. - Falx. - Fistuca. - Follis. - Fuscina. - Fusus. - Harpago. - Jugum. - Malleolus. - Norma. - Securis. - - TRADES AND OCCUPATIONS. - Ambubaiae. - Argentarii. - Athletae. - Bestiarii. - Bibliopola. - Calculator. - Caupo. - Fabri. - Fullo. - Funambulus. - Gladiatores. - Hemerodromi. - Histrio. - Interpres. - Notarii. - Pelatae. - Pistor. - Redemtor. - - VEHICLES AND THEIR PARTS. - Antyx. - Arcera. - Basterna. - Canathron. - Capistrum. - Carpentum. - Carruca. - Chiramaxium. - Cisium. - Covinus. - Currus. - Esseda. - Harmamaxa. - Jugum. - Lectica. - Petorritum. - Pilentum. - Rheda. - Sella. - - UTENSILS. - Acetabulum. - Aenum. - Alabastrum. - Amphora. - Ampulla. - Anaglypha. - Authepsa. - Bascauda. - Bicos. - Cadus. - Calathus. - Calix. - Candela. - Candelabrum. - Cantharus. - Capsa. - Carchesium. - Catinus. - Chrysendita. - Cista. - Cochlear. - Colum. - Cophinus. - Corbis, Corbula, Corbicula. - Cortina. - Crater. - Cupa. - Cyathus. - Fax. - Ferculum. - Guttus. - Lanx. - Lecythus. - Lucerna. - Modiolus. - Murrhina vasa. - Oenophorum. - Olla, aula. - Patera, Patella. - Patina. - Poculum. - Psycter. - Pyxis. - Rhyton. - Salinum. - Situla, Sitella. - Tripos. - Trua, Trulla. - Vas. - Urceus. - - WRITING AND WRITING MATERIALS. - Adversaria. - Album. - Atramentum. - Buxum. - Calamus. - Codex. - Libellus. - memorialis. - Liber. - Nota. - Regula. - Scytale. - Stylus. - Tabulae. - - -THE END. - - - LONDON: PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, - STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE - - Most illustrations have been placed at the start, or the end, of - a dictionary entry. In some long multi-page entries with several - illustrations, a paragraph break has been inserted to allow - placement of an illustration at a relevant point of the text. - - The original text used Y with breve (Ῠ) in 49 entry headings that - were latinized versions of a Greek word, for example ĂLῨTAE (ἀλύται). - These have been changed to Y with tilde (Ỹ), ĂLỸTAE (ἀλύται), - because there is no Y with breve in the Unicode Latin tables. - - There are a few references in the main text to entries that do not - exist in this (Shorter) version of the Dictionary, for example: - FURTUM, ATTICURGES, and in the Classified Index there are several - dozen more, for example: Pala, Follis, Dianomae, Pyrgos. - - Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been - corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within - the text and consultation of external sources. - - Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the - text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. - - Pg 24: ‘ἀμπυκτῆρ’ replaced by ‘ἀμπυκτήρ’. - Pg 33: ‘ἀρχιτεκτονια’ replaced by ‘ἀρχιτεκτονία’. - Pg 37: ‘corytus’ has been italicized for consistency. - Pg 42: ‘ἀμφιδεᾶ’ replaced by ‘ἀμφιδέα’. - Pg 46: ‘by the Emperior’ replaced by ‘by the Emperor’. - Pg 51: ‘of each parties’ replaced by ‘of such parties’. - Pg 57: ‘Basilica Portia, in’ replaced by ‘Basilica Porcia, in’. - Pg 146: ‘have tried causes’ replaced by ‘have tried cases’. - Pg 150: ‘oath of secresy’ replaced by ‘oath of secrecy’ (twice). - Pg 154: ‘στρῶματα’ replaced by ‘στρώματα’. - Pg 157: ‘traduc equum’ replaced by ‘traducere equum’. - Pg 180: ‘εστια’ replaced by ‘ἑστία’. - Pg 211: ‘once distinguised’ replaced by ‘once distinguished’. - Pg 212: ‘be distingushed’ replaced by ‘be distinguished’. - Pg 215: ‘μοχλόν’ replaced by ‘μοχλὸν’. - Pg 222: ‘ἀνάκλίντρον’ replaced by ‘ἀνάκλιντρον’. - Pg 249: ‘ἠγεμὼν’ replaced by ‘ἡγεμὼν’. - Pg 250: ‘this conventio.’ replaced by ‘this convention.’. - Pg 266: ‘ἱστός’ replaced by ‘ἱστὸς’. - Pg 299: ‘In (B.C. 445), the’ replaced by ‘In B.C. 445, the’. - Pg 332: ‘the downfal of’ replaced by ‘the downfall of’. - Pg 350: ‘the developement of’ replaced by ‘the development of’. - Pg 419: ‘gave headachs’ replaced by ‘gave headaches’. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND -ROMAN ANTIQUITIES *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |